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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1, by 
+Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9935]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: November 1, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY
+
+VOLUME ONE
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+
+CEREALS
+
+BREAD
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.
+
+PREFACE
+
+The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.
+
+This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
+Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.
+
+Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.
+
+It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+  The Problem of Food
+  Selection of Food
+  Food Substances
+  Food Value
+  Digestion and Absorption of Food
+  Preparation of Food
+  Methods of Cooking
+  Heat for Cooking
+  Utensils for Cooking
+  Preparing Foods for Cooking
+  Order of Work
+  Table for Cooking Foods
+  Care of Food
+  Menus and Recipes
+  Terms Used in Cookery
+
+CEREALS
+  Production, Composition, and Selection
+  Cereals as a Food
+  Preparation of Cereals for the Table
+  Indian Corn, or Maize
+  Wheat
+  Rice
+  Oats
+  Barley
+  Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
+  Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
+  Serving Cereals
+  Italian Pastes
+  Breakfast Menu
+
+BREAD
+  Importance of Bread as Food
+  Ingredients for Bread Making
+  Utensils for Bread Making
+  Bread-Making Processes
+  Making the Dough
+  Care of the Rising Dough
+  Kneading the Dough
+  Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
+  Baking the Bread
+  Scoring Bread
+  Use of the Bread Mixer
+  Serving Bread
+  Bread Recipes
+  Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
+  Toast
+  Left-Over Bread
+
+HOT BREADS
+  Hot Breads in the Diet
+  Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
+  Leavening Agents
+  Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
+  Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Serving Hot Breads
+  Popover Recipes
+  Griddle-Cake Recipes
+  Waffle Recipes
+  Muffin Recipes
+  Corn-Cake Recipes
+  Biscuit Recipes
+  Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
+  Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
+  Luncheon Menu
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+THE PROBLEM OF FOOD
+
+1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
+the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.
+
+2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
+food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.
+
+3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.
+
+4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.
+
+In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.
+
+5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.
+
+6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.
+
+The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.
+
+7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.
+
+In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.
+
+8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SELECTION OF FOOD
+
+MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION
+
+9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.
+
+10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
+_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.
+
+However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.
+
+
+FOOD SUBSTANCES
+
+11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.
+
+12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.
+
+13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.
+
+The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.
+
+14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.
+
+15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.
+
+Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.
+
+16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.
+
+17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.
+
+So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.
+
+18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.
+
+Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.
+
+19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.
+
+Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.
+
+20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.
+
+21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.
+
+
+FOOD VALUE
+
+22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.
+
+While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.
+
+23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.
+
+Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.
+
+
+DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD
+
+24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD
+
+25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:
+
+1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.
+
+2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.
+
+3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.
+
+4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.
+
+5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF COOKING
+
+COOKING PROCESSES
+
+26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.
+
+27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sautéing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.
+
+The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.
+
+
+COOKING WITH DRY HEAT
+
+28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.
+
+29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.
+
+30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.
+
+31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.
+
+It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.
+
+32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.
+
+
+COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT
+
+33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.
+
+As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.
+
+34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.
+
+35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.
+
+The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.
+
+36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.
+
+Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.
+
+37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.
+
+38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.
+
+Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.
+
+39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.
+
+Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.
+
+40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.
+
+Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.
+
+41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.
+
+Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.
+
+42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.
+
+
+COOKING WITH HOT FAT
+
+43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sautéing,
+and fricasseeing.
+
+44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.
+
+45. SAUTÉING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed sautéing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be sautéd are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+sautéd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.
+
+46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sautéing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautéd either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HEAT FOR COOKING
+
+GENERAL DISCUSSION
+
+47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.
+
+48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.
+
+49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.
+
+
+COAL AND COKE
+
+50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or
+_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.
+
+51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.
+
+52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.
+
+Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.
+
+53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.
+
+
+GAS
+
+54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.
+
+55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]
+
+56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.
+
+57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.
+
+To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 ÷ 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34
+
+58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.
+
+
+KEROSENE
+
+59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.
+
+Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.
+
+61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2.]
+
+The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.
+
+To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.
+
+After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF STOVES
+
+62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.
+
+63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_
+and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.
+
+64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.
+
+
+COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_,
+or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which
+usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_,
+_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_
+and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and
+the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.
+
+67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper
+_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper _h_.
+
+68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.
+
+
+GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a
+gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.
+
+
+KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is
+stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is
+provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.
+
+73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+
+ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS
+
+74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.
+
+(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?
+
+(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is
+leakage in the household due?
+
+(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?
+
+(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.
+
+(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.
+
+(8) What is a calorie?
+
+(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.
+
+(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.
+
+(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;
+(_c_) hot fat.
+
+(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking.
+
+(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.
+
+(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.
+
+(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?
+
+(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?
+
+(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of
+the dampers of a stove?
+
+(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?
+
+(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?
+
+(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)
+
+UTENSILS FOR COOKING
+
+IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS
+
+1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.
+
+2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.
+
+The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.
+
+In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.
+
+
+MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS
+
+3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.
+
+4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.
+
+5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.
+
+6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.
+
+7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.
+
+8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.
+
+9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.
+
+10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.
+
+
+LABOR-SAVING DEVICES
+
+11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a purée. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or
+_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry
+huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.
+
+14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.
+
+15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large
+gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a
+handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.
+
+17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into
+compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles _f_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 6.]
+
+To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN
+
+18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.
+
+
+NECESSARY EQUIPMENT
+
+Baking dish with cover
+Bread box
+Bread knife
+Bread pans
+Can opener
+Cake knife
+Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper
+Coffee mill
+Coffee pot
+Colander
+Cookie cutter
+Corer, Apple
+Cutting board
+Dishpan
+Double boiler
+Egg beater
+Flour sifter
+Forks
+Frying pan, large
+Frying pan, small
+Garbage can
+Grater
+Kettle covers
+Kettles, two or more
+Knife sharpener
+Knives
+Lemon squeezer
+Long-handled fork
+Measuring cup
+Meat board
+Meat knife
+Mixing bowls
+Mixing spoons
+Molding board
+Muffin pan
+Paring knife
+Pepper shaker
+Pie pans
+Potato masher
+Rinsing, or draining, pan
+Roasting pan
+Rolling pin
+Salt box
+Saucepans
+Spatula
+Tablespoons
+Teakettle
+Teapot
+Teaspoons
+Toaster
+Wire strainer
+Wooden spoon
+
+
+CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT
+
+Bread mixer
+Cake coolers
+Cake mixer
+Cake turner
+Casseroles
+Clock
+Coffee percolator
+Containers for spices and dry groceries
+Cookie sheets
+Cream whip Egg whip
+Fireless cooker
+Frying kettle and basket
+Funnel Glass jars for canning
+Griddle
+Ice-cream freezer
+Ice pick
+Jelly molds
+Nest of bowls
+Pan for baking fish
+Potato knife
+Potato ricer
+Ramekins
+Quart measure
+Scales
+Scissors
+Set of skewers
+Steamer
+Waffle iron
+Wheel cart
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATION
+
+19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.
+
+20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to
+take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.
+
+21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.
+
+
+MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS
+
+22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.
+
+BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.
+
+STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.
+
+FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.
+
+RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.
+
+CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.
+
+CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.
+
+SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.
+
+RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a purée. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.
+
+23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.
+
+As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.
+
+
+MEASURING
+
+24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.
+
+27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.
+
+28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (_b_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.
+
+31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy
+weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
+437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz.
+16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb.
+100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt.
+20 hundredweight \
+                 }....... = 1 ton............... T.
+2,000 pounds     /
+
+Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.
+
+32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:
+
+LIQUID MEASURE
+4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt.
+2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt.
+4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal.
+31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl.
+2 barrels \
+          }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd.
+63 gallons/
+
+33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:
+
+DRY MEASURE
+2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt.
+8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk.
+4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.
+
+34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a
+pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:
+
+APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD
+
+Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS
+Butter........................ 2
+Coffee, whole................. 4
+Corn meal..................... 3
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 2
+Molasses...................... 1-1/2
+Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2
+Nuts, shelled................. 3
+Oats, rolled.................. 4
+Olive oil..................... 2-1/2
+Peas, split................... 2
+Raisins....................... 3
+Rice.......................... 2
+Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3
+Sugar, granulated............. 2
+Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE
+Corn starch................... 3/8
+Flour......................... 1/4
+Milk.......................... 1/2
+Sugar......................... 1/2
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 8 OUNCES
+Corn meal..................... 5
+Corn starch................... 6
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 8
+Molasses..................... 10
+Nuts, shelled................. 4
+Raisins....................... 5
+Sugar......................... 8
+
+In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:
+
+3 tsp. = 1 Tb.
+16 Tb. = 1 c.
+
+35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:
+
+tsp. for teaspoonful
+pt. for pint
+Tb. for tablespoonful
+qt. for quart
+c. for cupful
+oz. for ounce
+lb. for pound
+
+
+ORDER OF WORK
+
+36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.
+
+First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.
+
+The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.
+
+Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.
+
+Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.
+
+If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.
+
+
+TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS
+
+37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)
+
+COOKERY TIME TABLE
+
+MEATS AND FISH
+
+_Broiled_
+Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min.
+Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish....................... 15 to 20 min.
+Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min.
+Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min.
+Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min.
+Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min.
+Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min.
+Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min.
+Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.
+
+_Boiled_
+Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr.
+Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr.
+Fish, bluefish, cod, or
+  bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min.
+Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min.
+Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr.
+Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.
+
+_Roasted_
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+well done.................. 2 hr.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr.
+Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr.
+Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min.
+Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min.
+Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.
+Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+_Boiled_
+Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min.
+Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min.
+Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min.
+Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr.
+Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min.
+Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min.
+Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min.
+Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr.
+Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min.
+Green corn............... 8 to 12 min.
+Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min.
+Onions.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Peas.................... 25 to 60 min.
+Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min.
+Rice.................... 20 to 30 min.
+Spinach................. 20 to 30 min.
+Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+
+BAKED FOODS
+Beans.....................  6 to 8 hr.
+Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min.
+Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min.
+Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min.
+Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min.
+Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr.
+Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min.
+Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min.
+Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min.
+Custard................... 20 to 45 min.
+Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min.
+Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min.
+Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr.
+Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CARE OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR CARE
+
+38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.
+
+39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria,
+yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.
+
+40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.
+
+Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.
+
+41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF CARE
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS
+
+43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.
+
+44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE
+
+45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.
+
+46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.
+
+The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 12.]
+
+47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.
+
+48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.
+
+50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.
+
+The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE
+
+51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+
+STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS
+
+55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.
+
+56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.
+
+Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.
+
+Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.
+
+
+STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS
+
+57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.
+
+Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.
+
+Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.
+
+
+MENUS AND RECIPES
+
+58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.
+
+59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.
+
+60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.
+
+MENU
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops
+Mashed Potatoes
+Creamed Peas
+Cabbage Salad
+Orange Fluff with Sauce
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+PAN-BROILED CHOPS
+
+Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.
+
+MASHED POTATOES
+
+Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.
+
+CREAMED PEAS
+
+Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.
+
+SAUCE FOR PEAS
+
+1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk
+1 Tb. butter
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.
+
+CABBAGE SALAD
+
+1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 small red or green sweet pepper
+Dash of pepper
+1 small onion
+Salad dressing
+
+Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.
+
+CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING
+
+3/4 c. vinegar
+1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired
+1/4 c. water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+3 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.
+
+ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 c. orange juice
+5 Tb. corn starch
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+Pinch of salt
+2 egg whites
+1 pt. boiling water
+
+Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.
+
+When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.
+
+SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1 Tb. corn starch
+3/4 c. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+3/4 c. sugar
+2 egg yolks
+1/4 c. orange juice
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+
+Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.
+
+61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.
+
+62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.
+
+
+TERMS USED IN COOKERY
+
+63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.
+
+In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.
+
+À la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts à la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.
+
+Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.
+
+Au naturel (o nat-ü-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.
+
+Béchamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.
+
+Biscuit Glacé (bis-kü-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glacéd shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.
+
+Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.
+
+Bouchées (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.
+
+Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.
+
+Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.
+
+Café au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.
+
+Café Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.
+
+Canapés (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sautéd in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.
+
+Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.
+
+Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.
+
+Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.
+
+Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.
+
+Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.
+
+Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.
+
+Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sautéd
+or used in salads.
+
+Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.
+
+Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.
+
+Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.
+
+Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.
+
+Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.
+
+Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.
+
+Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.
+
+Créole, à la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.
+
+Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.
+
+Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.
+
+Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.
+
+Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.
+
+Deviled.--Highly seasoned.
+
+Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.
+
+En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.
+
+Entrées (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.
+
+Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.
+
+Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.
+
+Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.
+
+Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.
+
+Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.
+
+Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.
+
+Frappé (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.
+
+Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.
+
+Glacé (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.
+
+Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.
+
+Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.
+
+Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.
+
+Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.
+
+Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.
+
+Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.
+
+Italiene, à la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.
+
+Jardinière (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.
+
+Julienne (zhü-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.
+
+Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.
+
+Kippered.--Dried or smoked.
+
+Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.
+
+Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.
+
+Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.
+
+Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.
+
+Macédoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.
+
+Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.
+
+Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.
+
+Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.
+
+Menu.--A bill of fare.
+
+Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.
+
+Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.
+
+Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.
+
+Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.
+
+Pâté (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.
+
+Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.
+
+Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.
+
+Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.
+
+Purée (pü-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.
+
+Ragoût (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.
+
+Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.
+
+Réchauffé (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.
+
+Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.
+
+Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.
+
+Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.
+
+Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.
+
+Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.
+
+Shallot.--A variety of onion.
+
+Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.
+
+Soufflé (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.
+
+Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.
+
+Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.
+
+Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.
+
+Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.
+
+Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.
+
+Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+ragoût.
+
+Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.
+
+Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.
+
+Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.
+
+Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+pâté or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.
+
+Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?
+
+(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.
+
+(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.
+
+(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?
+
+(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;
+(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.
+
+(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)
+creaming; (_e_) folding.
+
+(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?
+
+(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
+
+(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.
+
+(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?
+
+(11) Tell why foods spoil.
+
+(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?
+
+(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?
+
+(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.
+
+(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)
+cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.
+
+(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.
+
+(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.
+
+(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?
+
+(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell
+the best ways in which to preserve such foods.
+
+(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?
+
+Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?
+
+Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?
+
+Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?
+
+Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?
+
+Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?
+
+Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION
+
+PRODUCTION OF CEREALS
+
+1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.
+
+The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.
+
+2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.
+
+3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.
+
+Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.
+
+4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.
+
+6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.
+
+7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.
+
+8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.
+
+9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.
+
+10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.
+
+11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.
+
+12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.
+
+13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+Protein   Fat       Carbohydrate   Cellulose  Mineral Matter
+                                              or Ash
+
+Wheat     Oats      Rice           Oats       Oats
+
+Rye       Corn      Rye            Buckwheat  Barley
+
+Oats      Barley    Corn           Barley     Buckwheat
+
+Barley    Buckwheat Wheat          Wheat      Rye
+
+Corn      Rice      Barley         Rye        Wheat
+
+Buckwheat Wheat     Buckwheat      Corn       Corn
+
+Rice      Rye       Oats           Rice       Rice
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS AS A FOOD
+
+USES OF CEREALS
+
+14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.
+
+15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautéd
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.
+
+
+SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS
+
+16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other
+times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and
+called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._
+
+Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.
+
+17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.
+
+18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.
+
+Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.
+
+19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.
+
+20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+GRAIN PRODUCTS
+
+                           / Pearl barley
+                           | Hulled wheat
+        / Whole Grains     {Hominy: Corn
+        |                  | Corn
+        |                  \ Rice
+        |
+        |                  / Farina: Wheat or corn
+        |                  | Cream of Wheat: Wheat
+        | Crushed Grains   {Cracked Wheat: Wheat
+        |                  | Hominy Grits: Corn
+        |                  | Wheat Grits: Wheat
+        |                  \ Samp: Corn
+Cereals {
+        |                  / Corn
+        | Meal             {Barley
+        |                  | Rice
+        |                  \ Oats
+        |
+        |                  / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn
+        \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat
+                           | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn
+                           \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat
+
+        / Corn
+Starch  {Rice
+        \ Wheat
+
+        / Macaroni
+Wheat   {Vermicelli
+        \ Spaghetti
+
+Glucose} Usually corn
+Sirup   /
+
+              / Wheat
+Cereal Coffee {Rye
+              \ Barley
+
+        / Wheat
+        | Rye
+Flour   {Corn
+        | Buckwheat
+        \ Rice
+
+Liquors       \
+Malted Drinks} All grains
+Beer          |
+Whisky        /
+
+Alcohol: All grains
+
+Feed for animals: All grains
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE
+
+METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS
+
+21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.
+
+22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a
+measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a
+large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.
+
+24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.
+
+25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.
+
+26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _dry
+steaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.
+
+This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.
+
+27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.
+
+28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.
+
+29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.
+
+_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.
+
+The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE
+
+ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE
+
+30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indian
+corn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.
+
+31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Pop
+corn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL
+
+32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.
+
+Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.
+
+33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.
+
+34. HOMINY.--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.
+
+HOMINY
+(Sufficient for 3 Quarts)
+
+2 qt. water
+1 Tb. lye
+1 qt. shelled corn
+3 tsp. salt
+
+Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.
+
+35. BUTTERED HOMINY.--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.
+
+BUTTERED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+3 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.
+
+36. CREAMED HOMINY.--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.
+
+CREAMED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+
+Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.
+
+37. HOMINY GRITS.--The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:
+
+HOMINY GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. water
+1 c. hominy grits
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sautéd or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.
+
+HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLÉ
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. cooked hominy
+1/2 c. hot milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.
+
+39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUSH
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. water
+1 c. corn meal
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.
+
+A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.
+
+40. SAUTÉD CORN-MEAL-MUSH.--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sautéd.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For sautéing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sautéing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.
+
+41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sautéing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and sauté them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.
+
+42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Sautéd corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+WHEAT
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.
+
+Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.
+
+44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _cream
+of wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS
+
+45. HULLED WHEAT.--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.
+
+HULLED WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1 c. hulled wheat
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+46. WHEAT GRITS.--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.
+
+WHEAT GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. wheat grits
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.
+
+47. CREAM OF WHEAT.--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.
+
+48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. dates
+
+Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.
+
+49. FARINA.--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.
+
+FARINA
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. farina
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.
+
+GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. dates
+
+Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and sautéd like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and soufflés, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.
+
+FARINA CUSTARD
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+2 c. milk
+2 eggs
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 tsp. nutmeg
+
+Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.
+
+FARINA SOUFFLÉ
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.
+
+
+RICE
+
+VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE
+
+52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+_Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.
+
+53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.
+
+54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR RICE
+
+55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_,
+which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.
+
+56. BOILED RICE.--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:
+
+BOILED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+3 tsp. salt
+3 qt. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.
+
+JAPANESE METHOD
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
+
+58. STEAMED RICE.--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.
+
+STEAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.
+
+59. CREAMED RICE.--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.
+
+CREAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cream
+
+Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.
+
+60. ORIENTAL RICE.--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+ORIENTAL RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth
+2 Tb. butter
+1 slice onion
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+
+Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.
+
+61. BROWNED RICE.--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.
+
+62. SAVORY RICE.--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:
+
+SAVORY RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. browned rice
+2-1/2 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. chopped celery
+2 Tb. butter
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1/4 c. chopped pimiento
+
+Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.
+
+63. LEFT-OVER RICE.--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.
+
+RICE WITH PINEAPPLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. steamed or creamed rice
+1/4 c. sugar
+6 rings pineapple
+3/4 c. whipped cream
+
+Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.
+
+65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.
+
+RICE PATTIES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. stale crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. celery salt
+2 eggs
+2 c. steamed rice
+
+Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and sauté them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.
+
+66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.
+
+SPANISH RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 small onion
+2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice
+1 c. chopped meat
+1/2 c. meat stock or gravy
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+2 Tb. grated cheese
+1/4 c. stale crumbs
+
+Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OATS
+
+COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES
+
+67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR OATS
+
+68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.
+
+69. ROLLED OATS.--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.
+
+ROLLED OATS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. boiling water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.
+
+70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.
+
+ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2/3 c. rolled oats
+2 c. boiling water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+6 medium-sized apples
+1 c. water
+1/2 c. sugar
+
+Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.
+
+ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+12 stewed prunes
+
+Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.
+
+72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:
+
+ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+3/4 c. crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. cooked rolled oats
+1 egg
+
+Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and sauté then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BARLEY
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.
+
+74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.
+
+75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR BARLEY
+
+76. PEARL BARLEY.--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.
+
+PEARL BARLEY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.
+
+PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+1 c. dates, figs, or prunes
+
+Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sautéd in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.
+
+
+RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET
+
+79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.
+
+80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.
+
+81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.
+
+PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS
+
+82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.
+
+83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.
+
+
+SERVING CEREALS
+
+84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.
+
+To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ITALIAN PASTES
+
+PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION
+
+85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.
+
+86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.
+
+87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.
+
+88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES
+
+89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.
+
+In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.
+
+In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.
+
+90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.
+
+MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+CREAM SAUCE
+
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. milk
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
+
+91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH EGGS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+4 hard-boiled eggs
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.
+
+92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 c. canned tomatoes
+8 thin slices bacon
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.
+
+93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1/8 tsp. paprika
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. grated or finely cut cheese
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+2 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.
+
+95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.
+
+MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1-1/2 c. scalded milk
+2/3 c. grated cheese
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.
+
+96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.
+
+MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+3/4 c. hot milk
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1 c. canned kidney beans
+
+Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.
+
+97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.
+
+SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. spaghetti
+2 Tb. butter
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. flour
+2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+1 can tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/2 c. water
+
+Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.
+
+98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.
+
+BREAKFAST MENU
+
+99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.
+
+MENU
+
+Berries and Cream or Oranges
+Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream
+Scrambled Eggs
+Buttered Toast
+Cocoa or Coffee
+
+SCRAMBLED EGGS
+
+5 eggs
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+
+Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.
+
+BUTTERED TOAST
+
+Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.
+
+COCOA
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+3 Tb. cocoa
+3 Tb. sugar
+1/4 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.
+
+BOILED COFFEE
+
+Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?
+
+(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?
+
+(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?
+
+(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.
+
+(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?
+
+(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?
+
+(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?
+
+(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?
+
+(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.
+
+(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?
+
+(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.
+
+(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.
+
+(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.
+
+(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?
+
+(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.
+
+(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.
+
+(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?
+
+(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?
+
+(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?
+
+(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?
+
+Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?
+
+Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?
+
+Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?
+
+Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+BREAD
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
+
+IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD
+
+1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.
+
+2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_,
+or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.
+
+Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_,
+_bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.
+
+3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.
+
+4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.
+
+Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.
+
+5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+INGREDIENTS REQUIRED
+
+6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.
+
+
+FLOUR
+
+7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.
+
+8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.
+
+9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.
+
+This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.
+
+Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and
+_winter_, or _soft, wheat_.
+
+10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.
+
+11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used
+for all purposes.
+
+12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:
+
+                                            PER CENT.
+Protein...................................... 11.9
+Fat..........................................  2.1
+Carbohydrates................................ 71.9
+Mineral salts................................. 1.8
+Water........................................ 10.5
+Cellulose..................................... 1.8
+Total....................................... 100.0
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.
+
+13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.
+
+14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.
+
+15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.
+
+16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.
+
+17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.
+
+18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next,
+_second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.
+
+The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.
+
+19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.
+
+The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.
+
+20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.
+
+
+YEAST
+
+21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.
+
+22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.
+
+The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or
+_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.
+
+23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.
+
+24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.
+
+Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and
+_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.
+
+25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.
+
+Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.
+
+26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.
+
+27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.
+
+More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.
+
+28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.
+
+
+YEAST AIDS
+
+29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.
+
+
+MILK AND FAT IN BREAD
+
+30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.
+
+31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS
+
+32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.
+
+The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_;
+measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.
+
+The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.
+
+34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.
+
+A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES
+
+ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING
+
+35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.
+
+36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.
+
+Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.
+
+The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+"sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.
+
+The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MAKING THE DOUGH
+
+PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS
+
+37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.
+
+
+COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS
+
+38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as
+the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.
+
+39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge
+method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.
+
+41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.
+
+The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.
+
+42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the
+_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.
+
+44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.
+
+
+CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH
+
+45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.
+
+46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.
+
+48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.
+
+In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.
+
+
+KNEADING THE DOUGH
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.
+
+
+SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES
+
+53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+
+BAKING THE BREAD
+
+56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.
+
+57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.
+
+Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.
+
+59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.
+
+After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.
+
+
+SCORING BREAD
+
+61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.
+
+SCORE CARD
+
+External Appearance:                 PER CENT.
+  Shape................................. 5
+  Size.................................. 2
+  Crust:
+    Shade............................... 2
+    Uniformity of Color................. 2
+    Character........................... 2
+    Depth............................ 2--8
+Lightness.............................. 20
+Internal Appearance:
+  Even distribution of gas............. 10
+  Moisture.............................. 5
+  Elasticity............................ 5
+  Color................................ 15
+Flavor................................. 30
+                                       ---
+    Total............................. 100
+
+62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.
+
+63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.
+
+The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.
+
+The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.
+
+64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.
+
+65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.
+
+66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.
+
+
+USE OF THE BREAD MIXER
+
+67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.
+
+68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of
+Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.
+
+In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.
+
+Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.
+
+
+SERVING BREAD
+
+69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.
+
+As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.
+
+Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.
+
+Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+BREAD RECIPES
+
+70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.
+
+71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.
+
+The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.
+
+The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.
+
+The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.
+
+72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.
+
+73. WHITE BREAD.--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.
+
+WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast
+1 Tb. salt
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.
+
+Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.
+
+WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+2 cakes compressed yeast
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
+
+74. Whole-Wheat Bread.--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+8 c. whole-wheat flour
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.
+
+The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.
+
+75. Graham Bread.--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 c. white flour
+3 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.
+
+A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.
+
+76. Graham Bread With Nuts.--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+1/4 c. molasses
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1-1/2 c. chopped nuts
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.
+
+77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates
+2 tsp. salt
+6 c. whole-wheat flour
+1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.
+
+78. BRAN BREAD.--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.
+
+BRAN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 c. milk
+6 Tb. molasses
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 yeast cake
+1/4 c. lukewarm water
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1 c. sterilized bran
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.
+
+79. RYE BREAD.--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.
+
+RYE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. rye flour
+4 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.
+
+80. Corn Bread.--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.
+
+CORN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+4-1/2 c. white flour
+2 c. corn meal
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.
+
+81. Rice Bread.--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.
+
+RICE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+1/2 c. uncooked rice
+1-1/2 c. water
+1 Tb. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1/2 yeast cake
+1 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.
+
+82. SALT-RISING BREAD.--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.
+
+SALT-RISING BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 c. fresh milk
+1/4 c. corn meal
+1 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. sugar
+2 c. lukewarm water
+7 c. white flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS
+
+83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18]
+
+So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.
+
+84. Parker House Rolls.--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.
+
+PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+3 pt. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:
+Fig. 19]
+
+85. Dinner Rolls.--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If
+they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.
+
+DINNER ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+3 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20]
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.
+
+86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:
+
+LUNCHEON ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 tsp. salt
+3 Tb. sugar
+4 Tb. fat
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. whole-wheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.
+
+88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.
+
+GRAHAM NUT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. fat
+2-1/2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+1 c. chopped nuts
+3-1/2 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:
+
+NUT OR FRUIT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)
+
+4 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+3 c. white flour
+3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.
+
+90. SWEET BUNS.--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.
+
+SWEET BUNS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm scalded milk
+1/4 c. sugar
+2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. white flour
+2 eggs
+1 tsp. lemon extract
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21]
+
+91. COFFEE CAKE.--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.
+
+COFFEE CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Cake)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1/2 c. lukewarm milk
+1 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23]
+
+92. CINNAMON ROLLS.--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+
+TOAST
+
+93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.
+
+94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.
+
+95. MILK TOAST.--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.
+
+96. FRENCH TOAST.--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.
+
+FRENCH TOAST
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2 tsp. sugar
+8 slices of bread
+1/2 tsp. salt
+
+Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and sauté it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.
+
+
+LEFT-OVER BREAD
+
+97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entrées. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.
+
+98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.
+
+It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.
+
+(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?
+
+(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of
+bread?
+
+(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?
+
+(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth?
+(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?
+
+(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does
+this play in bread making?
+
+(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?
+
+(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard
+it?
+
+(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.
+
+(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making?
+(_b_) the quick process?
+
+(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?
+
+(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to
+tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?
+
+(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?
+
+(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?
+
+(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?
+
+(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?
+
+(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?
+
+(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.
+
+(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS
+
+HOT BREADS IN THE DIET
+
+1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS
+
+2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.
+
+In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.
+
+The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.
+
+In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.
+
+As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.
+
+
+PHYSICAL LEAVENING
+
+4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.
+
+5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.
+
+6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.
+
+
+CHEMICAL LEAVENING
+
+7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.
+
+8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.
+
+9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.
+
+The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk._ So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.
+
+10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.
+
+11. SODA AND MOLASSES.--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.
+
+The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.
+
+12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda._ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.
+
+13. BAKING POWDER.--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.
+
+14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.
+
+15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.
+
+16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.
+
+17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:
+
+RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER
+
+1/2 lb. cream of tartar
+1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda
+1/4 lb. corn starch
+
+Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE
+
+PURPOSE OF UTENSILS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a case
+knife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+21. GRIDDLES.--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.
+
+The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.
+
+22. WAFFLE IRONS.--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it,
+a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MIXTURE
+
+VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS
+
+23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and a
+large proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thick
+batter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_.
+
+24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.
+
+A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, is
+one that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.
+
+A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1
+measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.
+
+A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of
+liquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.
+
+25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.
+
+
+PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.
+
+27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.
+
+In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.
+
+The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.
+
+
+BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+28. REGULATING THE OVEN.--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.
+
+29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.
+
+30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.
+
+31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.--As is pointed out in
+_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.
+
+33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.
+
+Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.
+
+Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.
+
+
+SERVING HOT BREADS
+
+34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.
+
+Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS
+
+POPOVER RECIPES
+
+35. POPOVERS.--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.
+
+POPOVERS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. flour
+1/4 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+
+Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.
+
+37. NUT PUFFS.--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.
+
+NUT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. chopped nuts
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+
+GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES
+
+39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.
+
+When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.
+
+40. GRIDDLE CAKES.--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.
+
+GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2-1/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.
+
+41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.
+
+SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. soda
+2 c. sour milk (not thick)
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.
+
+42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.
+
+CORN GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1-1/2 c. boiling water
+2 c. milk
+2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.
+
+RICE GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cold cooked rice
+1 egg
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.
+
+44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+1/2 c. fine bread crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 yeast cake
+3/4 c. lukewarm water
+1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour
+1 Tb. molasses
+1/4 tsp. soda
+
+Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.
+
+
+WAFFLE RECIPES
+
+45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+46. WAFFLES.--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.
+
+WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 eggs
+1-2/3 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.
+
+47. RICE WAFFLES.--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.
+
+RICE WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-3/4 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2/3 c. cooked rice
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.
+
+
+MUFFIN RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.
+
+49. PLAIN MUFFINS.--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.
+
+PLAIN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.
+
+BLUEBERRY MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2-1/4 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. fresh blueberries
+
+Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+51. DATE MUFFINS.--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.
+
+GRAHAM MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour
+3/4 tsp. soda
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. sour milk
+1/3 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+54. RICE MUFFINS.--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.
+
+RICE MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/4 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+3/4 c. hot, cooked rice
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+55. BRAN MUFFINS.--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.
+
+BRAN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. white flour
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+2 c. bran
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.
+
+
+CORN-CAKE RECIPES
+
+56. CORN CAKE.--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called _journey cakes._ From this term came the name
+_Johnny cake,_ which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.
+
+CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+3/4 c. yellow corn meal
+1-1/4 c. flour
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.
+
+57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.
+
+SOUTHERN CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+1/2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+3/4 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.
+
+58. Molasses Corn Cake.--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.
+
+MOLASSES CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 c. flour
+3-1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1/4 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.
+
+BISCUIT RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+59. Baking-Powder Biscuits.--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.
+
+BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat
+3/4 c. milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.
+
+61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.
+
+PINWHEEL BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat f
+3/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 Tb. cinnamon
+3/4 c. chopped raisins
+
+To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+62. BEATEN BISCUITS.--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.
+
+BEATEN BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Twelve)
+
+1 qt. pastry flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/3 c. fat
+1 c. milk or water
+
+Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.
+
+SOFT GINGERBREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. ginger
+1 tsp. cinnamon
+1 egg
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1/4 c. butter or other fat
+
+Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.
+
+64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.
+
+BOSTON BROWN BREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. white flour
+1 c. graham flour
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 tsp. soda
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. molasses
+1-3/4 c. sweet milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.
+
+65. NUT LOAF.--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.
+
+NUT LOAF
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+1/2 c. sugar
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+4 Tb. fat
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+1/2 c. English walnuts
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.
+
+
+UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS
+
+66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.
+
+
+LUNCHEON MENU
+
+67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in _Cereals,_ and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.
+
+
+MENU
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes
+Baking-Powder Biscuit
+Jam
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce
+Tea
+
+RECIPES
+
+WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD
+
+Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+6 Tb. oil
+2 Tb. vinegar
+
+Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.
+
+
+TEA
+
+Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?
+
+(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?
+
+(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?
+
+(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?
+
+(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?
+
+(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses?
+
+(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?
+
+(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?
+
+(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.
+
+(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough;
+(_d_) a stiff dough.
+
+(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_)
+thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs.
+
+(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?
+
+(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.
+
+(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven?
+(_b_) a hot oven?
+
+(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hot
+oven.
+
+(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?
+
+(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?
+
+(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?
+
+Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?
+
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?
+
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?
+
+Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abbreviations of measures,
+Absorption and digestion of food,
+  of food,
+Abundance of production of cereals,
+Acquiring skill in bread making,
+Action of yeast,
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,
+Agents, Classes of leavening,
+  Leavening,
+Aids, Yeast,
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,
+  la creole, Meaning of,
+Albumin,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Aluminum cooking utensils,
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,
+Apple, Composition of,
+  corer,
+Artificial gas,
+Ash, or mineral salts,
+  pan, Coal-stove,
+  pit, Coal-stove,
+Au gratin, Meaning of,
+  naturel, Meaning of,
+Avoirdupois weight,
+
+B
+
+Bacon, Composition of,
+Bacteria,
+Baked hot breads, Testing,
+  potatoes,
+Bakers' flour,
+Baking bread,
+  Distinction between roasting and,
+  griddle cakes, Procedure in,
+  Meaning of,
+  Oven temperature for bread,
+  powder,
+  -powder biscuits,
+Baking powder, Recipe for,
+  Purpose of bread,
+  the hot-bread mixture,
+  the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+  Time for bread,
+  waffles, Procedure in,
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,
+Banana, Composition of,
+Banking a coal fire,
+Barley,
+  Left-over,
+  Pearl,
+  Recipes for,
+  Use and origin of,
+  with fruit, Pearl,
+Batter, Thick,
+  Thin,
+Batters and doughs,
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,
+  Composition of fresh shelled,
+  Composition of green string,
+Beaten biscuits,
+Beating of food ingredients,
+Béchamel, Meaning of,
+Beech wheat,
+Beef, Composition of dried,
+  steak, Composition of,
+  suet, Composition of,
+Biscuit glace,
+  recipes,
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,
+  Beaten,
+  Emergency,
+  rolls, and buns, Recipes for,
+Bisque, Meaning of,
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,
+Blanching foods,
+Blend flour,
+Blueberry muffins,
+Body, Function of water in the,
+Boiled coffee,
+  rice,
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,
+Boiling,
+  Cooking cereals by,
+  on foods, Effect of,
+  point,
+  rice,
+  to sterilize water,
+Boston brown bread,
+Bouchées, Meaning of,
+Boudin, Meaning of,
+Bouquet of herbs,
+Boxes, Window,
+Braizing,
+Bran bread,
+  muffins,
+Bread,
+  after baking, Care of,
+  and cake mixer,
+  as food, Importance of,
+  Baking,
+  Baking hot,
+  Boston brown,
+  Bran,
+  Composition of corn,
+  Composition of rye,
+  Composition of toasted,
+  Composition of whole-wheat,
+  Convenient equipment for making,
+  Corn,
+  Distinction between hot and leavened,
+  dough, Care of the rising,
+  dough, Kneading,
+  dough, Motions used in kneading,
+  dough, Purpose of kneading,
+  Graham,
+  Hot,
+  ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,
+  Leavened,
+  Left-over,
+  Long-process, sponge method of making,
+  making, Acquiring skill in,
+  making, Combining the ingredients in,
+  making, Convenient equipment for,
+  making, Ingredients for,
+  making, Long process of,
+  making, Long-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making materials, Proportion of,
+  making, Necessary equipment for,
+  -making processes,
+  making, Quick process of,
+  making, Quick-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making requirements,
+  making, Utensils for,
+  Milk and fat in,
+  mixer, Use of,
+  mixers,
+  mixture, Preparation of hot-,
+  Object of scoring,
+  Oven temperature for baking,
+  Purpose of baking,
+  Quick,
+  recipes,
+  Rice,
+  Rye,
+  Salt-rising,
+  Scoring,
+  Serving,
+  sponge,
+  Utilizing left-over hot,
+  White,
+  Whole-wheat,
+  Whole-wheat fruit,
+  with nuts, Graham,
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,
+  Distinction between yeast and hot,
+  General proportions used in hot,
+  Hot,
+  in the diet, Hot,
+  Mixtures used for hot,
+  Principal requirements for hot,
+  Purpose of utensils for making hot,
+  Quick,
+  Recipes for hot,
+  Requirements and processes for making hot,
+  Serving hot,
+  Varieties of mixtures in hot,
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,
+  foods, Meaning of,
+  menu,
+Broiling,
+  Pan,
+Brown bread, Boston,
+Browned rice,
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,
+Buckwheat,
+  cakes,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  rye, and millet,
+Building a coal fire,
+Buns, Fruit or nut,
+  Graham nut,
+  Nut or fruit,
+  rolls, and biscuits,
+Buns, Sweet,
+Butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of peanut,
+Buttered hominy,
+  toast,
+Buttermilk, Composition of,
+
+C
+
+Cabbage salad,
+  -salad dressing,
+Café au lait, Meaning of,
+  noir, Meaning of,
+Cake, Coffee,
+  Corn,
+  mixers,
+  Molasses corn,
+  Southern corn,
+Cakes, Buckwheat,
+  Corn griddle,
+  Griddle,
+  Procedure in baking griddle,
+  Rice griddle,
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,
+Canapés, Meaning of,
+Canard, Meaning of,
+Candy, Composition of stick,
+Canned fruit, Composition of,
+Canning of foods,
+Capers, Meaning of,
+Capon, Meaning of,
+Caramel, Meaning of,
+Carbohydrates,
+  Composition of,
+  Elements in,
+  in cereals,
+Carbon,
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,
+Card, Explanation of score,
+Care of bread after baking,
+  of bread in oven,
+  of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+  of food in refrigerator,
+  of food, Methods of,
+  of the refrigerator,
+  of the rising bread dough,
+Carolina rice,
+Casein,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Casserole, Definition of,
+  Use of,
+Celery, Composition of,
+Cellars, Storing food in,
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,
+  Definition of,
+  in cereals,
+  in the diet, Place of,
+Cereal flakes,
+  products,
+  selection, Factors that govern,
+  Setting a,
+Cereals,
+  Abundance of production of,
+  as a food,
+  Browning, or toasting, of,
+  by boiling, Cooking,
+  by dry heat, Cooking,
+  Carbohydrates in,
+  Care of,
+  Cellulose in,
+  Composition of,
+  Economic value of,
+  Fat in,
+  for the table, Preparation of,
+  Left-over wheat,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  Mineral matter in,
+  Origin of,
+  Points to observe in cooking,
+  Preparation for cooking,
+  Prepared, or ready-to-eat,
+  Production of,
+  Protein in,
+  Purpose of cooking,
+  Ready-to-eat,
+  Selection of,
+  Serving,
+  Table showing composition of,
+  undergo in cooking, Changes,
+  Uses of,
+  Water in,
+Champignons, Meaning of,
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,
+  Composition of cream,
+Chemical composition of food,
+  leavening,
+Chestnut coal,
+  Composition of,
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,
+Chillies, Meaning of,
+Chives, Meaning of,
+Chop, Composition of lamb,
+  Composition of pork,
+Chopper, Meat,
+Chops, Pan-broiled,
+Chutney, Meaning of,
+Cinnamon rolls,
+Citron,
+Clinkers,
+Coal and coke,
+  Anthracite, or hard,
+  Bituminous, or soft,
+  Chestnut,
+  Egg,
+  fire, Building a,
+  fire, Building a,
+  Pea,
+  Quality of,
+Coal range,
+  Sizes of,
+  Stove,
+  -stove dampers,
+  -stove firebox,
+  stove for cooking, General construction of,
+  -stove grate,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  Varieties of,
+Cocoa,
+Coconut, Composition of,
+Cod, Composition of fresh,
+  Composition of salt,
+Coffee,
+  cake,
+Coke,
+  and coal,
+Collops, Meaning of,
+Commercial yeast,
+Common labor-saving devices,
+Composition and varieties of oats,
+  of apple,
+  of bacon,
+  of banana,
+  of beef steak,
+  of beef suet,
+  of buckwheat,
+  of butter,
+  of buttermilk,
+  of canned fruit,
+  of carbohydrates,
+  of celery,
+  of cereals,
+  of cereals, Table showing,
+  of chestnut,
+  of coconut,
+  of cooked macaroni,
+  of cooked oat breakfast food,
+  of corn,
+  of corn bread,
+  of cottage cheese,
+  of cream,
+  of cream cheese,
+  of dried beef,
+  of dried fig,
+  of dry navy bean,
+  of egg white and yolk,
+  of food, Chemical,
+  of food materials,
+  of fresh cod,
+  of fresh shelled bean,
+  of fruit jelly,
+  of grape juice,
+  of grapes,
+  of green corn,
+  of green string bean,
+  of honey,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of lamb chop,
+  of lard,
+  of mackerel,
+  of maple sugar,
+  of molasses,
+  of oats,
+  of olive oil,
+  of onion,
+  of oyster,
+  of parsnip,
+  of peanut,
+  of peanut butter,
+  of pork chop,
+  of potato,
+  of raisins,
+  of rice,
+  of rye,
+  of rye bread,
+  of salt cod,
+  of skim milk,
+  of smoked ham,
+  of smoked herring,
+  of stick candy,
+  of strawberry,
+  of sugar,
+  of toasted bread,
+  of walnut,
+  of wheat,
+  of white and yolk of egg,
+  of whole egg,
+  of whole milk,
+  of whole wheat bread,
+Compote, Meaning of,
+Compressed yeast,
+Constituents, Food principles, or,
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,
+  Fireless,
+Cookery, Meaning of,
+  Terms used in,
+  time table,
+Cooking cereals by boiling,
+  cereals in double boiler,
+  cereals in fireless cooker,
+  cereals, Methods of,
+  cereals, Points to observe in,
+  cereals, Preparation for,
+  cereals, Purpose of,
+  cereals with dry heat,
+  food, Reasons for,
+  foods, Importance of,
+  foods, Table for,
+  Getting foods ready for,
+  Heat for,
+  Methods of,
+  Methods of using moist heat for,
+  of food,
+  processes,
+  rice, Japanese method of,
+  rice, Methods of,
+  Uses of water in,
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,
+  utensils, Copper,
+  utensils, Earthenware,
+  utensils, Enamel,
+  utensils, Glass,
+  utensils, Iron and steel,
+  utensils, Tin,
+  utensils, Wooden,
+  with dry heat,
+  with hot fat,
+Copper cooking utensils,
+Coquilles, Meaning of,
+Corer, Apple,
+Corn bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  cake,
+  cake, Molasses,
+  -cake recipes,
+  cake, Southern,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of green,
+  Field,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Maize, or Indian,
+  meal,
+  -meal croquettes,
+  -meal muffins,
+  -meal mush,
+  -meal mush, Left-over,
+  meal, Recipes for,
+  Pop,
+  Sweet,
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,
+Cracked wheat,
+Cream cheese, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+  of tartar and soda,
+  of wheat,
+  of wheat with dates,
+  sauce,
+Creamed hominy,
+  peas,
+  rice,
+Creaming of food ingredients,
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,
+  Rolled-oats,
+Croutons, Meaning of,
+Cups, Measuring,
+Curry,
+Custard, Farina,
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,
+
+D
+
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,
+  Coal-stove,
+Date muffins,
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,
+  Graham mush with,
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,
+Deviled, Meaning of,
+Dextrine, Formation of,
+Diet, Hot breads in the,
+  Meaning of,
+  Well-balanced,
+Dietetics, Definition of,
+Digestion and absorption of food,
+  of food,
+Dill, Meaning of,
+Dinner rolls,
+Dish-washing machines,
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,
+  boiler, Use of,
+Dough, Kneading bread,
+  Making bread,
+  Motions used in kneading bread,
+  Soft,
+  Stiff,
+Doughs and batters,
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,
+Dried beef, Composition of,
+  fig, Composition of,
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,
+  heat, Cooking with,
+  measure,
+  steaming,
+  yeast,
+Drying of foods,
+
+E
+
+Earthenware cooking utensils,
+Economic value of cereals,
+Effect of boiling on foods,
+Egg beater, Rotary,
+  coal,
+  Composition of white and yolk of,
+  Composition of whole,
+  whip,
+Eggs, Scrambled,
+Electric meter, Reading an,
+  stoves,
+  stoves and utensils,
+Electricity as a fuel,
+Emergency biscuits,
+En coquille, Meaning of,
+Enamel cooking utensils,
+Endosperm, Meaning of,
+Entrées,
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,
+Escarole, Meaning of,
+
+F
+
+Factors that govern cereal selection,
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,
+Farina,
+  custard,
+  soufflé,
+Fat and milk in bread,
+  Cooking with hot,
+Fat in cereals,
+Fats,
+Ferments, or leavening agents,
+Field corn,
+Fig, Composition of dried,
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,
+Fillets, Meaning of,
+Firebox, Coal-stove,
+Fireless cooker,
+  cooker, Cooking cereals in,
+ -cooking gas stoves,
+Flour,
+  Bakers',
+  Blend,
+  Care of,
+  Graham,
+  Grains used for,
+  High-grade patent,
+  Kinds of,
+  made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,
+  Milling of wheat,
+  Quality of,
+  Red dog,
+  Rye,
+  Scouring,
+  Second-grade patent,
+  Selection of,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Flue, Coal-stove,
+  opening of a coal stove,
+Fluff, Orange,
+  Sauce for orange,
+Folding of food ingredients,
+Fondant, Meaning of,
+Fondue, Meaning of,
+Food, Absorption of,
+  Care of,
+  Cereals as a,
+  Chemical composition of,
+  Cooking of,
+  Definition of,
+  Digestion and absorption of,
+  Digestion of,
+  in cellars, Storing,
+  ingredients, Beating of,
+  ingredients, Creaming of,
+  ingredients, Cutting-in of,
+  ingredients, Folding of,
+  ingredients, Mixing of,
+  ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,
+  ingredients, Ricing of,
+  ingredients, Rubbing of,
+  ingredients, Sifting of,
+  ingredients, Stirring of,
+  Matters involved in right selection of,
+  Methods of caring for,
+  or fuel, value,
+Food, Preparation of,
+  principles or constituents,
+  Problem of,
+  Reasons for cooking,
+  Selection of,
+  substances,
+  value,
+Foods, Blanching,
+  Canning of,
+  Drying of,
+  for cooking, Preparation of,
+  Importance of cooking,
+  Importance of variety of,
+  Meaning of breakfast,
+  Storing of non-perishable,
+  Storing of semiperishable,
+  with ice, Keeping,
+  without ice, Keeping,
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,
+Frappé, Meaning of,
+French toast,
+Fricasseeing,
+Fromage, Meaning of,
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,
+  Composition of canned,
+  jelly, Composition of,
+  or nut buns,
+Frying,
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,
+  Use of coke as a,
+  Use of electricity as a,
+  Use of gas as a,
+  Use of kerosene as a,
+  value, Food, or,
+  Value of gas as,
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,
+
+G
+
+Gas,
+  Artificial,
+  as fuel, Use of,
+  as fuel, Value of,
+  Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,
+  Measurement of,
+  meter,
+  meter, Reading a,
+  Natural,
+  ranges, Description of,
+  stove, Mixer of a,
+  stove, Pilot of a,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  stoves, Fireless-cooking,
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,
+Germ, Definition of,
+Germs,
+Gingerbread, Soft,
+Glacé, Biscuit,
+  Meaning of,
+Glass cooking utensils,
+Glaze, Meaning of,
+Gliadin,
+Glucose,
+Gluten,
+Glutenin,
+Goulash, Meaning of,
+Graham bread,
+  bread with nuts,
+  flour,
+  muffins,
+  mush with dates,
+  nut buns,
+Grain for market, Preparation of,
+  products, Table of,
+  Structure of wheat,
+Grains used for flour,
+Grape juice, Composition of,
+Grapes, Composition of,
+Grate, Coal-stove,
+Green corn, Composition of,
+Griddle-cake recipes,
+  cakes,
+  cakes, Corn,
+  cakes, Procedure in baking,
+  cakes, Rice,
+  cakes, Sour-milk,
+Griddles,
+Grinder,
+Grits,
+  Hominy,
+  Wheat,
+Gumbo, Meaning of,
+
+H
+
+Ham, Composition of smoked,
+Hard water, How to soften,
+Haricot, Meaning of,
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,
+  Cooking with dry,
+  for cooking,
+  for cooking, Discussion of,
+  Methods of cooking with moist,
+Herring, Composition of smoked,
+High-grade patent flour,
+Homard, Meaning of,
+Hominy,
+  and cheese soufflé,
+  Buttered,
+  Creamed,
+  grits,
+  Left-over,
+  Recipes for,
+Honey, Composition of,
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,
+Hot bread,
+  bread, Distinction between leavened and,
+  -bread mixture. Baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Testing of baked,
+  -bread mixture, Preparation of,
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,
+  -bread recipes, Miscellaneous,
+  -bread utensils and their use,
+  bread, Utilizing left-over,
+  breads,
+  breads, Baking of,
+  breads, Combining ingredients for,
+  breads, Correct oven temperature for,
+  breads, Distinction between yeast and,
+  breads in the diet,
+  breads, Mixtures used for,
+  breads, Principal requirements for,
+  breads, Purpose of utensils for making,
+  breads, Recipes for,
+  breads, Regulating the oven for,
+  breads, Requirements and processes for making,
+  breads, Serving,
+  breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,
+  proportions used in,
+  fat, Cooking with,
+Hotplates,
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,
+  wheat,
+Huller, Berry,
+
+I
+
+Ice, Keeping foods with,
+Indian corn, or maize,
+Ingredients, Beating of food,
+  Combining hot-bread,
+  Creaming of food,
+  Cutting-in of food,
+  Folding of food,
+  for bread making,
+  Mixing of food,
+  Preparation of hot-bread,
+  Processes involved in mixing food,
+  Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,
+  required for bread making,
+  Ricing of food,
+  Rubbing of food,
+  Sifting of food,
+  Stirring of food,
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,
+Irons, Waffle,
+Italian pastes,
+  pastes, Composition of,
+  pastes, Left-over,
+  pastes, Preparation of,
+  pastes, Recipes for,
+  pastes, Varieties of,
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,
+Japanese method of cooking rice,
+  rice,
+Jardiniére, Meaning of,
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,
+Juice, Composition of grape,
+Julienne, Meaning of,
+Junket, Meaning of,
+
+K
+
+Keeping foods with ice,
+  foods without ice,
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,
+  stoves and their operation,
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,
+Kippered, Meaning of,
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,
+Kneading bread dough,
+  bread dough, Motions used in,
+  bread dough, Purpose of,
+
+L
+
+Labour-saving devices,
+Lactose,
+  Occurrence of,
+Lamb chop, Composition of,
+Lard, Composition of,
+Larding, Meaning of,
+Lardon, Meaning of,
+Leavened bread,
+Leavening agents,
+  agents, Classes of,
+  agents, or ferments,
+  Chemical,
+  Physical,
+Left-over barley,
+  -over bread,
+  -over corn-meal mush,
+  -over hominy,
+  -over hot bread, Utilizing,
+  -over Italian pastes,
+  -over rice,
+  -over rolled oats,
+  -over wheat cereals,
+Legumes, Meaning of,
+Lentils, Meaning of,
+Liquid measure,
+  yeast,
+Loaf, Nut,
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,
+Long process of bread making,
+  process of making white bread,
+  -process, sponge method of bread making,
+  -process, straight-dough method of bread making,
+Luncheon menu,
+  rolls,
+
+M
+
+Macaroni,
+  and kidney beans,
+  Composition of cooked,
+  Italian style,
+  with cheese,
+  with cheese and tomato,
+  with cream sauce,
+  with eggs,
+  with tomato and bacon,
+Macédoine, Meaning of,
+Machines, Dish-washing,
+Mackerel, Composition of,
+Maize,
+Malt sprouts,
+Maple sugar, Composition of,
+Marinade, Meaning of,
+Marinate, Meaning of,
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,
+Marrons, Meaning of,
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,
+Matter, Mineral,
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,
+Meal,
+  Corn,
+  Recipes for corn,
+Meaning of breakfast foods,
+Measure, Dry,
+  Liquid,
+Measurement of gas,
+Measures, Abbreviations of,
+Measuring,
+  cups,
+  Precautions to observe,
+  spoons,
+Meat chopper,
+  grinder,
+Menu, Breakfast,
+  Luncheon,
+  Meaning of,
+Menus and recipes,
+Meringue, Meaning of,
+Meter, Gas,
+  Reading a gas,
+  Reading an electric,
+Meters, Prepayment,
+Micro-organisms,
+Microbes,
+Milk and fat in bread,
+  Composition of skim,
+  Composition of whole,
+  Soda and sour,
+  toast,
+Millet,
+  buckwheat, and rye,
+  Description of,
+Milling of wheat flour,
+Mineral matter,
+  matter in cereals,
+  salts,
+  salts, Purpose of,
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,
+Mixer, Gas-stove,
+  Mayonnaise,
+  Use of the bread,
+Mixers, Bread,
+  Cake,
+Mixing of food ingredients,
+  of food ingredients, Processes involved in,
+  processes, Application of,
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,
+Mixtures used for hot breads,
+Moist heat, Cooking with,
+  yeast,
+Molasses and soda,
+  Composition of,
+  corn cake,
+Molds,
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,
+Mousse, Meaning of,
+Muffin recipes,
+Muffins, Blueberry,
+  Bran,
+  Corn-meal,
+  Date,
+  Graham,
+  Plain,
+  Rice,
+Mush, Corn-meal,
+  Left-over corn-meal,
+  Sautéd corn-meal,
+  with dates, Graham,
+
+N
+
+Natural gas,
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,
+Nougat, Meaning of,
+Nut buns, Graham,
+  loaf,
+  or fruit buns,
+  puffs,
+
+O
+
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,
+  Composition of,
+Oatmeal,
+Oats,
+  Composition and varieties of,
+  Recipes for,
+  Rolled,
+  with apples, Rolled,
+Olive oil, Composition of,
+Onion, Composition of,
+Orange fluff,
+  fluff, Sauce for,
+Order of work,
+Oriental rice,
+Oven, Coal-stove,
+  for hot breads, Regulating the,
+  Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,
+  temperature, Determining and regulating,
+  temperature for baking bread,
+  temperature for hot breads,
+Oxygen,
+Oyster, Composition of,
+
+P
+
+Pan-broiled chops,
+  broiling,
+Paprika,
+Parker House rolls,
+Parsnip, Composition of,
+Pastes, Italian,
+  Recipes for Italian,
+Paté, Meaning of,
+Patent flour, High-grade,
+  flour, Second-grade,
+Patties, Rice,
+Pea coal,
+Peanut butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+Pearl barley,
+  barley, Description of,
+  barley with fruit,
+Peas, Creamed,
+  Sauce for,
+Physical leavening,
+Pilot, Gas-stove,
+Pimiento, Meaning of,
+Pineapple, Rice with,
+Pinwheel biscuits,
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,
+Pistachio, Meaning of,
+Plain muffins,
+Point, Boiling,
+Polishings, Rice,
+Pop corn,
+Popover recipes,
+  with fruit,
+Pork chop, Composition of,
+Potage, Meaning of,
+Potato, Composition of,
+  ricer,
+Potatoes, Baked,
+Powder, Baking,
+  Recipe for baking,
+Precautions to observe in measuring,
+Preparation for cooking cereals,
+  for cooking foods,
+  of cereals for the table,
+Preparation of food,
+  of grains for the market,
+  of hot-bread ingredients,
+  of hot-bread mixture,
+  of Italian pastes,
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+Prepayment meters,
+Principle of stoves,
+Principles, or constituents, Food,
+Problem of food,
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,
+  Application of mixing,
+  Bread-making,
+  Cooking,
+  involved in mixing food ingredients,
+Production of cereals,
+Products, Cereal,
+  Table of grain,
+Proportion of bread-making materials,
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,
+Protein,
+  in cereals,
+Puffs, Nut,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Purée, Meaning of,
+Purpose,
+  of baking bread,
+  of bread rising,
+  of cooking cereals,
+  of kneading bread dough,
+  of utensils for making hot breads,
+
+Q
+
+Quality,
+  of coal,
+  of flour,
+  of yeast,
+Quick,
+  bread, Hot or,
+  breads,
+  process of combining bread ingredients,
+  process of making white bread,
+  process of making whole-wheat bread,
+  -process, sponge method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+  -process, straight-dough method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+
+R
+
+Ragoût, Meaning of,
+Raisins, Composition of,
+Ramekin, Meaning of,
+Range, Coal,
+Ranges, Description of gas,
+Reading,
+  a gas meter,
+  an electric meter,
+Ready,
+  -to-eat cereals,
+  -to-eat, or prepared, cereals,
+Reasons for cooking food,
+Réchauffé, Meaning of,
+Recipe, Definition of,
+Red-dog flour,
+Refrigerator,
+  Care of food in,
+  Care of the,
+Refrigerators,
+Refuse,
+  Distinction between waste and,
+  Meaning of,
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,
+Requirements,
+  and processes for making hot breads,
+  of bread making,
+Rice,
+  Boiled,
+  Boiling,
+  bread,
+  Browned,
+  Carolina,
+  Composition of,
+  Creamed,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Japanese,
+  Japanese method of cooking,
+  Left-over,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  muffins,
+  Oriental,
+  patties,
+  polishings,
+  Recipes for,
+  Savory,
+  Spanish,
+  Steamed,
+  Steaming,
+  Varieties and structure of,
+  waffles,
+  with pineapple,
+Ricer, Potato,
+Ricing of food ingredients,
+Rising,
+   bread dough, Care of the,
+   Temperature for bread,
+  Time required for bread,
+Rissoles, Meaning of,
+Roasting,
+  Distinction between baking and,
+  Meaning of,
+Rolled,
+  oats,
+  -oats croquettes,
+  -oats jelly with prunes,
+  oats, Left-over,
+  oats with apples,
+Rolls,
+  buns and biscuits, Recipes for,
+  Cinnamon,
+Dinner,
+  Luncheon,
+  Parker House,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Rotary egg beater,
+Roux, Meaning of,
+Rubbing of food ingredients,
+Rye,
+  bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  buckwheat, and millet,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  flour,
+
+S
+
+Salad, Cabbage,
+  Watercress-and-celery,
+Salmi, Meaning of,
+Salpicon, Meaning of,
+Salt cod, Composition of,
+  -rising bread,
+Salts, Mineral,
+  Purpose of mineral,
+Sauce, Cream,
+  for orange fluff,
+  for peas,
+  piquante, Meaning of,
+  Meaning of tartare,
+  Meaning of vinaigrette,
+Sautéd corn-meal mush,
+Sauteing,
+Savoury rice,
+Scales,
+Score card, Explanation of,
+Scoring bread,
+  bread, Object of,
+Scouring of flour,
+Scrambled eggs,
+Second-grade patent flour,
+Selection and care of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,
+Semolina,
+Serving bread,
+  cereals,
+  hot breads,
+Setting a cereal or grain,
+Shallot, Meaning of,
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,
+Sifting of food ingredients,
+Simmering, or stewing,
+Sizes of coal,
+Skim milk, Composition of,
+Small electric utensils,
+Smoked ham, Composition of,
+  herring, Composition of,
+Soda and cream of tartar,
+Soda and molasses,
+  and sour milk,
+Soft dough,
+  gingerbread,
+Softening hard water,
+Soluble starch,
+Sorbet, Meaning of,
+Soufflé, Meaning of,
+  Farina,
+Sour milk, Soda and,
+  -milk griddle cakes,
+Southern corn cake,
+Soy, Meaning of,
+Spaghetti,
+  with cheese and tomato sauce,
+Spanish rice,
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,
+  method of making bread, Quick-process,
+Spoons, Measuring,
+Spring, or hard, wheat,
+  or hard, wheat, Flour made from,
+Sprouts, Malt,
+Starch,
+Steak, Composition of beef,
+Steamed rice,
+Steamer,
+Steaming,
+  Dry,
+  rice,
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,
+Sterilizing,
+Stewing or simmering,
+Stick candy, Composition of,
+Stiff dough,
+Stirring of food ingredients,
+Stock, Meaning of,
+Storing food in cellars,
+  of non-perishable foods,
+  of semiperishable foods,
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,
+  ash pit, Coal-,
+  Coal,
+  dampers, Coal-,
+  flue opening, Coal-,
+  oven, Coal-,
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,
+  Fireless-cooking gas,
+  Operation of kerosene,
+  Principle of,
+Straight-dough method of bread making,
+  -dough method of bread making, Long-process,
+  -dough method of bread making, Quick-process,
+Strawberry, Composition of,
+String bean, Composition of green,
+Structure and varieties of rice,
+  of wheat grain,
+Substances, Food,
+Suet, Composition of beef,
+Sugar,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of maple,
+Sultanas, Meaning of,
+Sweet buns,
+  corn,
+
+T
+
+Table, Cookery time,
+  of grain products,
+  showing composition of cereals,
+Tables of relative weights and measures,
+  of weights and measures,
+Tarragon, Meaning of,
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,
+  for bread rising,
+  for hot breads, Correct oven,
+Terms used in cookery,
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,
+Thick batter,
+Thin batter,
+Timbale, Meaning of,
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,
+  required for bread rising,
+  table, Cookery,
+Tin cooking utensils,
+Toast,
+  Buttered,
+  French,
+  Milk,
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,
+Toasting,
+Troy weight,
+Truffles, Meaning of,
+
+U
+
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,
+  and their use, Hot-bread,
+  Copper cooking,
+  Earthenware cooking,
+  Enamel cooking,
+  for baking the hot-bread mixture,
+  for bread making,
+  for cooking,
+  for furnishing a kitchen,
+  for preparing hot-bread mixture,
+  Glass cooking,
+  Importance of,
+  Iron and steel cooking,
+  Materials used for,
+  Small electric,
+  Tin cooking,
+  Wooden cooking,
+
+V
+
+Value, Food,
+  Food, or fuel,
+  of cereals, Economic,
+  of gas as fuel,
+Vanilla, Meaning of,
+Varieties and composition of oats,
+  and structure of rice,
+  of coal,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of mixtures used in hot breads,
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,
+Vermicelli,
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,
+
+W
+
+Waffle irons,
+Waffles,
+  procedure in baking,
+  Rice,
+Walnut, Composition of,
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,
+  Definition of,
+Water as a food substance,
+  Boiling to sterilize,
+  How to soften hard,
+  in cereals,
+  in the body, Function of,
+Watercress-and-celery salad,
+Weight, Avoirdupois,
+  Troy,
+Weights and measures, Tables of,
+  and measures, Tables of relative,
+Wheat,
+  and wheat products, Recipes for,
+  Beech,
+  bread, Composition of whole,
+  cereals, Left-over,
+  Composition of,
+  Cracked,
+  Cream of,
+  flour, Milling of,
+  grain, Structure of,
+  grits,
+  Hulled,
+  Hulled, or whole,
+  Origin and use of,
+  products, Recipes for,
+  Spring, or hard,
+  Winter, or soft,
+White bread,
+  bread, Long process of making,
+  bread, Quick process of making,
+  of egg, Composition of,
+Whole egg, Composition of,
+  milk, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread,
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread, Quick process of making,
+  -wheat flour,
+  -wheat fruit bread,
+  -wheat puffs,
+  -wheat rolls,
+Window boxes,
+Winter, or soft, wheat,
+Wooden cooking utensils,
+Work, Order of,
+
+Y
+
+Yeast,
+  Action of,
+Yeast aids,
+  and hot breads, Distinction between,
+  Commercial,
+  Compressed,
+  Dry,
+  Liquid,
+  Moist,
+  or leavened, bread,
+  Quality of,
+Yeasts,
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,
+
+Z
+
+Zwieback,
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
+Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOLUME ONE.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+    <!--
+    * {  font-family: Times;}
+    P {  text-indent: 1em;
+         margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em; }
+    HR { width: 33%; }
+    // -->
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+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1, by 
+Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9935]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: November 1, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center>
+<h1>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY</h1>
+
+<h1>VOLUME ONE</h1>
+<br>
+<h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY</h2>
+
+<h2>CEREALS</h2>
+
+<h2>BREAD</h2>
+
+<h2>HOT BREADS</h2>
+<br><br>
+
+
+<h3>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.</h3>
+</center>
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.</p>
+
+<p>This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In <i>Essentials of Cookery</i>,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+<i>Cereals</i> are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In <i>Bread</i> and <i>Hot
+Breads</i> are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.</p>
+
+<p>It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#ESSENTIALS_OF_COOKERY_(PART_1)">ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#THE_PROBLEM_OF_FOOD">The Problem of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SELECTION_OF_FOOD">Selection of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FOOD_SUBSTANCES">Food Substances</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FOOD_VALUE">Food Value</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#DIGESTION_AND_ABSORPTION_OF_FOOD">Digestion and Absorption of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_FOOD">Preparation of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#METHODS_OF_COOKING">Methods of Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HEAT_FOR_COOKING">Heat for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTENSILS_FOR_COOKING">Utensils for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GETTING_FOODS_READY_FOR_COOKING">Preparing Foods for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#ORDER_OF_WORK">Order of Work</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TABLE_FOR_COOKING_FOODS">Table for Cooking Foods</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CARE_OF_FOOD">Care of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MENUS_AND_RECIPES">Menus and Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TERMS_USED_IN_COOKERY">Terms Used in Cookery</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#CEREALS">CEREALS</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRODUCTION,_COMPOSITION,_AND_SELECTION">Production, Composition, and Selection</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CEREALS_AS_A_FOOD">Cereals as a Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_CEREALS_FOR_THE_TABLE">Preparation of Cereals for the Table</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#INDIAN_CORN,_OR_MAIZE">Indian Corn, or Maize</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#WHEAT">Wheat</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RICE">Rice</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#OATS">Oats</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BARLEY">Barley</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RYE,_BUCKWHEAT,_AND_MILLET">Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARED,_OR_READY-TO-EAT,_CEREALS">Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_CEREALS">Serving Cereals</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#ITALIAN_PASTES">Italian Pastes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAKFAST_MENU">Breakfast Menu</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#BREAD">BREAD</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#IMPORTANCE_OF_BREAD_AS_FOOD">Importance of Bread as Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#INGREDIENTS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING">Ingredients for Bread Making</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTENSILS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING">Utensils for Bread Making</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAD-MAKING_PROCESSES">Bread-Making Processes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MAKING_THE_DOUGH">Making the Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CARE_OF_THE_RISING_DOUGH">Care of the Rising Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#KNEADING_THE_DOUGH">Kneading the Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SHAPING_THE_DOUGH_INTO_LOAVES">Shaping the Dough Into Loaves</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BAKING_THE_BREAD">Baking the Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SCORING_BREAD">Scoring Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#USE_OF_THE_BREAD_MIXER">Use of the Bread Mixer</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_BREAD">Serving Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAD_RECIPES">Bread Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_ROLLS,_BUNS,_AND_BISCUITS">Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TOAST">Toast</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LEFT-OVER_BREAD">Left-Over Bread</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#HOT_BREADS">HOT BREADS</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HOT_BREADS_IN_THE_DIET">Hot Breads in the Diet</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRINCIPAL_REQUIREMENTS_FOR_HOT_BREADS">Principal Requirements for Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LEAVENING_AGENTS">Leavening Agents</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HOT-BREAD_UTENSILS_AND_THEIR_USE">Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARING_THE_MIXTURE">Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BAKING_THE_MIXTURE">Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_HOT_BREADS">Serving Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#POPOVER_RECIPES">Popover Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GRIDDLE-CAKE_RECIPES">Griddle-Cake Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#WAFFLE_RECIPES">Waffle Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MUFFIN_RECIPES">Muffin Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CORN-CAKE_RECIPES">Corn-Cake Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BISCUIT_RECIPES">Biscuit Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MISCELLANEOUS_HOT-BREAD_RECIPES">Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTILISING_LEFT-OVER_HOT_BREADS">Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LUNCHEON_MENU">Luncheon Menu</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></h3>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="ESSENTIALS_OF_COOKERY_(PART_1)"></a><center><h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)</h2></center>
+
+<a name="THE_PROBLEM_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>THE PROBLEM OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of <i>food</i>, not merely any kind, however, but
+the <i>right</i> kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Probably the most important of these principles is the <i>cooking of
+food</i>. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+<i>cookery</i> means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+<i>waste</i>, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. <i>Waste</i>, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas <i>refuse</i> is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the <i>diet</i>--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="SELECTION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>SELECTION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+<i>substances</i> of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its <i>food</i>, or <i>fuel, value</i>; and its
+<i>digestion</i> and <i>absorption</i>. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.</p>
+
+<p>However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="FOOD_SUBSTANCES"></a><h3>FOOD SUBSTANCES</h3>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. WATER.</b>--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. MINERAL MATTER.</b>--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+<i>ash</i> or <i>mineral salts</i>, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.</p>
+
+<p>The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. PROTEIN.</b>--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called <i>albumin</i>. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.</p>
+
+<p>Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as <i>casein</i>, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. FATS.</b>--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. CARBOHYDRATES.</b>--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.</p>
+
+<p>So that the term <i>carbohydrate</i> may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on <i>dietetics</i>, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--<i>carbo</i> (carbon) and <i>hydrate</i>
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. STARCH,</b> one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.</p>
+
+<p>Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called <i>dextrine</i>, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. SUGAR,</b> another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+<i>lactose</i>. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called <i>glucose</i>. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CELLULOSE</b> is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.</b>--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="FOOD_VALUE"></a><h3>FOOD VALUE</h3>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their <i>value</i>, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.</p>
+
+<p>While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or <i>calory</i>,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.</p>
+
+<p>Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="DIGESTION_AND_ABSORPTION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.</p>
+<br><br><center>
+<img src="images/c01.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c02.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c03.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c04.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c05.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c06.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c07.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c08.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c09.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c10.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c11.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c12.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+<br><br><br>
+<img src="images/c13.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Composition of food materials]">
+</center><br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="PREPARATION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterlized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="METHODS_OF_COOKING"></a><h3>METHODS OF COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>COOKING PROCESSES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and saut&eacute;ing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.</p>
+
+<p>The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH DRY HEAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>28.</b> Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. BROILING.</b>--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. PAN BROILING.</b>--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. ROASTING.</b>--Originally, the term <i>to roast</i> meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term <i>roasting</i> is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.</p>
+
+<p><b>32. BAKING.</b>--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.</p>
+
+<p>As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.</b>--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. KINDS OF WATER.</b>--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.</b>--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.</p>
+
+<p>Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. BOILING.</b>--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its <i>boiling point</i>. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.</p>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.</p>
+
+<p>Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.</b>--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. STEAMING.</b>--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a <i>steamer</i>, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. DRY STEAMING.</b>--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. BRAIZING.</b>--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH HOT FAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, saut&eacute;ing,
+and fricasseeing.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. FRYING.</b>--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>45. SAUT&Eacute;ING.</b>--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed saut&eacute;ing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be saut&eacute;d are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+saut&eacute;d if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. FRICASSEEING.</b>--A combination of saut&eacute;ing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and saut&eacute;d either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="HEAT_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>HEAT FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>GENERAL DISCUSSION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.</p>
+
+<p><b>49.</b> The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COAL AND COKE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>50. VARIETIES OF COAL.</b>--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, <i>anthracite</i>, or
+<i>hard coal</i>, and <i>bituminous</i>, or <i>soft coal</i>. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. SIZES OF COAL.</b>--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as <i>stove</i> and <i>egg coal</i>, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as <i>pea</i>, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+<i>chestnut</i>, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>52. QUALITY OF COAL.</b>--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as <i>clinkers</i>.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. COKE.</b>--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>GAS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.</b>--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+<i>artificial</i> and <i>natural</i>, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.</b>--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+<img src="images/s01fig01.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]">
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.</p>
+
+<p><b>56. READING A GAS METER.</b>--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.</p>
+
+<p><b>57.</b> To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 &divide; 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34</p>
+
+<p><b>58. PREPAYMENT METERS.</b>--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEROSENE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>59.</b> In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.</p>
+
+<p>Another product of the refinement of petroleum is <i>gasoline</i>. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>ELECTRICITY</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.</b>--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+<img src="images/s01fig02.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig 2.]">placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used. The numbers on the dials represent <i>kilowatt-hours</i>, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.</p>
+
+<p>To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.</p>
+
+<p>After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PRINCIPLE OF STOVES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>62.</b> Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.</p>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of <i>carbon</i>
+and air largely of <i>oxygen</i>, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with <i>dampers</i>. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.</p>
+
+<p><b>64.</b> Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.</b>--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a <i>cook stove</i>,
+or range, are the firebox <i>a</i>; the grate <i>b</i>; the ash pit <i>c</i>, which
+usually contains an ash-pan <i>d</i>; the oven <i>e</i>; the dampers <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>,
+<i>h</i>, and <i>i</i>; the flue opening <i>j</i> and flue <i>k</i>; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at <i>f</i>
+and <i>g</i> serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at <i>h</i> and <i>i</i> serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><img src="images/s01fig03.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 3]"><b>66. Building a Coal Fire.</b>--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers <i>f</i> and <i>h </i>and to open the bottom damper <i>g</i> and
+the chimney damper <i>i</i>. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers <i>g</i> and <i>i</i> so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.</p>
+
+<p><b>67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.</b>--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers <i>f</i> and <i>i</i> and open dampers <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s01fig04.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 4]">
+
+<p>If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, and <i>i</i> and open damper
+<i>g</i>. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper <i>i</i> in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper <i>h</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.</b>--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called <i>banking</i> the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers <i>g</i> and <i>h</i> and open dampers <i>f</i> and <i>i</i>. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><img src="images/s01fig05.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 5]">
+<b>69. GAS RANGES.</b>--A gas stove for cooking, or <i>gas range</i>, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven <i>a</i> of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler <i>b</i>, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners <i>c</i> for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe <i>d</i>, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks <i>e</i>, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock <i>f</i>. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock <i>g</i>. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet <i>h</i>. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>70.</b> Some gas stoves are provided with a <i>pilot</i>, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s01fig06.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 6]">
+
+<p>To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a <i>mixer</i>. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part <i>a</i>, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s01fig07.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 7]">
+
+<p><b>71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.</b>--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate <i>c</i>, is a
+gas burner <i>d</i>, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at <i>b</i>, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+<i>a</i>. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<img src="images/s01fig08.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 8]">
+
+<p><b>72.</b> As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, <i>a</i> is
+stored in the container <i>b</i>, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe <i>c</i>. Each burner is
+provided with a door <i>d</i>, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw <i>e</i>, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+<i>f</i> in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.</p>
+
+<p><b>73.</b> The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>
+<b>74.</b> ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven <i>a</i> is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan <i>b</i>. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids <i>c</i> that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box <i>d</i>,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches <i>e</i> at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs <i>f</i> that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s01fig09.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 9]"></center>
+
+<p>It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+<img src="images/s01fig10.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 10]">
+<img src="images/s01fig11.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 11]">
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.</b>--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.</p>
+
+<p>(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (<i>b</i>) To what is
+leakage in the household due?</p>
+
+<p>(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?</p>
+
+<p>(5) (<i>a</i>) Name the five substances that are found in food, (<i>b</i>) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?</p>
+
+<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) What is the function of protein in the body? (<i>b</i>) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (<i>c</i>) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.</p>
+
+<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (<i>b</i>) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.</p>
+
+<p>(8) What is a calorie?</p>
+
+<p>(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (<i>a</i>) dry heat; (<i>b</i>) moist heat;
+(<i>c</i>) hot fat.</p>
+
+<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) At what temperature does water boil? (<i>b</i>) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (<i>c</i>) Explain the uses of water in cooking.</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (<i>b</i>) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.</p>
+
+<p>(15) (<i>a</i>) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (<i>b</i>) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?</p>
+
+<p>(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?</p>
+
+<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) How is heat produced in a stove? (<i>b</i>) What is the purpose of the
+dampers of a stove?</p>
+
+<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (<i>b</i>) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (<i>b</i>) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?</p>
+
+<p>(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center><h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)</h2></center>
+
+
+<h2>PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)</h2>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.</p>
+
+<p>The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>3. ALUMINUM.</b>--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. ENAMEL.</b>--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. IRON AND STEEL.</b>--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. EARTHENWARE.</b>--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. TIN.</b>--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. COPPER.</b>--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. GLASS.</b>--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. WOOD.</b>--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>LABOR-SAVING DEVICES</b><br><br>
+<img src="images/s02fig01.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 1]">
+
+<p><b>11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE</b> is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.</p>
+
+
+<img src="images/s02fig02.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 2]">
+
+
+<p><b>12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES.</b> Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the <i>rotary egg beater</i> shown in Fig. 1 (<i>a</i>). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+<i>egg whip</i>, which is shown in (<i>b</i>). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the <i>potato ricer</i>. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a pur&eacute;e. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the <i>meat chopper</i>, or
+<i>grinder</i>, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the <i>apple corer</i>, the <i>berry
+huller</i>, the <i>mayonnaise mixer</i>, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.</p>
+<img src="images/s02fig03.jpg" align="left" alt="<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3]</p>">
+
+<img src="images/s02fig04.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 4]">
+
+<p><b>13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS.</b> Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail <i>a</i> that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp <i>b</i>. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong <i>c</i>, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle <i>d</i>.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan <i>a</i>, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms <i>b</i>, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels <i>c</i> that fit in a large
+gearwheel <i>d</i> attached to a shaft <i>e</i>, which is turned by means of a
+handle <i>f</i>. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s02fig05.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 5]">
+
+<p><b>16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.</b>--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. FIRELESS COOKER.</b>--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box <i>a</i> lined with metal and divided into
+compartments <i>b</i>, with pans <i>c</i> that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at <i>d</i>, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks <i>e</i>, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles <i>f</i>.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s02fig06.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig 6.]"></center>
+
+<p>To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_FURNISHING_A_KITCHEN"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN</h3>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>NECESSARY EQUIPMENT</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Baking dish with cover</li>
+<li>Bread box</li>
+<li>Bread knife</li>
+<li>Bread pans</li>
+<li>Can opener</li>
+<li>Cake knife</li>
+<li>Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper</li>
+<li>Coffee mill</li>
+<li>Coffee pot</li>
+<li>Colander</li>
+<li>Cookie cutter</li>
+<li>Corer, Apple</li>
+<li>Cutting board</li>
+<li>Dishpan</li>
+<li>Double boiler</li>
+<li>Egg beater</li>
+<li>Flour sifter</li>
+<li>Forks</li>
+<li>Frying pan, large</li>
+<li>Frying pan, small</li>
+<li>Garbage can</li>
+<li>Grater</li>
+<li>Kettle covers</li>
+<li>Kettles, two or more</li>
+<li>Knife sharpener</li>
+<li>Knives</li>
+<li>Lemon squeezer</li>
+<li>Long-handled fork</li>
+<li>Measuring cup</li>
+<li>Meat board</li>
+<li>Meat knife</li>
+<li>Mixing bowls</li>
+<li>Mixing spoons</li>
+<li>Molding board</li>
+<li>Muffin pan</li>
+<li>Paring knife</li>
+<li>Pepper shaker</li>
+<li>Pie pans</li>
+<li>Potato masher</li>
+<li>Rinsing, or draining, pan</li>
+<li>Roasting pan</li>
+<li>Rolling pin</li>
+<li>Salt box</li>
+<li>Saucepans</li>
+<li>Spatula</li>
+<li>Tablespoons</li>
+<li>Teakettle</li>
+<li>Teapot</li>
+<li>Teaspoons</li>
+<li>Toaster</li>
+<li>Wire strainer</li>
+<li>Wooden spoon</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<br><b>CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT</b><br>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Bread mixer</li>
+<li>Cake coolers</li>
+<li>Cake mixer</li>
+<li>Cake turner</li>
+<li>Casseroles</li>
+<li>Clock</li>
+<li>Coffee percolator</li>
+<li>Containers for spices and dry groceries</li>
+<li>Cookie sheets</li>
+<li>Cream whip Egg whip</li>
+<li>Fireless cooker</li>
+<li>Frying kettle and basket</li>
+<li>Funnel Glass jars for canning</li>
+<li>Griddle</li>
+<li>Ice-cream freezer</li>
+<li>Ice pick</li>
+<li>Jelly molds</li>
+<li>Nest of bowls</li>
+<li>Pan for baking fish</li>
+<li>Potato knife</li>
+<li>Potato ricer</li>
+<li>Ramekins</li>
+<li>Quart measure</li>
+<li>Scales</li>
+<li>Scissors</li>
+<li>Set of skewers</li>
+<li>Steamer</li>
+<li>Waffle iron</li>
+<li>Wheel cart</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="GETTING_FOODS_READY_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>PRELIMINARY PREPARATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+<i>blanching</i>. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means &quot;to
+take color out&quot; and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means &quot;to remove the covering of&quot; can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.</b>--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>BEATING</b> is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.</li>
+
+<li><b>STIRRING</b> is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.</li>
+
+<li><b>FOLDING</b> is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.</li>
+
+<li><b>RUBBING</b> is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.</li>
+
+<li><b>CREAMING</b> consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.</li>
+
+<li><b>CUTTING-IN</b> is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.</li>
+
+<li><b>SIFTING</b> is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.</li>
+
+<li><b>RICING</b> is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a pur&eacute;e. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><b>23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.</b>--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.</p>
+
+<p>As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MEASURING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or &quot;sense,&quot; of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s02fig07.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 7]">
+
+<p><b>25. SCALES.</b>--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s02fig08.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 8]">
+
+<p><b>26. MEASURING CUPS.</b>--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s02fig09.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 9]"></center>
+
+<p>As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean <i>standard</i>, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. MEASURING SPOONS.</b>--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (<i>a</i>). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (<i>a</i>), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (<i>b</i>). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(<i>a</i>), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (<i>b</i>).</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s02fig10.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 10]"></center>
+
+<p><img src="images/s02fig11.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 11]">
+<b>29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.</b>--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</b>--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+<b>AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT</b>. Another table of weights, called the table of <i>Troy
+weight</i>, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr ><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">437-1/2 grains (gr.)</td><td align="left">= 1 ounce</td><td align="center">oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">16 ounces</td><td align="left">= 1 pound</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">100 pounds</td><td align="left">= 1 hundredweight</td><td align="center">cwt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">20 hundredweight</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="left">= 1 ton</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="center">T.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2,000 pounds</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 <i>long ton</i> (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the <i>short ton</i>, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.</p>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> The table of <b>LIQUID MEASURE</b> is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>LIQUID MEASURE</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 gills (gi.)</td><td align="left">= 1 pint</td><td align="center">pt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 pints</td><td align="left">= 1 quart</td><td align="center">qt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 quarts</td><td align="left">= 1 gallon</td><td align="center">gal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">31-1/2 gallons</td><td align="left">= 1 barrel</td><td align="center">bbl.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 barrels</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="left">= 1 hogshead</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle"align="center">hhd.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">63 gallons</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> The table of <b>DRY MEASURE</b> is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>DRY MEASURE</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 pints (pt.)</td><td align="left">= 1 quart</td><td align="center">qt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">8 quarts</td><td align="left">= 1 peck</td><td align="center">pk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 pecks</td><td align="left">= 1 bushel</td><td align="center">bu.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> Tables of <b>RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES</b> are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, &quot;A pint's a
+pound the world around,&quot; which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:</p>
+<br><br><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, dried</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coffee, whole</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn meal</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Molasses</td><td align="left">1-1/2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Meat, chopped, finely packed</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nuts, shelled</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oats, rolled</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Olive oil</td><td align="left">2-1/2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peas, split</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Raisins</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, brown</td><td align="left">2-2/3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, granulated</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, powdered</td><td align="left">2-3/4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn starch</td><td align="left">3/8 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">1/4 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn meal</td><td align="left">5 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn starch</td><td align="left">6 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">4 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Molasses</td><td align="left">10 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nuts, shelled</td><td align="left">4 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Raisins</td><td align="left">5 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+<center>In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:</center><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">3 tsp. = 1 Tb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">16 Tb. = 1 c.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><b>35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.</b>--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">tsp. for teaspoonful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">pt. for pint</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tb. for tablespoonful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">qt. for quart</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">c. for cupful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">oz. for ounce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">lb. for pound</td></tr>
+</table>
+<hr style="width: 35%;">
+
+<a name="ORDER_OF_WORK"></a><h3>ORDER OF WORK</h3>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.</p>
+
+<p>The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.</p>
+
+<p>Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.</p>
+
+<p>If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TABLE_FOR_COOKING_FOODS"></a><h3>TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS</h3>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a <i>cookery time table</i>. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)</p>
+<br>
+<center><h3>COOKERY TIME TABLE</h3>
+
+<b>MEATS AND FISH</b><br>
+
+<i>Broiled</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Bacon</td><td align="left">3 to 5 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken</td><td align="left">20 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish</td><td align="left">15 to 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, slices</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, very small</td><td align="left">5 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lamb chops</td><td align="left">6 to 8 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Quail or squabs</td><td align="left">8 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steak, thick</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steak, thin</td><td align="left">5 to 7 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Veal chops</td><td align="left">6 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<center><i>Boiled</i></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, corned</td><td align="left">3 to 4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken, 3 lb</td><td align="left">1 to 1-1/4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, bluefish, cod, or bass, 4 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb</td><td align="left">20 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, small</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fowl, 4 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ham, 12 to 14 lb</td><td align="left">4 to 5 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mutton, leg of</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tongue</td><td align="left">3 to 4 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+
+<center><i>Roasted</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 5 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., well done</td><td align="left">1 hr. 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., well done</td><td align="left">2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done</td><td align="left">2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken, 4 or 5 lb</td><td align="left">1-1/2 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Duck, 5 to 6 lb</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, 3 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, small</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Goose, 10 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 2-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lamb, leg of</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mutton, saddle</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pork, rib, 5 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 2-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Turkey, 10 lb</td><td align="left">2-1/2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>VEGETABLES</b><br>
+
+<i>Boiled</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Asparagus</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, lima or shell</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, string</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beets, old</td><td align="left">4 to 6 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beets, young</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brussels sprouts</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cabbage</td><td align="left">35 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carrots</td><td align="left">3/4 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cauliflower</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Green corn</td><td align="left">8 to 12 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Macaroni</td><td align="left">30 to 40 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Onions</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peas</td><td align="left">25 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Potatoes</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spinach</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Turnips</td><td align="left">1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vegetable oysters</td><td align="left">3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+
+<center><h3>BAKED FOODS<br></h3></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beans</td><td align="left">6 to 8 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Biscuits, baking powder</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Biscuits, yeast</td><td align="left">10 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bread, ginger</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bread, loaf</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, corn</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, fruit</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, layer</td><td align="left">15 to 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, loaf</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, pound</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, sponge</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cookies</td><td align="left">6 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Custard</td><td align="left">20 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Muffins, baking powder</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pastry</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Potatoes</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pudding, Indian</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pudding, rice (poor man's).</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="CARE_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>CARE OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>REASONS FOR CARE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>39.</b> To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in <i>micro-organisms</i>, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as <i>microbes</i> and <i>germs</i>, and they are comprised of <i>bacteria,
+yeasts</i>, and <i>molds</i>, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.</p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.</p>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>METHODS OF CARE</b><br><br>
+
+<b>CLASSIFICATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as <i>sterilizing</i>--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>45.</b> Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. THE REFRIGERATOR.</b>--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s02fig12.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig 12.]"></center>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s02fig13.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 13]">
+
+<p><b>48.</b> In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.</b>--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.</b>--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.</p>
+
+<p>The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE</b><br><br>
+<img src="images/s02fig14.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 14]">
+
+<p><b>51.</b> While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>
+<img src="images/s02fig15.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 15]">
+<b>52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.</b>--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>53.</b> All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>54. WINDOW BOXES.</b>--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth. </p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s02fig16.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 16]"></center>
+
+
+
+<br>
+
+<b>STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><img src="images/s02fig17.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 17]">
+<b>55.</b> It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>56.</b> Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.</p>
+
+<p>Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.</p>
+
+<p>Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>57.</b> Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.</p>
+
+<p>Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.</p>
+
+<p>Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.</p>
+
+<a name="MENUS_AND_RECIPES"></a><h3>MENUS AND RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>58.</b> As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or <i>bill of fare</i>,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or <i>receipt</i>, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.</p>
+
+<p><b>59.</b> In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.</p>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.</p>
+
+<b>MENU</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Pan-Broiled Chops</li>
+<li>Mashed Potatoes</li>
+<li>Creamed Peas</li>
+<li>Cabbage Salad</li>
+<li>Orange Fluff with Sauce</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>RECIPES</b></p>
+
+<p><b>PAN-BROILED CHOPS</b></p>
+
+<p>Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.</p>
+
+<b>MASHED POTATOES</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED PEAS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.</p>
+
+<b>SAUCE FOR PEAS</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.</p>
+
+<b>CABBAGE SALAD</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 small red or green sweet pepper</li>
+<li>Dash of pepper</li>
+<li>1 small onion</li>
+<li>Salad dressing</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.</p>
+
+<b>CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. vinegar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired</li>
+<li>1/4 c. water</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.</p>
+
+<b>ORANGE FLUFF</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 c. orange juice</li>
+<li>5 Tb. corn starch</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li>
+<li>Pinch of salt</li>
+<li>2 egg whites</li>
+<li>1 pt. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.</p>
+
+<p>When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.</p>
+
+<b>SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 Tb. corn starch</li>
+<li>3/4 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>3/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>2 egg yolks</li>
+<li>1/4 c. orange juice</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.</p>
+
+<p><b>61.</b> In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.</p>
+
+<p><b>62.</b> In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TERMS_USED_IN_COOKERY"></a><h3>TERMS USED IN COOKERY</h3>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.</p>
+
+<p><b>&Agrave; la; au; aux</b> <i>(ah lah; o; o</i>).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts &agrave; la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Au gratin</b> (<i>o gra-tang</i>).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>Au naturel</b> (<i>o nat-&uuml;-rayl</i>).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.</p>
+
+<p><b>B&eacute;chamel</b> (<i>bay-sham-ayl</i>).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biscuit Glac&eacute;</b> (<i>bis-k&uuml;-ee glah-say</i>).--Ice cream served in glac&eacute;d shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bisque.</b>--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bouch&eacute;es</b> (<i>boosh-ay</i>).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boudin</b> (<i>boo-dang</i>).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bouquet of Herbs.</b>--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caf&eacute; au Lait</b> (<i>ka-fay o lay</i>).--Coffee with milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caf&eacute; Noir</b> (<i>ka-fay nooar</i>).--Black coffee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canap&eacute;s</b> (<i>kan-ap-ay</i>).--Small slices of bread toasted or saut&eacute;d in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canard</b> (<i>kan-ar</i>).--Duck.</p>
+
+<p><b>Capers.</b>--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Capon.</b>--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caramel.</b>--A sirup of browned sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Casserole.</b>--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Champignons</b> (<i>shang-pe-nyong</i>).--The French name for mushrooms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chartreuse</b> (<i>shar-truhz</i>).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chiffonade</b> (<i>shif-fong-ad</i>).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then saut&eacute;d
+or used in salads.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chillies.</b>--Small red peppers used in seasoning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chives.</b>--An herb allied to the onion family.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chutney.</b>--An East Indian sweet pickle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Citron.</b>--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Collops.</b>--Meat cut in small pieces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compote.</b>--Fruit stewed in sirup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coquilles</b> (<i>ko-ke-yuh</i>).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cr&eacute;ole, &agrave; la</b> <i>(kray-ol, ah lah</i>).--With tomatoes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Croustade</b> (<i>kroos-tad</i>).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.</p>
+
+<p><b>Croutons</b> (<i>kroo-tong***</i>).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Curry.</b>--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Demi-Tasse</b> (<i>duh-mee tass</i>).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deviled.</b>--Highly seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dill.</b>--A plant used for flavoring pickles.</p>
+
+<p><b>En coquille</b> (<i>ang ko-ke-yuh</i>).--Served in shells.</p>
+
+<p><b>Entr&eacute;es</b> (<i>ang-tray</i>).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Escarole</b> (<i>ays-kar-ol</i>).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Farce or Forcemeat.</b>--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fillets</b> (<i>fe-lay</i>).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fillet Mignons</b> (<i>fe-lay me-nyong</i>).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fondant.</b>--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fondue.</b>--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frapp&eacute;</b> (<i>frap-pay</i>).--Semifrozen.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fromage</b> (<i>fro-magh</i>).--Cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glac&eacute</b>; (<i>glah-say</i>).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glaze</b>.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Goulash</b> (<i>gool-ash</i>).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gumbo</b>.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Haricot</b> (<i>har-e-ko</i>).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.</p>
+
+<p><b>Homard</b> (<i>ho-mar</i>).--Lobster.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hors d'oeuvres</b> (<i>or-d'uhvr'</i>).--Relishes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Italiene, &agrave; la</b> (<i>e-tal-yang, ah lah</i>).--In Italian style.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jardini&egrave;re</b> (<i>zhar-de-nyayr</i>).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Julienne</b> (<i>zh&uuml;-lyayn</i>).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Junket.</b>--Milk jellied by means of rennet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kippered.</b>--Dried or smoked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Larding.</b>--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lardon.</b>--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legumes.</b>--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lentils.</b>--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mac&eacute;doine</b> (<i>mah-say-dooan</i>).--A mixture of green vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marinade</b> (<i>mar-e-nad</i>).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marinate.</b>--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marrons</b> (<i>ma-rong</i>).--Chestnuts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Menu.</b>--A bill of fare.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meringue</b> (<i>muh-rang</i>).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mousse</b> (<i>moos</i>).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nougat</b> (<i>noo-gah</i>).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paprika.</b>--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.</p>
+
+<p><b>P&acirc;t&eacute;</b> (<i>pa-tay</i>).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pimiento.</b>--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pistachio</b> (<i>pis-ta-shioh)</i>.--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.</p>
+
+<p><b>Potage</b> (<i>pot-azh</i>).--Soup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pur&eacute;e</b> (<i>p&uuml;-ray</i>).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rago&ucirc;t</b> (<i>ra-goo</i>).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ramekin.</b>--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>R&eacute;chauff&eacute;</b> (<i>ray-sho-fay</i>).--A warmed-over dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rissoles.</b>--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roux</b> (<i>roo</i>).--Thickening made with butter and flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salmi</b> (<i>sal-mee</i>).--A stew or hash of game.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salpicon</b> (<i>sal-pee-kong</i>).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sauce Piquante</b> (<i>sos-pe-kangt</i>).--An acid sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shallot.</b>--A variety of onion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sorbet</b> (<i>sor-bay</i>).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Souffl&eacute;</b> (<i>soo-flay</i>).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soy.</b>--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stock.</b>--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sultanas.</b>--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tarragon</b> (<i>tar-ra-gonk</i>).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tartare Sauce</b> (<i>tar-tar sos</i>).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Timbale.</b>--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+rago&ucirc;t.</p>
+
+<p><b>Truffles.</b>--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vanilla.</b>--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vinaigrette Sauce</b> (<i>ve-nay-grayt sos</i>).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vol au Vent</b> (<i>vol o vang</i>).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+p&acirc;t&eacute; or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zwieback</b> (<i>tsouee-bak</i>).--Bread toasted twice.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)</b></p>
+
+<p><b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b></p>
+
+<p>(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?</p>
+
+<p>(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) What is a labor-saving device? (<i>b</i>) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.</p>
+
+<p>(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (<i>a</i>) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (<i>b</i>) the slow cooking of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (<i>a</i>) vegetables; (<i>b</i>)
+meats; (<i>c</i>) fish.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Describe: (<i>a</i>) sifting; (<i>b</i>) stirring; (<i>c</i>) beating; (<i>d</i>) creaming; (<i>e</i>)
+folding.</p>
+
+<p>(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?</p>
+
+<p>(8) Describe the measuring of: (<i>a</i>) cupful of flour; (<i>b</i>) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (<i>c</i>) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (<i>b</i>) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.</p>
+
+<p>(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?</p>
+
+<p>(11) Tell why foods spoil.</p>
+
+<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(<i>b</i>) What is meant by the term preservative?</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) What is the aim in canning foods? (<i>b</i>) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?</p>
+
+<p>(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.</p>
+
+<p>(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (<i>a</i>) milk; (<i>b</i>) butter; (<i>c</i>)
+cooked fish; (<i>d</i>) cooked tomatoes; (<i>e</i>) melons; (f) cheese.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.</p>
+
+<p>(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.</p>
+
+<p>(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (<i>b</i>) Tell the
+best ways in which to preserve such foods.</p>
+
+<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) What is a menu? (<i>b</i>) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (<i>c</i>)
+In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>REPORT ON MENU</b></p>
+
+<p>After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, &quot;Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done&quot;; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write &quot;Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy&quot;; and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?</p>
+
+<p>Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?</p>
+
+<p>Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?</p>
+
+<p>Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?</p>
+
+<p>Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?</p>
+
+<p>Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?</p>
+
+<p>Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center><a name="CEREALS"></a><h2>CEREALS</h2></center>
+
+
+
+<a name="PRODUCTION,_COMPOSITION,_AND_SELECTION"></a><h3>PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION</h3>
+
+<b>PRODUCTION OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.</b>--<i>Cereals,</i> which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.</p>
+
+<p>The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.</b>--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.</b>--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.</p>
+
+<p>Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.</b>--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as <i>breakfast foods.</i> The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COMPOSITION OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+<i>germ,</i> which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.</b>--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+<i>gluten,</i> a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. FAT IN CEREALS.</b>--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.</b>--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.</b>--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. WATER IN CEREALS.</b>--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.</b>--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.</b>--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.</p>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>TABLE I</b></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=5 align="center"><b>COMPOSITION OF CEREALS</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Protein</td><td align="center">Fat</td><td align="center">Carbohydrate</td><td align="center">Cellulose</td><td align="center">Mineral Matter or Ash</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Oats</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Barley</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Rye</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Wheat</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Corn</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Rice</td></tr>
+</table><br><br><br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="CEREALS_AS_A_FOOD"></a><h3>CEREALS AS A FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>USES OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and saut&eacute;d
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.</b>--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as <i>grits.</i> At other
+times they are ground finer and called <i>meal,</i> and still finer and
+called <i>flour,</i> being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, <i>cracked wheat</i> and <i>rolled oats.</i></p>
+
+<p>Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.</b>--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.</p>
+
+<p>Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.</b>--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CARE OF CEREALS.</b>--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.</p>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>TABLE II</b></center><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>GRAIN PRODUCTS</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=19 align="left">Cereals</td><td rowspan=5 align="left">Whole Grains</td><td align="left">Pearl barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hulled wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hominy: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=6 align="left">Crushed Grains</td><td align="left">Farina: Wheat or corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cream of Wheat: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cracked Wheat: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hominy Grits: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wheat Grits: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Samp: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=4 align="left">Meal</td><td align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oats</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=4 align="left">Prepared Cereals</td><td align="left">Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shredded Grain: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left">Starch</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left"> Wheat</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Macaroni</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Vermicelli</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Spaghetti</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glucose</td><td colspan=2 rowspan=2 align="left">Usually corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sirup</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left"> Cereal Coffee</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"> Rye</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=5 align="left">Flour</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rye</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Buckwheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquors</td><td colspan=2 rowspan=4 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malted Drinks </td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beer</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whisky</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alcohol:</td><td colspan=2 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Feed for animals:</td><td colspan=2 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="PREPARATION_OF_CEREALS_FOR_THE_TABLE"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE</h3>
+
+<b>METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.</b>--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.</b>--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s03fig01.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 1]"></center>
+
+<p><b>23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.</b>--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler <i>a</i>; a
+measuring cup <i>b</i>, a knife <i>c</i>, and spoons <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, for measuring; a
+large spoon <i>f</i>, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.</b>--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called <i>setting</i> a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is <i>set</i>, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms <i>setting</i> and <i>set</i> should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.</b>--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of <i>boiling</i> is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.</b>--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at <i>a</i>,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as <i>steaming</i>, or <i>dry
+steaming</i>, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.</p>
+
+<p>This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.</b>--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.</b>--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called <i>browning</i>, or <i>toasting</i>, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.</b>--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gruels</i> are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.</p>
+
+<p>The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="INDIAN_CORN,_OR_MAIZE"></a><h3>INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> The word <i>corn</i> has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name <i>Indian
+corn</i>, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. <i>Field corn</i>, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are <i>hominy</i> and <i>corn meal</i>. <i>Sweet corn</i> is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. <i>Pop
+corn</i>, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>32. HOMINY</b> is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called <i>samp</i>, or <i>grits</i>, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.</p>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. HOMINY.</b>--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Quarts</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 qt. water</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lye</li>
+<li>1 qt. shelled corn</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. BUTTERED HOMINY.</b>--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.</p>
+
+<b>BUTTERED HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 pt. cooked hominy</li>
+<li>3 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. CREAMED HOMINY.</b>--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 pt. cooked hominy</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. HOMINY GRITS.</b>--The cereal sold under the name of <i>hominy grits</i> is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY GRITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. water</li>
+<li>1 c. hominy grits</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s03fig02.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 2]">
+
+<p><b>38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.</b>--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either saut&eacute;d or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese souffl&eacute;, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFL&Eacute;</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. cooked hominy</li>
+<li>1/2 c. hot milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.</b>--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.</p>
+
+<b>CORN-MEAL MUSH</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.</p>
+
+<p>A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. SAUT&Eacute;D CORN-MEAL-MUSH.</b>--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then saut&eacute;d.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For saut&eacute;ing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in saut&eacute;ing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.</b>--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for saut&eacute;ing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and saut&eacute; them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.</b>--Saut&eacute;d corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="WHEAT"></a><h3>WHEAT</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called <i>hulled</i>, or <i>whole</i>, <i>wheat</i>, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include <i>wheat grits</i>, such foods as <i>cream
+of wheat</i> and <i>farina</i>, and many <i>ready-to-eat cereals</i>. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>45. HULLED WHEAT.</b>--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.</p>
+
+<b>HULLED WHEAT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. hulled wheat</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. WHEAT GRITS.</b>--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.</p>
+
+<b>WHEAT GRITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. wheat grits</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. CREAM OF WHEAT.</b>--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:</p>
+
+<b>CREAM OF WHEAT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. cream of wheat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.</b>--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.</p>
+
+<b>CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. cream of wheat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. dates</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. FARINA.</b>--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. farina</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.</b>--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. dates</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.</b>--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and saut&eacute;d like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and souffl&eacute;s, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA CUSTARD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. cold farina</li>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. nutmeg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA SOUFFL&Eacute;</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. cold farina</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RICE"></a><h3>RICE</h3>
+
+<b>VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>52. RICE,</b> next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+<i>Carolina rice</i>, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas <i>Japanese rice</i>, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.</p>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, <i>rice polishings</i>. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called <i>polish</i>, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.</p>
+
+<p><b>54.</b> To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR RICE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>55.</b> Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are <i>boiling</i>, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the <i>Japanese method</i>,
+which requires five times as much; and <i>steaming</i>, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.</p>
+
+<p><b>56. BOILED RICE.</b>--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:</p>
+
+<b>BOILED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.</b>--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.</p>
+
+<b>JAPANESE METHOD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>5 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. STEAMED RICE.</b>--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.</p>
+
+<b>STEAMED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. CREAMED RICE.</b>--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. cream</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>60. ORIENTAL RICE.</b>--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.</p>
+
+<b>ORIENTAL RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 slice onion</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. BROWNED RICE.</b>--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>62. SAVORY RICE.</b>--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:</p>
+
+<b>SAVORY RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. browned rice</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. chopped celery</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 small onion, chopped</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1/4 c. chopped pimiento</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s03fig03.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 3]">
+
+<p><b>63. LEFT-OVER RICE.</b>--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.</p>
+
+<p>64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.</p>
+
+<b>RICE WITH PINEAPPLE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. steamed or creamed rice</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>6 rings pineapple</li>
+<li>3/4 c. whipped cream</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.</p>
+
+<p><b>65.</b> Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.</p>
+
+<b>RICE PATTIES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. stale crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. celery salt</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>2 c. steamed rice</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and saut&eacute; them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.</p>
+
+<b>SPANISH RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 small onion</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice</li>
+<li>1 c. chopped meat</li>
+<li>1/2 c. meat stock or gravy</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>2 Tb. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1/4 c. stale crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="OATS"></a><h3>OATS</h3>
+
+<b>COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> As an article of food, <b>OATS</b> are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of <i>oatmeal</i> and <i>rolled oats</i>. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR OATS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>68.</b> The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><b>69. ROLLED OATS.</b>--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED OATS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>3 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.</b>--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2/3 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>6 medium-sized apples</li>
+<li>1 c. water</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+</ul>
+
+<img src="images/s03fig04.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 4]">
+
+<p>Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.</b>--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>12 stewed prunes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.</b>--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>3/4 c. crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. cooked rolled oats</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and saut&eacute; then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BARLEY"></a><h3>BARLEY</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>73. BARLEY</b> is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.</p>
+
+<p><b>74.</b> Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called <i>malt sprouts</i>, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+<i>malt</i>, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>75.</b> In the United States, <i>pearl barley</i> is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR BARLEY</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>76. PEARL BARLEY.</b>--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.</p>
+
+<b>PEARL BARLEY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. pearl barley</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.</b>--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.</p>
+
+<b>PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. pearl barley</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>5 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1 c. dates, figs, or prunes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.</b>--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be saut&eacute;d in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RYE,_BUCKWHEAT,_AND_MILLET"></a><h3>RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET</h3>
+
+<p><b>79.</b> RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>80. BUCKWHEAT</b> is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called <i>beech wheat</i>. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.</p>
+
+<p><b>81. MILLET</b> as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.</p>
+
+<a name="PREPARED,_OR_READY-TO-EAT,_CEREALS"></a><h3>PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS</h3>
+
+<p><b>82.</b> All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as <i>flakes</i>. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.</p>
+
+<p><b>83.</b> The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+<i>dextrine</i>, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_CEREALS"></a><h3>SERVING CEREALS</h3>
+
+<p><b>84.</b> Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.</p>
+
+<p>To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="ITALIAN_PASTES"></a><h3>ITALIAN PASTES</h3>
+
+<b>PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>85.</b> In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called <i>semolina</i>, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called <i>durum</i>, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.</p>
+
+<p><b>86.</b> To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.</p>
+
+<p><b>87.</b> Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+<i>macaroni</i>, <i>spaghetti</i>, and <i>vermicelli</i>. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>88.</b> Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>89.</b> In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.</p>
+
+<p>In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.</p>
+
+<p><b>90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.</b>--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<b>CREAM SAUCE</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 1/2 c. milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.</b>--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH EGGS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>4 hard-boiled eggs</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>92. MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON.</b>--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>8 thin slices bacon</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>93. MACARONI WITH CHEESE.</b>--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CHEESE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1-1/2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 c. grated or finely cut cheese</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s03fig05.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 5]">
+
+<p><b>94. MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO.</b>--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE.</b>--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>2/3 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.</b>--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>3/4 c. hot milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 c. canned kidney beans</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.</b>--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.</p>
+
+<b>SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. spaghetti</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1 can tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 small onion, chopped</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/2 c. water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>98. LEFT-OVER ITALIAN PASTES.</b>--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.</p>
+
+<a name="BREAKFAST_MENU"></a><h3>BREAKFAST MENU</h3>
+
+<p><b>99.</b> A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.</p>
+
+<b>MENU</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Berries and Cream or Oranges</li>
+<li>Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream</li>
+<li>Scrambled Eggs</li>
+<li>Buttered Toast</li>
+<li>Cocoa or Coffee</li>
+</ul>
+
+<b>SCRAMBLED EGGS</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>5 eggs</li>
+<li>1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.</p>
+
+<b>BUTTERED TOAST</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.</p>
+
+<b>COCOA</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>3 Tb. cocoa</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.</p>
+
+<b>BOILED COFFEE</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (<i>b</i>) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?</p>
+
+<p>(2) (<i>a</i>) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(<i>b</i>) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (<i>b</i>) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (<i>b</i>) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.</p>
+
+<p>(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?</p>
+
+<p>(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?</p>
+
+<p>(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (<i>b</i>) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.</p>
+
+<p>(10) (<i>a</i>) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (<i>b</i>) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?</p>
+
+<p>(11) (<i>a</i>) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (<i>b</i>) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (<i>b</i>)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.</p>
+
+<p>(14) (<i>a</i>) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (<i>b</i>) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?</p>
+
+<p>(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.</p>
+
+<p>(16) (<i>a</i>) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (<i>b</i>) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.</p>
+
+<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(<i>b</i>) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) How are Italian pastes made? (<i>b</i>) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (<i>c</i>) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (<i>b</i>) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?</p>
+
+<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (<i>b</i>)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>REPORT ON MENU</b><br><br>
+
+<p>After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?</p>
+
+<p>Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?</p>
+
+<p>Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?</p>
+
+<p>Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="BREAD"></a><center><h2>BREAD</h2></center>
+
+<b>BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="IMPORTANCE_OF_BREAD_AS_FOOD"></a><h3>IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>1. BREAD</b> is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as <i>leavening agents</i>,
+or <i>ferments</i>, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term <i>bread</i> is used alone it means <i>yeast</i>, or <i>leavened</i>,
+<i>bread</i>, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as <i>hot bread</i>, or <i>quick bread</i>, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.</p>
+
+<p>Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys &quot;home-made&quot; bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="INGREDIENTS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING"></a><h3>INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING</h3>
+
+<b>INGREDIENTS REQUIRED</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about *bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>FLOUR</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>7. GRAINS USED FOR FLOUR.</b>--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of <i>gluten</i>. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as <i>gliadin</i> and <i>glutenin</i>. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, <i>spring</i>, or <i>hard, wheat</i> and
+<i>winter</i>, or <i>soft, wheat</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT</b> is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT</b> derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a <i>blend flour</i>, which may be used
+for all purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.</b>--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">PER CENT.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Protein</td><td align="right">11.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fat</td><td align="right">2.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carbohydrates</td><td align="right">71.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mineral salts</td><td align="right">1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cellulose</td><td align="right">1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig01.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 1]">
+
+<p>So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At <i>a</i> is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At <i>b</i>
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the <i>endosperm</i>, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at <i>c</i>, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at <i>d, e, f</i>, and <i>g</i>, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, <i>h</i>. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.</b>--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called <i>scouring</i>, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. GRAHAM FLOUR.</b>--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.</b>--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.</b>--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.</b>--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called <i>high-grade patent</i>; the next grade, <i>bakers'</i>; and the next,
+<i>second-grade patent</i>. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+<i>red dog</i>. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.</p>
+
+<p>The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CARE OF FLOUR.</b>--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>YEAST</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.</b>--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called <i>carbon-dioxide</i>, or
+<i>carbonic-acid, gas</i>. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. COMMERCIAL YEAST.</b>--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of &quot;setting&quot; a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--<i>moist</i> and
+<i>dry</i>. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.</p>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> Moist yeast, which is usually called <i>compressed yeast</i>, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.</p>
+
+<p>Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.</p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. LIQUID YEAST.</b>--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.</p>
+
+<p>More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. QUALITY OF YEAST.</b>--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>YEAST AIDS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MILK AND FAT IN BREAD</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.</p>
+
+<p>The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>33. NECESSARY EQUIPMENT.</b>--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover <i>a</i>; a flour sieve <i>b</i>;
+measuring cups <i>c</i> of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons <i>d</i>, and a case knife or a spatula <i>e</i> for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon <i>f</i> for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans <i>g</i>. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig02.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 2.]"></center>
+
+<p>The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT.</b>--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in <i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>cooler</i>, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BREAD-MAKING_PROCESSES"></a><h3>BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES</h3>
+
+<b>ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>35.</b> The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the &quot;bloom&quot; of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.</p>
+
+<p>The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+&quot;sheen,&quot; which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.</p>
+
+<p>The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="MAKING_THE_DOUGH"></a><h3>MAKING THE DOUGH</h3>
+
+<b>PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the <i>short process</i> and the other as
+the <i>long process</i>. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. LONG PROCESS.</b>--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the <i>sponge
+method</i> and the other as the <i>straight-dough method</i>.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig03.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 3]"></center>
+
+<p> 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.</p>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.</p>
+
+<p>The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. QUICK PROCESS.</b>--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the <i>sponge method</i> and the
+<i>straight-dough method</i>. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CARE_OF_THE_RISING_DOUGH"></a><h3>CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH</h3>
+
+<p><b>45. PURPOSE OF RISING.</b>--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. TEMPERATURE FOR RISING.</b>--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+<img src="images/s04fig04.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 4]">
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig05.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 5]">
+
+<p><b>49.</b> To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig06.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 6]"></center>
+
+<p><b>50. TIME REQUIRED FOR RISING.</b>--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="KNEADING_THE_DOUGH"></a><h3>KNEADING THE DOUGH</h3>
+
+
+
+<p><b>51. PURPOSE OF KNEADING.</b>--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>52. KNEADING MOTIONS.</b>--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig07.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 7]">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<img src="images/s04fig08.jpg" alt="<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p>">
+<br>
+<img src="images/s04fig09.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 9]">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<img src="images/s04fig10.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 10]"></center>
+
+<p>To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SHAPING_THE_DOUGH_INTO_LOAVES"></a><h3>SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES</h3>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig11.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 11]">
+
+<p><b>54.</b> In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>55.</b> As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At <i>a</i>, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at <i>b</i> is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at <i>b</i>, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at <i>a</i>, for rising.</p>
+<center>
+<img src="images/s04fig12.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 12]">
+<br>
+<img src="images/s04fig13.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 13]"></center>
+
+<br>
+
+<a name="BAKING_THE_BREAD"></a><h3>BAKING THE BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.</b>--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.</b>--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig14.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 14]">
+
+<img src="images/s04fig15.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 15]"></center>
+
+<p><b>58.</b> Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.</b>--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig16.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 16]">
+
+<p>To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig17.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 17]">
+
+<p><b>60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.</b>--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.</p>
+
+<p>After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SCORING_BREAD"></a><h3>SCORING BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.</b>--By the <i>scoring</i> of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>SCORE CARD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">External Appearance:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shape</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Size</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">Crust:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Shade</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uniformity of Color</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Character</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth</td><td align="left">2-8 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lightness</td><td align="left">20 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">Internal Appearance:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Even distribution of gas</td><td align="left">10 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Moisture</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elasticity</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Color</td><td align="left">15 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flavor</td><td align="left">30 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> Total</td><td align="left">100 %</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.</b>--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.</p>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> The <i>shape</i> of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>size</i> of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>crust</i>, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its <i>shade</i>. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for <i>uniformity of color</i>. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the <i>character</i> of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The <i>depth</i> of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.</p>
+
+<p><b>64.</b> The <i>lightness</i> of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.</p>
+
+<p><b>65.</b> The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the <i>even distribution of gas</i>, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The <i>moisture</i> in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+<i>elasticity</i>, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for <i>color</i>, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.</p>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> The last thing to be scored, namely, the <i>flavor</i>, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="USE_OF_THE_BREAD_MIXER"></a><h3>USE OF THE BREAD MIXER</h3>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.</p>
+
+<p><b>68.</b> In using a bread mixer like that described in <i>Essentials of
+Cookery</i>, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_BREAD"></a><h3>SERVING BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>69.</b> Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.</p>
+
+<p>As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.</p>
+
+<p>Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BREAD_RECIPES"></a><h3>BREAD RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>70.</b> In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>71.</b> The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.</p>
+
+<p>The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.</p>
+
+<p>The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.</p>
+
+<p><b>72.</b> The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>73. WHITE BREAD.</b>--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as <i>white bread</i>, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.</p>
+
+<b>WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 qt. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>3 qt. flour</li>
+<li>1 c. flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.</p>
+
+<p>Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.</p>
+
+<b>WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 cakes compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 qt. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>3 qt. flour</li>
+<li>1 c. flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>74. WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD.</b>--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>3 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>8 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.</p>
+
+<p>The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>75. GRAHAM BREAD.</b>--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.</p>
+
+<p>A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.</p>
+
+<p><b>76. GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS.</b>--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>1/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. chopped nuts</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD.</b>--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 yeast cake</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>6 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. BRAN BREAD.</b>--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.</p>
+
+<b>BRAN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>6 Tb. molasses</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 yeast cake</li>
+<li>1/4 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. sterilized bran</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>79. RYE BREAD.</b>--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.</p>
+
+<b>RYE BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>3 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>6 c. rye flour</li>
+<li>4 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>80. CORN BREAD.</b>--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.</p>
+
+<b>CORN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 yeast cake</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>81. RICE BREAD.</b>--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.</p>
+
+<b>RICE BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. uncooked rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/2 yeast cake</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>6 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>82. SALT-RISING BREAD.</b>--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.</p>
+
+<b>SALT-RISING BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. fresh milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 tsp. sugar</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>7 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RECIPES_FOR_ROLLS,_BUNS,_AND_BISCUITS"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS</h3>
+
+<p><b>83.</b> While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig18.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 18]"></center>
+
+<p>So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.</p>
+
+<p><b>84. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS.</b>--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.</p>
+<img src="images/s04fig19.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 19]">
+<b>PARKER HOUSE ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 pt. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 pt. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at <i>b</i>, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at <i>c</i>. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at <i>d</i>.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>85. DINNER ROLLS.</b>--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (<i>a</i>). If
+they are placed as in (<i>b</i>), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.</p>
+
+<b>DINNER ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg white</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig20.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 20]">
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><b>86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.</b>--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:</p>
+
+<b>LUNCHEON ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg white</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.</b>--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 pt. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.</b>--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM NUT BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>4 Tb. brown sugar</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. chopped nuts</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.</b>--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:</p>
+
+<b>NUT OR FRUIT BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>4 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>3 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>90. SWEET BUNS.</b>--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.</p>
+
+<b>SWEET BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm scalded milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1 tsp. lemon extract</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s04fig21.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 21]">
+
+<p><b>91. COFFEE CAKE.</b>--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.</p>
+
+<b>COFFEE CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Cake</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1/2 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s04fig22.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 22]">
+<br>
+<img src="images/s04fig23.jpg"  alt="[Illustration: Fig. 23]"></center>
+
+<p><b>92. CINNAMON ROLLS.</b>--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TOAST"></a><h3>TOAST</h3>
+
+<p><b>93.</b> As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>94.</b> If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. MILK TOAST.</b>--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. FRENCH TOAST.</b>--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<b>FRENCH TOAST</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 tsp. sugar</li>
+<li>8 slices of bread</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and saut&eacute; it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="LEFT-OVER_BREAD"></a><h3>LEFT-OVER BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>97.</b> Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entr&eacute;es. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>98.</b> The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>BREAD</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.</p>
+
+<p>(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) What is gluten? (<i>b</i>) Why is it necessary for the making of bread?</p>
+
+<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) What is meant by a blend flour? (<i>b</i>) When is its use indicated?</p>
+
+<p>(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?</p>
+
+<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) What is yeast? (<i>b</i>) What things are necessary for its growth? (<i>c</i>)
+What temperature is best for its growth?</p>
+
+<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (<i>b</i>) What part does this
+play in bread making?</p>
+
+<p>(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) What will hasten the bread-making process? (<i>b</i>) What will retard
+it?</p>
+
+<p>(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.</p>
+
+<p>(11) What are the advantages of: (<i>a</i>) the long process of bread making?
+(<i>b</i>) the quick process?</p>
+
+<p>(12) What is: (<i>a</i>) a sponge? (<i>b</i>) a dough?</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (<i>b</i>) How is it possible to tell
+when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?</p>
+
+<p>(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?</p>
+
+<p>(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?</p>
+
+<p>(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?</p>
+
+<p>(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?</p>
+
+<p>(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?</p>
+
+<p>(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="HOT_BREADS"></a><center><h2>HOT BREADS</h2></center>
+
+
+<b>REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="HOT_BREADS_IN_THE_DIET"></a><h3>HOT BREADS IN THE DIET</h3>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="PRINCIPAL_REQUIREMENTS_FOR_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.</p>
+
+<p>The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="LEAVENING_AGENTS"></a><h3>LEAVENING AGENTS</h3>
+
+<b>CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in <i>Bread</i> regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, <i>organic, physical</i>, and <i>chemical</i>. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in <i>Bread</i> and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PHYSICAL LEAVENING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>CHEMICAL LEAVENING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.</b>--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is <i>1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk.</i> So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using <i>1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk</i>. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. SODA AND MOLASSES.</b>--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is <i>1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses</i>, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.</b>--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of <i>twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda.</i> As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. BAKING POWDER.</b>--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being <i>2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour</i>. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:</p>
+
+<b>RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 lb. cream of tartar</li>
+<li>1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda</li>
+<li>1/4 lb. corn starch</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="HOT-BREAD_UTENSILS_AND_THEIR_USE"></a><h3>HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE</h3>
+
+<b>PURPOSE OF UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig01.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 1]"></center>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl <i>a</i> of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl <i>b</i> for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups <i>c</i>, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon <i>d</i>, a case
+knife <i>e</i>, and a teaspoon <i>f</i> for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+<i>g</i> and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<img src="images/s05fig02.jpg" align="left" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 2]">
+
+<p><b>20.</b> The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at <i>h</i>, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s05fig03.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 3]">
+
+<p><b>21. GRIDDLES.</b>--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.</p>
+
+<p>The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig04.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 4]">
+&nbsp;&nbsp;
+<img src="images/s05fig05.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 5]"></center>
+
+<p>Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. WAFFLE IRONS.</b>--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (<i>a</i>). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(<i>a</i>) and open in (<i>b</i>), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it, a
+stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<b>VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.</b>--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a <i>batter</i> and a
+large proportion, a <i>dough</i>. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are <i>thin batter</i>, <i>thick
+batter</i>, <i>soft dough</i>, and <i>stiff dough</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. A THIN BATTER</b> is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is <i>1 measure of flour</i> to <i>1 measure of liquid</i>. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.</p>
+
+<p><b>A THICK BATTER,</b> which is known as a <i>drop</i>, or <i>muffin</i>, <i>batter</i>, is
+one that is made of <i>2 measures of flour</i> and <i>1 measure of liquid</i>. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.</p>
+
+<p><b>A SOFT DOUGH</b> is one whose proportions are <i>3 measures of flour</i> and <i>1
+measure of liquid</i>. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.</p>
+
+<p><b>A STIFF DOUGH</b> is made of <i>4 measures of flour</i> and <i>1 measure of
+liquid</i>. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS.</b> While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="PREPARING_THE_MIXTURE"></a><h3>PREPARING THE MIXTURE</h3>
+
+<p><b>26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.</b>--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.</b>--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.</p>
+
+<p>In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.</p>
+
+<p>The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="BAKING_THE_MIXTURE"></a><h3>BAKING THE MIXTURE</h3>
+
+<p><b>28. REGULATING THE OVEN.</b>--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.</b>--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.</b>--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.</b>--As is pointed out in
+<i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.</b>--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.</p>
+
+<p>Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>SERVING HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.</p>
+
+<p>Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="POPOVER_RECIPES"></a><h3>POPOVER RECIPES</h3>
+
+<img src="images/s05fig06.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 6.]">
+
+<p><b>35. POPOVERS.</b>--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.</p>
+
+<b>POPOVERS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.</b>--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. NUT PUFFS.</b>--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.</p>
+
+<b>NUT PUFFS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. chopped nuts</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig07.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 7]"></center>
+
+<p><b>38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.</b>--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="GRIDDLE-CAKE_RECIPES"></a><h3>GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.</p>
+
+<p>When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.</p>
+
+<b>GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.</p>
+
+<b>SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>2 c. sour milk (not thick)</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.</p>
+
+<b>CORN GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.</p>
+
+<b>RICE GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. cold cooked rice</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.</b>--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:</p>
+
+<b>BUCKWHEAT CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. fine bread crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 yeast cake</li>
+<li>3/4 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 Tb. molasses</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. soda</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p>If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="WAFFLE_RECIPES"></a><h3>WAFFLE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.</b>--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig08.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 8.]"></center>
+
+<p><b>46. WAFFLES.</b>--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.</p>
+
+<b>WAFFLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1-2/3 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. RICE WAFFLES.</b>--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.</p>
+
+<b>RICE WAFFLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-3/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2/3 c. cooked rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="MUFFIN_RECIPES"></a><h3>MUFFIN RECIPES</h3>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig09.jpg" alt="[Illustration: Fig. 9]"></center>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at <i>h</i>, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. PLAIN MUFFINS.</b>--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.</p>
+
+<b>PLAIN MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.</b>--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.</p>
+
+<b>BLUEBERRY MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/3 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. fresh blueberries</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. DATE MUFFINS.</b>--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig10.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 10.]"></center>
+
+<p><b>52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.</b>--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.</p>
+
+<b>CORN-MEAL MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.</b>--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. sour milk</li>
+<li>1/3 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>54. RICE MUFFINS.</b>--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.</p>
+
+<b>RICE MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>3/4 c. hot, cooked rice</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. BRAN MUFFINS.</b>--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.</p>
+
+<b>BRAN MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. bran</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CORN-CAKE_RECIPES"></a><h3>CORN-CAKE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>56. CORN CAKE.</b>--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called <i>journey cakes.</i> From this term came the name
+<i>Johnny cake,</i> which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.</p>
+
+<b>CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. yellow corn meal</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.</b>--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.</p>
+
+<b>SOUTHERN CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. MOLASSES CORN CAKE.</b>--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.</p>
+
+<b>MOLASSES CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>3/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>3-1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.</p>
+
+<a name="BISCUIT_RECIPES"></a><h3>BISCUIT RECIPES</h3>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig11.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 11]"></center>
+
+<p><b>59. BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS.</b>--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.</p>
+
+<b>BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig12.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 12]">
+<br>
+<img src="images/s05fig13.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 13.]"></center>
+
+<p>Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<img src="images/s05fig14.jpg" align="right" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 14.]">
+
+<p><b>60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.</b>--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.</b>--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.</p>
+
+<b>PINWHEEL BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat f</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/3 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. cinnamon</li>
+<li>3/4 c. chopped raisins</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig15.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 15.]"></center>
+
+<p><b>62. BEATEN BISCUITS.</b>--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.</p>
+
+<b>BEATEN BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Twelve</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 qt. pastry flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/3 c. fat</li>
+<li>1 c. milk or water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig16.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 16.]"></center>
+<br>
+
+<a name="MISCELLANEOUS_HOT-BREAD_RECIPES"></a><h3>MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES</h3>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig17.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 17.]"></center>
+
+<p><b>63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.</b>--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.</p>
+
+<b>SOFT GINGERBREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 tsp. ginger</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cinnamon</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1/4 c. butter or other fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.</b>--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.</p>
+<br>
+
+<center><img src="images/s05fig18.jpg" alt="[Illustration: FIG. 18.]"></center>
+
+<p>Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.</p>
+
+<b>BOSTON BROWN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1-3/4 c. sweet milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.</p>
+
+<p><b>65. NUT LOAF.</b>--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.</p>
+
+<b>NUT LOAF</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. English walnuts</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTILISING_LEFT-OVER_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="LUNCHEON_MENU"></a><h3>LUNCHEON MENU</h3>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in <i>Cereals,</i> and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MENU</b><br>
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes<br>
+Baking-Powder Biscuit<br>
+Jam<br>
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad<br>
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce<br>
+Tea<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES</b><br><br>
+
+<b>WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>6 Tb. oil</li>
+<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>TEA</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> What is a leavening agent? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> How is physical leavening accomplished? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> How is chemical leavening brought about? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?</p>
+
+<p>(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?</p>
+
+<p>(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+<i>(<i>a</i>)</i> each cupful of sour milk? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> each cupful of molasses?</p>
+
+<p>(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?</p>
+
+<p>(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a thin batter; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a thick batter; <i>(<i>c</i>)</i> a soft dough;
+<i>(<i>d</i>)</i> a stiff dough.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> thin batters; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i>
+thick batters; <i>(<i>c</i>)</i> soft doughs; <i>(<i>d</i>)</i> stiff doughs.</p>
+
+<p>(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?</p>
+
+<p>(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.</p>
+
+<p>(14) What is the approximate temperature for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a moderate oven?
+<i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a hot oven?</p>
+
+<p>(15) Mention a simple test for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a moderate oven; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a hot
+oven.</p>
+
+<p>(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?</p>
+
+<p>(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?</p>
+
+<p>(18) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> Which should be baked in a moderate oven?</p>
+
+<p>(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?</p>
+
+<p>(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.</p>
+
+<b>REPORT ON MENU</b><br><br>
+
+<p>After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.</p>
+
+<p>Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?</p>
+
+<p>Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?</p>
+
+<p>Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?</p>
+
+<p>Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?</p>
+
+<p>Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="INDEX"></a><center><h2>INDEX</h2></center>
+
+<b>A</b><br>
+<br>
+Abbreviations of measures,<br>
+Absorption and digestion of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Abundance of production of cereals,<br>
+Acquiring skill in bread making,<br>
+Action of yeast,<br>
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,<br>
+Agents, Classes of leavening,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Leavening,<br></span>
+Aids, Yeast,<br>
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">la creole, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Albumin,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Effect of cooking on,<br></span>
+Aluminum cooking utensils,<br>
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,<br>
+Apple, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corer,<br></span>
+Artificial gas,<br>
+Ash, or mineral salts,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pan, Coal-stove,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pit, Coal-stove,<br></span>
+Au gratin, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">naturel, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Avoirdupois weight,<br>
+<br>
+<b>B</b><br>
+<br>
+Bacon, Composition of,<br>
+Bacteria,<br>
+Baked hot breads, Testing,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">potatoes,<br></span>
+Bakers' flour,<br>
+Baking bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between roasting and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes, Procedure in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oven temperature for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">powder,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-powder biscuits,<br></span>
+Baking powder, Recipe for,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">the hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">waffles, Procedure in,<br></span>
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,<br>
+Banana, Composition of,<br>
+Banking a coal fire,<br>
+Barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pearl,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use and origin of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with fruit, Pearl,<br></span>
+Batter, Thick,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Thin,<br></span>
+Batters and doughs,<br>
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of fresh shelled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of green string,<br></span>
+Beaten biscuits,<br>
+Beating of food ingredients,<br>
+B&eacute;chamel, Meaning of,<br>
+Beech wheat,<br>
+Beef, Composition of dried,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">suet, Composition of,<br></span>
+Biscuit glace,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">recipes,<br></span>
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Beaten,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Emergency,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls, and buns, Recipes for,<br></span>
+Bisque, Meaning of,<br>
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,<br>
+Blanching foods,<br>
+Blend flour,<br>
+Blueberry muffins,<br>
+Body, Function of water in the,<br>
+Boiled coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,<br>
+Boiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking cereals by,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">on foods, Effect of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">point,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">to sterilize water,<br></span>
+Boston brown bread,<br>
+Bouch&eacute;es, Meaning of,<br>
+Boudin, Meaning of,<br>
+Bouquet of herbs,<br>
+Boxes, Window,<br>
+Braizing,<br>
+Bran bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+Bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">after baking, Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and cake mixer,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as food, Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baking hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boston brown,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bran,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of toasted,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole-wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Convenient equipment for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between hot and leavened,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Care of the rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Motions used in kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Purpose of kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Leavened,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Long-process, sponge method of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Acquiring skill in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Combining the ingredients in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Convenient equipment for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Ingredients for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long process of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long-process, sponge method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making materials, Proportion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Necessary equipment for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making processes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick process of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick-process, sponge method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making requirements,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Utensils for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milk and fat in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixer, Use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixture, Preparation of hot-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Object of scoring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oven temperature for baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">recipes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Salt-rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scoring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sponge,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Utilizing left-over hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">White,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with nuts, Graham,<br></span>
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between yeast and hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General proportions used in hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mixtures used for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principal requirements for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of utensils for making hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Requirements and processes for making hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties of mixtures in hot,<br></span>
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">menu,<br></span>
+Broiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pan,<br></span>
+Brown bread, Boston,<br>
+Browned rice,<br>
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,<br>
+Buckwheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rye, and millet,<br></span>
+Building a coal fire,<br>
+Buns, Fruit or nut,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham nut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nut or fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls, and biscuits,<br></span>
+Buns, Sweet,<br>
+Butter, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of peanut,<br></span>
+Buttered hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">toast,<br></span>
+Buttermilk, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>C</b><br>
+<br>
+Cabbage salad,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-salad dressing,<br></span>
+Caf&eacute; au lait, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">noir, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Cake, Coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Molasses corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Southern corn,<br></span>
+Cakes, Buckwheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Procedure in baking griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice griddle,<br></span>
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,<br>
+Canap&eacute;s, Meaning of,<br>
+Canard, Meaning of,<br>
+Candy, Composition of stick,<br>
+Canned fruit, Composition of,<br>
+Canning of foods,<br>
+Capers, Meaning of,<br>
+Capon, Meaning of,<br>
+Caramel, Meaning of,<br>
+Carbohydrates,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Elements in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+Carbon,<br>
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,<br>
+Card, Explanation of score,<br>
+Care of bread after baking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread in oven,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food in refrigerator,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of the refrigerator,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of the rising bread dough,<br></span>
+Carolina rice,<br>
+Casein,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Effect of cooking on,<br></span>
+Casserole, Definition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of,<br></span>
+Celery, Composition of,<br>
+Cellars, Storing food in,<br>
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Place of,<br></span>
+Cereal flakes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">selection, Factors that govern,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Setting a,<br></span>
+Cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Abundance of production of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as a food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Browning, or toasting, of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">by boiling, Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">by dry heat, Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbohydrates in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cellulose in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Economic value of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fat in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for the table, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mineral matter in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Origin of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Points to observe in cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Prepared, or ready-to-eat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Production of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Protein in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Ready-to-eat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">undergo in cooking, Changes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Uses of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Water in,<br></span>
+Champignons, Meaning of,<br>
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,<br>
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of cream,<br></span>
+Chemical composition of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">leavening,<br></span>
+Chestnut coal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,<br>
+Chillies, Meaning of,<br>
+Chives, Meaning of,<br>
+Chop, Composition of lamb,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of pork,<br></span>
+Chopper, Meat,<br>
+Chops, Pan-broiled,<br>
+Chutney, Meaning of,<br>
+Cinnamon rolls,<br>
+Citron,<br>
+Clinkers,<br>
+Coal and coke,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Anthracite, or hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bituminous, or soft,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chestnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fire, Building a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fire, Building a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pea,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+Coal range,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sizes of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stove,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove dampers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove firebox,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove for cooking, General construction of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove grate,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties of,<br></span>
+Cocoa,<br>
+Coconut, Composition of,<br>
+Cod, Composition of fresh,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of salt,<br></span>
+Coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake,<br></span>
+Coke,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and coal,<br></span>
+Collops, Meaning of,<br>
+Commercial yeast,<br>
+Common labor-saving devices,<br>
+Composition and varieties of oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of apple,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bacon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of banana,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef steak,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef suet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of buckwheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of butter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of buttermilk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of canned fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of carbohydrates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of celery,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals, Table showing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of chestnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coconut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooked macaroni,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooked oat breakfast food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of corn bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cottage cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cream,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cream cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dried beef,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dried fig,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dry navy bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of egg white and yolk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food, Chemical,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food materials,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh cod,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh shelled bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fruit jelly,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grape juice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grapes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of green corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of green string bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of honey,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lamb chop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mackerel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of maple sugar,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of molasses,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of olive oil,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of onion,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oyster,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of parsnip,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of peanut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of peanut butter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork chop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of potato,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of raisins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rye bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of salt cod,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of skim milk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of smoked ham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of smoked herring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of stick candy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of strawberry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of sugar,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of toasted bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of walnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of white and yolk of egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole milk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole wheat bread,<br></span>
+Compote, Meaning of,<br>
+Compressed yeast,<br>
+Constituents, Food principles, or,<br>
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,<br>
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fireless,<br></span>
+Cookery, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Terms used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">time table,<br></span>
+Cooking cereals by boiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals in double boiler,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals in fireless cooker,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Points to observe in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Preparation for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Purpose of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals with dry heat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">food, Reasons for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Table for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Getting foods ready for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Heat for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of using moist heat for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">processes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice, Japanese method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Uses of water in,<br></span>
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Copper,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Earthenware,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Enamel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Glass,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Iron and steel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Tin,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Wooden,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with dry heat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with hot fat,<br></span>
+Copper cooking utensils,<br>
+Coquilles, Meaning of,<br>
+Corer, Apple,<br>
+Corn bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake, Molasses,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-cake recipes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake, Southern,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of green,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Field,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Maize, or Indian,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal croquettes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal mush,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal mush, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meal, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sweet,<br></span>
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,<br>
+Cracked wheat,<br>
+Cream cheese, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of tartar and soda,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat with dates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sauce,<br></span>
+Creamed hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">peas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Creaming of food ingredients,<br>
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rolled-oats,<br></span>
+Croutons, Meaning of,<br>
+Cups, Measuring,<br>
+Curry,<br>
+Custard, Farina,<br>
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,<br>
+<br>
+<b>D</b><br>
+<br>
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Coal-stove,<br></span>
+Date muffins,<br>
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham mush with,<br></span>
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,<br>
+Deviled, Meaning of,<br>
+Dextrine, Formation of,<br>
+Diet, Hot breads in the,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Well-balanced,<br></span>
+Dietetics, Definition of,<br>
+Digestion and absorption of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Dill, Meaning of,<br>
+Dinner rolls,<br>
+Dish-washing machines,<br>
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">boiler, Use of,<br></span>
+Dough, Kneading bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Making bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Motions used in kneading bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soft,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stiff,<br></span>
+Doughs and batters,<br>
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,<br>
+Dried beef, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fig, Composition of,<br></span>
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">heat, Cooking with,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">measure,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steaming,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Drying of foods,<br>
+<br>
+<b>E</b><br>
+<br>
+Earthenware cooking utensils,<br>
+Economic value of cereals,<br>
+Effect of boiling on foods,<br>
+Egg beater, Rotary,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of white and yolk of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">whip,<br></span>
+Eggs, Scrambled,<br>
+Electric meter, Reading an,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and utensils,<br></span>
+Electricity as a fuel,<br>
+Emergency biscuits,<br>
+En coquille, Meaning of,<br>
+Enamel cooking utensils,<br>
+Endosperm, Meaning of,<br>
+Entr&eacute;es,<br>
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,<br>
+Escarole, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>F</b><br>
+<br>
+Factors that govern cereal selection,<br>
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,<br>
+Farina,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">custard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">souffl&eacute;,<br></span>
+Fat and milk in bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking with hot,<br></span>
+Fat in cereals,<br>
+Fats,<br>
+Ferments, or leavening agents,<br>
+Field corn,<br>
+Fig, Composition of dried,<br>
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,<br>
+Fillets, Meaning of,<br>
+Firebox, Coal-stove,<br>
+Fireless cooker,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cooker, Cooking cereals in,<br></span>
+&nbsp;-cooking gas stoves,<br>
+Flour,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bakers',<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Blend,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Grains used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">High-grade patent,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Kinds of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milling of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Red dog,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scouring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Second-grade patent,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Flue, Coal-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">opening of a coal stove,<br></span>
+Fluff, Orange,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauce for orange,<br></span>
+Folding of food ingredients,<br>
+Fondant, Meaning of,<br>
+Fondue, Meaning of,<br>
+Food, Absorption of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cereals as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chemical composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestion and absorption of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cellars, Storing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Beating of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Creaming of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Cutting-in of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Folding of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Mixing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Ricing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Rubbing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Sifting of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Stirring of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Matters involved in right selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of caring for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or fuel, value,<br></span>
+Food, Preparation of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">principles or constituents,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Problem of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reasons for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">substances,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value,<br></span>
+Foods, Blanching,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Canning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Drying of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of variety of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of breakfast,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Storing of non-perishable,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Storing of semiperishable,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with ice, Keeping,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">without ice, Keeping,<br></span>
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,<br>
+Frapp&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+French toast,<br>
+Fricasseeing,<br>
+Fromage, Meaning of,<br>
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of canned,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">jelly, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or nut buns,<br></span>
+Frying,<br>
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of coke as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of electricity as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of gas as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of kerosene as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value, Food, or,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Value of gas as,<br></span>
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,<br>
+<br>
+<b>G</b><br>
+<br>
+Gas,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Artificial,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as fuel, Use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as fuel, Value of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Measurement of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meter, Reading a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Natural,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ranges, Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove, Mixer of a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove, Pilot of a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves, Fireless-cooking,<br></span>
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,<br>
+Germ, Definition of,<br>
+Germs,<br>
+Gingerbread, Soft,<br>
+Glac&eacute;, Biscuit,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Glass cooking utensils,<br>
+Glaze, Meaning of,<br>
+Gliadin,<br>
+Glucose,<br>
+Gluten,<br>
+Glutenin,<br>
+Goulash, Meaning of,<br>
+Graham bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread with nuts,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mush with dates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">nut buns,<br></span>
+Grain for market, Preparation of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products, Table of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Structure of wheat,<br></span>
+Grains used for flour,<br>
+Grape juice, Composition of,<br>
+Grapes, Composition of,<br>
+Grate, Coal-stove,<br>
+Green corn, Composition of,<br>
+Griddle-cake recipes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Procedure in baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Sour-milk,<br></span>
+Griddles,<br>
+Grinder,<br>
+Grits,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hominy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Wheat,<br></span>
+Gumbo, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>H</b><br>
+<br>
+Ham, Composition of smoked,<br>
+Hard water, How to soften,<br>
+Haricot, Meaning of,<br>
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking with dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking, Discussion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking with moist,<br></span>
+Herring, Composition of smoked,<br>
+High-grade patent flour,<br>
+Homard, Meaning of,<br>
+Hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and cheese souffl&eacute;,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Buttered,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grits,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+Honey, Composition of,<br>
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,<br>
+Hot bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Distinction between leavened and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture. Baking the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Testing of baked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Preparation of,<br></span>
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread recipes, Miscellaneous,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread utensils and their use,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Utilizing left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Baking of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Combining ingredients for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Correct oven temperature for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Distinction between yeast and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads in the diet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Mixtures used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Principal requirements for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Purpose of utensils for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Regulating the oven for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Requirements and processes for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">proportions used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fat, Cooking with,<br></span>
+Hotplates,<br>
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">wheat,<br></span>
+Huller, Berry,<br>
+<br>
+<b>I</b><br>
+<br>
+Ice, Keeping foods with,<br>
+Indian corn, or maize,<br>
+Ingredients, Beating of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Combining hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creaming of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cutting-in of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Folding of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mixing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Processes involved in mixing food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">required for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Ricing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rubbing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sifting of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stirring of food,<br></span>
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,<br>
+Irons, Waffle,<br>
+Italian pastes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Varieties of,<br></span>
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,<br>
+Japanese method of cooking rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Jardini&eacute;re, Meaning of,<br>
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,<br>
+Juice, Composition of grape,<br>
+Julienne, Meaning of,<br>
+Junket, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>K</b><br>
+<br>
+Keeping foods with ice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods without ice,<br></span>
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,<br>
+Kippered, Meaning of,<br>
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,<br>
+Kneading bread dough,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread dough, Motions used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread dough, Purpose of,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>L</b><br>
+<br>
+Labour-saving devices,<br>
+Lactose,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Occurrence of,<br></span>
+Lamb chop, Composition of,<br>
+Lard, Composition of,<br>
+Larding, Meaning of,<br>
+Lardon, Meaning of,<br>
+Leavened bread,<br>
+Leavening agents,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">agents, Classes of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">agents, or ferments,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chemical,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Physical,<br></span>
+Left-over barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over corn-meal mush,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over hominy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over hot bread, Utilizing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over rolled oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over wheat cereals,<br></span>
+Legumes, Meaning of,<br>
+Lentils, Meaning of,<br>
+Liquid measure,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Loaf, Nut,<br>
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,<br>
+Long process of bread making,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making white bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, sponge method of bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, straight-dough method of bread making,<br></span>
+Luncheon menu,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>M</b><br>
+<br>
+Macaroni,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and kidney beans,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of cooked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Italian style,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese and tomato,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cream sauce,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with eggs,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with tomato and bacon,<br></span>
+Mac&eacute;doine, Meaning of,<br>
+Machines, Dish-washing,<br>
+Mackerel, Composition of,<br>
+Maize,<br>
+Malt sprouts,<br>
+Maple sugar, Composition of,<br>
+Marinade, Meaning of,<br>
+Marinate, Meaning of,<br>
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,<br>
+Marrons, Meaning of,<br>
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,<br>
+Matter, Mineral,<br>
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,<br>
+Meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for corn,<br></span>
+Meaning of breakfast foods,<br>
+Measure, Dry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Liquid,<br></span>
+Measurement of gas,<br>
+Measures, Abbreviations of,<br>
+Measuring,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cups,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Precautions to observe,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">spoons,<br></span>
+Meat chopper,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grinder,<br></span>
+Menu, Breakfast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Luncheon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Menus and recipes,<br>
+Meringue, Meaning of,<br>
+Meter, Gas,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reading a gas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reading an electric,<br></span>
+Meters, Prepayment,<br>
+Micro-organisms,<br>
+Microbes,<br>
+Milk and fat in bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of skim,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soda and sour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">toast,<br></span>
+Millet,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buckwheat, and rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+Milling of wheat flour,<br>
+Mineral matter,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">matter in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salts,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salts, Purpose of,<br></span>
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,<br>
+Mixer, Gas-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mayonnaise,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of the bread,<br></span>
+Mixers, Bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cake,<br></span>
+Mixing of food ingredients,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food ingredients, Processes involved in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">processes, Application of,<br></span>
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,<br>
+Mixtures used for hot breads,<br>
+Moist heat, Cooking with,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Molasses and soda,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corn cake,<br></span>
+Molds,<br>
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,<br>
+Mousse, Meaning of,<br>
+Muffin recipes,<br>
+Muffins, Blueberry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bran,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Date,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Plain,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+Mush, Corn-meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Saut&eacute;d corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with dates, Graham,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>N</b><br>
+<br>
+Natural gas,<br>
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,<br>
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,<br>
+Nougat, Meaning of,<br>
+Nut buns, Graham,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">loaf,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or fruit buns,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">puffs,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>O</b><br>
+<br>
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Oatmeal,<br>
+Oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and varieties of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rolled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with apples, Rolled,<br></span>
+Olive oil, Composition of,<br>
+Onion, Composition of,<br>
+Orange fluff,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fluff, Sauce for,<br></span>
+Order of work,<br>
+Oriental rice,<br>
+Oven, Coal-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for hot breads, Regulating the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature, Determining and regulating,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature for baking bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature for hot breads,<br></span>
+Oxygen,<br>
+Oyster, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>P</b><br>
+<br>
+Pan-broiled chops,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">broiling,<br></span>
+Paprika,<br>
+Parker House rolls,<br>
+Parsnip, Composition of,<br>
+Pastes, Italian,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for Italian,<br></span>
+Pat&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+Patent flour, High-grade,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour, Second-grade,<br></span>
+Patties, Rice,<br>
+Pea coal,<br>
+Peanut butter, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Pearl barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">barley, Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">barley with fruit,<br></span>
+Peas, Creamed,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauce for,<br></span>
+Physical leavening,<br>
+Pilot, Gas-stove,<br>
+Pimiento, Meaning of,<br>
+Pineapple, Rice with,<br>
+Pinwheel biscuits,<br>
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,<br>
+Pistachio, Meaning of,<br>
+Plain muffins,<br>
+Point, Boiling,<br>
+Polishings, Rice,<br>
+Pop corn,<br>
+Popover recipes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with fruit,<br></span>
+Pork chop, Composition of,<br>
+Potage, Meaning of,<br>
+Potato, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ricer,<br></span>
+Potatoes, Baked,<br>
+Powder, Baking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipe for baking,<br></span>
+Precautions to observe in measuring,<br>
+Preparation for cooking cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking foods,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals for the table,<br></span>
+Preparation of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grains for the market,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of hot-bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,<br>
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,<br>
+Prepayment meters,<br>
+Principle of stoves,<br>
+Principles, or constituents, Food,<br>
+Problem of food,<br>
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Application of mixing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bread-making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">involved in mixing food ingredients,<br></span>
+Production of cereals,<br>
+Products, Cereal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table of grain,<br></span>
+Proportion of bread-making materials,<br>
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,<br>
+Protein,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+Puffs, Nut,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Pur&eacute;e, Meaning of,<br>
+Purpose,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of baking bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooking cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of kneading bread dough,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of utensils for making hot breads,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>Q</b><br>
+<br>
+Quality,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of yeast,<br></span>
+Quick,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Hot or,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of combining bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making white bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making whole-wheat bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, sponge method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, straight-dough method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>R</b><br>
+<br>
+Rago&ucirc;t, Meaning of,<br>
+Raisins, Composition of,<br>
+Ramekin, Meaning of,<br>
+Range, Coal,<br>
+Ranges, Description of gas,<br>
+Reading,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">a gas meter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">an electric meter,<br></span>
+Ready,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-to-eat cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-to-eat, or prepared, cereals,<br></span>
+Reasons for cooking food,<br>
+R&eacute;chauff&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+Recipe, Definition of,<br>
+Red-dog flour,<br>
+Refrigerator,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of food in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of the,<br></span>
+Refrigerators,<br>
+Refuse,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between waste and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,<br>
+Requirements,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and processes for making hot breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread making,<br></span>
+Rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiling,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Browned,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carolina,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Japanese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Japanese method of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oriental,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">patties,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">polishings,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Savory,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spanish,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steaming,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties and structure of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">waffles,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with pineapple,<br></span>
+Ricer, Potato,<br>
+Ricing of food ingredients,<br>
+Rising,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">&nbsp;bread dough, Care of the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">&nbsp;Temperature for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time required for bread,<br></span>
+Rissoles, Meaning of,<br>
+Roasting,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between baking and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Rolled,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-oats croquettes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-oats jelly with prunes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats with apples,<br></span>
+Rolls,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buns and biscuits, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cinnamon,<br></span>
+Dinner,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Luncheon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Parker House,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Rotary egg beater,<br>
+Roux, Meaning of,<br>
+Rubbing of food ingredients,<br>
+Rye,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buckwheat, and millet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>S</b><br>
+<br>
+Salad, Cabbage,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Watercress-and-celery,<br></span>
+Salmi, Meaning of,<br>
+Salpicon, Meaning of,<br>
+Salt cod, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-rising bread,<br></span>
+Salts, Mineral,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of mineral,<br></span>
+Sauce, Cream,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for orange fluff,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for peas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">piquante, Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of tartare,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of vinaigrette,<br></span>
+Saut&eacute;d corn-meal mush,<br>
+Sauteing,<br>
+Savoury rice,<br>
+Scales,<br>
+Score card, Explanation of,<br>
+Scoring bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Object of,<br></span>
+Scouring of flour,<br>
+Scrambled eggs,<br>
+Second-grade patent flour,<br>
+Selection and care of cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,<br>
+Semolina,<br>
+Serving bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">hot breads,<br></span>
+Setting a cereal or grain,<br>
+Shallot, Meaning of,<br>
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,<br>
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,<br>
+Sifting of food ingredients,<br>
+Simmering, or stewing,<br>
+Sizes of coal,<br>
+Skim milk, Composition of,<br>
+Small electric utensils,<br>
+Smoked ham, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">herring, Composition of,<br></span>
+Soda and cream of tartar,<br>
+Soda and molasses,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and sour milk,<br></span>
+Soft dough,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">gingerbread,<br></span>
+Softening hard water,<br>
+Soluble starch,<br>
+Sorbet, Meaning of,<br>
+Souffl&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Farina,<br></span>
+Sour milk, Soda and,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-milk griddle cakes,<br></span>
+Southern corn cake,<br>
+Soy, Meaning of,<br>
+Spaghetti,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese and tomato sauce,<br></span>
+Spanish rice,<br>
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">method of making bread, Quick-process,<br></span>
+Spoons, Measuring,<br>
+Spring, or hard, wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or hard, wheat, Flour made from,<br></span>
+Sprouts, Malt,<br>
+Starch,<br>
+Steak, Composition of beef,<br>
+Steamed rice,<br>
+Steamer,<br>
+Steaming,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,<br>
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,<br>
+Sterilizing,<br>
+Stewing or simmering,<br>
+Stick candy, Composition of,<br>
+Stiff dough,<br>
+Stirring of food ingredients,<br>
+Stock, Meaning of,<br>
+Storing food in cellars,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of non-perishable foods,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of semiperishable foods,<br></span>
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ash pit, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dampers, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flue opening, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oven, Coal-,<br></span>
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fireless-cooking gas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Operation of kerosene,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principle of,<br></span>
+Straight-dough method of bread making,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-dough method of bread making, Long-process,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-dough method of bread making, Quick-process,<br></span>
+Strawberry, Composition of,<br>
+String bean, Composition of green,<br>
+Structure and varieties of rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat grain,<br></span>
+Substances, Food,<br>
+Suet, Composition of beef,<br>
+Sugar,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of maple,<br></span>
+Sultanas, Meaning of,<br>
+Sweet buns,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corn,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>T</b><br>
+<br>
+Table, Cookery time,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grain products,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing composition of cereals,<br></span>
+Tables of relative weights and measures,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of weights and measures,<br></span>
+Tarragon, Meaning of,<br>
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,<br>
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for hot breads, Correct oven,<br></span>
+Terms used in cookery,<br>
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,<br>
+Thick batter,<br>
+Thin batter,<br>
+Timbale, Meaning of,<br>
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">required for bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">table, Cookery,<br></span>
+Tin cooking utensils,<br>
+Toast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Buttered,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">French,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milk,<br></span>
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,<br>
+Toasting,<br>
+Troy weight,<br>
+Truffles, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>U</b><br>
+<br>
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and their use, Hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Copper cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Earthenware cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Enamel cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for baking the hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for furnishing a kitchen,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for preparing hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Glass cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Iron and steel cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Materials used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Small electric,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tin cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Wooden cooking,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>V</b><br>
+<br>
+Value, Food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Food, or fuel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals, Economic,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of gas as fuel,<br></span>
+Vanilla, Meaning of,<br>
+Varieties and composition of oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and structure of rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mixtures used in hot breads,<br></span>
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,<br>
+Vermicelli,<br>
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,<br>
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>W</b><br>
+<br>
+Waffle irons,<br>
+Waffles,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">procedure in baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+Walnut, Composition of,<br>
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+Water as a food substance,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiling to sterilize,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">How to soften hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the body, Function of,<br></span>
+Watercress-and-celery salad,<br>
+Weight, Avoirdupois,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Troy,<br></span>
+Weights and measures, Tables of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and measures, Tables of relative,<br></span>
+Wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and wheat products, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Beech,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cracked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour, Milling of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grain, Structure of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grits,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hulled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hulled, or whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Origin and use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spring, or hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Winter, or soft,<br></span>
+White bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Long process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Quick process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of egg, Composition of,<br></span>
+Whole egg, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">milk, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat bread,<br></span>
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat bread, Quick process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat fruit bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat puffs,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat rolls,<br></span>
+Window boxes,<br>
+Winter, or soft, wheat,<br>
+Wooden cooking utensils,<br>
+Work, Order of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>Y</b><br>
+<br>
+Yeast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Action of,<br></span>
+Yeast aids,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and hot breads, Distinction between,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Commercial,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Compressed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Liquid,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Moist,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or leavened, bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+Yeasts,<br>
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>Z</b><br>
+<br>
+Zwieback,<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
+Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
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+</body>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1, by
+Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9935]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: November 1, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY
+
+VOLUME ONE
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+
+CEREALS
+
+BREAD
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.
+
+PREFACE
+
+The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.
+
+This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
+Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.
+
+Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.
+
+It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+  The Problem of Food
+  Selection of Food
+  Food Substances
+  Food Value
+  Digestion and Absorption of Food
+  Preparation of Food
+  Methods of Cooking
+  Heat for Cooking
+  Utensils for Cooking
+  Preparing Foods for Cooking
+  Order of Work
+  Table for Cooking Foods
+  Care of Food
+  Menus and Recipes
+  Terms Used in Cookery
+
+CEREALS
+  Production, Composition, and Selection
+  Cereals as a Food
+  Preparation of Cereals for the Table
+  Indian Corn, or Maize
+  Wheat
+  Rice
+  Oats
+  Barley
+  Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
+  Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
+  Serving Cereals
+  Italian Pastes
+  Breakfast Menu
+
+BREAD
+  Importance of Bread as Food
+  Ingredients for Bread Making
+  Utensils for Bread Making
+  Bread-Making Processes
+  Making the Dough
+  Care of the Rising Dough
+  Kneading the Dough
+  Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
+  Baking the Bread
+  Scoring Bread
+  Use of the Bread Mixer
+  Serving Bread
+  Bread Recipes
+  Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
+  Toast
+  Left-Over Bread
+
+HOT BREADS
+  Hot Breads in the Diet
+  Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
+  Leavening Agents
+  Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
+  Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Serving Hot Breads
+  Popover Recipes
+  Griddle-Cake Recipes
+  Waffle Recipes
+  Muffin Recipes
+  Corn-Cake Recipes
+  Biscuit Recipes
+  Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
+  Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
+  Luncheon Menu
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+THE PROBLEM OF FOOD
+
+1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
+the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.
+
+2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
+food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.
+
+3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.
+
+4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.
+
+In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.
+
+5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.
+
+6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.
+
+The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.
+
+7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.
+
+In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.
+
+8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SELECTION OF FOOD
+
+MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION
+
+9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.
+
+10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
+_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.
+
+However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.
+
+
+FOOD SUBSTANCES
+
+11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.
+
+12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.
+
+13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.
+
+The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.
+
+14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.
+
+15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.
+
+Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.
+
+16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.
+
+17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.
+
+So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.
+
+18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.
+
+Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.
+
+19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.
+
+Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.
+
+20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.
+
+21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.
+
+
+FOOD VALUE
+
+22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.
+
+While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.
+
+23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.
+
+Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.
+
+
+DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD
+
+24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD
+
+25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:
+
+1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.
+
+2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.
+
+3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.
+
+4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.
+
+5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF COOKING
+
+COOKING PROCESSES
+
+26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.
+
+27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sauteing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.
+
+The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.
+
+
+COOKING WITH DRY HEAT
+
+28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.
+
+29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.
+
+30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.
+
+31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.
+
+It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.
+
+32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.
+
+
+COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT
+
+33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.
+
+As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.
+
+34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.
+
+35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.
+
+The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.
+
+36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.
+
+Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.
+
+37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.
+
+38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.
+
+Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.
+
+39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.
+
+Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.
+
+40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.
+
+Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.
+
+41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.
+
+Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.
+
+42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.
+
+
+COOKING WITH HOT FAT
+
+43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sauteing,
+and fricasseeing.
+
+44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.
+
+45. SAUTEING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed sauteing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be sauted are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+sauted if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.
+
+46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sauteing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sauted either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HEAT FOR COOKING
+
+GENERAL DISCUSSION
+
+47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.
+
+48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.
+
+49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.
+
+
+COAL AND COKE
+
+50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or
+_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.
+
+51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.
+
+52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.
+
+Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.
+
+53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.
+
+
+GAS
+
+54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.
+
+55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]
+
+56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.
+
+57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.
+
+To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 / 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34
+
+58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.
+
+
+KEROSENE
+
+59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.
+
+Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.
+
+61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2.]
+
+The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.
+
+To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.
+
+After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF STOVES
+
+62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.
+
+63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_
+and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.
+
+64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.
+
+
+COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_,
+or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which
+usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_,
+_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_
+and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and
+the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.
+
+67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper
+_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper _h_.
+
+68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.
+
+
+GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a
+gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.
+
+
+KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is
+stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is
+provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.
+
+73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+
+ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS
+
+74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.
+
+(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?
+
+(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is
+leakage in the household due?
+
+(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?
+
+(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.
+
+(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.
+
+(8) What is a calorie?
+
+(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.
+
+(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.
+
+(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;
+(_c_) hot fat.
+
+(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking.
+
+(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.
+
+(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.
+
+(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?
+
+(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?
+
+(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of
+the dampers of a stove?
+
+(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?
+
+(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?
+
+(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)
+
+UTENSILS FOR COOKING
+
+IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS
+
+1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.
+
+2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.
+
+The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.
+
+In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.
+
+
+MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS
+
+3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.
+
+4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.
+
+5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.
+
+6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.
+
+7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.
+
+8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.
+
+9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.
+
+10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.
+
+
+LABOR-SAVING DEVICES
+
+11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a puree. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or
+_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry
+huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.
+
+14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.
+
+15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large
+gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a
+handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.
+
+17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into
+compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles _f_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 6.]
+
+To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN
+
+18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.
+
+
+NECESSARY EQUIPMENT
+
+Baking dish with cover
+Bread box
+Bread knife
+Bread pans
+Can opener
+Cake knife
+Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper
+Coffee mill
+Coffee pot
+Colander
+Cookie cutter
+Corer, Apple
+Cutting board
+Dishpan
+Double boiler
+Egg beater
+Flour sifter
+Forks
+Frying pan, large
+Frying pan, small
+Garbage can
+Grater
+Kettle covers
+Kettles, two or more
+Knife sharpener
+Knives
+Lemon squeezer
+Long-handled fork
+Measuring cup
+Meat board
+Meat knife
+Mixing bowls
+Mixing spoons
+Molding board
+Muffin pan
+Paring knife
+Pepper shaker
+Pie pans
+Potato masher
+Rinsing, or draining, pan
+Roasting pan
+Rolling pin
+Salt box
+Saucepans
+Spatula
+Tablespoons
+Teakettle
+Teapot
+Teaspoons
+Toaster
+Wire strainer
+Wooden spoon
+
+
+CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT
+
+Bread mixer
+Cake coolers
+Cake mixer
+Cake turner
+Casseroles
+Clock
+Coffee percolator
+Containers for spices and dry groceries
+Cookie sheets
+Cream whip Egg whip
+Fireless cooker
+Frying kettle and basket
+Funnel Glass jars for canning
+Griddle
+Ice-cream freezer
+Ice pick
+Jelly molds
+Nest of bowls
+Pan for baking fish
+Potato knife
+Potato ricer
+Ramekins
+Quart measure
+Scales
+Scissors
+Set of skewers
+Steamer
+Waffle iron
+Wheel cart
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATION
+
+19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.
+
+20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to
+take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.
+
+21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.
+
+
+MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS
+
+22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.
+
+BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.
+
+STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.
+
+FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.
+
+RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.
+
+CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.
+
+CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.
+
+SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.
+
+RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a puree. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.
+
+23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.
+
+As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.
+
+
+MEASURING
+
+24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.
+
+27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.
+
+28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (_b_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.
+
+31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy
+weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
+437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz.
+16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb.
+100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt.
+20 hundredweight \
+                 }....... = 1 ton............... T.
+2,000 pounds     /
+
+Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.
+
+32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:
+
+LIQUID MEASURE
+4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt.
+2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt.
+4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal.
+31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl.
+2 barrels \
+          }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd.
+63 gallons/
+
+33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:
+
+DRY MEASURE
+2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt.
+8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk.
+4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.
+
+34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a
+pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:
+
+APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD
+
+Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS
+Butter........................ 2
+Coffee, whole................. 4
+Corn meal..................... 3
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 2
+Molasses...................... 1-1/2
+Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2
+Nuts, shelled................. 3
+Oats, rolled.................. 4
+Olive oil..................... 2-1/2
+Peas, split................... 2
+Raisins....................... 3
+Rice.......................... 2
+Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3
+Sugar, granulated............. 2
+Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE
+Corn starch................... 3/8
+Flour......................... 1/4
+Milk.......................... 1/2
+Sugar......................... 1/2
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 8 OUNCES
+Corn meal..................... 5
+Corn starch................... 6
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 8
+Molasses..................... 10
+Nuts, shelled................. 4
+Raisins....................... 5
+Sugar......................... 8
+
+In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:
+
+3 tsp. = 1 Tb.
+16 Tb. = 1 c.
+
+35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:
+
+tsp. for teaspoonful
+pt. for pint
+Tb. for tablespoonful
+qt. for quart
+c. for cupful
+oz. for ounce
+lb. for pound
+
+
+ORDER OF WORK
+
+36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.
+
+First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.
+
+The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.
+
+Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.
+
+Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.
+
+If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.
+
+
+TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS
+
+37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)
+
+COOKERY TIME TABLE
+
+MEATS AND FISH
+
+_Broiled_
+Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min.
+Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish....................... 15 to 20 min.
+Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min.
+Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min.
+Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min.
+Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min.
+Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min.
+Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min.
+Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.
+
+_Boiled_
+Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr.
+Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr.
+Fish, bluefish, cod, or
+  bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min.
+Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min.
+Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr.
+Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.
+
+_Roasted_
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+well done.................. 2 hr.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr.
+Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr.
+Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min.
+Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min.
+Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.
+Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+_Boiled_
+Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min.
+Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min.
+Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min.
+Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr.
+Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min.
+Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min.
+Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min.
+Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr.
+Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min.
+Green corn............... 8 to 12 min.
+Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min.
+Onions.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Peas.................... 25 to 60 min.
+Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min.
+Rice.................... 20 to 30 min.
+Spinach................. 20 to 30 min.
+Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+
+BAKED FOODS
+Beans.....................  6 to 8 hr.
+Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min.
+Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min.
+Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min.
+Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min.
+Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr.
+Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min.
+Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min.
+Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min.
+Custard................... 20 to 45 min.
+Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min.
+Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min.
+Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr.
+Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CARE OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR CARE
+
+38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.
+
+39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria,
+yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.
+
+40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.
+
+Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.
+
+41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF CARE
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS
+
+43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.
+
+44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE
+
+45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.
+
+46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.
+
+The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 12.]
+
+47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.
+
+48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.
+
+50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.
+
+The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE
+
+51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+
+STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS
+
+55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.
+
+56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.
+
+Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.
+
+Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.
+
+
+STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS
+
+57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.
+
+Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.
+
+Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.
+
+
+MENUS AND RECIPES
+
+58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.
+
+59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.
+
+60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.
+
+MENU
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops
+Mashed Potatoes
+Creamed Peas
+Cabbage Salad
+Orange Fluff with Sauce
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+PAN-BROILED CHOPS
+
+Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.
+
+MASHED POTATOES
+
+Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.
+
+CREAMED PEAS
+
+Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.
+
+SAUCE FOR PEAS
+
+1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk
+1 Tb. butter
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.
+
+CABBAGE SALAD
+
+1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 small red or green sweet pepper
+Dash of pepper
+1 small onion
+Salad dressing
+
+Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.
+
+CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING
+
+3/4 c. vinegar
+1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired
+1/4 c. water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+3 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.
+
+ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 c. orange juice
+5 Tb. corn starch
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+Pinch of salt
+2 egg whites
+1 pt. boiling water
+
+Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.
+
+When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.
+
+SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1 Tb. corn starch
+3/4 c. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+3/4 c. sugar
+2 egg yolks
+1/4 c. orange juice
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+
+Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.
+
+61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.
+
+62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.
+
+
+TERMS USED IN COOKERY
+
+63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.
+
+In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.
+
+A la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts a la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.
+
+Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.
+
+Au naturel (o nat-ue-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.
+
+Bechamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.
+
+Biscuit Glace (bis-kue-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glaced shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.
+
+Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.
+
+Bouchees (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.
+
+Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.
+
+Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.
+
+Cafe au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.
+
+Cafe Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.
+
+Canapes (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sauted in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.
+
+Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.
+
+Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.
+
+Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.
+
+Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.
+
+Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.
+
+Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.
+
+Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sauted
+or used in salads.
+
+Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.
+
+Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.
+
+Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.
+
+Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.
+
+Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.
+
+Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.
+
+Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.
+
+Creole, a la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.
+
+Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.
+
+Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.
+
+Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.
+
+Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.
+
+Deviled.--Highly seasoned.
+
+Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.
+
+En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.
+
+Entrees (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.
+
+Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.
+
+Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.
+
+Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.
+
+Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.
+
+Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.
+
+Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.
+
+Frappe (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.
+
+Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.
+
+Glace (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.
+
+Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.
+
+Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.
+
+Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.
+
+Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.
+
+Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.
+
+Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.
+
+Italiene, a la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.
+
+Jardiniere (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.
+
+Julienne (zhue-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.
+
+Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.
+
+Kippered.--Dried or smoked.
+
+Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.
+
+Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.
+
+Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.
+
+Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.
+
+Macedoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.
+
+Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.
+
+Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.
+
+Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.
+
+Menu.--A bill of fare.
+
+Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.
+
+Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.
+
+Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.
+
+Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.
+
+Pate (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.
+
+Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.
+
+Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.
+
+Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.
+
+Puree (pue-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.
+
+Ragout (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.
+
+Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.
+
+Rechauffe (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.
+
+Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.
+
+Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.
+
+Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.
+
+Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.
+
+Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.
+
+Shallot.--A variety of onion.
+
+Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.
+
+Souffle (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.
+
+Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.
+
+Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.
+
+Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.
+
+Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.
+
+Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.
+
+Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+ragout.
+
+Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.
+
+Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.
+
+Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.
+
+Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+pate or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.
+
+Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?
+
+(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.
+
+(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.
+
+(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?
+
+(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;
+(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.
+
+(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)
+creaming; (_e_) folding.
+
+(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?
+
+(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
+
+(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.
+
+(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?
+
+(11) Tell why foods spoil.
+
+(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?
+
+(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?
+
+(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.
+
+(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)
+cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.
+
+(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.
+
+(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.
+
+(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?
+
+(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell
+the best ways in which to preserve such foods.
+
+(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?
+
+Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?
+
+Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?
+
+Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?
+
+Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?
+
+Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?
+
+Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION
+
+PRODUCTION OF CEREALS
+
+1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.
+
+The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.
+
+2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.
+
+3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.
+
+Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.
+
+4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.
+
+6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.
+
+7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.
+
+8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.
+
+9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.
+
+10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.
+
+11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.
+
+12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.
+
+13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+Protein   Fat       Carbohydrate   Cellulose  Mineral Matter
+                                              or Ash
+
+Wheat     Oats      Rice           Oats       Oats
+
+Rye       Corn      Rye            Buckwheat  Barley
+
+Oats      Barley    Corn           Barley     Buckwheat
+
+Barley    Buckwheat Wheat          Wheat      Rye
+
+Corn      Rice      Barley         Rye        Wheat
+
+Buckwheat Wheat     Buckwheat      Corn       Corn
+
+Rice      Rye       Oats           Rice       Rice
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS AS A FOOD
+
+USES OF CEREALS
+
+14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.
+
+15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sauted
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.
+
+
+SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS
+
+16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other
+times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and
+called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._
+
+Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.
+
+17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.
+
+18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.
+
+Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.
+
+19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.
+
+20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+GRAIN PRODUCTS
+
+                           / Pearl barley
+                           | Hulled wheat
+        / Whole Grains     {Hominy: Corn
+        |                  | Corn
+        |                  \ Rice
+        |
+        |                  / Farina: Wheat or corn
+        |                  | Cream of Wheat: Wheat
+        | Crushed Grains   {Cracked Wheat: Wheat
+        |                  | Hominy Grits: Corn
+        |                  | Wheat Grits: Wheat
+        |                  \ Samp: Corn
+Cereals {
+        |                  / Corn
+        | Meal             {Barley
+        |                  | Rice
+        |                  \ Oats
+        |
+        |                  / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn
+        \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat
+                           | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn
+                           \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat
+
+        / Corn
+Starch  {Rice
+        \ Wheat
+
+        / Macaroni
+Wheat   {Vermicelli
+        \ Spaghetti
+
+Glucose} Usually corn
+Sirup   /
+
+              / Wheat
+Cereal Coffee {Rye
+              \ Barley
+
+        / Wheat
+        | Rye
+Flour   {Corn
+        | Buckwheat
+        \ Rice
+
+Liquors       \
+Malted Drinks} All grains
+Beer          |
+Whisky        /
+
+Alcohol: All grains
+
+Feed for animals: All grains
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE
+
+METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS
+
+21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.
+
+22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a
+measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a
+large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.
+
+24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.
+
+25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.
+
+26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _dry
+steaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.
+
+This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.
+
+27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.
+
+28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.
+
+29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.
+
+_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.
+
+The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE
+
+ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE
+
+30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indian
+corn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.
+
+31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Pop
+corn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL
+
+32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.
+
+Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.
+
+33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.
+
+34. HOMINY.--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.
+
+HOMINY
+(Sufficient for 3 Quarts)
+
+2 qt. water
+1 Tb. lye
+1 qt. shelled corn
+3 tsp. salt
+
+Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.
+
+35. BUTTERED HOMINY.--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.
+
+BUTTERED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+3 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.
+
+36. CREAMED HOMINY.--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.
+
+CREAMED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+
+Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.
+
+37. HOMINY GRITS.--The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:
+
+HOMINY GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. water
+1 c. hominy grits
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sauted or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese souffle, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.
+
+HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. cooked hominy
+1/2 c. hot milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.
+
+39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUSH
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. water
+1 c. corn meal
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.
+
+A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.
+
+40. SAUTED CORN-MEAL-MUSH.--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sauted.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For sauteing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sauteing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.
+
+41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sauteing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and saute them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.
+
+42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Sauted corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+WHEAT
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.
+
+Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.
+
+44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _cream
+of wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS
+
+45. HULLED WHEAT.--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.
+
+HULLED WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1 c. hulled wheat
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+46. WHEAT GRITS.--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.
+
+WHEAT GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. wheat grits
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.
+
+47. CREAM OF WHEAT.--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.
+
+48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. dates
+
+Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.
+
+49. FARINA.--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.
+
+FARINA
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. farina
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.
+
+GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. dates
+
+Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and sauted like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and souffles, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.
+
+FARINA CUSTARD
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+2 c. milk
+2 eggs
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 tsp. nutmeg
+
+Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.
+
+FARINA SOUFFLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.
+
+
+RICE
+
+VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE
+
+52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+_Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.
+
+53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.
+
+54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR RICE
+
+55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_,
+which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.
+
+56. BOILED RICE.--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:
+
+BOILED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+3 tsp. salt
+3 qt. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.
+
+JAPANESE METHOD
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
+
+58. STEAMED RICE.--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.
+
+STEAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.
+
+59. CREAMED RICE.--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.
+
+CREAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cream
+
+Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.
+
+60. ORIENTAL RICE.--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+ORIENTAL RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth
+2 Tb. butter
+1 slice onion
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+
+Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.
+
+61. BROWNED RICE.--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.
+
+62. SAVORY RICE.--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:
+
+SAVORY RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. browned rice
+2-1/2 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. chopped celery
+2 Tb. butter
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1/4 c. chopped pimiento
+
+Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.
+
+63. LEFT-OVER RICE.--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.
+
+RICE WITH PINEAPPLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. steamed or creamed rice
+1/4 c. sugar
+6 rings pineapple
+3/4 c. whipped cream
+
+Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.
+
+65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.
+
+RICE PATTIES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. stale crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. celery salt
+2 eggs
+2 c. steamed rice
+
+Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and saute them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.
+
+66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.
+
+SPANISH RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 small onion
+2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice
+1 c. chopped meat
+1/2 c. meat stock or gravy
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+2 Tb. grated cheese
+1/4 c. stale crumbs
+
+Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OATS
+
+COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES
+
+67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR OATS
+
+68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.
+
+69. ROLLED OATS.--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.
+
+ROLLED OATS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. boiling water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.
+
+70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.
+
+ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2/3 c. rolled oats
+2 c. boiling water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+6 medium-sized apples
+1 c. water
+1/2 c. sugar
+
+Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.
+
+ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+12 stewed prunes
+
+Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.
+
+72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:
+
+ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+3/4 c. crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. cooked rolled oats
+1 egg
+
+Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and saute then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BARLEY
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.
+
+74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.
+
+75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR BARLEY
+
+76. PEARL BARLEY.--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.
+
+PEARL BARLEY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.
+
+PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+1 c. dates, figs, or prunes
+
+Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sauted in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.
+
+
+RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET
+
+79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.
+
+80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.
+
+81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.
+
+PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS
+
+82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.
+
+83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.
+
+
+SERVING CEREALS
+
+84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.
+
+To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ITALIAN PASTES
+
+PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION
+
+85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.
+
+86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.
+
+87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.
+
+88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES
+
+89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.
+
+In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.
+
+In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.
+
+90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.
+
+MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+CREAM SAUCE
+
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. milk
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
+
+91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH EGGS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+4 hard-boiled eggs
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.
+
+92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 c. canned tomatoes
+8 thin slices bacon
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.
+
+93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1/8 tsp. paprika
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. grated or finely cut cheese
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+2 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.
+
+95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.
+
+MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1-1/2 c. scalded milk
+2/3 c. grated cheese
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.
+
+96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.
+
+MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+3/4 c. hot milk
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1 c. canned kidney beans
+
+Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.
+
+97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.
+
+SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. spaghetti
+2 Tb. butter
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. flour
+2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+1 can tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/2 c. water
+
+Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.
+
+98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.
+
+BREAKFAST MENU
+
+99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.
+
+MENU
+
+Berries and Cream or Oranges
+Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream
+Scrambled Eggs
+Buttered Toast
+Cocoa or Coffee
+
+SCRAMBLED EGGS
+
+5 eggs
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+
+Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.
+
+BUTTERED TOAST
+
+Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.
+
+COCOA
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+3 Tb. cocoa
+3 Tb. sugar
+1/4 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.
+
+BOILED COFFEE
+
+Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?
+
+(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?
+
+(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?
+
+(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.
+
+(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?
+
+(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?
+
+(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?
+
+(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?
+
+(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.
+
+(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?
+
+(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.
+
+(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.
+
+(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.
+
+(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?
+
+(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.
+
+(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.
+
+(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?
+
+(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?
+
+(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?
+
+(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?
+
+Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?
+
+Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?
+
+Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?
+
+Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+BREAD
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
+
+IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD
+
+1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.
+
+2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_,
+or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.
+
+Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_,
+_bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.
+
+3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.
+
+4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.
+
+Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.
+
+5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+INGREDIENTS REQUIRED
+
+6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.
+
+
+FLOUR
+
+7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.
+
+8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.
+
+9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.
+
+This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.
+
+Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and
+_winter_, or _soft, wheat_.
+
+10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.
+
+11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used
+for all purposes.
+
+12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:
+
+                                            PER CENT.
+Protein...................................... 11.9
+Fat..........................................  2.1
+Carbohydrates................................ 71.9
+Mineral salts................................. 1.8
+Water........................................ 10.5
+Cellulose..................................... 1.8
+Total....................................... 100.0
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.
+
+13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.
+
+14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.
+
+15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.
+
+16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.
+
+17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.
+
+18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next,
+_second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.
+
+The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.
+
+19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.
+
+The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.
+
+20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.
+
+
+YEAST
+
+21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.
+
+22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.
+
+The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or
+_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.
+
+23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.
+
+24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.
+
+Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and
+_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.
+
+25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.
+
+Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.
+
+26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.
+
+27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.
+
+More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.
+
+28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.
+
+
+YEAST AIDS
+
+29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.
+
+
+MILK AND FAT IN BREAD
+
+30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.
+
+31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS
+
+32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.
+
+The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_;
+measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.
+
+The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.
+
+34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.
+
+A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES
+
+ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING
+
+35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.
+
+36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.
+
+Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.
+
+The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+"sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.
+
+The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MAKING THE DOUGH
+
+PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS
+
+37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.
+
+
+COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS
+
+38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as
+the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.
+
+39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge
+method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.
+
+41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.
+
+The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.
+
+42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the
+_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.
+
+44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.
+
+
+CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH
+
+45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.
+
+46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.
+
+48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.
+
+In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.
+
+
+KNEADING THE DOUGH
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.
+
+
+SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES
+
+53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+
+BAKING THE BREAD
+
+56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.
+
+57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.
+
+Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.
+
+59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.
+
+After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.
+
+
+SCORING BREAD
+
+61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.
+
+SCORE CARD
+
+External Appearance:                 PER CENT.
+  Shape................................. 5
+  Size.................................. 2
+  Crust:
+    Shade............................... 2
+    Uniformity of Color................. 2
+    Character........................... 2
+    Depth............................ 2--8
+Lightness.............................. 20
+Internal Appearance:
+  Even distribution of gas............. 10
+  Moisture.............................. 5
+  Elasticity............................ 5
+  Color................................ 15
+Flavor................................. 30
+                                       ---
+    Total............................. 100
+
+62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.
+
+63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.
+
+The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.
+
+The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.
+
+64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.
+
+65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.
+
+66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.
+
+
+USE OF THE BREAD MIXER
+
+67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.
+
+68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of
+Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.
+
+In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.
+
+Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.
+
+
+SERVING BREAD
+
+69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.
+
+As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.
+
+Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.
+
+Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+BREAD RECIPES
+
+70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.
+
+71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.
+
+The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.
+
+The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.
+
+The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.
+
+72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.
+
+73. WHITE BREAD.--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.
+
+WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast
+1 Tb. salt
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.
+
+Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.
+
+WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+2 cakes compressed yeast
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
+
+74. Whole-Wheat Bread.--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+8 c. whole-wheat flour
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.
+
+The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.
+
+75. Graham Bread.--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 c. white flour
+3 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.
+
+A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.
+
+76. Graham Bread With Nuts.--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+1/4 c. molasses
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1-1/2 c. chopped nuts
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.
+
+77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates
+2 tsp. salt
+6 c. whole-wheat flour
+1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.
+
+78. BRAN BREAD.--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.
+
+BRAN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 c. milk
+6 Tb. molasses
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 yeast cake
+1/4 c. lukewarm water
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1 c. sterilized bran
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.
+
+79. RYE BREAD.--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.
+
+RYE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. rye flour
+4 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.
+
+80. Corn Bread.--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.
+
+CORN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+4-1/2 c. white flour
+2 c. corn meal
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.
+
+81. Rice Bread.--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.
+
+RICE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+1/2 c. uncooked rice
+1-1/2 c. water
+1 Tb. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1/2 yeast cake
+1 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.
+
+82. SALT-RISING BREAD.--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.
+
+SALT-RISING BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 c. fresh milk
+1/4 c. corn meal
+1 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. sugar
+2 c. lukewarm water
+7 c. white flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS
+
+83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18]
+
+So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.
+
+84. Parker House Rolls.--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.
+
+PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+3 pt. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:
+Fig. 19]
+
+85. Dinner Rolls.--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If
+they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.
+
+DINNER ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+3 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20]
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.
+
+86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:
+
+LUNCHEON ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 tsp. salt
+3 Tb. sugar
+4 Tb. fat
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. whole-wheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.
+
+88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.
+
+GRAHAM NUT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. fat
+2-1/2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+1 c. chopped nuts
+3-1/2 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:
+
+NUT OR FRUIT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)
+
+4 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+3 c. white flour
+3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.
+
+90. SWEET BUNS.--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.
+
+SWEET BUNS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm scalded milk
+1/4 c. sugar
+2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. white flour
+2 eggs
+1 tsp. lemon extract
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21]
+
+91. COFFEE CAKE.--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.
+
+COFFEE CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Cake)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1/2 c. lukewarm milk
+1 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23]
+
+92. CINNAMON ROLLS.--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+
+TOAST
+
+93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.
+
+94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.
+
+95. MILK TOAST.--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.
+
+96. FRENCH TOAST.--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.
+
+FRENCH TOAST
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2 tsp. sugar
+8 slices of bread
+1/2 tsp. salt
+
+Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and saute it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.
+
+
+LEFT-OVER BREAD
+
+97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entrees. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.
+
+98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.
+
+It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.
+
+(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?
+
+(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of
+bread?
+
+(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?
+
+(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth?
+(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?
+
+(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does
+this play in bread making?
+
+(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?
+
+(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard
+it?
+
+(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.
+
+(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making?
+(_b_) the quick process?
+
+(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?
+
+(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to
+tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?
+
+(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?
+
+(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?
+
+(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?
+
+(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?
+
+(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?
+
+(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.
+
+(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS
+
+HOT BREADS IN THE DIET
+
+1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS
+
+2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.
+
+In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.
+
+The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.
+
+In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.
+
+As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.
+
+
+PHYSICAL LEAVENING
+
+4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.
+
+5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.
+
+6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.
+
+
+CHEMICAL LEAVENING
+
+7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.
+
+8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.
+
+9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.
+
+The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk._ So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.
+
+10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.
+
+11. SODA AND MOLASSES.--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.
+
+The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.
+
+12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda._ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.
+
+13. BAKING POWDER.--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.
+
+14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.
+
+15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.
+
+16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.
+
+17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:
+
+RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER
+
+1/2 lb. cream of tartar
+1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda
+1/4 lb. corn starch
+
+Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE
+
+PURPOSE OF UTENSILS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a case
+knife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+21. GRIDDLES.--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.
+
+The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.
+
+22. WAFFLE IRONS.--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it,
+a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MIXTURE
+
+VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS
+
+23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and a
+large proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thick
+batter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_.
+
+24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.
+
+A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, is
+one that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.
+
+A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1
+measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.
+
+A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of
+liquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.
+
+25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.
+
+
+PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.
+
+27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.
+
+In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.
+
+The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.
+
+
+BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+28. REGULATING THE OVEN.--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.
+
+29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.
+
+30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.
+
+31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.--As is pointed out in
+_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.
+
+33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.
+
+Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.
+
+Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.
+
+
+SERVING HOT BREADS
+
+34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.
+
+Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS
+
+POPOVER RECIPES
+
+35. POPOVERS.--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.
+
+POPOVERS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. flour
+1/4 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+
+Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.
+
+37. NUT PUFFS.--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.
+
+NUT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. chopped nuts
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+
+GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES
+
+39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.
+
+When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.
+
+40. GRIDDLE CAKES.--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.
+
+GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2-1/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.
+
+41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.
+
+SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. soda
+2 c. sour milk (not thick)
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.
+
+42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.
+
+CORN GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1-1/2 c. boiling water
+2 c. milk
+2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.
+
+RICE GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cold cooked rice
+1 egg
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.
+
+44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+1/2 c. fine bread crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 yeast cake
+3/4 c. lukewarm water
+1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour
+1 Tb. molasses
+1/4 tsp. soda
+
+Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.
+
+
+WAFFLE RECIPES
+
+45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+46. WAFFLES.--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.
+
+WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 eggs
+1-2/3 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.
+
+47. RICE WAFFLES.--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.
+
+RICE WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-3/4 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2/3 c. cooked rice
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.
+
+
+MUFFIN RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.
+
+49. PLAIN MUFFINS.--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.
+
+PLAIN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.
+
+BLUEBERRY MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2-1/4 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. fresh blueberries
+
+Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+51. DATE MUFFINS.--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.
+
+GRAHAM MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour
+3/4 tsp. soda
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. sour milk
+1/3 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+54. RICE MUFFINS.--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.
+
+RICE MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/4 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+3/4 c. hot, cooked rice
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+55. BRAN MUFFINS.--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.
+
+BRAN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. white flour
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+2 c. bran
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.
+
+
+CORN-CAKE RECIPES
+
+56. CORN CAKE.--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called _journey cakes._ From this term came the name
+_Johnny cake,_ which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.
+
+CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+3/4 c. yellow corn meal
+1-1/4 c. flour
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.
+
+57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.
+
+SOUTHERN CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+1/2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+3/4 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.
+
+58. Molasses Corn Cake.--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.
+
+MOLASSES CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 c. flour
+3-1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1/4 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.
+
+BISCUIT RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+59. Baking-Powder Biscuits.--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.
+
+BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat
+3/4 c. milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.
+
+61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.
+
+PINWHEEL BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat f
+3/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 Tb. cinnamon
+3/4 c. chopped raisins
+
+To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+62. BEATEN BISCUITS.--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.
+
+BEATEN BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Twelve)
+
+1 qt. pastry flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/3 c. fat
+1 c. milk or water
+
+Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.
+
+SOFT GINGERBREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. ginger
+1 tsp. cinnamon
+1 egg
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1/4 c. butter or other fat
+
+Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.
+
+64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.
+
+BOSTON BROWN BREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. white flour
+1 c. graham flour
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 tsp. soda
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. molasses
+1-3/4 c. sweet milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.
+
+65. NUT LOAF.--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.
+
+NUT LOAF
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+1/2 c. sugar
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+4 Tb. fat
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+1/2 c. English walnuts
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.
+
+
+UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS
+
+66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.
+
+
+LUNCHEON MENU
+
+67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in _Cereals,_ and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.
+
+
+MENU
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes
+Baking-Powder Biscuit
+Jam
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce
+Tea
+
+RECIPES
+
+WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD
+
+Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+6 Tb. oil
+2 Tb. vinegar
+
+Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.
+
+
+TEA
+
+Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?
+
+(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?
+
+(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?
+
+(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?
+
+(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?
+
+(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses?
+
+(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?
+
+(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?
+
+(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.
+
+(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough;
+(_d_) a stiff dough.
+
+(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_)
+thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs.
+
+(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?
+
+(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.
+
+(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven?
+(_b_) a hot oven?
+
+(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hot
+oven.
+
+(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?
+
+(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?
+
+(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?
+
+Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?
+
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?
+
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?
+
+Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abbreviations of measures,
+Absorption and digestion of food,
+  of food,
+Abundance of production of cereals,
+Acquiring skill in bread making,
+Action of yeast,
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,
+Agents, Classes of leavening,
+  Leavening,
+Aids, Yeast,
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,
+  la creole, Meaning of,
+Albumin,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Aluminum cooking utensils,
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,
+Apple, Composition of,
+  corer,
+Artificial gas,
+Ash, or mineral salts,
+  pan, Coal-stove,
+  pit, Coal-stove,
+Au gratin, Meaning of,
+  naturel, Meaning of,
+Avoirdupois weight,
+
+B
+
+Bacon, Composition of,
+Bacteria,
+Baked hot breads, Testing,
+  potatoes,
+Bakers' flour,
+Baking bread,
+  Distinction between roasting and,
+  griddle cakes, Procedure in,
+  Meaning of,
+  Oven temperature for bread,
+  powder,
+  -powder biscuits,
+Baking powder, Recipe for,
+  Purpose of bread,
+  the hot-bread mixture,
+  the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+  Time for bread,
+  waffles, Procedure in,
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,
+Banana, Composition of,
+Banking a coal fire,
+Barley,
+  Left-over,
+  Pearl,
+  Recipes for,
+  Use and origin of,
+  with fruit, Pearl,
+Batter, Thick,
+  Thin,
+Batters and doughs,
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,
+  Composition of fresh shelled,
+  Composition of green string,
+Beaten biscuits,
+Beating of food ingredients,
+Bechamel, Meaning of,
+Beech wheat,
+Beef, Composition of dried,
+  steak, Composition of,
+  suet, Composition of,
+Biscuit glace,
+  recipes,
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,
+  Beaten,
+  Emergency,
+  rolls, and buns, Recipes for,
+Bisque, Meaning of,
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,
+Blanching foods,
+Blend flour,
+Blueberry muffins,
+Body, Function of water in the,
+Boiled coffee,
+  rice,
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,
+Boiling,
+  Cooking cereals by,
+  on foods, Effect of,
+  point,
+  rice,
+  to sterilize water,
+Boston brown bread,
+Bouchees, Meaning of,
+Boudin, Meaning of,
+Bouquet of herbs,
+Boxes, Window,
+Braizing,
+Bran bread,
+  muffins,
+Bread,
+  after baking, Care of,
+  and cake mixer,
+  as food, Importance of,
+  Baking,
+  Baking hot,
+  Boston brown,
+  Bran,
+  Composition of corn,
+  Composition of rye,
+  Composition of toasted,
+  Composition of whole-wheat,
+  Convenient equipment for making,
+  Corn,
+  Distinction between hot and leavened,
+  dough, Care of the rising,
+  dough, Kneading,
+  dough, Motions used in kneading,
+  dough, Purpose of kneading,
+  Graham,
+  Hot,
+  ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,
+  Leavened,
+  Left-over,
+  Long-process, sponge method of making,
+  making, Acquiring skill in,
+  making, Combining the ingredients in,
+  making, Convenient equipment for,
+  making, Ingredients for,
+  making, Long process of,
+  making, Long-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making materials, Proportion of,
+  making, Necessary equipment for,
+  -making processes,
+  making, Quick process of,
+  making, Quick-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making requirements,
+  making, Utensils for,
+  Milk and fat in,
+  mixer, Use of,
+  mixers,
+  mixture, Preparation of hot-,
+  Object of scoring,
+  Oven temperature for baking,
+  Purpose of baking,
+  Quick,
+  recipes,
+  Rice,
+  Rye,
+  Salt-rising,
+  Scoring,
+  Serving,
+  sponge,
+  Utilizing left-over hot,
+  White,
+  Whole-wheat,
+  Whole-wheat fruit,
+  with nuts, Graham,
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,
+  Distinction between yeast and hot,
+  General proportions used in hot,
+  Hot,
+  in the diet, Hot,
+  Mixtures used for hot,
+  Principal requirements for hot,
+  Purpose of utensils for making hot,
+  Quick,
+  Recipes for hot,
+  Requirements and processes for making hot,
+  Serving hot,
+  Varieties of mixtures in hot,
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,
+  foods, Meaning of,
+  menu,
+Broiling,
+  Pan,
+Brown bread, Boston,
+Browned rice,
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,
+Buckwheat,
+  cakes,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  rye, and millet,
+Building a coal fire,
+Buns, Fruit or nut,
+  Graham nut,
+  Nut or fruit,
+  rolls, and biscuits,
+Buns, Sweet,
+Butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of peanut,
+Buttered hominy,
+  toast,
+Buttermilk, Composition of,
+
+C
+
+Cabbage salad,
+  -salad dressing,
+Cafe au lait, Meaning of,
+  noir, Meaning of,
+Cake, Coffee,
+  Corn,
+  mixers,
+  Molasses corn,
+  Southern corn,
+Cakes, Buckwheat,
+  Corn griddle,
+  Griddle,
+  Procedure in baking griddle,
+  Rice griddle,
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,
+Canapes, Meaning of,
+Canard, Meaning of,
+Candy, Composition of stick,
+Canned fruit, Composition of,
+Canning of foods,
+Capers, Meaning of,
+Capon, Meaning of,
+Caramel, Meaning of,
+Carbohydrates,
+  Composition of,
+  Elements in,
+  in cereals,
+Carbon,
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,
+Card, Explanation of score,
+Care of bread after baking,
+  of bread in oven,
+  of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+  of food in refrigerator,
+  of food, Methods of,
+  of the refrigerator,
+  of the rising bread dough,
+Carolina rice,
+Casein,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Casserole, Definition of,
+  Use of,
+Celery, Composition of,
+Cellars, Storing food in,
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,
+  Definition of,
+  in cereals,
+  in the diet, Place of,
+Cereal flakes,
+  products,
+  selection, Factors that govern,
+  Setting a,
+Cereals,
+  Abundance of production of,
+  as a food,
+  Browning, or toasting, of,
+  by boiling, Cooking,
+  by dry heat, Cooking,
+  Carbohydrates in,
+  Care of,
+  Cellulose in,
+  Composition of,
+  Economic value of,
+  Fat in,
+  for the table, Preparation of,
+  Left-over wheat,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  Mineral matter in,
+  Origin of,
+  Points to observe in cooking,
+  Preparation for cooking,
+  Prepared, or ready-to-eat,
+  Production of,
+  Protein in,
+  Purpose of cooking,
+  Ready-to-eat,
+  Selection of,
+  Serving,
+  Table showing composition of,
+  undergo in cooking, Changes,
+  Uses of,
+  Water in,
+Champignons, Meaning of,
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,
+  Composition of cream,
+Chemical composition of food,
+  leavening,
+Chestnut coal,
+  Composition of,
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,
+Chillies, Meaning of,
+Chives, Meaning of,
+Chop, Composition of lamb,
+  Composition of pork,
+Chopper, Meat,
+Chops, Pan-broiled,
+Chutney, Meaning of,
+Cinnamon rolls,
+Citron,
+Clinkers,
+Coal and coke,
+  Anthracite, or hard,
+  Bituminous, or soft,
+  Chestnut,
+  Egg,
+  fire, Building a,
+  fire, Building a,
+  Pea,
+  Quality of,
+Coal range,
+  Sizes of,
+  Stove,
+  -stove dampers,
+  -stove firebox,
+  stove for cooking, General construction of,
+  -stove grate,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  Varieties of,
+Cocoa,
+Coconut, Composition of,
+Cod, Composition of fresh,
+  Composition of salt,
+Coffee,
+  cake,
+Coke,
+  and coal,
+Collops, Meaning of,
+Commercial yeast,
+Common labor-saving devices,
+Composition and varieties of oats,
+  of apple,
+  of bacon,
+  of banana,
+  of beef steak,
+  of beef suet,
+  of buckwheat,
+  of butter,
+  of buttermilk,
+  of canned fruit,
+  of carbohydrates,
+  of celery,
+  of cereals,
+  of cereals, Table showing,
+  of chestnut,
+  of coconut,
+  of cooked macaroni,
+  of cooked oat breakfast food,
+  of corn,
+  of corn bread,
+  of cottage cheese,
+  of cream,
+  of cream cheese,
+  of dried beef,
+  of dried fig,
+  of dry navy bean,
+  of egg white and yolk,
+  of food, Chemical,
+  of food materials,
+  of fresh cod,
+  of fresh shelled bean,
+  of fruit jelly,
+  of grape juice,
+  of grapes,
+  of green corn,
+  of green string bean,
+  of honey,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of lamb chop,
+  of lard,
+  of mackerel,
+  of maple sugar,
+  of molasses,
+  of oats,
+  of olive oil,
+  of onion,
+  of oyster,
+  of parsnip,
+  of peanut,
+  of peanut butter,
+  of pork chop,
+  of potato,
+  of raisins,
+  of rice,
+  of rye,
+  of rye bread,
+  of salt cod,
+  of skim milk,
+  of smoked ham,
+  of smoked herring,
+  of stick candy,
+  of strawberry,
+  of sugar,
+  of toasted bread,
+  of walnut,
+  of wheat,
+  of white and yolk of egg,
+  of whole egg,
+  of whole milk,
+  of whole wheat bread,
+Compote, Meaning of,
+Compressed yeast,
+Constituents, Food principles, or,
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,
+  Fireless,
+Cookery, Meaning of,
+  Terms used in,
+  time table,
+Cooking cereals by boiling,
+  cereals in double boiler,
+  cereals in fireless cooker,
+  cereals, Methods of,
+  cereals, Points to observe in,
+  cereals, Preparation for,
+  cereals, Purpose of,
+  cereals with dry heat,
+  food, Reasons for,
+  foods, Importance of,
+  foods, Table for,
+  Getting foods ready for,
+  Heat for,
+  Methods of,
+  Methods of using moist heat for,
+  of food,
+  processes,
+  rice, Japanese method of,
+  rice, Methods of,
+  Uses of water in,
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,
+  utensils, Copper,
+  utensils, Earthenware,
+  utensils, Enamel,
+  utensils, Glass,
+  utensils, Iron and steel,
+  utensils, Tin,
+  utensils, Wooden,
+  with dry heat,
+  with hot fat,
+Copper cooking utensils,
+Coquilles, Meaning of,
+Corer, Apple,
+Corn bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  cake,
+  cake, Molasses,
+  -cake recipes,
+  cake, Southern,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of green,
+  Field,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Maize, or Indian,
+  meal,
+  -meal croquettes,
+  -meal muffins,
+  -meal mush,
+  -meal mush, Left-over,
+  meal, Recipes for,
+  Pop,
+  Sweet,
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,
+Cracked wheat,
+Cream cheese, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+  of tartar and soda,
+  of wheat,
+  of wheat with dates,
+  sauce,
+Creamed hominy,
+  peas,
+  rice,
+Creaming of food ingredients,
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,
+  Rolled-oats,
+Croutons, Meaning of,
+Cups, Measuring,
+Curry,
+Custard, Farina,
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,
+
+D
+
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,
+  Coal-stove,
+Date muffins,
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,
+  Graham mush with,
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,
+Deviled, Meaning of,
+Dextrine, Formation of,
+Diet, Hot breads in the,
+  Meaning of,
+  Well-balanced,
+Dietetics, Definition of,
+Digestion and absorption of food,
+  of food,
+Dill, Meaning of,
+Dinner rolls,
+Dish-washing machines,
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,
+  boiler, Use of,
+Dough, Kneading bread,
+  Making bread,
+  Motions used in kneading bread,
+  Soft,
+  Stiff,
+Doughs and batters,
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,
+Dried beef, Composition of,
+  fig, Composition of,
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,
+  heat, Cooking with,
+  measure,
+  steaming,
+  yeast,
+Drying of foods,
+
+E
+
+Earthenware cooking utensils,
+Economic value of cereals,
+Effect of boiling on foods,
+Egg beater, Rotary,
+  coal,
+  Composition of white and yolk of,
+  Composition of whole,
+  whip,
+Eggs, Scrambled,
+Electric meter, Reading an,
+  stoves,
+  stoves and utensils,
+Electricity as a fuel,
+Emergency biscuits,
+En coquille, Meaning of,
+Enamel cooking utensils,
+Endosperm, Meaning of,
+Entrees,
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,
+Escarole, Meaning of,
+
+F
+
+Factors that govern cereal selection,
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,
+Farina,
+  custard,
+  souffle,
+Fat and milk in bread,
+  Cooking with hot,
+Fat in cereals,
+Fats,
+Ferments, or leavening agents,
+Field corn,
+Fig, Composition of dried,
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,
+Fillets, Meaning of,
+Firebox, Coal-stove,
+Fireless cooker,
+  cooker, Cooking cereals in,
+ -cooking gas stoves,
+Flour,
+  Bakers',
+  Blend,
+  Care of,
+  Graham,
+  Grains used for,
+  High-grade patent,
+  Kinds of,
+  made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,
+  Milling of wheat,
+  Quality of,
+  Red dog,
+  Rye,
+  Scouring,
+  Second-grade patent,
+  Selection of,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Flue, Coal-stove,
+  opening of a coal stove,
+Fluff, Orange,
+  Sauce for orange,
+Folding of food ingredients,
+Fondant, Meaning of,
+Fondue, Meaning of,
+Food, Absorption of,
+  Care of,
+  Cereals as a,
+  Chemical composition of,
+  Cooking of,
+  Definition of,
+  Digestion and absorption of,
+  Digestion of,
+  in cellars, Storing,
+  ingredients, Beating of,
+  ingredients, Creaming of,
+  ingredients, Cutting-in of,
+  ingredients, Folding of,
+  ingredients, Mixing of,
+  ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,
+  ingredients, Ricing of,
+  ingredients, Rubbing of,
+  ingredients, Sifting of,
+  ingredients, Stirring of,
+  Matters involved in right selection of,
+  Methods of caring for,
+  or fuel, value,
+Food, Preparation of,
+  principles or constituents,
+  Problem of,
+  Reasons for cooking,
+  Selection of,
+  substances,
+  value,
+Foods, Blanching,
+  Canning of,
+  Drying of,
+  for cooking, Preparation of,
+  Importance of cooking,
+  Importance of variety of,
+  Meaning of breakfast,
+  Storing of non-perishable,
+  Storing of semiperishable,
+  with ice, Keeping,
+  without ice, Keeping,
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,
+Frappe, Meaning of,
+French toast,
+Fricasseeing,
+Fromage, Meaning of,
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,
+  Composition of canned,
+  jelly, Composition of,
+  or nut buns,
+Frying,
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,
+  Use of coke as a,
+  Use of electricity as a,
+  Use of gas as a,
+  Use of kerosene as a,
+  value, Food, or,
+  Value of gas as,
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,
+
+G
+
+Gas,
+  Artificial,
+  as fuel, Use of,
+  as fuel, Value of,
+  Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,
+  Measurement of,
+  meter,
+  meter, Reading a,
+  Natural,
+  ranges, Description of,
+  stove, Mixer of a,
+  stove, Pilot of a,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  stoves, Fireless-cooking,
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,
+Germ, Definition of,
+Germs,
+Gingerbread, Soft,
+Glace, Biscuit,
+  Meaning of,
+Glass cooking utensils,
+Glaze, Meaning of,
+Gliadin,
+Glucose,
+Gluten,
+Glutenin,
+Goulash, Meaning of,
+Graham bread,
+  bread with nuts,
+  flour,
+  muffins,
+  mush with dates,
+  nut buns,
+Grain for market, Preparation of,
+  products, Table of,
+  Structure of wheat,
+Grains used for flour,
+Grape juice, Composition of,
+Grapes, Composition of,
+Grate, Coal-stove,
+Green corn, Composition of,
+Griddle-cake recipes,
+  cakes,
+  cakes, Corn,
+  cakes, Procedure in baking,
+  cakes, Rice,
+  cakes, Sour-milk,
+Griddles,
+Grinder,
+Grits,
+  Hominy,
+  Wheat,
+Gumbo, Meaning of,
+
+H
+
+Ham, Composition of smoked,
+Hard water, How to soften,
+Haricot, Meaning of,
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,
+  Cooking with dry,
+  for cooking,
+  for cooking, Discussion of,
+  Methods of cooking with moist,
+Herring, Composition of smoked,
+High-grade patent flour,
+Homard, Meaning of,
+Hominy,
+  and cheese souffle,
+  Buttered,
+  Creamed,
+  grits,
+  Left-over,
+  Recipes for,
+Honey, Composition of,
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,
+Hot bread,
+  bread, Distinction between leavened and,
+  -bread mixture. Baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Testing of baked,
+  -bread mixture, Preparation of,
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,
+  -bread recipes, Miscellaneous,
+  -bread utensils and their use,
+  bread, Utilizing left-over,
+  breads,
+  breads, Baking of,
+  breads, Combining ingredients for,
+  breads, Correct oven temperature for,
+  breads, Distinction between yeast and,
+  breads in the diet,
+  breads, Mixtures used for,
+  breads, Principal requirements for,
+  breads, Purpose of utensils for making,
+  breads, Recipes for,
+  breads, Regulating the oven for,
+  breads, Requirements and processes for making,
+  breads, Serving,
+  breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,
+  proportions used in,
+  fat, Cooking with,
+Hotplates,
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,
+  wheat,
+Huller, Berry,
+
+I
+
+Ice, Keeping foods with,
+Indian corn, or maize,
+Ingredients, Beating of food,
+  Combining hot-bread,
+  Creaming of food,
+  Cutting-in of food,
+  Folding of food,
+  for bread making,
+  Mixing of food,
+  Preparation of hot-bread,
+  Processes involved in mixing food,
+  Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,
+  required for bread making,
+  Ricing of food,
+  Rubbing of food,
+  Sifting of food,
+  Stirring of food,
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,
+Irons, Waffle,
+Italian pastes,
+  pastes, Composition of,
+  pastes, Left-over,
+  pastes, Preparation of,
+  pastes, Recipes for,
+  pastes, Varieties of,
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,
+Japanese method of cooking rice,
+  rice,
+Jardiniere, Meaning of,
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,
+Juice, Composition of grape,
+Julienne, Meaning of,
+Junket, Meaning of,
+
+K
+
+Keeping foods with ice,
+  foods without ice,
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,
+  stoves and their operation,
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,
+Kippered, Meaning of,
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,
+Kneading bread dough,
+  bread dough, Motions used in,
+  bread dough, Purpose of,
+
+L
+
+Labour-saving devices,
+Lactose,
+  Occurrence of,
+Lamb chop, Composition of,
+Lard, Composition of,
+Larding, Meaning of,
+Lardon, Meaning of,
+Leavened bread,
+Leavening agents,
+  agents, Classes of,
+  agents, or ferments,
+  Chemical,
+  Physical,
+Left-over barley,
+  -over bread,
+  -over corn-meal mush,
+  -over hominy,
+  -over hot bread, Utilizing,
+  -over Italian pastes,
+  -over rice,
+  -over rolled oats,
+  -over wheat cereals,
+Legumes, Meaning of,
+Lentils, Meaning of,
+Liquid measure,
+  yeast,
+Loaf, Nut,
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,
+Long process of bread making,
+  process of making white bread,
+  -process, sponge method of bread making,
+  -process, straight-dough method of bread making,
+Luncheon menu,
+  rolls,
+
+M
+
+Macaroni,
+  and kidney beans,
+  Composition of cooked,
+  Italian style,
+  with cheese,
+  with cheese and tomato,
+  with cream sauce,
+  with eggs,
+  with tomato and bacon,
+Macedoine, Meaning of,
+Machines, Dish-washing,
+Mackerel, Composition of,
+Maize,
+Malt sprouts,
+Maple sugar, Composition of,
+Marinade, Meaning of,
+Marinate, Meaning of,
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,
+Marrons, Meaning of,
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,
+Matter, Mineral,
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,
+Meal,
+  Corn,
+  Recipes for corn,
+Meaning of breakfast foods,
+Measure, Dry,
+  Liquid,
+Measurement of gas,
+Measures, Abbreviations of,
+Measuring,
+  cups,
+  Precautions to observe,
+  spoons,
+Meat chopper,
+  grinder,
+Menu, Breakfast,
+  Luncheon,
+  Meaning of,
+Menus and recipes,
+Meringue, Meaning of,
+Meter, Gas,
+  Reading a gas,
+  Reading an electric,
+Meters, Prepayment,
+Micro-organisms,
+Microbes,
+Milk and fat in bread,
+  Composition of skim,
+  Composition of whole,
+  Soda and sour,
+  toast,
+Millet,
+  buckwheat, and rye,
+  Description of,
+Milling of wheat flour,
+Mineral matter,
+  matter in cereals,
+  salts,
+  salts, Purpose of,
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,
+Mixer, Gas-stove,
+  Mayonnaise,
+  Use of the bread,
+Mixers, Bread,
+  Cake,
+Mixing of food ingredients,
+  of food ingredients, Processes involved in,
+  processes, Application of,
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,
+Mixtures used for hot breads,
+Moist heat, Cooking with,
+  yeast,
+Molasses and soda,
+  Composition of,
+  corn cake,
+Molds,
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,
+Mousse, Meaning of,
+Muffin recipes,
+Muffins, Blueberry,
+  Bran,
+  Corn-meal,
+  Date,
+  Graham,
+  Plain,
+  Rice,
+Mush, Corn-meal,
+  Left-over corn-meal,
+  Sauted corn-meal,
+  with dates, Graham,
+
+N
+
+Natural gas,
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,
+Nougat, Meaning of,
+Nut buns, Graham,
+  loaf,
+  or fruit buns,
+  puffs,
+
+O
+
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,
+  Composition of,
+Oatmeal,
+Oats,
+  Composition and varieties of,
+  Recipes for,
+  Rolled,
+  with apples, Rolled,
+Olive oil, Composition of,
+Onion, Composition of,
+Orange fluff,
+  fluff, Sauce for,
+Order of work,
+Oriental rice,
+Oven, Coal-stove,
+  for hot breads, Regulating the,
+  Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,
+  temperature, Determining and regulating,
+  temperature for baking bread,
+  temperature for hot breads,
+Oxygen,
+Oyster, Composition of,
+
+P
+
+Pan-broiled chops,
+  broiling,
+Paprika,
+Parker House rolls,
+Parsnip, Composition of,
+Pastes, Italian,
+  Recipes for Italian,
+Pate, Meaning of,
+Patent flour, High-grade,
+  flour, Second-grade,
+Patties, Rice,
+Pea coal,
+Peanut butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+Pearl barley,
+  barley, Description of,
+  barley with fruit,
+Peas, Creamed,
+  Sauce for,
+Physical leavening,
+Pilot, Gas-stove,
+Pimiento, Meaning of,
+Pineapple, Rice with,
+Pinwheel biscuits,
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,
+Pistachio, Meaning of,
+Plain muffins,
+Point, Boiling,
+Polishings, Rice,
+Pop corn,
+Popover recipes,
+  with fruit,
+Pork chop, Composition of,
+Potage, Meaning of,
+Potato, Composition of,
+  ricer,
+Potatoes, Baked,
+Powder, Baking,
+  Recipe for baking,
+Precautions to observe in measuring,
+Preparation for cooking cereals,
+  for cooking foods,
+  of cereals for the table,
+Preparation of food,
+  of grains for the market,
+  of hot-bread ingredients,
+  of hot-bread mixture,
+  of Italian pastes,
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+Prepayment meters,
+Principle of stoves,
+Principles, or constituents, Food,
+Problem of food,
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,
+  Application of mixing,
+  Bread-making,
+  Cooking,
+  involved in mixing food ingredients,
+Production of cereals,
+Products, Cereal,
+  Table of grain,
+Proportion of bread-making materials,
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,
+Protein,
+  in cereals,
+Puffs, Nut,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Puree, Meaning of,
+Purpose,
+  of baking bread,
+  of bread rising,
+  of cooking cereals,
+  of kneading bread dough,
+  of utensils for making hot breads,
+
+Q
+
+Quality,
+  of coal,
+  of flour,
+  of yeast,
+Quick,
+  bread, Hot or,
+  breads,
+  process of combining bread ingredients,
+  process of making white bread,
+  process of making whole-wheat bread,
+  -process, sponge method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+  -process, straight-dough method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+
+R
+
+Ragout, Meaning of,
+Raisins, Composition of,
+Ramekin, Meaning of,
+Range, Coal,
+Ranges, Description of gas,
+Reading,
+  a gas meter,
+  an electric meter,
+Ready,
+  -to-eat cereals,
+  -to-eat, or prepared, cereals,
+Reasons for cooking food,
+Rechauffe, Meaning of,
+Recipe, Definition of,
+Red-dog flour,
+Refrigerator,
+  Care of food in,
+  Care of the,
+Refrigerators,
+Refuse,
+  Distinction between waste and,
+  Meaning of,
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,
+Requirements,
+  and processes for making hot breads,
+  of bread making,
+Rice,
+  Boiled,
+  Boiling,
+  bread,
+  Browned,
+  Carolina,
+  Composition of,
+  Creamed,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Japanese,
+  Japanese method of cooking,
+  Left-over,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  muffins,
+  Oriental,
+  patties,
+  polishings,
+  Recipes for,
+  Savory,
+  Spanish,
+  Steamed,
+  Steaming,
+  Varieties and structure of,
+  waffles,
+  with pineapple,
+Ricer, Potato,
+Ricing of food ingredients,
+Rising,
+   bread dough, Care of the,
+   Temperature for bread,
+  Time required for bread,
+Rissoles, Meaning of,
+Roasting,
+  Distinction between baking and,
+  Meaning of,
+Rolled,
+  oats,
+  -oats croquettes,
+  -oats jelly with prunes,
+  oats, Left-over,
+  oats with apples,
+Rolls,
+  buns and biscuits, Recipes for,
+  Cinnamon,
+Dinner,
+  Luncheon,
+  Parker House,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Rotary egg beater,
+Roux, Meaning of,
+Rubbing of food ingredients,
+Rye,
+  bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  buckwheat, and millet,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  flour,
+
+S
+
+Salad, Cabbage,
+  Watercress-and-celery,
+Salmi, Meaning of,
+Salpicon, Meaning of,
+Salt cod, Composition of,
+  -rising bread,
+Salts, Mineral,
+  Purpose of mineral,
+Sauce, Cream,
+  for orange fluff,
+  for peas,
+  piquante, Meaning of,
+  Meaning of tartare,
+  Meaning of vinaigrette,
+Sauted corn-meal mush,
+Sauteing,
+Savoury rice,
+Scales,
+Score card, Explanation of,
+Scoring bread,
+  bread, Object of,
+Scouring of flour,
+Scrambled eggs,
+Second-grade patent flour,
+Selection and care of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,
+Semolina,
+Serving bread,
+  cereals,
+  hot breads,
+Setting a cereal or grain,
+Shallot, Meaning of,
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,
+Sifting of food ingredients,
+Simmering, or stewing,
+Sizes of coal,
+Skim milk, Composition of,
+Small electric utensils,
+Smoked ham, Composition of,
+  herring, Composition of,
+Soda and cream of tartar,
+Soda and molasses,
+  and sour milk,
+Soft dough,
+  gingerbread,
+Softening hard water,
+Soluble starch,
+Sorbet, Meaning of,
+Souffle, Meaning of,
+  Farina,
+Sour milk, Soda and,
+  -milk griddle cakes,
+Southern corn cake,
+Soy, Meaning of,
+Spaghetti,
+  with cheese and tomato sauce,
+Spanish rice,
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,
+  method of making bread, Quick-process,
+Spoons, Measuring,
+Spring, or hard, wheat,
+  or hard, wheat, Flour made from,
+Sprouts, Malt,
+Starch,
+Steak, Composition of beef,
+Steamed rice,
+Steamer,
+Steaming,
+  Dry,
+  rice,
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,
+Sterilizing,
+Stewing or simmering,
+Stick candy, Composition of,
+Stiff dough,
+Stirring of food ingredients,
+Stock, Meaning of,
+Storing food in cellars,
+  of non-perishable foods,
+  of semiperishable foods,
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,
+  ash pit, Coal-,
+  Coal,
+  dampers, Coal-,
+  flue opening, Coal-,
+  oven, Coal-,
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,
+  Fireless-cooking gas,
+  Operation of kerosene,
+  Principle of,
+Straight-dough method of bread making,
+  -dough method of bread making, Long-process,
+  -dough method of bread making, Quick-process,
+Strawberry, Composition of,
+String bean, Composition of green,
+Structure and varieties of rice,
+  of wheat grain,
+Substances, Food,
+Suet, Composition of beef,
+Sugar,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of maple,
+Sultanas, Meaning of,
+Sweet buns,
+  corn,
+
+T
+
+Table, Cookery time,
+  of grain products,
+  showing composition of cereals,
+Tables of relative weights and measures,
+  of weights and measures,
+Tarragon, Meaning of,
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,
+  for bread rising,
+  for hot breads, Correct oven,
+Terms used in cookery,
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,
+Thick batter,
+Thin batter,
+Timbale, Meaning of,
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,
+  required for bread rising,
+  table, Cookery,
+Tin cooking utensils,
+Toast,
+  Buttered,
+  French,
+  Milk,
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,
+Toasting,
+Troy weight,
+Truffles, Meaning of,
+
+U
+
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,
+  and their use, Hot-bread,
+  Copper cooking,
+  Earthenware cooking,
+  Enamel cooking,
+  for baking the hot-bread mixture,
+  for bread making,
+  for cooking,
+  for furnishing a kitchen,
+  for preparing hot-bread mixture,
+  Glass cooking,
+  Importance of,
+  Iron and steel cooking,
+  Materials used for,
+  Small electric,
+  Tin cooking,
+  Wooden cooking,
+
+V
+
+Value, Food,
+  Food, or fuel,
+  of cereals, Economic,
+  of gas as fuel,
+Vanilla, Meaning of,
+Varieties and composition of oats,
+  and structure of rice,
+  of coal,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of mixtures used in hot breads,
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,
+Vermicelli,
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,
+
+W
+
+Waffle irons,
+Waffles,
+  procedure in baking,
+  Rice,
+Walnut, Composition of,
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,
+  Definition of,
+Water as a food substance,
+  Boiling to sterilize,
+  How to soften hard,
+  in cereals,
+  in the body, Function of,
+Watercress-and-celery salad,
+Weight, Avoirdupois,
+  Troy,
+Weights and measures, Tables of,
+  and measures, Tables of relative,
+Wheat,
+  and wheat products, Recipes for,
+  Beech,
+  bread, Composition of whole,
+  cereals, Left-over,
+  Composition of,
+  Cracked,
+  Cream of,
+  flour, Milling of,
+  grain, Structure of,
+  grits,
+  Hulled,
+  Hulled, or whole,
+  Origin and use of,
+  products, Recipes for,
+  Spring, or hard,
+  Winter, or soft,
+White bread,
+  bread, Long process of making,
+  bread, Quick process of making,
+  of egg, Composition of,
+Whole egg, Composition of,
+  milk, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread,
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread, Quick process of making,
+  -wheat flour,
+  -wheat fruit bread,
+  -wheat puffs,
+  -wheat rolls,
+Window boxes,
+Winter, or soft, wheat,
+Wooden cooking utensils,
+Work, Order of,
+
+Y
+
+Yeast,
+  Action of,
+Yeast aids,
+  and hot breads, Distinction between,
+  Commercial,
+  Compressed,
+  Dry,
+  Liquid,
+  Moist,
+  or leavened, bread,
+  Quality of,
+Yeasts,
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,
+
+Z
+
+Zwieback,
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
+Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #9935 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/9935)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
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+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
+
+
+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9935]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on November 1, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon,
+Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY
+
+VOLUME ONE
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+
+CEREALS
+
+BREAD
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.
+
+PREFACE
+
+The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.
+
+This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
+Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.
+
+Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.
+
+It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+  The Problem of Food
+  Selection of Food
+  Food Substances
+  Food Value
+  Digestion and Absorption of Food
+  Preparation of Food
+  Methods of Cooking
+  Heat for Cooking
+  Utensils for Cooking
+  Preparing Foods for Cooking
+  Order of Work
+  Table for Cooking Foods
+  Care of Food
+  Menus and Recipes
+  Terms Used in Cookery
+
+CEREALS
+  Production, Composition, and Selection
+  Cereals as a Food
+  Preparation of Cereals for the Table
+  Indian Corn, or Maize
+  Wheat
+  Rice
+  Oats
+  Barley
+  Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
+  Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
+  Serving Cereals
+  Italian Pastes
+  Breakfast Menu
+
+BREAD
+  Importance of Bread as Food
+  Ingredients for Bread Making
+  Utensils for Bread Making
+  Bread-Making Processes
+  Making the Dough
+  Care of the Rising Dough
+  Kneading the Dough
+  Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
+  Baking the Bread
+  Scoring Bread
+  Use of the Bread Mixer
+  Serving Bread
+  Bread Recipes
+  Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
+  Toast
+  Left-Over Bread
+
+HOT BREADS
+  Hot Breads in the Diet
+  Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
+  Leavening Agents
+  Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
+  Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Serving Hot Breads
+  Popover Recipes
+  Griddle-Cake Recipes
+  Waffle Recipes
+  Muffin Recipes
+  Corn-Cake Recipes
+  Biscuit Recipes
+  Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
+  Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
+  Luncheon Menu
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+THE PROBLEM OF FOOD
+
+1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
+the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.
+
+2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
+food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.
+
+3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.
+
+4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.
+
+In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.
+
+5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.
+
+6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.
+
+The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.
+
+7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.
+
+In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.
+
+8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SELECTION OF FOOD
+
+MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION
+
+9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.
+
+10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
+_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.
+
+However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.
+
+
+FOOD SUBSTANCES
+
+11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.
+
+12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.
+
+13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.
+
+The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.
+
+14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.
+
+15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.
+
+Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.
+
+16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.
+
+17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.
+
+So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.
+
+18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.
+
+Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.
+
+19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.
+
+Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.
+
+20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.
+
+21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.
+
+
+FOOD VALUE
+
+22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.
+
+While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.
+
+23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.
+
+Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.
+
+
+DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD
+
+24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD
+
+25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:
+
+1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.
+
+2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.
+
+3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.
+
+4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.
+
+5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF COOKING
+
+COOKING PROCESSES
+
+26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.
+
+27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sauteing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.
+
+The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.
+
+
+COOKING WITH DRY HEAT
+
+28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.
+
+29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.
+
+30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.
+
+31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.
+
+It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.
+
+32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.
+
+
+COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT
+
+33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.
+
+As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.
+
+34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.
+
+35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.
+
+The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.
+
+36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.
+
+Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.
+
+37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.
+
+38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.
+
+Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.
+
+39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.
+
+Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.
+
+40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.
+
+Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.
+
+41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.
+
+Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.
+
+42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.
+
+
+COOKING WITH HOT FAT
+
+43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sauteing,
+and fricasseeing.
+
+44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.
+
+45. SAUTEING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed sauteing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be sauted are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+sauted if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.
+
+46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sauteing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sauted either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HEAT FOR COOKING
+
+GENERAL DISCUSSION
+
+47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.
+
+48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.
+
+49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.
+
+
+COAL AND COKE
+
+50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or
+_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.
+
+51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.
+
+52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.
+
+Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.
+
+53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.
+
+
+GAS
+
+54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.
+
+55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]
+
+56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.
+
+57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.
+
+To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 / 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34
+
+58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.
+
+
+KEROSENE
+
+59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.
+
+Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.
+
+61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2.]
+
+The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.
+
+To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.
+
+After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF STOVES
+
+62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.
+
+63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_
+and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.
+
+64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.
+
+
+COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_,
+or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which
+usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_,
+_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_
+and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and
+the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.
+
+67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper
+_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper _h_.
+
+68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.
+
+
+GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a
+gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.
+
+
+KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is
+stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is
+provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.
+
+73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+
+ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS
+
+74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.
+
+(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?
+
+(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is
+leakage in the household due?
+
+(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?
+
+(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.
+
+(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.
+
+(8) What is a calorie?
+
+(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.
+
+(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.
+
+(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;
+(_c_) hot fat.
+
+(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking.
+
+(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.
+
+(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.
+
+(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?
+
+(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?
+
+(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of
+the dampers of a stove?
+
+(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?
+
+(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?
+
+(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)
+
+UTENSILS FOR COOKING
+
+IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS
+
+1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.
+
+2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.
+
+The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.
+
+In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.
+
+
+MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS
+
+3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.
+
+4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.
+
+5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.
+
+6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.
+
+7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.
+
+8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.
+
+9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.
+
+10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.
+
+
+LABOR-SAVING DEVICES
+
+11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a puree. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or
+_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry
+huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.
+
+14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.
+
+15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large
+gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a
+handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.
+
+17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into
+compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles _f_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 6.]
+
+To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN
+
+18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.
+
+
+NECESSARY EQUIPMENT
+
+Baking dish with cover
+Bread box
+Bread knife
+Bread pans
+Can opener
+Cake knife
+Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper
+Coffee mill
+Coffee pot
+Colander
+Cookie cutter
+Corer, Apple
+Cutting board
+Dishpan
+Double boiler
+Egg beater
+Flour sifter
+Forks
+Frying pan, large
+Frying pan, small
+Garbage can
+Grater
+Kettle covers
+Kettles, two or more
+Knife sharpener
+Knives
+Lemon squeezer
+Long-handled fork
+Measuring cup
+Meat board
+Meat knife
+Mixing bowls
+Mixing spoons
+Molding board
+Muffin pan
+Paring knife
+Pepper shaker
+Pie pans
+Potato masher
+Rinsing, or draining, pan
+Roasting pan
+Rolling pin
+Salt box
+Saucepans
+Spatula
+Tablespoons
+Teakettle
+Teapot
+Teaspoons
+Toaster
+Wire strainer
+Wooden spoon
+
+
+CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT
+
+Bread mixer
+Cake coolers
+Cake mixer
+Cake turner
+Casseroles
+Clock
+Coffee percolator
+Containers for spices and dry groceries
+Cookie sheets
+Cream whip Egg whip
+Fireless cooker
+Frying kettle and basket
+Funnel Glass jars for canning
+Griddle
+Ice-cream freezer
+Ice pick
+Jelly molds
+Nest of bowls
+Pan for baking fish
+Potato knife
+Potato ricer
+Ramekins
+Quart measure
+Scales
+Scissors
+Set of skewers
+Steamer
+Waffle iron
+Wheel cart
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATION
+
+19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.
+
+20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to
+take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.
+
+21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.
+
+
+MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS
+
+22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.
+
+BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.
+
+STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.
+
+FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.
+
+RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.
+
+CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.
+
+CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.
+
+SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.
+
+RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a puree. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.
+
+23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.
+
+As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.
+
+
+MEASURING
+
+24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.
+
+27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.
+
+28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (_b_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.
+
+31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy
+weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
+437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz.
+16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb.
+100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt.
+20 hundredweight \
+                 }....... = 1 ton............... T.
+2,000 pounds     /
+
+Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.
+
+32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:
+
+LIQUID MEASURE
+4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt.
+2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt.
+4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal.
+31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl.
+2 barrels \
+          }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd.
+63 gallons/
+
+33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:
+
+DRY MEASURE
+2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt.
+8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk.
+4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.
+
+34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a
+pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:
+
+APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD
+
+Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS
+Butter........................ 2
+Coffee, whole................. 4
+Corn meal..................... 3
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 2
+Molasses...................... 1-1/2
+Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2
+Nuts, shelled................. 3
+Oats, rolled.................. 4
+Olive oil..................... 2-1/2
+Peas, split................... 2
+Raisins....................... 3
+Rice.......................... 2
+Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3
+Sugar, granulated............. 2
+Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE
+Corn starch................... 3/8
+Flour......................... 1/4
+Milk.......................... 1/2
+Sugar......................... 1/2
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 8 OUNCES
+Corn meal..................... 5
+Corn starch................... 6
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 8
+Molasses..................... 10
+Nuts, shelled................. 4
+Raisins....................... 5
+Sugar......................... 8
+
+In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:
+
+3 tsp. = 1 Tb.
+16 Tb. = 1 c.
+
+35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:
+
+tsp. for teaspoonful
+pt. for pint
+Tb. for tablespoonful
+qt. for quart
+c. for cupful
+oz. for ounce
+lb. for pound
+
+
+ORDER OF WORK
+
+36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.
+
+First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.
+
+The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.
+
+Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.
+
+Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.
+
+If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.
+
+
+TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS
+
+37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)
+
+COOKERY TIME TABLE
+
+MEATS AND FISH
+
+_Broiled_
+Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min.
+Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish....................... 15 to 20 min.
+Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min.
+Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min.
+Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min.
+Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min.
+Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min.
+Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min.
+Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.
+
+_Boiled_
+Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr.
+Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr.
+Fish, bluefish, cod, or
+  bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min.
+Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min.
+Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr.
+Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.
+
+_Roasted_
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+well done.................. 2 hr.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr.
+Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr.
+Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min.
+Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min.
+Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.
+Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+_Boiled_
+Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min.
+Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min.
+Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min.
+Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr.
+Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min.
+Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min.
+Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min.
+Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr.
+Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min.
+Green corn............... 8 to 12 min.
+Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min.
+Onions.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Peas.................... 25 to 60 min.
+Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min.
+Rice.................... 20 to 30 min.
+Spinach................. 20 to 30 min.
+Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+
+BAKED FOODS
+Beans.....................  6 to 8 hr.
+Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min.
+Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min.
+Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min.
+Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min.
+Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr.
+Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min.
+Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min.
+Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min.
+Custard................... 20 to 45 min.
+Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min.
+Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min.
+Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr.
+Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CARE OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR CARE
+
+38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.
+
+39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria,
+yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.
+
+40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.
+
+Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.
+
+41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF CARE
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS
+
+43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.
+
+44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE
+
+45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.
+
+46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.
+
+The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 12.]
+
+47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.
+
+48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.
+
+50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.
+
+The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE
+
+51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+
+STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS
+
+55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.
+
+56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.
+
+Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.
+
+Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.
+
+
+STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS
+
+57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.
+
+Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.
+
+Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.
+
+
+MENUS AND RECIPES
+
+58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.
+
+59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.
+
+60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.
+
+MENU
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops
+Mashed Potatoes
+Creamed Peas
+Cabbage Salad
+Orange Fluff with Sauce
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+PAN-BROILED CHOPS
+
+Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.
+
+MASHED POTATOES
+
+Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.
+
+CREAMED PEAS
+
+Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.
+
+SAUCE FOR PEAS
+
+1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk
+1 Tb. butter
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.
+
+CABBAGE SALAD
+
+1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 small red or green sweet pepper
+Dash of pepper
+1 small onion
+Salad dressing
+
+Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.
+
+CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING
+
+3/4 c. vinegar
+1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired
+1/4 c. water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+3 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.
+
+ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 c. orange juice
+5 Tb. corn starch
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+Pinch of salt
+2 egg whites
+1 pt. boiling water
+
+Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.
+
+When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.
+
+SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1 Tb. corn starch
+3/4 c. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+3/4 c. sugar
+2 egg yolks
+1/4 c. orange juice
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+
+Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.
+
+61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.
+
+62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.
+
+
+TERMS USED IN COOKERY
+
+63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.
+
+In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.
+
+A la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts a la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.
+
+Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.
+
+Au naturel (o nat-ue-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.
+
+Bechamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.
+
+Biscuit Glace (bis-kue-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glaced shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.
+
+Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.
+
+Bouchees (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.
+
+Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.
+
+Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.
+
+Cafe au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.
+
+Cafe Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.
+
+Canapes (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sauted in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.
+
+Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.
+
+Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.
+
+Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.
+
+Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.
+
+Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.
+
+Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.
+
+Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sauted
+or used in salads.
+
+Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.
+
+Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.
+
+Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.
+
+Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.
+
+Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.
+
+Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.
+
+Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.
+
+Creole, a la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.
+
+Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.
+
+Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.
+
+Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.
+
+Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.
+
+Deviled.--Highly seasoned.
+
+Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.
+
+En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.
+
+Entrees (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.
+
+Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.
+
+Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.
+
+Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.
+
+Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.
+
+Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.
+
+Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.
+
+Frappe (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.
+
+Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.
+
+Glace (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.
+
+Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.
+
+Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.
+
+Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.
+
+Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.
+
+Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.
+
+Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.
+
+Italiene, a la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.
+
+Jardiniere (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.
+
+Julienne (zhue-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.
+
+Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.
+
+Kippered.--Dried or smoked.
+
+Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.
+
+Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.
+
+Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.
+
+Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.
+
+Macedoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.
+
+Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.
+
+Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.
+
+Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.
+
+Menu.--A bill of fare.
+
+Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.
+
+Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.
+
+Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.
+
+Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.
+
+Pate (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.
+
+Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.
+
+Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.
+
+Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.
+
+Puree (pue-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.
+
+Ragout (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.
+
+Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.
+
+Rechauffe (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.
+
+Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.
+
+Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.
+
+Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.
+
+Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.
+
+Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.
+
+Shallot.--A variety of onion.
+
+Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.
+
+Souffle (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.
+
+Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.
+
+Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.
+
+Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.
+
+Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.
+
+Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.
+
+Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+ragout.
+
+Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.
+
+Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.
+
+Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.
+
+Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+pate or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.
+
+Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?
+
+(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.
+
+(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.
+
+(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?
+
+(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;
+(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.
+
+(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)
+creaming; (_e_) folding.
+
+(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?
+
+(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
+
+(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.
+
+(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?
+
+(11) Tell why foods spoil.
+
+(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?
+
+(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?
+
+(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.
+
+(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)
+cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.
+
+(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.
+
+(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.
+
+(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?
+
+(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell
+the best ways in which to preserve such foods.
+
+(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?
+
+Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?
+
+Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?
+
+Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?
+
+Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?
+
+Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?
+
+Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION
+
+PRODUCTION OF CEREALS
+
+1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.
+
+The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.
+
+2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.
+
+3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.
+
+Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.
+
+4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.
+
+6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.
+
+7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.
+
+8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.
+
+9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.
+
+10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.
+
+11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.
+
+12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.
+
+13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+Protein   Fat       Carbohydrate   Cellulose  Mineral Matter
+                                              or Ash
+
+Wheat     Oats      Rice           Oats       Oats
+
+Rye       Corn      Rye            Buckwheat  Barley
+
+Oats      Barley    Corn           Barley     Buckwheat
+
+Barley    Buckwheat Wheat          Wheat      Rye
+
+Corn      Rice      Barley         Rye        Wheat
+
+Buckwheat Wheat     Buckwheat      Corn       Corn
+
+Rice      Rye       Oats           Rice       Rice
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS AS A FOOD
+
+USES OF CEREALS
+
+14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.
+
+15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sauted
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.
+
+
+SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS
+
+16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other
+times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and
+called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._
+
+Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.
+
+17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.
+
+18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.
+
+Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.
+
+19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.
+
+20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+GRAIN PRODUCTS
+
+                           / Pearl barley
+                           | Hulled wheat
+        / Whole Grains     {Hominy: Corn
+        |                  | Corn
+        |                  \ Rice
+        |
+        |                  / Farina: Wheat or corn
+        |                  | Cream of Wheat: Wheat
+        | Crushed Grains   {Cracked Wheat: Wheat
+        |                  | Hominy Grits: Corn
+        |                  | Wheat Grits: Wheat
+        |                  \ Samp: Corn
+Cereals {
+        |                  / Corn
+        | Meal             {Barley
+        |                  | Rice
+        |                  \ Oats
+        |
+        |                  / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn
+        \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat
+                           | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn
+                           \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat
+
+        / Corn
+Starch  {Rice
+        \ Wheat
+
+        / Macaroni
+Wheat   {Vermicelli
+        \ Spaghetti
+
+Glucose} Usually corn
+Sirup   /
+
+              / Wheat
+Cereal Coffee {Rye
+              \ Barley
+
+        / Wheat
+        | Rye
+Flour   {Corn
+        | Buckwheat
+        \ Rice
+
+Liquors       \
+Malted Drinks} All grains
+Beer          |
+Whisky        /
+
+Alcohol: All grains
+
+Feed for animals: All grains
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE
+
+METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS
+
+21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.
+
+22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a
+measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a
+large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.
+
+24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.
+
+25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.
+
+26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _dry
+steaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.
+
+This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.
+
+27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.
+
+28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.
+
+29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.
+
+_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.
+
+The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE
+
+ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE
+
+30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indian
+corn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.
+
+31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Pop
+corn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL
+
+32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.
+
+Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.
+
+33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.
+
+34. HOMINY.--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.
+
+HOMINY
+(Sufficient for 3 Quarts)
+
+2 qt. water
+1 Tb. lye
+1 qt. shelled corn
+3 tsp. salt
+
+Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.
+
+35. BUTTERED HOMINY.--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.
+
+BUTTERED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+3 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.
+
+36. CREAMED HOMINY.--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.
+
+CREAMED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+
+Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.
+
+37. HOMINY GRITS.--The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:
+
+HOMINY GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. water
+1 c. hominy grits
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sauted or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese souffle, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.
+
+HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. cooked hominy
+1/2 c. hot milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.
+
+39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUSH
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. water
+1 c. corn meal
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.
+
+A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.
+
+40. SAUTED CORN-MEAL-MUSH.--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sauted.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For sauteing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sauteing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.
+
+41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sauteing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and saute them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.
+
+42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Sauted corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+WHEAT
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.
+
+Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.
+
+44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _cream
+of wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS
+
+45. HULLED WHEAT.--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.
+
+HULLED WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1 c. hulled wheat
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+46. WHEAT GRITS.--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.
+
+WHEAT GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. wheat grits
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.
+
+47. CREAM OF WHEAT.--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.
+
+48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. dates
+
+Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.
+
+49. FARINA.--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.
+
+FARINA
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. farina
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.
+
+GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. dates
+
+Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and sauted like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and souffles, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.
+
+FARINA CUSTARD
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+2 c. milk
+2 eggs
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 tsp. nutmeg
+
+Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.
+
+FARINA SOUFFLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.
+
+
+RICE
+
+VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE
+
+52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+_Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.
+
+53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.
+
+54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR RICE
+
+55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_,
+which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.
+
+56. BOILED RICE.--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:
+
+BOILED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+3 tsp. salt
+3 qt. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.
+
+JAPANESE METHOD
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
+
+58. STEAMED RICE.--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.
+
+STEAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.
+
+59. CREAMED RICE.--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.
+
+CREAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cream
+
+Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.
+
+60. ORIENTAL RICE.--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+ORIENTAL RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth
+2 Tb. butter
+1 slice onion
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+
+Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.
+
+61. BROWNED RICE.--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.
+
+62. SAVORY RICE.--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:
+
+SAVORY RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. browned rice
+2-1/2 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. chopped celery
+2 Tb. butter
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1/4 c. chopped pimiento
+
+Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.
+
+63. LEFT-OVER RICE.--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.
+
+RICE WITH PINEAPPLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. steamed or creamed rice
+1/4 c. sugar
+6 rings pineapple
+3/4 c. whipped cream
+
+Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.
+
+65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.
+
+RICE PATTIES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. stale crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. celery salt
+2 eggs
+2 c. steamed rice
+
+Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and saute them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.
+
+66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.
+
+SPANISH RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 small onion
+2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice
+1 c. chopped meat
+1/2 c. meat stock or gravy
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+2 Tb. grated cheese
+1/4 c. stale crumbs
+
+Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OATS
+
+COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES
+
+67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR OATS
+
+68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.
+
+69. ROLLED OATS.--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.
+
+ROLLED OATS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. boiling water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.
+
+70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.
+
+ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2/3 c. rolled oats
+2 c. boiling water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+6 medium-sized apples
+1 c. water
+1/2 c. sugar
+
+Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.
+
+ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+12 stewed prunes
+
+Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.
+
+72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:
+
+ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+3/4 c. crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. cooked rolled oats
+1 egg
+
+Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and saute then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BARLEY
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.
+
+74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.
+
+75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR BARLEY
+
+76. PEARL BARLEY.--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.
+
+PEARL BARLEY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.
+
+PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+1 c. dates, figs, or prunes
+
+Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sauted in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.
+
+
+RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET
+
+79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.
+
+80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.
+
+81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.
+
+PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS
+
+82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.
+
+83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.
+
+
+SERVING CEREALS
+
+84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.
+
+To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ITALIAN PASTES
+
+PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION
+
+85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.
+
+86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.
+
+87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.
+
+88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES
+
+89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.
+
+In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.
+
+In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.
+
+90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.
+
+MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+CREAM SAUCE
+
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. milk
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
+
+91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH EGGS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+4 hard-boiled eggs
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.
+
+92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 c. canned tomatoes
+8 thin slices bacon
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.
+
+93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1/8 tsp. paprika
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. grated or finely cut cheese
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+2 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.
+
+95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.
+
+MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1-1/2 c. scalded milk
+2/3 c. grated cheese
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.
+
+96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.
+
+MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+3/4 c. hot milk
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1 c. canned kidney beans
+
+Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.
+
+97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.
+
+SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. spaghetti
+2 Tb. butter
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. flour
+2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+1 can tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/2 c. water
+
+Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.
+
+98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.
+
+BREAKFAST MENU
+
+99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.
+
+MENU
+
+Berries and Cream or Oranges
+Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream
+Scrambled Eggs
+Buttered Toast
+Cocoa or Coffee
+
+SCRAMBLED EGGS
+
+5 eggs
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+
+Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.
+
+BUTTERED TOAST
+
+Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.
+
+COCOA
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+3 Tb. cocoa
+3 Tb. sugar
+1/4 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.
+
+BOILED COFFEE
+
+Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?
+
+(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?
+
+(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?
+
+(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.
+
+(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?
+
+(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?
+
+(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?
+
+(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?
+
+(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.
+
+(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?
+
+(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.
+
+(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.
+
+(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.
+
+(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?
+
+(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.
+
+(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.
+
+(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?
+
+(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?
+
+(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?
+
+(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?
+
+Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?
+
+Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?
+
+Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?
+
+Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+BREAD
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
+
+IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD
+
+1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.
+
+2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_,
+or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.
+
+Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_,
+_bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.
+
+3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.
+
+4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.
+
+Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.
+
+5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+INGREDIENTS REQUIRED
+
+6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.
+
+
+FLOUR
+
+7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.
+
+8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.
+
+9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.
+
+This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.
+
+Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and
+_winter_, or _soft, wheat_.
+
+10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.
+
+11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used
+for all purposes.
+
+12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:
+
+                                            PER CENT.
+Protein...................................... 11.9
+Fat..........................................  2.1
+Carbohydrates................................ 71.9
+Mineral salts................................. 1.8
+Water........................................ 10.5
+Cellulose..................................... 1.8
+Total....................................... 100.0
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.
+
+13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.
+
+14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.
+
+15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.
+
+16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.
+
+17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.
+
+18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next,
+_second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.
+
+The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.
+
+19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.
+
+The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.
+
+20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.
+
+
+YEAST
+
+21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.
+
+22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.
+
+The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or
+_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.
+
+23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.
+
+24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.
+
+Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and
+_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.
+
+25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.
+
+Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.
+
+26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.
+
+27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.
+
+More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.
+
+28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.
+
+
+YEAST AIDS
+
+29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.
+
+
+MILK AND FAT IN BREAD
+
+30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.
+
+31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS
+
+32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.
+
+The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_;
+measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.
+
+The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.
+
+34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.
+
+A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES
+
+ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING
+
+35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.
+
+36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.
+
+Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.
+
+The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+"sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.
+
+The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MAKING THE DOUGH
+
+PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS
+
+37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.
+
+
+COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS
+
+38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as
+the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.
+
+39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge
+method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.
+
+41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.
+
+The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.
+
+42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the
+_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.
+
+44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.
+
+
+CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH
+
+45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.
+
+46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.
+
+48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.
+
+In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.
+
+
+KNEADING THE DOUGH
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.
+
+
+SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES
+
+53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+
+BAKING THE BREAD
+
+56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.
+
+57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.
+
+Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.
+
+59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.
+
+After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.
+
+
+SCORING BREAD
+
+61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.
+
+SCORE CARD
+
+External Appearance:                 PER CENT.
+  Shape................................. 5
+  Size.................................. 2
+  Crust:
+    Shade............................... 2
+    Uniformity of Color................. 2
+    Character........................... 2
+    Depth............................ 2--8
+Lightness.............................. 20
+Internal Appearance:
+  Even distribution of gas............. 10
+  Moisture.............................. 5
+  Elasticity............................ 5
+  Color................................ 15
+Flavor................................. 30
+                                       ---
+    Total............................. 100
+
+62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.
+
+63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.
+
+The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.
+
+The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.
+
+64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.
+
+65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.
+
+66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.
+
+
+USE OF THE BREAD MIXER
+
+67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.
+
+68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of
+Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.
+
+In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.
+
+Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.
+
+
+SERVING BREAD
+
+69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.
+
+As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.
+
+Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.
+
+Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+BREAD RECIPES
+
+70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.
+
+71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.
+
+The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.
+
+The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.
+
+The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.
+
+72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.
+
+73. WHITE BREAD.--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.
+
+WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast
+1 Tb. salt
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.
+
+Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.
+
+WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+2 cakes compressed yeast
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
+
+74. Whole-Wheat Bread.--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+8 c. whole-wheat flour
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.
+
+The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.
+
+75. Graham Bread.--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 c. white flour
+3 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.
+
+A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.
+
+76. Graham Bread With Nuts.--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+1/4 c. molasses
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1-1/2 c. chopped nuts
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.
+
+77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates
+2 tsp. salt
+6 c. whole-wheat flour
+1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.
+
+78. BRAN BREAD.--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.
+
+BRAN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 c. milk
+6 Tb. molasses
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 yeast cake
+1/4 c. lukewarm water
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1 c. sterilized bran
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.
+
+79. RYE BREAD.--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.
+
+RYE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. rye flour
+4 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.
+
+80. Corn Bread.--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.
+
+CORN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+4-1/2 c. white flour
+2 c. corn meal
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.
+
+81. Rice Bread.--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.
+
+RICE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+1/2 c. uncooked rice
+1-1/2 c. water
+1 Tb. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1/2 yeast cake
+1 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.
+
+82. SALT-RISING BREAD.--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.
+
+SALT-RISING BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 c. fresh milk
+1/4 c. corn meal
+1 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. sugar
+2 c. lukewarm water
+7 c. white flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS
+
+83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18]
+
+So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.
+
+84. Parker House Rolls.--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.
+
+PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+3 pt. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:
+Fig. 19]
+
+85. Dinner Rolls.--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If
+they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.
+
+DINNER ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+3 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20]
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.
+
+86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:
+
+LUNCHEON ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 tsp. salt
+3 Tb. sugar
+4 Tb. fat
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. whole-wheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.
+
+88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.
+
+GRAHAM NUT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. fat
+2-1/2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+1 c. chopped nuts
+3-1/2 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:
+
+NUT OR FRUIT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)
+
+4 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+3 c. white flour
+3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.
+
+90. SWEET BUNS.--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.
+
+SWEET BUNS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm scalded milk
+1/4 c. sugar
+2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. white flour
+2 eggs
+1 tsp. lemon extract
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21]
+
+91. COFFEE CAKE.--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.
+
+COFFEE CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Cake)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1/2 c. lukewarm milk
+1 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23]
+
+92. CINNAMON ROLLS.--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+
+TOAST
+
+93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.
+
+94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.
+
+95. MILK TOAST.--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.
+
+96. FRENCH TOAST.--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.
+
+FRENCH TOAST
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2 tsp. sugar
+8 slices of bread
+1/2 tsp. salt
+
+Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and saute it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.
+
+
+LEFT-OVER BREAD
+
+97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entrees. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.
+
+98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.
+
+It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.
+
+(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?
+
+(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of
+bread?
+
+(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?
+
+(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth?
+(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?
+
+(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does
+this play in bread making?
+
+(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?
+
+(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard
+it?
+
+(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.
+
+(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making?
+(_b_) the quick process?
+
+(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?
+
+(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to
+tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?
+
+(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?
+
+(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?
+
+(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?
+
+(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?
+
+(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?
+
+(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.
+
+(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS
+
+HOT BREADS IN THE DIET
+
+1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS
+
+2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.
+
+In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.
+
+The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.
+
+In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.
+
+As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.
+
+
+PHYSICAL LEAVENING
+
+4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.
+
+5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.
+
+6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.
+
+
+CHEMICAL LEAVENING
+
+7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.
+
+8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.
+
+9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.
+
+The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk._ So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.
+
+10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.
+
+11. SODA AND MOLASSES.--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.
+
+The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.
+
+12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda._ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.
+
+13. BAKING POWDER.--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.
+
+14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.
+
+15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.
+
+16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.
+
+17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:
+
+RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER
+
+1/2 lb. cream of tartar
+1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda
+1/4 lb. corn starch
+
+Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE
+
+PURPOSE OF UTENSILS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a case
+knife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+21. GRIDDLES.--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.
+
+The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.
+
+22. WAFFLE IRONS.--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it,
+a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MIXTURE
+
+VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS
+
+23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and a
+large proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thick
+batter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_.
+
+24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.
+
+A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, is
+one that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.
+
+A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1
+measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.
+
+A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of
+liquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.
+
+25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.
+
+
+PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.
+
+27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.
+
+In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.
+
+The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.
+
+
+BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+28. REGULATING THE OVEN.--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.
+
+29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.
+
+30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.
+
+31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.--As is pointed out in
+_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.
+
+33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.
+
+Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.
+
+Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.
+
+
+SERVING HOT BREADS
+
+34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.
+
+Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS
+
+POPOVER RECIPES
+
+35. POPOVERS.--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.
+
+POPOVERS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. flour
+1/4 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+
+Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.
+
+37. NUT PUFFS.--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.
+
+NUT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. chopped nuts
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+
+GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES
+
+39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.
+
+When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.
+
+40. GRIDDLE CAKES.--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.
+
+GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2-1/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.
+
+41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.
+
+SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. soda
+2 c. sour milk (not thick)
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.
+
+42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.
+
+CORN GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1-1/2 c. boiling water
+2 c. milk
+2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.
+
+RICE GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cold cooked rice
+1 egg
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.
+
+44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+1/2 c. fine bread crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 yeast cake
+3/4 c. lukewarm water
+1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour
+1 Tb. molasses
+1/4 tsp. soda
+
+Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.
+
+
+WAFFLE RECIPES
+
+45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+46. WAFFLES.--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.
+
+WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 eggs
+1-2/3 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.
+
+47. RICE WAFFLES.--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.
+
+RICE WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-3/4 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2/3 c. cooked rice
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.
+
+
+MUFFIN RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.
+
+49. PLAIN MUFFINS.--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.
+
+PLAIN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.
+
+BLUEBERRY MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2-1/4 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. fresh blueberries
+
+Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+51. DATE MUFFINS.--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.
+
+GRAHAM MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour
+3/4 tsp. soda
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. sour milk
+1/3 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+54. RICE MUFFINS.--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.
+
+RICE MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/4 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+3/4 c. hot, cooked rice
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+55. BRAN MUFFINS.--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.
+
+BRAN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. white flour
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+2 c. bran
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.
+
+
+CORN-CAKE RECIPES
+
+56. CORN CAKE.--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called _journey cakes._ From this term came the name
+_Johnny cake,_ which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.
+
+CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+3/4 c. yellow corn meal
+1-1/4 c. flour
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.
+
+57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.
+
+SOUTHERN CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+1/2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+3/4 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.
+
+58. Molasses Corn Cake.--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.
+
+MOLASSES CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 c. flour
+3-1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1/4 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.
+
+BISCUIT RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+59. Baking-Powder Biscuits.--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.
+
+BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat
+3/4 c. milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.
+
+61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.
+
+PINWHEEL BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat f
+3/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 Tb. cinnamon
+3/4 c. chopped raisins
+
+To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+62. BEATEN BISCUITS.--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.
+
+BEATEN BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Twelve)
+
+1 qt. pastry flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/3 c. fat
+1 c. milk or water
+
+Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.
+
+SOFT GINGERBREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. ginger
+1 tsp. cinnamon
+1 egg
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1/4 c. butter or other fat
+
+Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.
+
+64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.
+
+BOSTON BROWN BREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. white flour
+1 c. graham flour
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 tsp. soda
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. molasses
+1-3/4 c. sweet milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.
+
+65. NUT LOAF.--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.
+
+NUT LOAF
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+1/2 c. sugar
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+4 Tb. fat
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+1/2 c. English walnuts
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.
+
+
+UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS
+
+66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.
+
+
+LUNCHEON MENU
+
+67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in _Cereals,_ and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.
+
+
+MENU
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes
+Baking-Powder Biscuit
+Jam
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce
+Tea
+
+RECIPES
+
+WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD
+
+Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+6 Tb. oil
+2 Tb. vinegar
+
+Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.
+
+
+TEA
+
+Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?
+
+(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?
+
+(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?
+
+(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?
+
+(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?
+
+(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses?
+
+(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?
+
+(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?
+
+(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.
+
+(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough;
+(_d_) a stiff dough.
+
+(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_)
+thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs.
+
+(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?
+
+(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.
+
+(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven?
+(_b_) a hot oven?
+
+(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hot
+oven.
+
+(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?
+
+(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?
+
+(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?
+
+Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?
+
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?
+
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?
+
+Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abbreviations of measures,
+Absorption and digestion of food,
+  of food,
+Abundance of production of cereals,
+Acquiring skill in bread making,
+Action of yeast,
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,
+Agents, Classes of leavening,
+  Leavening,
+Aids, Yeast,
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,
+  la creole, Meaning of,
+Albumin,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Aluminum cooking utensils,
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,
+Apple, Composition of,
+  corer,
+Artificial gas,
+Ash, or mineral salts,
+  pan, Coal-stove,
+  pit, Coal-stove,
+Au gratin, Meaning of,
+  naturel, Meaning of,
+Avoirdupois weight,
+
+B
+
+Bacon, Composition of,
+Bacteria,
+Baked hot breads, Testing,
+  potatoes,
+Bakers' flour,
+Baking bread,
+  Distinction between roasting and,
+  griddle cakes, Procedure in,
+  Meaning of,
+  Oven temperature for bread,
+  powder,
+  -powder biscuits,
+Baking powder, Recipe for,
+  Purpose of bread,
+  the hot-bread mixture,
+  the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+  Time for bread,
+  waffles, Procedure in,
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,
+Banana, Composition of,
+Banking a coal fire,
+Barley,
+  Left-over,
+  Pearl,
+  Recipes for,
+  Use and origin of,
+  with fruit, Pearl,
+Batter, Thick,
+  Thin,
+Batters and doughs,
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,
+  Composition of fresh shelled,
+  Composition of green string,
+Beaten biscuits,
+Beating of food ingredients,
+Bechamel, Meaning of,
+Beech wheat,
+Beef, Composition of dried,
+  steak, Composition of,
+  suet, Composition of,
+Biscuit glace,
+  recipes,
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,
+  Beaten,
+  Emergency,
+  rolls, and buns, Recipes for,
+Bisque, Meaning of,
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,
+Blanching foods,
+Blend flour,
+Blueberry muffins,
+Body, Function of water in the,
+Boiled coffee,
+  rice,
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,
+Boiling,
+  Cooking cereals by,
+  on foods, Effect of,
+  point,
+  rice,
+  to sterilize water,
+Boston brown bread,
+Bouchees, Meaning of,
+Boudin, Meaning of,
+Bouquet of herbs,
+Boxes, Window,
+Braizing,
+Bran bread,
+  muffins,
+Bread,
+  after baking, Care of,
+  and cake mixer,
+  as food, Importance of,
+  Baking,
+  Baking hot,
+  Boston brown,
+  Bran,
+  Composition of corn,
+  Composition of rye,
+  Composition of toasted,
+  Composition of whole-wheat,
+  Convenient equipment for making,
+  Corn,
+  Distinction between hot and leavened,
+  dough, Care of the rising,
+  dough, Kneading,
+  dough, Motions used in kneading,
+  dough, Purpose of kneading,
+  Graham,
+  Hot,
+  ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,
+  Leavened,
+  Left-over,
+  Long-process, sponge method of making,
+  making, Acquiring skill in,
+  making, Combining the ingredients in,
+  making, Convenient equipment for,
+  making, Ingredients for,
+  making, Long process of,
+  making, Long-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making materials, Proportion of,
+  making, Necessary equipment for,
+  -making processes,
+  making, Quick process of,
+  making, Quick-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making requirements,
+  making, Utensils for,
+  Milk and fat in,
+  mixer, Use of,
+  mixers,
+  mixture, Preparation of hot-,
+  Object of scoring,
+  Oven temperature for baking,
+  Purpose of baking,
+  Quick,
+  recipes,
+  Rice,
+  Rye,
+  Salt-rising,
+  Scoring,
+  Serving,
+  sponge,
+  Utilizing left-over hot,
+  White,
+  Whole-wheat,
+  Whole-wheat fruit,
+  with nuts, Graham,
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,
+  Distinction between yeast and hot,
+  General proportions used in hot,
+  Hot,
+  in the diet, Hot,
+  Mixtures used for hot,
+  Principal requirements for hot,
+  Purpose of utensils for making hot,
+  Quick,
+  Recipes for hot,
+  Requirements and processes for making hot,
+  Serving hot,
+  Varieties of mixtures in hot,
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,
+  foods, Meaning of,
+  menu,
+Broiling,
+  Pan,
+Brown bread, Boston,
+Browned rice,
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,
+Buckwheat,
+  cakes,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  rye, and millet,
+Building a coal fire,
+Buns, Fruit or nut,
+  Graham nut,
+  Nut or fruit,
+  rolls, and biscuits,
+Buns, Sweet,
+Butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of peanut,
+Buttered hominy,
+  toast,
+Buttermilk, Composition of,
+
+C
+
+Cabbage salad,
+  -salad dressing,
+Cafe au lait, Meaning of,
+  noir, Meaning of,
+Cake, Coffee,
+  Corn,
+  mixers,
+  Molasses corn,
+  Southern corn,
+Cakes, Buckwheat,
+  Corn griddle,
+  Griddle,
+  Procedure in baking griddle,
+  Rice griddle,
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,
+Canapes, Meaning of,
+Canard, Meaning of,
+Candy, Composition of stick,
+Canned fruit, Composition of,
+Canning of foods,
+Capers, Meaning of,
+Capon, Meaning of,
+Caramel, Meaning of,
+Carbohydrates,
+  Composition of,
+  Elements in,
+  in cereals,
+Carbon,
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,
+Card, Explanation of score,
+Care of bread after baking,
+  of bread in oven,
+  of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+  of food in refrigerator,
+  of food, Methods of,
+  of the refrigerator,
+  of the rising bread dough,
+Carolina rice,
+Casein,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Casserole, Definition of,
+  Use of,
+Celery, Composition of,
+Cellars, Storing food in,
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,
+  Definition of,
+  in cereals,
+  in the diet, Place of,
+Cereal flakes,
+  products,
+  selection, Factors that govern,
+  Setting a,
+Cereals,
+  Abundance of production of,
+  as a food,
+  Browning, or toasting, of,
+  by boiling, Cooking,
+  by dry heat, Cooking,
+  Carbohydrates in,
+  Care of,
+  Cellulose in,
+  Composition of,
+  Economic value of,
+  Fat in,
+  for the table, Preparation of,
+  Left-over wheat,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  Mineral matter in,
+  Origin of,
+  Points to observe in cooking,
+  Preparation for cooking,
+  Prepared, or ready-to-eat,
+  Production of,
+  Protein in,
+  Purpose of cooking,
+  Ready-to-eat,
+  Selection of,
+  Serving,
+  Table showing composition of,
+  undergo in cooking, Changes,
+  Uses of,
+  Water in,
+Champignons, Meaning of,
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,
+  Composition of cream,
+Chemical composition of food,
+  leavening,
+Chestnut coal,
+  Composition of,
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,
+Chillies, Meaning of,
+Chives, Meaning of,
+Chop, Composition of lamb,
+  Composition of pork,
+Chopper, Meat,
+Chops, Pan-broiled,
+Chutney, Meaning of,
+Cinnamon rolls,
+Citron,
+Clinkers,
+Coal and coke,
+  Anthracite, or hard,
+  Bituminous, or soft,
+  Chestnut,
+  Egg,
+  fire, Building a,
+  fire, Building a,
+  Pea,
+  Quality of,
+Coal range,
+  Sizes of,
+  Stove,
+  -stove dampers,
+  -stove firebox,
+  stove for cooking, General construction of,
+  -stove grate,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  Varieties of,
+Cocoa,
+Coconut, Composition of,
+Cod, Composition of fresh,
+  Composition of salt,
+Coffee,
+  cake,
+Coke,
+  and coal,
+Collops, Meaning of,
+Commercial yeast,
+Common labor-saving devices,
+Composition and varieties of oats,
+  of apple,
+  of bacon,
+  of banana,
+  of beef steak,
+  of beef suet,
+  of buckwheat,
+  of butter,
+  of buttermilk,
+  of canned fruit,
+  of carbohydrates,
+  of celery,
+  of cereals,
+  of cereals, Table showing,
+  of chestnut,
+  of coconut,
+  of cooked macaroni,
+  of cooked oat breakfast food,
+  of corn,
+  of corn bread,
+  of cottage cheese,
+  of cream,
+  of cream cheese,
+  of dried beef,
+  of dried fig,
+  of dry navy bean,
+  of egg white and yolk,
+  of food, Chemical,
+  of food materials,
+  of fresh cod,
+  of fresh shelled bean,
+  of fruit jelly,
+  of grape juice,
+  of grapes,
+  of green corn,
+  of green string bean,
+  of honey,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of lamb chop,
+  of lard,
+  of mackerel,
+  of maple sugar,
+  of molasses,
+  of oats,
+  of olive oil,
+  of onion,
+  of oyster,
+  of parsnip,
+  of peanut,
+  of peanut butter,
+  of pork chop,
+  of potato,
+  of raisins,
+  of rice,
+  of rye,
+  of rye bread,
+  of salt cod,
+  of skim milk,
+  of smoked ham,
+  of smoked herring,
+  of stick candy,
+  of strawberry,
+  of sugar,
+  of toasted bread,
+  of walnut,
+  of wheat,
+  of white and yolk of egg,
+  of whole egg,
+  of whole milk,
+  of whole wheat bread,
+Compote, Meaning of,
+Compressed yeast,
+Constituents, Food principles, or,
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,
+  Fireless,
+Cookery, Meaning of,
+  Terms used in,
+  time table,
+Cooking cereals by boiling,
+  cereals in double boiler,
+  cereals in fireless cooker,
+  cereals, Methods of,
+  cereals, Points to observe in,
+  cereals, Preparation for,
+  cereals, Purpose of,
+  cereals with dry heat,
+  food, Reasons for,
+  foods, Importance of,
+  foods, Table for,
+  Getting foods ready for,
+  Heat for,
+  Methods of,
+  Methods of using moist heat for,
+  of food,
+  processes,
+  rice, Japanese method of,
+  rice, Methods of,
+  Uses of water in,
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,
+  utensils, Copper,
+  utensils, Earthenware,
+  utensils, Enamel,
+  utensils, Glass,
+  utensils, Iron and steel,
+  utensils, Tin,
+  utensils, Wooden,
+  with dry heat,
+  with hot fat,
+Copper cooking utensils,
+Coquilles, Meaning of,
+Corer, Apple,
+Corn bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  cake,
+  cake, Molasses,
+  -cake recipes,
+  cake, Southern,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of green,
+  Field,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Maize, or Indian,
+  meal,
+  -meal croquettes,
+  -meal muffins,
+  -meal mush,
+  -meal mush, Left-over,
+  meal, Recipes for,
+  Pop,
+  Sweet,
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,
+Cracked wheat,
+Cream cheese, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+  of tartar and soda,
+  of wheat,
+  of wheat with dates,
+  sauce,
+Creamed hominy,
+  peas,
+  rice,
+Creaming of food ingredients,
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,
+  Rolled-oats,
+Croutons, Meaning of,
+Cups, Measuring,
+Curry,
+Custard, Farina,
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,
+
+D
+
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,
+  Coal-stove,
+Date muffins,
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,
+  Graham mush with,
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,
+Deviled, Meaning of,
+Dextrine, Formation of,
+Diet, Hot breads in the,
+  Meaning of,
+  Well-balanced,
+Dietetics, Definition of,
+Digestion and absorption of food,
+  of food,
+Dill, Meaning of,
+Dinner rolls,
+Dish-washing machines,
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,
+  boiler, Use of,
+Dough, Kneading bread,
+  Making bread,
+  Motions used in kneading bread,
+  Soft,
+  Stiff,
+Doughs and batters,
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,
+Dried beef, Composition of,
+  fig, Composition of,
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,
+  heat, Cooking with,
+  measure,
+  steaming,
+  yeast,
+Drying of foods,
+
+E
+
+Earthenware cooking utensils,
+Economic value of cereals,
+Effect of boiling on foods,
+Egg beater, Rotary,
+  coal,
+  Composition of white and yolk of,
+  Composition of whole,
+  whip,
+Eggs, Scrambled,
+Electric meter, Reading an,
+  stoves,
+  stoves and utensils,
+Electricity as a fuel,
+Emergency biscuits,
+En coquille, Meaning of,
+Enamel cooking utensils,
+Endosperm, Meaning of,
+Entrees,
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,
+Escarole, Meaning of,
+
+F
+
+Factors that govern cereal selection,
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,
+Farina,
+  custard,
+  souffle,
+Fat and milk in bread,
+  Cooking with hot,
+Fat in cereals,
+Fats,
+Ferments, or leavening agents,
+Field corn,
+Fig, Composition of dried,
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,
+Fillets, Meaning of,
+Firebox, Coal-stove,
+Fireless cooker,
+  cooker, Cooking cereals in,
+ -cooking gas stoves,
+Flour,
+  Bakers',
+  Blend,
+  Care of,
+  Graham,
+  Grains used for,
+  High-grade patent,
+  Kinds of,
+  made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,
+  Milling of wheat,
+  Quality of,
+  Red dog,
+  Rye,
+  Scouring,
+  Second-grade patent,
+  Selection of,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Flue, Coal-stove,
+  opening of a coal stove,
+Fluff, Orange,
+  Sauce for orange,
+Folding of food ingredients,
+Fondant, Meaning of,
+Fondue, Meaning of,
+Food, Absorption of,
+  Care of,
+  Cereals as a,
+  Chemical composition of,
+  Cooking of,
+  Definition of,
+  Digestion and absorption of,
+  Digestion of,
+  in cellars, Storing,
+  ingredients, Beating of,
+  ingredients, Creaming of,
+  ingredients, Cutting-in of,
+  ingredients, Folding of,
+  ingredients, Mixing of,
+  ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,
+  ingredients, Ricing of,
+  ingredients, Rubbing of,
+  ingredients, Sifting of,
+  ingredients, Stirring of,
+  Matters involved in right selection of,
+  Methods of caring for,
+  or fuel, value,
+Food, Preparation of,
+  principles or constituents,
+  Problem of,
+  Reasons for cooking,
+  Selection of,
+  substances,
+  value,
+Foods, Blanching,
+  Canning of,
+  Drying of,
+  for cooking, Preparation of,
+  Importance of cooking,
+  Importance of variety of,
+  Meaning of breakfast,
+  Storing of non-perishable,
+  Storing of semiperishable,
+  with ice, Keeping,
+  without ice, Keeping,
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,
+Frappe, Meaning of,
+French toast,
+Fricasseeing,
+Fromage, Meaning of,
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,
+  Composition of canned,
+  jelly, Composition of,
+  or nut buns,
+Frying,
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,
+  Use of coke as a,
+  Use of electricity as a,
+  Use of gas as a,
+  Use of kerosene as a,
+  value, Food, or,
+  Value of gas as,
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,
+
+G
+
+Gas,
+  Artificial,
+  as fuel, Use of,
+  as fuel, Value of,
+  Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,
+  Measurement of,
+  meter,
+  meter, Reading a,
+  Natural,
+  ranges, Description of,
+  stove, Mixer of a,
+  stove, Pilot of a,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  stoves, Fireless-cooking,
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,
+Germ, Definition of,
+Germs,
+Gingerbread, Soft,
+Glace, Biscuit,
+  Meaning of,
+Glass cooking utensils,
+Glaze, Meaning of,
+Gliadin,
+Glucose,
+Gluten,
+Glutenin,
+Goulash, Meaning of,
+Graham bread,
+  bread with nuts,
+  flour,
+  muffins,
+  mush with dates,
+  nut buns,
+Grain for market, Preparation of,
+  products, Table of,
+  Structure of wheat,
+Grains used for flour,
+Grape juice, Composition of,
+Grapes, Composition of,
+Grate, Coal-stove,
+Green corn, Composition of,
+Griddle-cake recipes,
+  cakes,
+  cakes, Corn,
+  cakes, Procedure in baking,
+  cakes, Rice,
+  cakes, Sour-milk,
+Griddles,
+Grinder,
+Grits,
+  Hominy,
+  Wheat,
+Gumbo, Meaning of,
+
+H
+
+Ham, Composition of smoked,
+Hard water, How to soften,
+Haricot, Meaning of,
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,
+  Cooking with dry,
+  for cooking,
+  for cooking, Discussion of,
+  Methods of cooking with moist,
+Herring, Composition of smoked,
+High-grade patent flour,
+Homard, Meaning of,
+Hominy,
+  and cheese souffle,
+  Buttered,
+  Creamed,
+  grits,
+  Left-over,
+  Recipes for,
+Honey, Composition of,
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,
+Hot bread,
+  bread, Distinction between leavened and,
+  -bread mixture. Baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Testing of baked,
+  -bread mixture, Preparation of,
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,
+  -bread recipes, Miscellaneous,
+  -bread utensils and their use,
+  bread, Utilizing left-over,
+  breads,
+  breads, Baking of,
+  breads, Combining ingredients for,
+  breads, Correct oven temperature for,
+  breads, Distinction between yeast and,
+  breads in the diet,
+  breads, Mixtures used for,
+  breads, Principal requirements for,
+  breads, Purpose of utensils for making,
+  breads, Recipes for,
+  breads, Regulating the oven for,
+  breads, Requirements and processes for making,
+  breads, Serving,
+  breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,
+  proportions used in,
+  fat, Cooking with,
+Hotplates,
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,
+  wheat,
+Huller, Berry,
+
+I
+
+Ice, Keeping foods with,
+Indian corn, or maize,
+Ingredients, Beating of food,
+  Combining hot-bread,
+  Creaming of food,
+  Cutting-in of food,
+  Folding of food,
+  for bread making,
+  Mixing of food,
+  Preparation of hot-bread,
+  Processes involved in mixing food,
+  Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,
+  required for bread making,
+  Ricing of food,
+  Rubbing of food,
+  Sifting of food,
+  Stirring of food,
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,
+Irons, Waffle,
+Italian pastes,
+  pastes, Composition of,
+  pastes, Left-over,
+  pastes, Preparation of,
+  pastes, Recipes for,
+  pastes, Varieties of,
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,
+Japanese method of cooking rice,
+  rice,
+Jardiniere, Meaning of,
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,
+Juice, Composition of grape,
+Julienne, Meaning of,
+Junket, Meaning of,
+
+K
+
+Keeping foods with ice,
+  foods without ice,
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,
+  stoves and their operation,
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,
+Kippered, Meaning of,
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,
+Kneading bread dough,
+  bread dough, Motions used in,
+  bread dough, Purpose of,
+
+L
+
+Labour-saving devices,
+Lactose,
+  Occurrence of,
+Lamb chop, Composition of,
+Lard, Composition of,
+Larding, Meaning of,
+Lardon, Meaning of,
+Leavened bread,
+Leavening agents,
+  agents, Classes of,
+  agents, or ferments,
+  Chemical,
+  Physical,
+Left-over barley,
+  -over bread,
+  -over corn-meal mush,
+  -over hominy,
+  -over hot bread, Utilizing,
+  -over Italian pastes,
+  -over rice,
+  -over rolled oats,
+  -over wheat cereals,
+Legumes, Meaning of,
+Lentils, Meaning of,
+Liquid measure,
+  yeast,
+Loaf, Nut,
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,
+Long process of bread making,
+  process of making white bread,
+  -process, sponge method of bread making,
+  -process, straight-dough method of bread making,
+Luncheon menu,
+  rolls,
+
+M
+
+Macaroni,
+  and kidney beans,
+  Composition of cooked,
+  Italian style,
+  with cheese,
+  with cheese and tomato,
+  with cream sauce,
+  with eggs,
+  with tomato and bacon,
+Macedoine, Meaning of,
+Machines, Dish-washing,
+Mackerel, Composition of,
+Maize,
+Malt sprouts,
+Maple sugar, Composition of,
+Marinade, Meaning of,
+Marinate, Meaning of,
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,
+Marrons, Meaning of,
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,
+Matter, Mineral,
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,
+Meal,
+  Corn,
+  Recipes for corn,
+Meaning of breakfast foods,
+Measure, Dry,
+  Liquid,
+Measurement of gas,
+Measures, Abbreviations of,
+Measuring,
+  cups,
+  Precautions to observe,
+  spoons,
+Meat chopper,
+  grinder,
+Menu, Breakfast,
+  Luncheon,
+  Meaning of,
+Menus and recipes,
+Meringue, Meaning of,
+Meter, Gas,
+  Reading a gas,
+  Reading an electric,
+Meters, Prepayment,
+Micro-organisms,
+Microbes,
+Milk and fat in bread,
+  Composition of skim,
+  Composition of whole,
+  Soda and sour,
+  toast,
+Millet,
+  buckwheat, and rye,
+  Description of,
+Milling of wheat flour,
+Mineral matter,
+  matter in cereals,
+  salts,
+  salts, Purpose of,
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,
+Mixer, Gas-stove,
+  Mayonnaise,
+  Use of the bread,
+Mixers, Bread,
+  Cake,
+Mixing of food ingredients,
+  of food ingredients, Processes involved in,
+  processes, Application of,
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,
+Mixtures used for hot breads,
+Moist heat, Cooking with,
+  yeast,
+Molasses and soda,
+  Composition of,
+  corn cake,
+Molds,
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,
+Mousse, Meaning of,
+Muffin recipes,
+Muffins, Blueberry,
+  Bran,
+  Corn-meal,
+  Date,
+  Graham,
+  Plain,
+  Rice,
+Mush, Corn-meal,
+  Left-over corn-meal,
+  Sauted corn-meal,
+  with dates, Graham,
+
+N
+
+Natural gas,
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,
+Nougat, Meaning of,
+Nut buns, Graham,
+  loaf,
+  or fruit buns,
+  puffs,
+
+O
+
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,
+  Composition of,
+Oatmeal,
+Oats,
+  Composition and varieties of,
+  Recipes for,
+  Rolled,
+  with apples, Rolled,
+Olive oil, Composition of,
+Onion, Composition of,
+Orange fluff,
+  fluff, Sauce for,
+Order of work,
+Oriental rice,
+Oven, Coal-stove,
+  for hot breads, Regulating the,
+  Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,
+  temperature, Determining and regulating,
+  temperature for baking bread,
+  temperature for hot breads,
+Oxygen,
+Oyster, Composition of,
+
+P
+
+Pan-broiled chops,
+  broiling,
+Paprika,
+Parker House rolls,
+Parsnip, Composition of,
+Pastes, Italian,
+  Recipes for Italian,
+Pate, Meaning of,
+Patent flour, High-grade,
+  flour, Second-grade,
+Patties, Rice,
+Pea coal,
+Peanut butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+Pearl barley,
+  barley, Description of,
+  barley with fruit,
+Peas, Creamed,
+  Sauce for,
+Physical leavening,
+Pilot, Gas-stove,
+Pimiento, Meaning of,
+Pineapple, Rice with,
+Pinwheel biscuits,
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,
+Pistachio, Meaning of,
+Plain muffins,
+Point, Boiling,
+Polishings, Rice,
+Pop corn,
+Popover recipes,
+  with fruit,
+Pork chop, Composition of,
+Potage, Meaning of,
+Potato, Composition of,
+  ricer,
+Potatoes, Baked,
+Powder, Baking,
+  Recipe for baking,
+Precautions to observe in measuring,
+Preparation for cooking cereals,
+  for cooking foods,
+  of cereals for the table,
+Preparation of food,
+  of grains for the market,
+  of hot-bread ingredients,
+  of hot-bread mixture,
+  of Italian pastes,
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+Prepayment meters,
+Principle of stoves,
+Principles, or constituents, Food,
+Problem of food,
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,
+  Application of mixing,
+  Bread-making,
+  Cooking,
+  involved in mixing food ingredients,
+Production of cereals,
+Products, Cereal,
+  Table of grain,
+Proportion of bread-making materials,
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,
+Protein,
+  in cereals,
+Puffs, Nut,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Puree, Meaning of,
+Purpose,
+  of baking bread,
+  of bread rising,
+  of cooking cereals,
+  of kneading bread dough,
+  of utensils for making hot breads,
+
+Q
+
+Quality,
+  of coal,
+  of flour,
+  of yeast,
+Quick,
+  bread, Hot or,
+  breads,
+  process of combining bread ingredients,
+  process of making white bread,
+  process of making whole-wheat bread,
+  -process, sponge method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+  -process, straight-dough method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+
+R
+
+Ragout, Meaning of,
+Raisins, Composition of,
+Ramekin, Meaning of,
+Range, Coal,
+Ranges, Description of gas,
+Reading,
+  a gas meter,
+  an electric meter,
+Ready,
+  -to-eat cereals,
+  -to-eat, or prepared, cereals,
+Reasons for cooking food,
+Rechauffe, Meaning of,
+Recipe, Definition of,
+Red-dog flour,
+Refrigerator,
+  Care of food in,
+  Care of the,
+Refrigerators,
+Refuse,
+  Distinction between waste and,
+  Meaning of,
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,
+Requirements,
+  and processes for making hot breads,
+  of bread making,
+Rice,
+  Boiled,
+  Boiling,
+  bread,
+  Browned,
+  Carolina,
+  Composition of,
+  Creamed,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Japanese,
+  Japanese method of cooking,
+  Left-over,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  muffins,
+  Oriental,
+  patties,
+  polishings,
+  Recipes for,
+  Savory,
+  Spanish,
+  Steamed,
+  Steaming,
+  Varieties and structure of,
+  waffles,
+  with pineapple,
+Ricer, Potato,
+Ricing of food ingredients,
+Rising,
+   bread dough, Care of the,
+   Temperature for bread,
+  Time required for bread,
+Rissoles, Meaning of,
+Roasting,
+  Distinction between baking and,
+  Meaning of,
+Rolled,
+  oats,
+  -oats croquettes,
+  -oats jelly with prunes,
+  oats, Left-over,
+  oats with apples,
+Rolls,
+  buns and biscuits, Recipes for,
+  Cinnamon,
+Dinner,
+  Luncheon,
+  Parker House,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Rotary egg beater,
+Roux, Meaning of,
+Rubbing of food ingredients,
+Rye,
+  bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  buckwheat, and millet,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  flour,
+
+S
+
+Salad, Cabbage,
+  Watercress-and-celery,
+Salmi, Meaning of,
+Salpicon, Meaning of,
+Salt cod, Composition of,
+  -rising bread,
+Salts, Mineral,
+  Purpose of mineral,
+Sauce, Cream,
+  for orange fluff,
+  for peas,
+  piquante, Meaning of,
+  Meaning of tartare,
+  Meaning of vinaigrette,
+Sauted corn-meal mush,
+Sauteing,
+Savoury rice,
+Scales,
+Score card, Explanation of,
+Scoring bread,
+  bread, Object of,
+Scouring of flour,
+Scrambled eggs,
+Second-grade patent flour,
+Selection and care of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,
+Semolina,
+Serving bread,
+  cereals,
+  hot breads,
+Setting a cereal or grain,
+Shallot, Meaning of,
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,
+Sifting of food ingredients,
+Simmering, or stewing,
+Sizes of coal,
+Skim milk, Composition of,
+Small electric utensils,
+Smoked ham, Composition of,
+  herring, Composition of,
+Soda and cream of tartar,
+Soda and molasses,
+  and sour milk,
+Soft dough,
+  gingerbread,
+Softening hard water,
+Soluble starch,
+Sorbet, Meaning of,
+Souffle, Meaning of,
+  Farina,
+Sour milk, Soda and,
+  -milk griddle cakes,
+Southern corn cake,
+Soy, Meaning of,
+Spaghetti,
+  with cheese and tomato sauce,
+Spanish rice,
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,
+  method of making bread, Quick-process,
+Spoons, Measuring,
+Spring, or hard, wheat,
+  or hard, wheat, Flour made from,
+Sprouts, Malt,
+Starch,
+Steak, Composition of beef,
+Steamed rice,
+Steamer,
+Steaming,
+  Dry,
+  rice,
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,
+Sterilizing,
+Stewing or simmering,
+Stick candy, Composition of,
+Stiff dough,
+Stirring of food ingredients,
+Stock, Meaning of,
+Storing food in cellars,
+  of non-perishable foods,
+  of semiperishable foods,
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,
+  ash pit, Coal-,
+  Coal,
+  dampers, Coal-,
+  flue opening, Coal-,
+  oven, Coal-,
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,
+  Fireless-cooking gas,
+  Operation of kerosene,
+  Principle of,
+Straight-dough method of bread making,
+  -dough method of bread making, Long-process,
+  -dough method of bread making, Quick-process,
+Strawberry, Composition of,
+String bean, Composition of green,
+Structure and varieties of rice,
+  of wheat grain,
+Substances, Food,
+Suet, Composition of beef,
+Sugar,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of maple,
+Sultanas, Meaning of,
+Sweet buns,
+  corn,
+
+T
+
+Table, Cookery time,
+  of grain products,
+  showing composition of cereals,
+Tables of relative weights and measures,
+  of weights and measures,
+Tarragon, Meaning of,
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,
+  for bread rising,
+  for hot breads, Correct oven,
+Terms used in cookery,
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,
+Thick batter,
+Thin batter,
+Timbale, Meaning of,
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,
+  required for bread rising,
+  table, Cookery,
+Tin cooking utensils,
+Toast,
+  Buttered,
+  French,
+  Milk,
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,
+Toasting,
+Troy weight,
+Truffles, Meaning of,
+
+U
+
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,
+  and their use, Hot-bread,
+  Copper cooking,
+  Earthenware cooking,
+  Enamel cooking,
+  for baking the hot-bread mixture,
+  for bread making,
+  for cooking,
+  for furnishing a kitchen,
+  for preparing hot-bread mixture,
+  Glass cooking,
+  Importance of,
+  Iron and steel cooking,
+  Materials used for,
+  Small electric,
+  Tin cooking,
+  Wooden cooking,
+
+V
+
+Value, Food,
+  Food, or fuel,
+  of cereals, Economic,
+  of gas as fuel,
+Vanilla, Meaning of,
+Varieties and composition of oats,
+  and structure of rice,
+  of coal,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of mixtures used in hot breads,
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,
+Vermicelli,
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,
+
+W
+
+Waffle irons,
+Waffles,
+  procedure in baking,
+  Rice,
+Walnut, Composition of,
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,
+  Definition of,
+Water as a food substance,
+  Boiling to sterilize,
+  How to soften hard,
+  in cereals,
+  in the body, Function of,
+Watercress-and-celery salad,
+Weight, Avoirdupois,
+  Troy,
+Weights and measures, Tables of,
+  and measures, Tables of relative,
+Wheat,
+  and wheat products, Recipes for,
+  Beech,
+  bread, Composition of whole,
+  cereals, Left-over,
+  Composition of,
+  Cracked,
+  Cream of,
+  flour, Milling of,
+  grain, Structure of,
+  grits,
+  Hulled,
+  Hulled, or whole,
+  Origin and use of,
+  products, Recipes for,
+  Spring, or hard,
+  Winter, or soft,
+White bread,
+  bread, Long process of making,
+  bread, Quick process of making,
+  of egg, Composition of,
+Whole egg, Composition of,
+  milk, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread,
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread, Quick process of making,
+  -wheat flour,
+  -wheat fruit bread,
+  -wheat puffs,
+  -wheat rolls,
+Window boxes,
+Winter, or soft, wheat,
+Wooden cooking utensils,
+Work, Order of,
+
+Y
+
+Yeast,
+  Action of,
+Yeast aids,
+  and hot breads, Distinction between,
+  Commercial,
+  Compressed,
+  Dry,
+  Liquid,
+  Moist,
+  or leavened, bread,
+  Quality of,
+Yeasts,
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,
+
+Z
+
+Zwieback,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
+Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 1 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
+copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing
+this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook.
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+
+Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the
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+**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971**
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+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
+
+
+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9935]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on November 1, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon,
+Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY
+
+VOLUME ONE
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+
+CEREALS
+
+BREAD
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+
+
+WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.
+
+PREFACE
+
+The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.
+
+This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
+Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.
+
+Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.
+
+It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
+  The Problem of Food
+  Selection of Food
+  Food Substances
+  Food Value
+  Digestion and Absorption of Food
+  Preparation of Food
+  Methods of Cooking
+  Heat for Cooking
+  Utensils for Cooking
+  Preparing Foods for Cooking
+  Order of Work
+  Table for Cooking Foods
+  Care of Food
+  Menus and Recipes
+  Terms Used in Cookery
+
+CEREALS
+  Production, Composition, and Selection
+  Cereals as a Food
+  Preparation of Cereals for the Table
+  Indian Corn, or Maize
+  Wheat
+  Rice
+  Oats
+  Barley
+  Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
+  Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
+  Serving Cereals
+  Italian Pastes
+  Breakfast Menu
+
+BREAD
+  Importance of Bread as Food
+  Ingredients for Bread Making
+  Utensils for Bread Making
+  Bread-Making Processes
+  Making the Dough
+  Care of the Rising Dough
+  Kneading the Dough
+  Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
+  Baking the Bread
+  Scoring Bread
+  Use of the Bread Mixer
+  Serving Bread
+  Bread Recipes
+  Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
+  Toast
+  Left-Over Bread
+
+HOT BREADS
+  Hot Breads in the Diet
+  Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
+  Leavening Agents
+  Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
+  Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
+  Serving Hot Breads
+  Popover Recipes
+  Griddle-Cake Recipes
+  Waffle Recipes
+  Muffin Recipes
+  Corn-Cake Recipes
+  Biscuit Recipes
+  Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
+  Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
+  Luncheon Menu
+
+INDEX
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+THE PROBLEM OF FOOD
+
+1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
+the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.
+
+2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
+food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.
+
+3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.
+
+4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.
+
+In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.
+
+5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.
+
+6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.
+
+The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.
+
+7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.
+
+In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.
+
+8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SELECTION OF FOOD
+
+MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION
+
+9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.
+
+10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
+_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.
+
+However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.
+
+
+FOOD SUBSTANCES
+
+11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.
+
+12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.
+
+13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.
+
+The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.
+
+14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.
+
+15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.
+
+Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.
+
+16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.
+
+17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.
+
+So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.
+
+18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.
+
+Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.
+
+19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.
+
+Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.
+
+20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.
+
+21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.
+
+
+FOOD VALUE
+
+22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.
+
+While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.
+
+23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.
+
+Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.
+
+
+DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD
+
+24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+[Illustration: Composition of food materials]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD
+
+25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:
+
+1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.
+
+2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.
+
+3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.
+
+4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.
+
+5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF COOKING
+
+COOKING PROCESSES
+
+26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.
+
+27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sautéing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.
+
+The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.
+
+
+COOKING WITH DRY HEAT
+
+28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.
+
+29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.
+
+30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.
+
+31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.
+
+It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.
+
+32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.
+
+
+COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT
+
+33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.
+
+As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.
+
+34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.
+
+35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.
+
+The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.
+
+36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.
+
+Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.
+
+37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.
+
+38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.
+
+Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.
+
+39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.
+
+Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.
+
+40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.
+
+Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.
+
+41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.
+
+Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.
+
+42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.
+
+
+COOKING WITH HOT FAT
+
+43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sautéing,
+and fricasseeing.
+
+44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.
+
+45. SAUTÉING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed sautéing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be sautéd are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+sautéd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.
+
+46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sautéing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautéd either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HEAT FOR COOKING
+
+GENERAL DISCUSSION
+
+47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.
+
+48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.
+
+49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.
+
+
+COAL AND COKE
+
+50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or
+_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.
+
+51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.
+
+52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.
+
+Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.
+
+53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.
+
+
+GAS
+
+54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.
+
+55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]
+
+56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.
+
+57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.
+
+To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 ÷ 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34
+
+58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.
+
+
+KEROSENE
+
+59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.
+
+Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY
+
+60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.
+
+61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2.]
+
+The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.
+
+To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.
+
+After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.
+
+
+PRINCIPLE OF STOVES
+
+62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.
+
+63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_
+and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.
+
+64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.
+
+
+COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_,
+or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which
+usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_,
+_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_
+and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and
+the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.
+
+67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper
+_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper _h_.
+
+68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.
+
+
+GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a
+gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.
+
+
+KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is
+stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is
+provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.
+
+73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+
+ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS
+
+74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.
+
+(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?
+
+(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is
+leakage in the household due?
+
+(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?
+
+(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.
+
+(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.
+
+(8) What is a calorie?
+
+(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.
+
+(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.
+
+(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;
+(_c_) hot fat.
+
+(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking.
+
+(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.
+
+(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.
+
+(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?
+
+(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?
+
+(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of
+the dampers of a stove?
+
+(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?
+
+(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?
+
+(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)
+
+UTENSILS FOR COOKING
+
+IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS
+
+1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.
+
+2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.
+
+The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.
+
+In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.
+
+
+MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS
+
+3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.
+
+4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.
+
+5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.
+
+6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.
+
+7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.
+
+8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.
+
+9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.
+
+10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.
+
+
+LABOR-SAVING DEVICES
+
+11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a purée. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or
+_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry
+huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.
+
+14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.
+
+15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large
+gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a
+handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.
+
+17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into
+compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles _f_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 6.]
+
+To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN
+
+18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.
+
+
+NECESSARY EQUIPMENT
+
+Baking dish with cover
+Bread box
+Bread knife
+Bread pans
+Can opener
+Cake knife
+Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper
+Coffee mill
+Coffee pot
+Colander
+Cookie cutter
+Corer, Apple
+Cutting board
+Dishpan
+Double boiler
+Egg beater
+Flour sifter
+Forks
+Frying pan, large
+Frying pan, small
+Garbage can
+Grater
+Kettle covers
+Kettles, two or more
+Knife sharpener
+Knives
+Lemon squeezer
+Long-handled fork
+Measuring cup
+Meat board
+Meat knife
+Mixing bowls
+Mixing spoons
+Molding board
+Muffin pan
+Paring knife
+Pepper shaker
+Pie pans
+Potato masher
+Rinsing, or draining, pan
+Roasting pan
+Rolling pin
+Salt box
+Saucepans
+Spatula
+Tablespoons
+Teakettle
+Teapot
+Teaspoons
+Toaster
+Wire strainer
+Wooden spoon
+
+
+CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT
+
+Bread mixer
+Cake coolers
+Cake mixer
+Cake turner
+Casseroles
+Clock
+Coffee percolator
+Containers for spices and dry groceries
+Cookie sheets
+Cream whip Egg whip
+Fireless cooker
+Frying kettle and basket
+Funnel Glass jars for canning
+Griddle
+Ice-cream freezer
+Ice pick
+Jelly molds
+Nest of bowls
+Pan for baking fish
+Potato knife
+Potato ricer
+Ramekins
+Quart measure
+Scales
+Scissors
+Set of skewers
+Steamer
+Waffle iron
+Wheel cart
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATION
+
+19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.
+
+20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to
+take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.
+
+21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.
+
+
+MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS
+
+22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.
+
+BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.
+
+STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.
+
+FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.
+
+RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.
+
+CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.
+
+CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.
+
+SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.
+
+RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a purée. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.
+
+23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.
+
+As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.
+
+
+MEASURING
+
+24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.
+
+27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.
+
+28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (_b_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.
+
+31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy
+weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
+437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz.
+16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb.
+100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt.
+20 hundredweight \
+                 }....... = 1 ton............... T.
+2,000 pounds     /
+
+Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.
+
+32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:
+
+LIQUID MEASURE
+4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt.
+2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt.
+4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal.
+31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl.
+2 barrels \
+          }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd.
+63 gallons/
+
+33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:
+
+DRY MEASURE
+2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt.
+8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk.
+4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.
+
+34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a
+pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:
+
+APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD
+
+Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS
+Butter........................ 2
+Coffee, whole................. 4
+Corn meal..................... 3
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 2
+Molasses...................... 1-1/2
+Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2
+Nuts, shelled................. 3
+Oats, rolled.................. 4
+Olive oil..................... 2-1/2
+Peas, split................... 2
+Raisins....................... 3
+Rice.......................... 2
+Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3
+Sugar, granulated............. 2
+Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE
+Corn starch................... 3/8
+Flour......................... 1/4
+Milk.......................... 1/2
+Sugar......................... 1/2
+
+APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD
+
+Butter........................ 8 OUNCES
+Corn meal..................... 5
+Corn starch................... 6
+Flour......................... 4
+Milk.......................... 8
+Molasses..................... 10
+Nuts, shelled................. 4
+Raisins....................... 5
+Sugar......................... 8
+
+In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:
+
+3 tsp. = 1 Tb.
+16 Tb. = 1 c.
+
+35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:
+
+tsp. for teaspoonful
+pt. for pint
+Tb. for tablespoonful
+qt. for quart
+c. for cupful
+oz. for ounce
+lb. for pound
+
+
+ORDER OF WORK
+
+36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.
+
+First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.
+
+The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.
+
+Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.
+
+Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.
+
+If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.
+
+
+TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS
+
+37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)
+
+COOKERY TIME TABLE
+
+MEATS AND FISH
+
+_Broiled_
+Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min.
+Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish....................... 15 to 20 min.
+Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min.
+Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min.
+Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min.
+Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min.
+Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min.
+Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min.
+Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.
+
+_Boiled_
+Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr.
+Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr.
+Fish, bluefish, cod, or
+  bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min.
+Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min.
+Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min.
+Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr.
+Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr.
+Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.
+
+_Roasted_
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
+well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
+well done.................. 2 hr.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min.
+Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr.
+Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr.
+Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min.
+Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min.
+Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.
+Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
+Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+_Boiled_
+Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min.
+Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min.
+Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min.
+Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr.
+Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min.
+Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min.
+Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min.
+Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr.
+Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min.
+Green corn............... 8 to 12 min.
+Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min.
+Onions.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Peas.................... 25 to 60 min.
+Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min.
+Rice.................... 20 to 30 min.
+Spinach................. 20 to 30 min.
+Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+
+BAKED FOODS
+Beans.....................  6 to 8 hr.
+Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min.
+Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min.
+Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min.
+Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min.
+Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr.
+Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min.
+Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min.
+Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
+Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min.
+Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min.
+Custard................... 20 to 45 min.
+Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min.
+Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min.
+Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min.
+Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr.
+Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CARE OF FOOD
+
+REASONS FOR CARE
+
+38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.
+
+39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria,
+yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.
+
+40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.
+
+Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.
+
+41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+METHODS OF CARE
+
+CLASSIFICATION
+
+42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS
+
+43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.
+
+44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE
+
+45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.
+
+46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.
+
+The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 12.]
+
+47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.
+
+48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.
+
+50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.
+
+The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.
+
+
+KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE
+
+51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+
+STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS
+
+55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.
+
+56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.
+
+Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.
+
+Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.
+
+
+STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS
+
+57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.
+
+Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.
+
+Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.
+
+
+MENUS AND RECIPES
+
+58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.
+
+59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.
+
+60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.
+
+MENU
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops
+Mashed Potatoes
+Creamed Peas
+Cabbage Salad
+Orange Fluff with Sauce
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+PAN-BROILED CHOPS
+
+Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.
+
+MASHED POTATOES
+
+Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.
+
+CREAMED PEAS
+
+Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.
+
+SAUCE FOR PEAS
+
+1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk
+1 Tb. butter
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.
+
+CABBAGE SALAD
+
+1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1 small red or green sweet pepper
+Dash of pepper
+1 small onion
+Salad dressing
+
+Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.
+
+CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING
+
+3/4 c. vinegar
+1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired
+1/4 c. water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+3 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. flour
+
+Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.
+
+ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 c. orange juice
+5 Tb. corn starch
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+Pinch of salt
+2 egg whites
+1 pt. boiling water
+
+Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.
+
+When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.
+
+SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF
+
+1 Tb. corn starch
+3/4 c. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+3/4 c. sugar
+2 egg yolks
+1/4 c. orange juice
+1 Tb. lemon juice
+
+Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.
+
+61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.
+
+62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.
+
+
+TERMS USED IN COOKERY
+
+63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.
+
+In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.
+
+À la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts à la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.
+
+Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.
+
+Au naturel (o nat-ü-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.
+
+Béchamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.
+
+Biscuit Glacé (bis-kü-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glacéd shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.
+
+Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.
+
+Bouchées (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.
+
+Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.
+
+Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.
+
+Café au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.
+
+Café Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.
+
+Canapés (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sautéd in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.
+
+Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.
+
+Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.
+
+Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.
+
+Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.
+
+Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.
+
+Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.
+
+Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sautéd
+or used in salads.
+
+Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.
+
+Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.
+
+Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.
+
+Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.
+
+Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.
+
+Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.
+
+Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.
+
+Créole, à la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.
+
+Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.
+
+Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.
+
+Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.
+
+Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.
+
+Deviled.--Highly seasoned.
+
+Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.
+
+En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.
+
+Entrées (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.
+
+Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.
+
+Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.
+
+Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.
+
+Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.
+
+Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.
+
+Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.
+
+Frappé (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.
+
+Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.
+
+Glacé (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.
+
+Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.
+
+Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.
+
+Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.
+
+Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.
+
+Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.
+
+Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.
+
+Italiene, à la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.
+
+Jardinière (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.
+
+Julienne (zhü-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.
+
+Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.
+
+Kippered.--Dried or smoked.
+
+Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.
+
+Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.
+
+Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.
+
+Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.
+
+Macédoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.
+
+Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.
+
+Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.
+
+Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.
+
+Menu.--A bill of fare.
+
+Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.
+
+Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.
+
+Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.
+
+Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.
+
+Pâté (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.
+
+Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.
+
+Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.
+
+Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.
+
+Purée (pü-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.
+
+Ragoût (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.
+
+Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.
+
+Réchauffé (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.
+
+Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.
+
+Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.
+
+Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.
+
+Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.
+
+Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.
+
+Shallot.--A variety of onion.
+
+Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.
+
+Soufflé (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.
+
+Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.
+
+Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.
+
+Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.
+
+Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.
+
+Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.
+
+Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+ragoût.
+
+Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.
+
+Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.
+
+Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.
+
+Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+pâté or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.
+
+Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?
+
+(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.
+
+(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.
+
+(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?
+
+(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;
+(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.
+
+(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)
+creaming; (_e_) folding.
+
+(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?
+
+(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
+
+(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.
+
+(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?
+
+(11) Tell why foods spoil.
+
+(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?
+
+(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?
+
+(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.
+
+(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)
+cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.
+
+(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.
+
+(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.
+
+(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?
+
+(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell
+the best ways in which to preserve such foods.
+
+(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.
+
+Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?
+
+Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?
+
+Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?
+
+Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?
+
+Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?
+
+Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?
+
+Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION
+
+PRODUCTION OF CEREALS
+
+1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.
+
+The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.
+
+2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.
+
+3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.
+
+Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.
+
+4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.
+
+6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.
+
+7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.
+
+8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.
+
+9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.
+
+10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.
+
+11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.
+
+12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.
+
+13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
+
+Protein   Fat       Carbohydrate   Cellulose  Mineral Matter
+                                              or Ash
+
+Wheat     Oats      Rice           Oats       Oats
+
+Rye       Corn      Rye            Buckwheat  Barley
+
+Oats      Barley    Corn           Barley     Buckwheat
+
+Barley    Buckwheat Wheat          Wheat      Rye
+
+Corn      Rice      Barley         Rye        Wheat
+
+Buckwheat Wheat     Buckwheat      Corn       Corn
+
+Rice      Rye       Oats           Rice       Rice
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS AS A FOOD
+
+USES OF CEREALS
+
+14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.
+
+15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautéd
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.
+
+
+SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS
+
+16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other
+times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and
+called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._
+
+Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.
+
+17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.
+
+18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.
+
+Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.
+
+19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.
+
+20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+GRAIN PRODUCTS
+
+                           / Pearl barley
+                           | Hulled wheat
+        / Whole Grains     {Hominy: Corn
+        |                  | Corn
+        |                  \ Rice
+        |
+        |                  / Farina: Wheat or corn
+        |                  | Cream of Wheat: Wheat
+        | Crushed Grains   {Cracked Wheat: Wheat
+        |                  | Hominy Grits: Corn
+        |                  | Wheat Grits: Wheat
+        |                  \ Samp: Corn
+Cereals {
+        |                  / Corn
+        | Meal             {Barley
+        |                  | Rice
+        |                  \ Oats
+        |
+        |                  / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn
+        \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat
+                           | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn
+                           \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat
+
+        / Corn
+Starch  {Rice
+        \ Wheat
+
+        / Macaroni
+Wheat   {Vermicelli
+        \ Spaghetti
+
+Glucose} Usually corn
+Sirup   /
+
+              / Wheat
+Cereal Coffee {Rye
+              \ Barley
+
+        / Wheat
+        | Rye
+Flour   {Corn
+        | Buckwheat
+        \ Rice
+
+Liquors       \
+Malted Drinks} All grains
+Beer          |
+Whisky        /
+
+Alcohol: All grains
+
+Feed for animals: All grains
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE
+
+METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS
+
+21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.
+
+22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a
+measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a
+large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.
+
+24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.
+
+25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.
+
+26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _dry
+steaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.
+
+This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.
+
+27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.
+
+28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.
+
+29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.
+
+_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.
+
+The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE
+
+ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE
+
+30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indian
+corn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.
+
+31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Pop
+corn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL
+
+32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.
+
+Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.
+
+33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.
+
+34. HOMINY.--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.
+
+HOMINY
+(Sufficient for 3 Quarts)
+
+2 qt. water
+1 Tb. lye
+1 qt. shelled corn
+3 tsp. salt
+
+Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.
+
+35. BUTTERED HOMINY.--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.
+
+BUTTERED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+3 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.
+
+36. CREAMED HOMINY.--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.
+
+CREAMED HOMINY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. flour
+1 pt. cooked hominy
+
+Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.
+
+37. HOMINY GRITS.--The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:
+
+HOMINY GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. water
+1 c. hominy grits
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sautéd or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.
+
+HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLÉ
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. cooked hominy
+1/2 c. hot milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.
+
+39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUSH
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. water
+1 c. corn meal
+
+Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.
+
+A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.
+
+40. SAUTÉD CORN-MEAL-MUSH.--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sautéd.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For sautéing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sautéing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.
+
+41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sautéing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and sauté them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.
+
+42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Sautéd corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+WHEAT
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.
+
+Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.
+
+44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _cream
+of wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS
+
+45. HULLED WHEAT.--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.
+
+HULLED WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1 c. hulled wheat
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+46. WHEAT GRITS.--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.
+
+WHEAT GRITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. wheat grits
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.
+
+47. CREAM OF WHEAT.--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.
+
+48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.
+
+CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3/4 c. cream of wheat
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. dates
+
+Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.
+
+49. FARINA.--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.
+
+FARINA
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. boiling water
+3/4 c. farina
+
+Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.
+
+GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. dates
+
+Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and sautéd like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and soufflés, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.
+
+FARINA CUSTARD
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+2 c. milk
+2 eggs
+1/2 c. sugar
+1/4 tsp. nutmeg
+
+Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.
+
+FARINA SOUFFLÉ
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. cold farina
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 eggs
+
+Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.
+
+
+RICE
+
+VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE
+
+52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+_Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.
+
+53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.
+
+54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR RICE
+
+55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_,
+which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.
+
+56. BOILED RICE.--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:
+
+BOILED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+3 tsp. salt
+3 qt. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.
+
+57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.
+
+JAPANESE METHOD
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+
+Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
+
+58. STEAMED RICE.--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.
+
+STEAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. water
+
+Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.
+
+59. CREAMED RICE.--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.
+
+CREAMED RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. rice
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cream
+
+Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.
+
+60. ORIENTAL RICE.--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.
+
+ORIENTAL RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rice
+2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth
+2 Tb. butter
+1 slice onion
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+
+Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.
+
+61. BROWNED RICE.--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.
+
+62. SAVORY RICE.--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:
+
+SAVORY RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. browned rice
+2-1/2 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. chopped celery
+2 Tb. butter
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1/4 c. chopped pimiento
+
+Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.
+
+63. LEFT-OVER RICE.--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.
+
+RICE WITH PINEAPPLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. steamed or creamed rice
+1/4 c. sugar
+6 rings pineapple
+3/4 c. whipped cream
+
+Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.
+
+65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.
+
+RICE PATTIES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. stale crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. celery salt
+2 eggs
+2 c. steamed rice
+
+Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and sauté them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.
+
+66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.
+
+SPANISH RICE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 small onion
+2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice
+1 c. chopped meat
+1/2 c. meat stock or gravy
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+2 Tb. grated cheese
+1/4 c. stale crumbs
+
+Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OATS
+
+COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES
+
+67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR OATS
+
+68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.
+
+69. ROLLED OATS.--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.
+
+ROLLED OATS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. boiling water
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.
+
+70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.
+
+ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2/3 c. rolled oats
+2 c. boiling water
+1/2 tsp. salt
+6 medium-sized apples
+1 c. water
+1/2 c. sugar
+
+Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.
+
+ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. rolled oats
+3 c. water
+1 tsp. salt
+12 stewed prunes
+
+Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.
+
+72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:
+
+ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES
+(Sufficient to Serve Four)
+
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+3/4 c. crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+1 c. cooked rolled oats
+1 egg
+
+Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and sauté then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BARLEY
+
+ORIGIN AND USE
+
+73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.
+
+74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.
+
+75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR BARLEY
+
+76. PEARL BARLEY.--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.
+
+PEARL BARLEY
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+4-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.
+
+PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. pearl barley
+1 tsp. salt
+5 c. boiling water
+1 c. dates, figs, or prunes
+
+Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
+
+78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sautéd in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.
+
+
+RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET
+
+79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.
+
+80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.
+
+81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.
+
+PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS
+
+82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.
+
+83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.
+
+
+SERVING CEREALS
+
+84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.
+
+To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ITALIAN PASTES
+
+PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION
+
+85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.
+
+86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.
+
+87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.
+
+88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES
+
+89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.
+
+In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.
+
+In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.
+
+90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.
+
+MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+CREAM SAUCE
+
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. milk
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
+
+91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH EGGS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+4 hard-boiled eggs
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.
+
+92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 c. canned tomatoes
+8 thin slices bacon
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.
+
+93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. macaroni
+3 qt. boiling water
+3 tsp. salt
+1-1/2 Tb. butter
+1-1/2 Tb. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1/8 tsp. paprika
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 c. grated or finely cut cheese
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.
+
+MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+1 c. grated cheese
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. butter
+2 tsp. salt
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.
+
+95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.
+
+MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+1-1/2 c. scalded milk
+2/3 c. grated cheese
+1 tsp. salt
+1/2 tsp. paprika
+1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham
+1/4 c. crumbs
+
+Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.
+
+96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.
+
+MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 c. macaroni
+2 qt. water
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+2 Tb. flour
+3/4 c. hot milk
+1/2 c. canned tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1 c. canned kidney beans
+
+Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.
+
+97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.
+
+SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. spaghetti
+2 Tb. butter
+2 qt. boiling water
+2 Tb. flour
+2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. grated cheese
+1 can tomatoes
+1 tsp. salt
+1 small onion, chopped
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/2 c. water
+
+Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.
+
+98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.
+
+BREAKFAST MENU
+
+99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.
+
+MENU
+
+Berries and Cream or Oranges
+Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream
+Scrambled Eggs
+Buttered Toast
+Cocoa or Coffee
+
+SCRAMBLED EGGS
+
+5 eggs
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. butter
+1/8 tsp. pepper
+
+Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.
+
+BUTTERED TOAST
+
+Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.
+
+COCOA
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+3 Tb. cocoa
+3 Tb. sugar
+1/4 tsp. salt
+2-1/2 c. boiling water
+
+Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.
+
+BOILED COFFEE
+
+Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CEREALS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?
+
+(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?
+
+(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?
+
+(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.
+
+(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?
+
+(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?
+
+(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?
+
+(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?
+
+(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.
+
+(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?
+
+(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.
+
+(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.
+
+(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.
+
+(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?
+
+(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.
+
+(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.
+
+(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?
+
+(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?
+
+(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?
+
+(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?
+
+Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?
+
+Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?
+
+Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?
+
+Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?
+
+Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+BREAD
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
+
+IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD
+
+1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.
+
+2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_,
+or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.
+
+Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_,
+_bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.
+
+3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.
+
+4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.
+
+Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.
+
+5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+INGREDIENTS REQUIRED
+
+6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.
+
+
+FLOUR
+
+7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.
+
+8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.
+
+9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.
+
+This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.
+
+Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and
+_winter_, or _soft, wheat_.
+
+10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.
+
+11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used
+for all purposes.
+
+12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:
+
+                                            PER CENT.
+Protein...................................... 11.9
+Fat..........................................  2.1
+Carbohydrates................................ 71.9
+Mineral salts................................. 1.8
+Water........................................ 10.5
+Cellulose..................................... 1.8
+Total....................................... 100.0
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.
+
+13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.
+
+14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.
+
+15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.
+
+16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.
+
+17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.
+
+18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next,
+_second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.
+
+The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.
+
+19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.
+
+The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.
+
+20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.
+
+
+YEAST
+
+21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.
+
+22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.
+
+The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or
+_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.
+
+23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.
+
+24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.
+
+Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and
+_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.
+
+25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.
+
+Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.
+
+26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.
+
+27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.
+
+More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.
+
+28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.
+
+
+YEAST AIDS
+
+29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.
+
+
+MILK AND FAT IN BREAD
+
+30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.
+
+31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.
+
+
+PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS
+
+32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.
+
+The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_;
+measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.
+
+The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.
+
+34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.
+
+A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES
+
+ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING
+
+35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.
+
+36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.
+
+Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.
+
+The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+"sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.
+
+The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MAKING THE DOUGH
+
+PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS
+
+37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.
+
+
+COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS
+
+38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as
+the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.
+
+39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge
+method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.
+
+41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.
+
+The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.
+
+42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the
+_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.
+
+44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.
+
+
+CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH
+
+45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.
+
+46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.
+
+48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.
+
+In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6]
+
+50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.
+
+
+KNEADING THE DOUGH
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10]
+
+To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.
+
+
+SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES
+
+53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12]
+
+55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]
+
+
+BAKING THE BREAD
+
+56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.
+
+57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15]
+
+58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.
+
+Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.
+
+59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16]
+
+To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17]
+
+60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.
+
+After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.
+
+
+SCORING BREAD
+
+61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.
+
+SCORE CARD
+
+External Appearance:                 PER CENT.
+  Shape................................. 5
+  Size.................................. 2
+  Crust:
+    Shade............................... 2
+    Uniformity of Color................. 2
+    Character........................... 2
+    Depth............................ 2--8
+Lightness.............................. 20
+Internal Appearance:
+  Even distribution of gas............. 10
+  Moisture.............................. 5
+  Elasticity............................ 5
+  Color................................ 15
+Flavor................................. 30
+                                       ---
+    Total............................. 100
+
+62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.
+
+63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.
+
+The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.
+
+The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.
+
+64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.
+
+65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.
+
+66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.
+
+
+USE OF THE BREAD MIXER
+
+67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.
+
+68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of
+Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.
+
+In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.
+
+Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.
+
+
+SERVING BREAD
+
+69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.
+
+As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.
+
+Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.
+
+Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES
+
+BREAD RECIPES
+
+70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.
+
+71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.
+
+The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.
+
+The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.
+
+The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.
+
+72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.
+
+73. WHITE BREAD.--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.
+
+WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast
+1 Tb. salt
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.
+
+Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.
+
+WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+2 cakes compressed yeast
+1 qt. lukewarm liquid
+3 qt. flour
+1 c. flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
+
+74. Whole-Wheat Bread.--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS
+(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1 Tb. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+8 c. whole-wheat flour
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.
+
+The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.
+
+75. Graham Bread.--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 c. white flour
+3 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.
+
+A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.
+
+76. Graham Bread With Nuts.--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.
+
+GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+1/4 c. molasses
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1-1/2 c. chopped nuts
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.
+
+77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates
+2 tsp. salt
+6 c. whole-wheat flour
+1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates
+1 c. white flour for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.
+
+78. BRAN BREAD.--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.
+
+BRAN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+2 c. milk
+6 Tb. molasses
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 yeast cake
+1/4 c. lukewarm water
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. graham flour
+1 c. sterilized bran
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.
+
+79. RYE BREAD.--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.
+
+RYE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+2 Tb. fat
+1 Tb. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 cake compressed yeast
+3 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. rye flour
+4 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.
+
+80. Corn Bread.--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.
+
+CORN BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 yeast cake
+2 c. lukewarm liquid
+2 tsp. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+4-1/2 c. white flour
+2 c. corn meal
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.
+
+81. Rice Bread.--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.
+
+RICE BREAD
+(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
+
+1/2 c. uncooked rice
+1-1/2 c. water
+1 Tb. salt
+1 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1/2 yeast cake
+1 c. lukewarm liquid
+6 c. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.
+
+82. SALT-RISING BREAD.--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.
+
+SALT-RISING BREAD
+(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
+
+1 c. fresh milk
+1/4 c. corn meal
+1 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. sugar
+2 c. lukewarm water
+7 c. white flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.
+
+
+RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS
+
+83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18]
+
+So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.
+
+84. Parker House Rolls.--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.
+
+PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. fat
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+3 pt. white flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:
+Fig. 19]
+
+85. Dinner Rolls.--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If
+they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.
+
+DINNER ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+3 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20]
+
+Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.
+
+86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:
+
+LUNCHEON ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk
+2 Tb. sugar
+2 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+4 c. white flour
+1 egg white
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
+
+1 pt. lukewarm milk
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 tsp. salt
+3 Tb. sugar
+4 Tb. fat
+2 c. white flour
+4 c. whole-wheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.
+
+88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.
+
+GRAHAM NUT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+2 c. lukewarm milk
+4 Tb. brown sugar
+2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. fat
+2-1/2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+1 c. chopped nuts
+3-1/2 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:
+
+NUT OR FRUIT BUNS
+(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)
+
+4 Tb. sugar
+1 Tb. fat
+1 tsp. salt
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm milk
+3 c. white flour
+3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.
+
+90. SWEET BUNS.--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.
+
+SWEET BUNS
+(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1 c. lukewarm scalded milk
+1/4 c. sugar
+2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.
+1 tsp. salt
+3-1/2 c. white flour
+2 eggs
+1 tsp. lemon extract
+1 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21]
+
+91. COFFEE CAKE.--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.
+
+COFFEE CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Cake)
+
+1 cake compressed yeast
+1/2 c. lukewarm milk
+1 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 c. white flour
+1 egg
+2 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. brown sugar
+1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
+
+Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23]
+
+92. CINNAMON ROLLS.--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
+
+
+TOAST
+
+93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.
+
+94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.
+
+95. MILK TOAST.--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.
+
+96. FRENCH TOAST.--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.
+
+FRENCH TOAST
+(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
+
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2 tsp. sugar
+8 slices of bread
+1/2 tsp. salt
+
+Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and sauté it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.
+
+
+LEFT-OVER BREAD
+
+97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entrées. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.
+
+98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.
+
+It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BREAD
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.
+
+(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?
+
+(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of
+bread?
+
+(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?
+
+(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?
+
+(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth?
+(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?
+
+(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does
+this play in bread making?
+
+(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?
+
+(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard
+it?
+
+(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.
+
+(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making?
+(_b_) the quick process?
+
+(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?
+
+(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to
+tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?
+
+(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?
+
+(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?
+
+(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?
+
+(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?
+
+(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?
+
+(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.
+
+(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS
+
+HOT BREADS IN THE DIET
+
+1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS
+
+2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.
+
+In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.
+
+The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.
+
+In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS
+
+3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.
+
+As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.
+
+
+PHYSICAL LEAVENING
+
+4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.
+
+5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.
+
+6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.
+
+
+CHEMICAL LEAVENING
+
+7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.
+
+8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.
+
+9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.
+
+The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk._ So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.
+
+10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.
+
+11. SODA AND MOLASSES.--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.
+
+The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.
+
+12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda._ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.
+
+13. BAKING POWDER.--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.
+
+14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.
+
+15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.
+
+16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.
+
+17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:
+
+RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER
+
+1/2 lb. cream of tartar
+1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda
+1/4 lb. corn starch
+
+Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE
+
+PURPOSE OF UTENSILS
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a case
+knife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.
+
+
+UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+21. GRIDDLES.--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.
+
+The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.
+
+22. WAFFLE IRONS.--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it,
+a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MIXTURE
+
+VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS
+
+23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and a
+large proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thick
+batter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_.
+
+24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.
+
+A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, is
+one that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.
+
+A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1
+measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.
+
+A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of
+liquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.
+
+25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.
+
+
+PREPARING THE MIXTURE
+
+26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.
+
+27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.
+
+In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.
+
+The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.
+
+
+BAKING THE MIXTURE
+
+28. REGULATING THE OVEN.--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.
+
+29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.
+
+30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.
+
+31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.--As is pointed out in
+_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.
+
+33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.
+
+Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.
+
+Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.
+
+
+SERVING HOT BREADS
+
+34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.
+
+Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS
+
+POPOVER RECIPES
+
+35. POPOVERS.--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.
+
+POPOVERS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1 c. flour
+1/4 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+
+Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.
+
+37. NUT PUFFS.--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.
+
+NUT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+1/4 c. chopped nuts
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7]
+
+38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.
+
+WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. fat
+
+Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+
+GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES
+
+39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.
+
+When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.
+
+40. GRIDDLE CAKES.--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.
+
+GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2-1/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.
+
+41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.
+
+SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. soda
+2 c. sour milk (not thick)
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.
+
+42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.
+
+CORN GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1-1/2 c. boiling water
+2 c. milk
+2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1-1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.
+
+RICE GRIDDLE CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/2 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/2 c. cold cooked rice
+1 egg
+1-1/2 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.
+
+44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. scalded milk
+1/2 c. fine bread crumbs
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 yeast cake
+3/4 c. lukewarm water
+1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour
+1/2 c. white flour
+1 Tb. molasses
+1/4 tsp. soda
+
+Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.
+
+If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.
+
+
+WAFFLE RECIPES
+
+45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+46. WAFFLES.--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.
+
+WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 eggs
+1-2/3 c. milk
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.
+
+47. RICE WAFFLES.--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.
+
+RICE WAFFLES
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-3/4 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2/3 c. cooked rice
+1-1/2 c. milk
+1 egg
+1 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.
+
+
+MUFFIN RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9]
+
+48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.
+
+49. PLAIN MUFFINS.--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.
+
+PLAIN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 Tb. sugar
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.
+
+BLUEBERRY MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+3 Tb. fat
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+2-1/4 c. flour
+1/2 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. fresh blueberries
+
+Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+51. DATE MUFFINS.--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.
+
+CORN-MEAL MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1/2 c. corn meal
+1 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.
+
+53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.
+
+GRAHAM MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/4 c. graham flour
+1 c. white flour
+3/4 tsp. soda
+1 tsp. salt
+1 c. sour milk
+1/3 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+54. RICE MUFFINS.--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.
+
+RICE MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2-1/4 c. flour
+5 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+3/4 c. hot, cooked rice
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+55. BRAN MUFFINS.--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.
+
+BRAN MUFFINS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+1-1/2 c. white flour
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+2 c. bran
+1-1/4 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1 egg
+
+Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.
+
+
+CORN-CAKE RECIPES
+
+56. CORN CAKE.--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called _journey cakes._ From this term came the name
+_Johnny cake,_ which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.
+
+CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+3/4 c. yellow corn meal
+1-1/4 c. flour
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.
+
+57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.
+
+SOUTHERN CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+1/2 c. flour
+3 tsp. baking powder
+3/4 tsp. salt
+1/4 c. sugar
+3/4 c. milk
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.
+
+58. Molasses Corn Cake.--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.
+
+MOLASSES CORN CAKE
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 c. flour
+3-1/2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. milk
+1/4 c. molasses
+1 egg
+2 Tb. melted fat
+
+Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.
+
+BISCUIT RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+59. Baking-Powder Biscuits.--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.
+
+BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat
+3/4 c. milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.
+
+61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.
+
+PINWHEEL BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Six)
+
+2 c. flour
+1 tsp. salt
+4 tsp. baking powder
+2 Tb. fat f
+3/4 c. milk
+2 Tb. butter
+1/3 c. sugar
+1 Tb. cinnamon
+3/4 c. chopped raisins
+
+To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+62. BEATEN BISCUITS.--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.
+
+BEATEN BISCUITS
+(Sufficient to Serve Twelve)
+
+1 qt. pastry flour
+1 tsp. salt
+1/3 c. fat
+1 c. milk or water
+
+Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.
+
+SOFT GINGERBREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1/2 tsp. soda
+1/4 c. sugar
+1/2 tsp. salt
+2 tsp. ginger
+1 tsp. cinnamon
+1 egg
+1/2 c. milk
+1/2 c. molasses
+1/4 c. butter or other fat
+
+Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.
+
+64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.
+
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.
+
+BOSTON BROWN BREAD
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+1 c. white flour
+1 c. graham flour
+1 c. corn meal
+3/4 tsp. soda
+2 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+3/4 c. molasses
+1-3/4 c. sweet milk
+
+Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.
+
+65. NUT LOAF.--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.
+
+NUT LOAF
+(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf)
+
+2 c. flour
+1/2 c. sugar
+4 tsp. baking powder
+1 tsp. salt
+4 Tb. fat
+1 egg
+1 c. milk
+1/2 c. English walnuts
+
+Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.
+
+
+UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS
+
+66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.
+
+
+LUNCHEON MENU
+
+67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in _Cereals,_ and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.
+
+
+MENU
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes
+Baking-Powder Biscuit
+Jam
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce
+Tea
+
+RECIPES
+
+WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD
+
+Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:
+
+1/2 tsp. salt
+1/4 tsp. pepper
+1/4 tsp. paprika
+6 Tb. oil
+2 Tb. vinegar
+
+Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.
+
+
+TEA
+
+Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOT BREADS
+
+EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
+
+(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?
+
+(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?
+
+(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?
+
+(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?
+
+(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?
+
+(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses?
+
+(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?
+
+(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?
+
+(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.
+
+(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough;
+(_d_) a stiff dough.
+
+(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_)
+thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs.
+
+(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?
+
+(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.
+
+(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven?
+(_b_) a hot oven?
+
+(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hot
+oven.
+
+(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?
+
+(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?
+
+(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?
+
+(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.
+
+REPORT ON MENU
+
+After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?
+
+Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?
+
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?
+
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?
+
+Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abbreviations of measures,
+Absorption and digestion of food,
+  of food,
+Abundance of production of cereals,
+Acquiring skill in bread making,
+Action of yeast,
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,
+Agents, Classes of leavening,
+  Leavening,
+Aids, Yeast,
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,
+  la creole, Meaning of,
+Albumin,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Aluminum cooking utensils,
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,
+Apple, Composition of,
+  corer,
+Artificial gas,
+Ash, or mineral salts,
+  pan, Coal-stove,
+  pit, Coal-stove,
+Au gratin, Meaning of,
+  naturel, Meaning of,
+Avoirdupois weight,
+
+B
+
+Bacon, Composition of,
+Bacteria,
+Baked hot breads, Testing,
+  potatoes,
+Bakers' flour,
+Baking bread,
+  Distinction between roasting and,
+  griddle cakes, Procedure in,
+  Meaning of,
+  Oven temperature for bread,
+  powder,
+  -powder biscuits,
+Baking powder, Recipe for,
+  Purpose of bread,
+  the hot-bread mixture,
+  the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+  Time for bread,
+  waffles, Procedure in,
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,
+Banana, Composition of,
+Banking a coal fire,
+Barley,
+  Left-over,
+  Pearl,
+  Recipes for,
+  Use and origin of,
+  with fruit, Pearl,
+Batter, Thick,
+  Thin,
+Batters and doughs,
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,
+  Composition of fresh shelled,
+  Composition of green string,
+Beaten biscuits,
+Beating of food ingredients,
+Béchamel, Meaning of,
+Beech wheat,
+Beef, Composition of dried,
+  steak, Composition of,
+  suet, Composition of,
+Biscuit glace,
+  recipes,
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,
+  Beaten,
+  Emergency,
+  rolls, and buns, Recipes for,
+Bisque, Meaning of,
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,
+Blanching foods,
+Blend flour,
+Blueberry muffins,
+Body, Function of water in the,
+Boiled coffee,
+  rice,
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,
+Boiling,
+  Cooking cereals by,
+  on foods, Effect of,
+  point,
+  rice,
+  to sterilize water,
+Boston brown bread,
+Bouchées, Meaning of,
+Boudin, Meaning of,
+Bouquet of herbs,
+Boxes, Window,
+Braizing,
+Bran bread,
+  muffins,
+Bread,
+  after baking, Care of,
+  and cake mixer,
+  as food, Importance of,
+  Baking,
+  Baking hot,
+  Boston brown,
+  Bran,
+  Composition of corn,
+  Composition of rye,
+  Composition of toasted,
+  Composition of whole-wheat,
+  Convenient equipment for making,
+  Corn,
+  Distinction between hot and leavened,
+  dough, Care of the rising,
+  dough, Kneading,
+  dough, Motions used in kneading,
+  dough, Purpose of kneading,
+  Graham,
+  Hot,
+  ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,
+  Leavened,
+  Left-over,
+  Long-process, sponge method of making,
+  making, Acquiring skill in,
+  making, Combining the ingredients in,
+  making, Convenient equipment for,
+  making, Ingredients for,
+  making, Long process of,
+  making, Long-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making materials, Proportion of,
+  making, Necessary equipment for,
+  -making processes,
+  making, Quick process of,
+  making, Quick-process, sponge method of,
+  making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,
+  -making requirements,
+  making, Utensils for,
+  Milk and fat in,
+  mixer, Use of,
+  mixers,
+  mixture, Preparation of hot-,
+  Object of scoring,
+  Oven temperature for baking,
+  Purpose of baking,
+  Quick,
+  recipes,
+  Rice,
+  Rye,
+  Salt-rising,
+  Scoring,
+  Serving,
+  sponge,
+  Utilizing left-over hot,
+  White,
+  Whole-wheat,
+  Whole-wheat fruit,
+  with nuts, Graham,
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,
+  Distinction between yeast and hot,
+  General proportions used in hot,
+  Hot,
+  in the diet, Hot,
+  Mixtures used for hot,
+  Principal requirements for hot,
+  Purpose of utensils for making hot,
+  Quick,
+  Recipes for hot,
+  Requirements and processes for making hot,
+  Serving hot,
+  Varieties of mixtures in hot,
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,
+  foods, Meaning of,
+  menu,
+Broiling,
+  Pan,
+Brown bread, Boston,
+Browned rice,
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,
+Buckwheat,
+  cakes,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  rye, and millet,
+Building a coal fire,
+Buns, Fruit or nut,
+  Graham nut,
+  Nut or fruit,
+  rolls, and biscuits,
+Buns, Sweet,
+Butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of peanut,
+Buttered hominy,
+  toast,
+Buttermilk, Composition of,
+
+C
+
+Cabbage salad,
+  -salad dressing,
+Café au lait, Meaning of,
+  noir, Meaning of,
+Cake, Coffee,
+  Corn,
+  mixers,
+  Molasses corn,
+  Southern corn,
+Cakes, Buckwheat,
+  Corn griddle,
+  Griddle,
+  Procedure in baking griddle,
+  Rice griddle,
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,
+Canapés, Meaning of,
+Canard, Meaning of,
+Candy, Composition of stick,
+Canned fruit, Composition of,
+Canning of foods,
+Capers, Meaning of,
+Capon, Meaning of,
+Caramel, Meaning of,
+Carbohydrates,
+  Composition of,
+  Elements in,
+  in cereals,
+Carbon,
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,
+Card, Explanation of score,
+Care of bread after baking,
+  of bread in oven,
+  of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+  of food in refrigerator,
+  of food, Methods of,
+  of the refrigerator,
+  of the rising bread dough,
+Carolina rice,
+Casein,
+  Effect of cooking on,
+Casserole, Definition of,
+  Use of,
+Celery, Composition of,
+Cellars, Storing food in,
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,
+  Definition of,
+  in cereals,
+  in the diet, Place of,
+Cereal flakes,
+  products,
+  selection, Factors that govern,
+  Setting a,
+Cereals,
+  Abundance of production of,
+  as a food,
+  Browning, or toasting, of,
+  by boiling, Cooking,
+  by dry heat, Cooking,
+  Carbohydrates in,
+  Care of,
+  Cellulose in,
+  Composition of,
+  Economic value of,
+  Fat in,
+  for the table, Preparation of,
+  Left-over wheat,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  Mineral matter in,
+  Origin of,
+  Points to observe in cooking,
+  Preparation for cooking,
+  Prepared, or ready-to-eat,
+  Production of,
+  Protein in,
+  Purpose of cooking,
+  Ready-to-eat,
+  Selection of,
+  Serving,
+  Table showing composition of,
+  undergo in cooking, Changes,
+  Uses of,
+  Water in,
+Champignons, Meaning of,
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,
+  Composition of cream,
+Chemical composition of food,
+  leavening,
+Chestnut coal,
+  Composition of,
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,
+Chillies, Meaning of,
+Chives, Meaning of,
+Chop, Composition of lamb,
+  Composition of pork,
+Chopper, Meat,
+Chops, Pan-broiled,
+Chutney, Meaning of,
+Cinnamon rolls,
+Citron,
+Clinkers,
+Coal and coke,
+  Anthracite, or hard,
+  Bituminous, or soft,
+  Chestnut,
+  Egg,
+  fire, Building a,
+  fire, Building a,
+  Pea,
+  Quality of,
+Coal range,
+  Sizes of,
+  Stove,
+  -stove dampers,
+  -stove firebox,
+  stove for cooking, General construction of,
+  -stove grate,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  Varieties of,
+Cocoa,
+Coconut, Composition of,
+Cod, Composition of fresh,
+  Composition of salt,
+Coffee,
+  cake,
+Coke,
+  and coal,
+Collops, Meaning of,
+Commercial yeast,
+Common labor-saving devices,
+Composition and varieties of oats,
+  of apple,
+  of bacon,
+  of banana,
+  of beef steak,
+  of beef suet,
+  of buckwheat,
+  of butter,
+  of buttermilk,
+  of canned fruit,
+  of carbohydrates,
+  of celery,
+  of cereals,
+  of cereals, Table showing,
+  of chestnut,
+  of coconut,
+  of cooked macaroni,
+  of cooked oat breakfast food,
+  of corn,
+  of corn bread,
+  of cottage cheese,
+  of cream,
+  of cream cheese,
+  of dried beef,
+  of dried fig,
+  of dry navy bean,
+  of egg white and yolk,
+  of food, Chemical,
+  of food materials,
+  of fresh cod,
+  of fresh shelled bean,
+  of fruit jelly,
+  of grape juice,
+  of grapes,
+  of green corn,
+  of green string bean,
+  of honey,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of lamb chop,
+  of lard,
+  of mackerel,
+  of maple sugar,
+  of molasses,
+  of oats,
+  of olive oil,
+  of onion,
+  of oyster,
+  of parsnip,
+  of peanut,
+  of peanut butter,
+  of pork chop,
+  of potato,
+  of raisins,
+  of rice,
+  of rye,
+  of rye bread,
+  of salt cod,
+  of skim milk,
+  of smoked ham,
+  of smoked herring,
+  of stick candy,
+  of strawberry,
+  of sugar,
+  of toasted bread,
+  of walnut,
+  of wheat,
+  of white and yolk of egg,
+  of whole egg,
+  of whole milk,
+  of whole wheat bread,
+Compote, Meaning of,
+Compressed yeast,
+Constituents, Food principles, or,
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,
+  Fireless,
+Cookery, Meaning of,
+  Terms used in,
+  time table,
+Cooking cereals by boiling,
+  cereals in double boiler,
+  cereals in fireless cooker,
+  cereals, Methods of,
+  cereals, Points to observe in,
+  cereals, Preparation for,
+  cereals, Purpose of,
+  cereals with dry heat,
+  food, Reasons for,
+  foods, Importance of,
+  foods, Table for,
+  Getting foods ready for,
+  Heat for,
+  Methods of,
+  Methods of using moist heat for,
+  of food,
+  processes,
+  rice, Japanese method of,
+  rice, Methods of,
+  Uses of water in,
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,
+  utensils, Copper,
+  utensils, Earthenware,
+  utensils, Enamel,
+  utensils, Glass,
+  utensils, Iron and steel,
+  utensils, Tin,
+  utensils, Wooden,
+  with dry heat,
+  with hot fat,
+Copper cooking utensils,
+Coquilles, Meaning of,
+Corer, Apple,
+Corn bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  cake,
+  cake, Molasses,
+  -cake recipes,
+  cake, Southern,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of green,
+  Field,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Maize, or Indian,
+  meal,
+  -meal croquettes,
+  -meal muffins,
+  -meal mush,
+  -meal mush, Left-over,
+  meal, Recipes for,
+  Pop,
+  Sweet,
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,
+Cracked wheat,
+Cream cheese, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+  of tartar and soda,
+  of wheat,
+  of wheat with dates,
+  sauce,
+Creamed hominy,
+  peas,
+  rice,
+Creaming of food ingredients,
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,
+  Rolled-oats,
+Croutons, Meaning of,
+Cups, Measuring,
+Curry,
+Custard, Farina,
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,
+
+D
+
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,
+  Coal-stove,
+Date muffins,
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,
+  Graham mush with,
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,
+Deviled, Meaning of,
+Dextrine, Formation of,
+Diet, Hot breads in the,
+  Meaning of,
+  Well-balanced,
+Dietetics, Definition of,
+Digestion and absorption of food,
+  of food,
+Dill, Meaning of,
+Dinner rolls,
+Dish-washing machines,
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,
+  boiler, Use of,
+Dough, Kneading bread,
+  Making bread,
+  Motions used in kneading bread,
+  Soft,
+  Stiff,
+Doughs and batters,
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,
+Dried beef, Composition of,
+  fig, Composition of,
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,
+  heat, Cooking with,
+  measure,
+  steaming,
+  yeast,
+Drying of foods,
+
+E
+
+Earthenware cooking utensils,
+Economic value of cereals,
+Effect of boiling on foods,
+Egg beater, Rotary,
+  coal,
+  Composition of white and yolk of,
+  Composition of whole,
+  whip,
+Eggs, Scrambled,
+Electric meter, Reading an,
+  stoves,
+  stoves and utensils,
+Electricity as a fuel,
+Emergency biscuits,
+En coquille, Meaning of,
+Enamel cooking utensils,
+Endosperm, Meaning of,
+Entrées,
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,
+Escarole, Meaning of,
+
+F
+
+Factors that govern cereal selection,
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,
+Farina,
+  custard,
+  soufflé,
+Fat and milk in bread,
+  Cooking with hot,
+Fat in cereals,
+Fats,
+Ferments, or leavening agents,
+Field corn,
+Fig, Composition of dried,
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,
+Fillets, Meaning of,
+Firebox, Coal-stove,
+Fireless cooker,
+  cooker, Cooking cereals in,
+ -cooking gas stoves,
+Flour,
+  Bakers',
+  Blend,
+  Care of,
+  Graham,
+  Grains used for,
+  High-grade patent,
+  Kinds of,
+  made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,
+  Milling of wheat,
+  Quality of,
+  Red dog,
+  Rye,
+  Scouring,
+  Second-grade patent,
+  Selection of,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Flue, Coal-stove,
+  opening of a coal stove,
+Fluff, Orange,
+  Sauce for orange,
+Folding of food ingredients,
+Fondant, Meaning of,
+Fondue, Meaning of,
+Food, Absorption of,
+  Care of,
+  Cereals as a,
+  Chemical composition of,
+  Cooking of,
+  Definition of,
+  Digestion and absorption of,
+  Digestion of,
+  in cellars, Storing,
+  ingredients, Beating of,
+  ingredients, Creaming of,
+  ingredients, Cutting-in of,
+  ingredients, Folding of,
+  ingredients, Mixing of,
+  ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,
+  ingredients, Ricing of,
+  ingredients, Rubbing of,
+  ingredients, Sifting of,
+  ingredients, Stirring of,
+  Matters involved in right selection of,
+  Methods of caring for,
+  or fuel, value,
+Food, Preparation of,
+  principles or constituents,
+  Problem of,
+  Reasons for cooking,
+  Selection of,
+  substances,
+  value,
+Foods, Blanching,
+  Canning of,
+  Drying of,
+  for cooking, Preparation of,
+  Importance of cooking,
+  Importance of variety of,
+  Meaning of breakfast,
+  Storing of non-perishable,
+  Storing of semiperishable,
+  with ice, Keeping,
+  without ice, Keeping,
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,
+Frappé, Meaning of,
+French toast,
+Fricasseeing,
+Fromage, Meaning of,
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,
+  Composition of canned,
+  jelly, Composition of,
+  or nut buns,
+Frying,
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,
+  Use of coke as a,
+  Use of electricity as a,
+  Use of gas as a,
+  Use of kerosene as a,
+  value, Food, or,
+  Value of gas as,
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,
+
+G
+
+Gas,
+  Artificial,
+  as fuel, Use of,
+  as fuel, Value of,
+  Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,
+  Measurement of,
+  meter,
+  meter, Reading a,
+  Natural,
+  ranges, Description of,
+  stove, Mixer of a,
+  stove, Pilot of a,
+  stoves and their operation,
+  stoves, Fireless-cooking,
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,
+Germ, Definition of,
+Germs,
+Gingerbread, Soft,
+Glacé, Biscuit,
+  Meaning of,
+Glass cooking utensils,
+Glaze, Meaning of,
+Gliadin,
+Glucose,
+Gluten,
+Glutenin,
+Goulash, Meaning of,
+Graham bread,
+  bread with nuts,
+  flour,
+  muffins,
+  mush with dates,
+  nut buns,
+Grain for market, Preparation of,
+  products, Table of,
+  Structure of wheat,
+Grains used for flour,
+Grape juice, Composition of,
+Grapes, Composition of,
+Grate, Coal-stove,
+Green corn, Composition of,
+Griddle-cake recipes,
+  cakes,
+  cakes, Corn,
+  cakes, Procedure in baking,
+  cakes, Rice,
+  cakes, Sour-milk,
+Griddles,
+Grinder,
+Grits,
+  Hominy,
+  Wheat,
+Gumbo, Meaning of,
+
+H
+
+Ham, Composition of smoked,
+Hard water, How to soften,
+Haricot, Meaning of,
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,
+  Cooking with dry,
+  for cooking,
+  for cooking, Discussion of,
+  Methods of cooking with moist,
+Herring, Composition of smoked,
+High-grade patent flour,
+Homard, Meaning of,
+Hominy,
+  and cheese soufflé,
+  Buttered,
+  Creamed,
+  grits,
+  Left-over,
+  Recipes for,
+Honey, Composition of,
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,
+Hot bread,
+  bread, Distinction between leavened and,
+  -bread mixture. Baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Testing of baked,
+  -bread mixture, Preparation of,
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,
+  -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,
+  -bread recipes, Miscellaneous,
+  -bread utensils and their use,
+  bread, Utilizing left-over,
+  breads,
+  breads, Baking of,
+  breads, Combining ingredients for,
+  breads, Correct oven temperature for,
+  breads, Distinction between yeast and,
+  breads in the diet,
+  breads, Mixtures used for,
+  breads, Principal requirements for,
+  breads, Purpose of utensils for making,
+  breads, Recipes for,
+  breads, Regulating the oven for,
+  breads, Requirements and processes for making,
+  breads, Serving,
+  breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,
+  proportions used in,
+  fat, Cooking with,
+Hotplates,
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,
+  wheat,
+Huller, Berry,
+
+I
+
+Ice, Keeping foods with,
+Indian corn, or maize,
+Ingredients, Beating of food,
+  Combining hot-bread,
+  Creaming of food,
+  Cutting-in of food,
+  Folding of food,
+  for bread making,
+  Mixing of food,
+  Preparation of hot-bread,
+  Processes involved in mixing food,
+  Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,
+  required for bread making,
+  Ricing of food,
+  Rubbing of food,
+  Sifting of food,
+  Stirring of food,
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,
+Irons, Waffle,
+Italian pastes,
+  pastes, Composition of,
+  pastes, Left-over,
+  pastes, Preparation of,
+  pastes, Recipes for,
+  pastes, Varieties of,
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,
+Japanese method of cooking rice,
+  rice,
+Jardiniére, Meaning of,
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,
+Juice, Composition of grape,
+Julienne, Meaning of,
+Junket, Meaning of,
+
+K
+
+Keeping foods with ice,
+  foods without ice,
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,
+  stoves and their operation,
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,
+Kippered, Meaning of,
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,
+Kneading bread dough,
+  bread dough, Motions used in,
+  bread dough, Purpose of,
+
+L
+
+Labour-saving devices,
+Lactose,
+  Occurrence of,
+Lamb chop, Composition of,
+Lard, Composition of,
+Larding, Meaning of,
+Lardon, Meaning of,
+Leavened bread,
+Leavening agents,
+  agents, Classes of,
+  agents, or ferments,
+  Chemical,
+  Physical,
+Left-over barley,
+  -over bread,
+  -over corn-meal mush,
+  -over hominy,
+  -over hot bread, Utilizing,
+  -over Italian pastes,
+  -over rice,
+  -over rolled oats,
+  -over wheat cereals,
+Legumes, Meaning of,
+Lentils, Meaning of,
+Liquid measure,
+  yeast,
+Loaf, Nut,
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,
+Long process of bread making,
+  process of making white bread,
+  -process, sponge method of bread making,
+  -process, straight-dough method of bread making,
+Luncheon menu,
+  rolls,
+
+M
+
+Macaroni,
+  and kidney beans,
+  Composition of cooked,
+  Italian style,
+  with cheese,
+  with cheese and tomato,
+  with cream sauce,
+  with eggs,
+  with tomato and bacon,
+Macédoine, Meaning of,
+Machines, Dish-washing,
+Mackerel, Composition of,
+Maize,
+Malt sprouts,
+Maple sugar, Composition of,
+Marinade, Meaning of,
+Marinate, Meaning of,
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,
+Marrons, Meaning of,
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,
+Matter, Mineral,
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,
+Meal,
+  Corn,
+  Recipes for corn,
+Meaning of breakfast foods,
+Measure, Dry,
+  Liquid,
+Measurement of gas,
+Measures, Abbreviations of,
+Measuring,
+  cups,
+  Precautions to observe,
+  spoons,
+Meat chopper,
+  grinder,
+Menu, Breakfast,
+  Luncheon,
+  Meaning of,
+Menus and recipes,
+Meringue, Meaning of,
+Meter, Gas,
+  Reading a gas,
+  Reading an electric,
+Meters, Prepayment,
+Micro-organisms,
+Microbes,
+Milk and fat in bread,
+  Composition of skim,
+  Composition of whole,
+  Soda and sour,
+  toast,
+Millet,
+  buckwheat, and rye,
+  Description of,
+Milling of wheat flour,
+Mineral matter,
+  matter in cereals,
+  salts,
+  salts, Purpose of,
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,
+Mixer, Gas-stove,
+  Mayonnaise,
+  Use of the bread,
+Mixers, Bread,
+  Cake,
+Mixing of food ingredients,
+  of food ingredients, Processes involved in,
+  processes, Application of,
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,
+Mixtures used for hot breads,
+Moist heat, Cooking with,
+  yeast,
+Molasses and soda,
+  Composition of,
+  corn cake,
+Molds,
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,
+Mousse, Meaning of,
+Muffin recipes,
+Muffins, Blueberry,
+  Bran,
+  Corn-meal,
+  Date,
+  Graham,
+  Plain,
+  Rice,
+Mush, Corn-meal,
+  Left-over corn-meal,
+  Sautéd corn-meal,
+  with dates, Graham,
+
+N
+
+Natural gas,
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,
+Nougat, Meaning of,
+Nut buns, Graham,
+  loaf,
+  or fruit buns,
+  puffs,
+
+O
+
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,
+  Composition of,
+Oatmeal,
+Oats,
+  Composition and varieties of,
+  Recipes for,
+  Rolled,
+  with apples, Rolled,
+Olive oil, Composition of,
+Onion, Composition of,
+Orange fluff,
+  fluff, Sauce for,
+Order of work,
+Oriental rice,
+Oven, Coal-stove,
+  for hot breads, Regulating the,
+  Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,
+  temperature, Determining and regulating,
+  temperature for baking bread,
+  temperature for hot breads,
+Oxygen,
+Oyster, Composition of,
+
+P
+
+Pan-broiled chops,
+  broiling,
+Paprika,
+Parker House rolls,
+Parsnip, Composition of,
+Pastes, Italian,
+  Recipes for Italian,
+Paté, Meaning of,
+Patent flour, High-grade,
+  flour, Second-grade,
+Patties, Rice,
+Pea coal,
+Peanut butter, Composition of,
+  Composition of,
+Pearl barley,
+  barley, Description of,
+  barley with fruit,
+Peas, Creamed,
+  Sauce for,
+Physical leavening,
+Pilot, Gas-stove,
+Pimiento, Meaning of,
+Pineapple, Rice with,
+Pinwheel biscuits,
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,
+Pistachio, Meaning of,
+Plain muffins,
+Point, Boiling,
+Polishings, Rice,
+Pop corn,
+Popover recipes,
+  with fruit,
+Pork chop, Composition of,
+Potage, Meaning of,
+Potato, Composition of,
+  ricer,
+Potatoes, Baked,
+Powder, Baking,
+  Recipe for baking,
+Precautions to observe in measuring,
+Preparation for cooking cereals,
+  for cooking foods,
+  of cereals for the table,
+Preparation of food,
+  of grains for the market,
+  of hot-bread ingredients,
+  of hot-bread mixture,
+  of Italian pastes,
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,
+Prepayment meters,
+Principle of stoves,
+Principles, or constituents, Food,
+Problem of food,
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,
+  Application of mixing,
+  Bread-making,
+  Cooking,
+  involved in mixing food ingredients,
+Production of cereals,
+Products, Cereal,
+  Table of grain,
+Proportion of bread-making materials,
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,
+Protein,
+  in cereals,
+Puffs, Nut,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Purée, Meaning of,
+Purpose,
+  of baking bread,
+  of bread rising,
+  of cooking cereals,
+  of kneading bread dough,
+  of utensils for making hot breads,
+
+Q
+
+Quality,
+  of coal,
+  of flour,
+  of yeast,
+Quick,
+  bread, Hot or,
+  breads,
+  process of combining bread ingredients,
+  process of making white bread,
+  process of making whole-wheat bread,
+  -process, sponge method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+  -process, straight-dough method of combining,
+  bread ingredients,
+
+R
+
+Ragoût, Meaning of,
+Raisins, Composition of,
+Ramekin, Meaning of,
+Range, Coal,
+Ranges, Description of gas,
+Reading,
+  a gas meter,
+  an electric meter,
+Ready,
+  -to-eat cereals,
+  -to-eat, or prepared, cereals,
+Reasons for cooking food,
+Réchauffé, Meaning of,
+Recipe, Definition of,
+Red-dog flour,
+Refrigerator,
+  Care of food in,
+  Care of the,
+Refrigerators,
+Refuse,
+  Distinction between waste and,
+  Meaning of,
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,
+Requirements,
+  and processes for making hot breads,
+  of bread making,
+Rice,
+  Boiled,
+  Boiling,
+  bread,
+  Browned,
+  Carolina,
+  Composition of,
+  Creamed,
+  griddle cakes,
+  Japanese,
+  Japanese method of cooking,
+  Left-over,
+  Methods of cooking,
+  muffins,
+  Oriental,
+  patties,
+  polishings,
+  Recipes for,
+  Savory,
+  Spanish,
+  Steamed,
+  Steaming,
+  Varieties and structure of,
+  waffles,
+  with pineapple,
+Ricer, Potato,
+Ricing of food ingredients,
+Rising,
+   bread dough, Care of the,
+   Temperature for bread,
+  Time required for bread,
+Rissoles, Meaning of,
+Roasting,
+  Distinction between baking and,
+  Meaning of,
+Rolled,
+  oats,
+  -oats croquettes,
+  -oats jelly with prunes,
+  oats, Left-over,
+  oats with apples,
+Rolls,
+  buns and biscuits, Recipes for,
+  Cinnamon,
+Dinner,
+  Luncheon,
+  Parker House,
+  Whole-wheat,
+Rotary egg beater,
+Roux, Meaning of,
+Rubbing of food ingredients,
+Rye,
+  bread,
+  bread, Composition of,
+  buckwheat, and millet,
+  Composition of,
+  Description of,
+  flour,
+
+S
+
+Salad, Cabbage,
+  Watercress-and-celery,
+Salmi, Meaning of,
+Salpicon, Meaning of,
+Salt cod, Composition of,
+  -rising bread,
+Salts, Mineral,
+  Purpose of mineral,
+Sauce, Cream,
+  for orange fluff,
+  for peas,
+  piquante, Meaning of,
+  Meaning of tartare,
+  Meaning of vinaigrette,
+Sautéd corn-meal mush,
+Sauteing,
+Savoury rice,
+Scales,
+Score card, Explanation of,
+Scoring bread,
+  bread, Object of,
+Scouring of flour,
+Scrambled eggs,
+Second-grade patent flour,
+Selection and care of cereals,
+  of flour,
+  of food,
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,
+Semolina,
+Serving bread,
+  cereals,
+  hot breads,
+Setting a cereal or grain,
+Shallot, Meaning of,
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,
+Sifting of food ingredients,
+Simmering, or stewing,
+Sizes of coal,
+Skim milk, Composition of,
+Small electric utensils,
+Smoked ham, Composition of,
+  herring, Composition of,
+Soda and cream of tartar,
+Soda and molasses,
+  and sour milk,
+Soft dough,
+  gingerbread,
+Softening hard water,
+Soluble starch,
+Sorbet, Meaning of,
+Soufflé, Meaning of,
+  Farina,
+Sour milk, Soda and,
+  -milk griddle cakes,
+Southern corn cake,
+Soy, Meaning of,
+Spaghetti,
+  with cheese and tomato sauce,
+Spanish rice,
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,
+  method of making bread, Quick-process,
+Spoons, Measuring,
+Spring, or hard, wheat,
+  or hard, wheat, Flour made from,
+Sprouts, Malt,
+Starch,
+Steak, Composition of beef,
+Steamed rice,
+Steamer,
+Steaming,
+  Dry,
+  rice,
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,
+Sterilizing,
+Stewing or simmering,
+Stick candy, Composition of,
+Stiff dough,
+Stirring of food ingredients,
+Stock, Meaning of,
+Storing food in cellars,
+  of non-perishable foods,
+  of semiperishable foods,
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,
+  ash pit, Coal-,
+  Coal,
+  dampers, Coal-,
+  flue opening, Coal-,
+  oven, Coal-,
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,
+  Fireless-cooking gas,
+  Operation of kerosene,
+  Principle of,
+Straight-dough method of bread making,
+  -dough method of bread making, Long-process,
+  -dough method of bread making, Quick-process,
+Strawberry, Composition of,
+String bean, Composition of green,
+Structure and varieties of rice,
+  of wheat grain,
+Substances, Food,
+Suet, Composition of beef,
+Sugar,
+  Composition of,
+  Composition of maple,
+Sultanas, Meaning of,
+Sweet buns,
+  corn,
+
+T
+
+Table, Cookery time,
+  of grain products,
+  showing composition of cereals,
+Tables of relative weights and measures,
+  of weights and measures,
+Tarragon, Meaning of,
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,
+  for bread rising,
+  for hot breads, Correct oven,
+Terms used in cookery,
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,
+Thick batter,
+Thin batter,
+Timbale, Meaning of,
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,
+  required for bread rising,
+  table, Cookery,
+Tin cooking utensils,
+Toast,
+  Buttered,
+  French,
+  Milk,
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,
+Toasting,
+Troy weight,
+Truffles, Meaning of,
+
+U
+
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,
+  and their use, Hot-bread,
+  Copper cooking,
+  Earthenware cooking,
+  Enamel cooking,
+  for baking the hot-bread mixture,
+  for bread making,
+  for cooking,
+  for furnishing a kitchen,
+  for preparing hot-bread mixture,
+  Glass cooking,
+  Importance of,
+  Iron and steel cooking,
+  Materials used for,
+  Small electric,
+  Tin cooking,
+  Wooden cooking,
+
+V
+
+Value, Food,
+  Food, or fuel,
+  of cereals, Economic,
+  of gas as fuel,
+Vanilla, Meaning of,
+Varieties and composition of oats,
+  and structure of rice,
+  of coal,
+  of Italian pastes,
+  of mixtures used in hot breads,
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,
+Vermicelli,
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,
+
+W
+
+Waffle irons,
+Waffles,
+  procedure in baking,
+  Rice,
+Walnut, Composition of,
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,
+  Definition of,
+Water as a food substance,
+  Boiling to sterilize,
+  How to soften hard,
+  in cereals,
+  in the body, Function of,
+Watercress-and-celery salad,
+Weight, Avoirdupois,
+  Troy,
+Weights and measures, Tables of,
+  and measures, Tables of relative,
+Wheat,
+  and wheat products, Recipes for,
+  Beech,
+  bread, Composition of whole,
+  cereals, Left-over,
+  Composition of,
+  Cracked,
+  Cream of,
+  flour, Milling of,
+  grain, Structure of,
+  grits,
+  Hulled,
+  Hulled, or whole,
+  Origin and use of,
+  products, Recipes for,
+  Spring, or hard,
+  Winter, or soft,
+White bread,
+  bread, Long process of making,
+  bread, Quick process of making,
+  of egg, Composition of,
+Whole egg, Composition of,
+  milk, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread,
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,
+  -wheat bread, Quick process of making,
+  -wheat flour,
+  -wheat fruit bread,
+  -wheat puffs,
+  -wheat rolls,
+Window boxes,
+Winter, or soft, wheat,
+Wooden cooking utensils,
+Work, Order of,
+
+Y
+
+Yeast,
+  Action of,
+Yeast aids,
+  and hot breads, Distinction between,
+  Commercial,
+  Compressed,
+  Dry,
+  Liquid,
+  Moist,
+  or leavened, bread,
+  Quality of,
+Yeasts,
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,
+
+Z
+
+Zwieback,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
+Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 1 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
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+Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1
+       Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads
+
+Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9935]
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+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center>
+<h1>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY</h1>
+
+<h1>VOLUME ONE</h1>
+<br>
+<h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY</h2>
+
+<h2>CEREALS</h2>
+
+<h2>BREAD</h2>
+
+<h2>HOT BREADS</h2>
+<br><br>
+
+
+<h3>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.</h3>
+</center>
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
+cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
+in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
+of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
+are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
+matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
+helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
+the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
+report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
+assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
+in it.</p>
+
+<p>This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
+cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In <i>Essentials of Cookery</i>,
+Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
+food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
+used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
+<i>Cereals</i> are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
+and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In <i>Bread</i> and <i>Hot
+Breads</i> are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
+hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
+making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
+which to care for such foods.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
+labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
+art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
+volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
+the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
+recipes given.</p>
+
+<p>It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
+knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
+sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
+judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
+also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
+enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#ESSENTIALS_OF_COOKERY_(PART_1)">ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#THE_PROBLEM_OF_FOOD">The Problem of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SELECTION_OF_FOOD">Selection of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FOOD_SUBSTANCES">Food Substances</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FOOD_VALUE">Food Value</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#DIGESTION_AND_ABSORPTION_OF_FOOD">Digestion and Absorption of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_FOOD">Preparation of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#METHODS_OF_COOKING">Methods of Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HEAT_FOR_COOKING">Heat for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTENSILS_FOR_COOKING">Utensils for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GETTING_FOODS_READY_FOR_COOKING">Preparing Foods for Cooking</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#ORDER_OF_WORK">Order of Work</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TABLE_FOR_COOKING_FOODS">Table for Cooking Foods</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CARE_OF_FOOD">Care of Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MENUS_AND_RECIPES">Menus and Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TERMS_USED_IN_COOKERY">Terms Used in Cookery</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#CEREALS">CEREALS</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRODUCTION,_COMPOSITION,_AND_SELECTION">Production, Composition, and Selection</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CEREALS_AS_A_FOOD">Cereals as a Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_CEREALS_FOR_THE_TABLE">Preparation of Cereals for the Table</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#INDIAN_CORN,_OR_MAIZE">Indian Corn, or Maize</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#WHEAT">Wheat</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RICE">Rice</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#OATS">Oats</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BARLEY">Barley</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RYE,_BUCKWHEAT,_AND_MILLET">Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARED,_OR_READY-TO-EAT,_CEREALS">Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_CEREALS">Serving Cereals</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#ITALIAN_PASTES">Italian Pastes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAKFAST_MENU">Breakfast Menu</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#BREAD">BREAD</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#IMPORTANCE_OF_BREAD_AS_FOOD">Importance of Bread as Food</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#INGREDIENTS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING">Ingredients for Bread Making</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTENSILS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING">Utensils for Bread Making</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAD-MAKING_PROCESSES">Bread-Making Processes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MAKING_THE_DOUGH">Making the Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CARE_OF_THE_RISING_DOUGH">Care of the Rising Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#KNEADING_THE_DOUGH">Kneading the Dough</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SHAPING_THE_DOUGH_INTO_LOAVES">Shaping the Dough Into Loaves</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BAKING_THE_BREAD">Baking the Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SCORING_BREAD">Scoring Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#USE_OF_THE_BREAD_MIXER">Use of the Bread Mixer</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_BREAD">Serving Bread</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BREAD_RECIPES">Bread Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_ROLLS,_BUNS,_AND_BISCUITS">Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TOAST">Toast</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LEFT-OVER_BREAD">Left-Over Bread</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#HOT_BREADS">HOT BREADS</a></h3>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HOT_BREADS_IN_THE_DIET">Hot Breads in the Diet</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRINCIPAL_REQUIREMENTS_FOR_HOT_BREADS">Principal Requirements for Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LEAVENING_AGENTS">Leavening Agents</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HOT-BREAD_UTENSILS_AND_THEIR_USE">Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARING_THE_MIXTURE">Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BAKING_THE_MIXTURE">Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_HOT_BREADS">Serving Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#POPOVER_RECIPES">Popover Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GRIDDLE-CAKE_RECIPES">Griddle-Cake Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#WAFFLE_RECIPES">Waffle Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MUFFIN_RECIPES">Muffin Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CORN-CAKE_RECIPES">Corn-Cake Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BISCUIT_RECIPES">Biscuit Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MISCELLANEOUS_HOT-BREAD_RECIPES">Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#UTILISING_LEFT-OVER_HOT_BREADS">Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads</a><br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LUNCHEON_MENU">Luncheon Menu</a><br></span>
+<br>
+<h3><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></h3>
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="ESSENTIALS_OF_COOKERY_(PART_1)"></a><center><h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)</h2></center>
+
+<a name="THE_PROBLEM_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>THE PROBLEM OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
+that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
+simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
+must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
+work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
+working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
+nothing to take the place of <i>food</i>, not merely any kind, however, but
+the <i>right</i> kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
+scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
+in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
+adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
+person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
+possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
+building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
+principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
+may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
+that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
+exercised.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Probably the most important of these principles is the <i>cooking of
+food</i>. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
+subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
+more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
+for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
+<i>cookery</i> means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
+producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
+materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
+understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
+and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
+of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
+will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
+broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
+of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
+family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
+the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
+family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
+livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
+spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
+father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
+money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
+shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
+should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
+this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
+the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
+for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
+allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
+selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
+bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
+that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
+her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
+prepare them.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
+<i>waste</i>, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
+understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
+thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
+is a decided difference between them. <i>Waste</i>, as applied to food, is
+something that could be used but is not, whereas <i>refuse</i> is something
+that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
+meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
+parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
+leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
+of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
+waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
+illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
+pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
+cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
+price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
+meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
+material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
+proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
+household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
+arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
+skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
+quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
+unfit for any other use in the home.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
+she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
+should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
+giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
+understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
+that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
+satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
+course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
+knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
+from which to obtain variety in the <i>diet</i>--by which in these lessons is
+meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
+prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
+a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
+in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
+and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
+always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
+produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
+and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
+meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
+of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
+planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
+and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
+and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
+depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
+this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
+it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
+affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
+acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
+and happy.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
+the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
+along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
+enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
+providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
+they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
+But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
+to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
+as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
+it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
+the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
+correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
+importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
+just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
+day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
+perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
+the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
+cookery are intended.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
+advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
+presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
+arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
+essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
+preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
+step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
+eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
+attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
+essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
+food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
+concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
+the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
+detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
+the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
+and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
+thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
+essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
+Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
+must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
+carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
+carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
+and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
+she learns.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="SELECTION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>SELECTION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
+is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
+selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
+suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
+should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
+of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
+in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
+obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
+refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
+materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
+food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
+whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
+is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
+is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
+and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
+member of the family.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
+just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
+<i>substances</i> of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
+material, or what is called its <i>food</i>, or <i>fuel, value</i>; and its
+<i>digestion</i> and <i>absorption</i>. Until these are understood, the actual
+cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
+price at all times may be known.</p>
+
+<p>However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
+necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
+body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
+be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
+exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
+normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
+required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
+is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
+into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
+the energy required to do its work.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="FOOD_SUBSTANCES"></a><h3>FOOD SUBSTANCES</h3>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
+anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
+living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
+all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
+in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
+the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
+choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
+consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
+therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
+substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
+namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
+knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
+adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
+substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
+it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
+successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
+constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
+for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
+concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
+on foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. WATER.</b>--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
+body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
+an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
+to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
+food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
+foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
+fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
+development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
+up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
+function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
+food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
+in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
+all foods contain water.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. MINERAL MATTER.</b>--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
+the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
+<i>ash</i> or <i>mineral salts</i>, forms the main part of the body's framework,
+or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
+serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
+to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
+required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
+secretions.</p>
+
+<p>The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
+Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
+combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
+Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
+of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
+the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
+salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
+removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
+the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
+the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
+mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
+is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
+that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
+all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
+question its presence.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. PROTEIN.</b>--The food substance known as protein is a very important
+factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
+cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
+while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
+large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
+body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
+sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
+the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
+ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
+valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
+foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
+diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
+purchase foods is available.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
+the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
+cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
+food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
+characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
+their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
+which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
+increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
+containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
+of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
+coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
+then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
+clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
+type of protein called <i>albumin</i>. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
+liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
+solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
+shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
+digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
+coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
+be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.</p>
+
+<p>Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
+through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
+that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
+known as <i>casein</i>, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
+very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
+long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
+the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
+smooth and tender.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. FATS.</b>--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
+and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
+tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
+foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
+the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
+these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
+proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
+composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
+explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
+vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
+and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
+little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
+temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
+that may be irritating to the digestive tract.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. CARBOHYDRATES.</b>--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
+carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
+carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
+former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
+most economical form.</p>
+
+<p>So that the term <i>carbohydrate</i> may be clearly understood and firmly
+fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
+composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
+lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
+in a lesson on <i>dietetics</i>, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
+diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
+for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
+is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
+importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
+contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
+formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
+carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
+it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
+is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
+used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
+mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
+proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
+separating the name into its parts--<i>carbo</i> (carbon) and <i>hydrate</i>
+(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
+of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
+united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
+food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
+make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
+only correct name for the food substance it represents.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. STARCH,</b> one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
+the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
+and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
+amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
+lie within the plant cells.</p>
+
+<p>Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
+Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
+thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
+finally into what is called <i>dextrine</i>, this being the intermediate step
+in the changing of starch into sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. SUGAR,</b> another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
+vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
+<i>lactose</i>. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
+with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
+various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
+crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
+valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
+also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
+a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
+sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
+of corn and is called <i>glucose</i>. Much of the carbohydrate found in
+vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
+sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
+condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
+all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
+brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
+too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
+the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
+when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
+cooked is utilized.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CELLULOSE</b> is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
+helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
+cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
+the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
+attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
+surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
+and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
+be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
+there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
+old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
+fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
+for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
+and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.</b>--Every one of the five food
+substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
+with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
+material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
+energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
+substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
+will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
+diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
+selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
+must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
+slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
+than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
+value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
+build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
+it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
+the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
+individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
+with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
+offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
+vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="FOOD_VALUE"></a><h3>FOOD VALUE</h3>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
+another in what is known as their <i>value</i>, which is measured by the work
+the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
+energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
+must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
+appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
+neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
+who are to eat it.</p>
+
+<p>While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
+the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
+purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
+larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
+instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
+energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
+because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
+the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
+hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
+were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
+too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
+diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
+body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
+salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
+and keeping the body in a healthy condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
+it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
+work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or <i>calory</i>,
+and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
+the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
+liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
+its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
+for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
+actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
+regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
+relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
+measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
+known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
+when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
+them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
+they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
+liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
+measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
+temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
+of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
+square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
+of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
+heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
+the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
+produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
+about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
+has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
+contains only about 57-1/2 calories.</p>
+
+<p>Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
+determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
+an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
+number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
+charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
+presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
+profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
+time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
+to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
+then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="DIGESTION_AND_ABSORPTION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
+digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
+be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
+that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
+is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
+which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
+No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
+food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
+the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Composition of food materials]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Composition of food materials]</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="PREPARATION_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
+both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
+the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
+cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
+recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
+appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
+eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
+desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:</p>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
+meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
+they were eaten raw.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
+such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
+readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
+makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
+digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
+somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
+an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
+egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
+Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
+an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
+the same.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
+various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
+the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
+so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
+large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
+been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
+different foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
+need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
+completely sterlized if the germs that produce fermentation or
+putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
+when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
+exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
+cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
+By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
+that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
+in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
+the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
+out later.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
+vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
+methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="METHODS_OF_COOKING"></a><h3>METHODS OF COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>COOKING PROCESSES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
+or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
+preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
+impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
+most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
+directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
+kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
+conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
+the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
+which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
+perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
+stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
+itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
+it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
+a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
+cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
+points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
+constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
+become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
+which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
+numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
+stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
+baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and saut&eacute;ing. Which one of these
+to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
+desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
+material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
+tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
+roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.</p>
+
+<p>The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
+themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
+requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH DRY HEAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>28.</b> Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
+baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
+practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
+exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
+subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
+is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. BROILING.</b>--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
+exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
+that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
+flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
+flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
+example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
+help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
+process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
+for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
+order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
+beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
+turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
+be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
+cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
+continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
+an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
+they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. PAN BROILING.</b>--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
+It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
+without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
+or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
+is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
+pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
+a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. ROASTING.</b>--Originally, the term <i>to roast</i> meant to cook before a
+fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
+cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
+the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
+side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
+suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
+heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
+being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
+Nowadays, the term <i>roasting</i> is almost universally applied to the
+action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
+roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
+coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
+roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
+to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
+true sense.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
+on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
+For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
+roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
+on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
+cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
+by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
+than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.</p>
+
+<p><b>32. BAKING.</b>--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
+ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
+frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
+should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
+method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
+exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
+processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
+Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
+baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
+are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
+skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
+formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
+applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
+is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
+meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
+the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
+the same way is said to be roasted.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
+of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
+In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
+entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
+selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
+contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
+to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
+in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
+steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
+containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.</p>
+
+<p>As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
+something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
+before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
+function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
+are discussed.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.</b>--Water supplies no energy to the body,
+but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
+function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
+material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
+properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
+to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
+necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
+its safety.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. KINDS OF WATER.</b>--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
+clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
+solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
+definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
+much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
+the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
+through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
+minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
+water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
+to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
+until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
+water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
+certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
+temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
+soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
+boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
+condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
+the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
+thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
+that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
+soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
+soda, or bicarbonate of soda.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.</b>--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
+of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
+kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
+solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
+dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
+of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
+than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
+flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
+the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
+meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
+addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
+will assist in softening them.</p>
+
+<p>Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
+making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
+foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
+vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
+salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
+medium for conveying heat.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. BOILING.</b>--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
+boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
+what is commonly termed its <i>boiling point</i>. This varies with the
+atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
+always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
+surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
+temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
+boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
+boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
+boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
+contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
+in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
+constant agitation of the water.</p>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
+eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
+softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
+other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
+preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
+temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
+the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
+hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
+besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
+not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
+rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
+the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
+quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
+which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
+temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
+loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
+water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
+for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
+cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
+consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
+quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
+the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
+tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
+to boil long enough.</p>
+
+<p>Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
+destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
+sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
+known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
+the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
+introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
+beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.</b>--The cooking process known as simmering, or
+stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
+water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
+200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
+gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
+less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
+time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
+than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
+cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
+rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
+tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
+tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
+vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
+using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
+method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
+winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
+difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
+spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
+then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
+the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
+continuously.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. STEAMING.</b>--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
+the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
+a <i>steamer</i>, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
+perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
+steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
+Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
+on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
+foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
+different food may be placed in each vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
+no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
+so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
+way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
+steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
+outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
+moist surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. DRY STEAMING.</b>--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
+another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
+known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
+especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
+suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
+cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
+vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
+required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
+away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
+fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
+especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
+containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
+Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
+cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
+temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
+boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
+is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
+digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
+boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. BRAIZING.</b>--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
+quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
+called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
+carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
+water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
+meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
+pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
+they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
+the braizing method.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COOKING WITH HOT FAT</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
+water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
+Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
+to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
+ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
+if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
+the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, saut&eacute;ing,
+and fricasseeing.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. FRYING.</b>--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
+temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
+not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
+oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
+oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
+because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
+absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
+fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.</p>
+
+<p><b>45. SAUT&Eacute;ING.</b>--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
+a small quantity of fat is termed saut&eacute;ing. In this cooking process, the
+fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
+food is put into it. Foods that are to be saut&eacute;d are usually sliced thin
+or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
+process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
+digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
+and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
+saut&eacute;d if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. FRICASSEEING.</b>--A combination of saut&eacute;ing and stewing results in the
+cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
+such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
+for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
+old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
+meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and saut&eacute;d either before or after
+stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
+the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
+retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
+tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="HEAT_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>HEAT FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>GENERAL DISCUSSION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
+it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
+thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
+production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
+which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
+a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
+the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
+taken up in detail.</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
+cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
+and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
+used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
+used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
+localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
+fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
+burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
+remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
+soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
+into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
+as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.</p>
+
+<p><b>49.</b> The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
+that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
+which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
+and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
+selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
+the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
+made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
+materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
+inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
+instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
+and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
+taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
+been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
+apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
+production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
+advantage.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COAL AND COKE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>50. VARIETIES OF COAL.</b>--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
+is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, <i>anthracite</i>, or
+<i>hard coal</i>, and <i>bituminous</i>, or <i>soft coal</i>. Their relative cost
+depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
+both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
+coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
+smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
+considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
+stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
+this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
+short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
+especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
+times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
+management and care of the stove is demanded.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. SIZES OF COAL.</b>--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
+into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
+coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
+known as <i>stove</i> and <i>egg coal</i>, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
+inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
+the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
+use the size of coal known as <i>pea</i>, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
+diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
+<i>chestnut</i>, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
+reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
+most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>52. QUALITY OF COAL.</b>--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
+of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
+distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
+exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
+of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
+the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
+understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
+surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
+can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
+Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
+and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
+the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
+management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
+manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
+proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
+the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
+may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
+provided in the meantime.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
+stick together as it burns and form what are known as <i>clinkers</i>.
+Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
+grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
+burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
+fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
+quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
+prevent their formation.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. COKE.</b>--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
+Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
+but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
+nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
+therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
+used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
+cooking is done on a small scale.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>GAS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.</b>--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
+<i>artificial</i> and <i>natural</i>, is very effective, and in localities where
+the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
+two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
+expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
+Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
+fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
+as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
+closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
+way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
+cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
+the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
+air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
+burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
+by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
+and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
+economical fuel.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.</b>--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
+definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
+quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
+measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
+to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
+gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
+are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
+bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
+previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
+the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]</p>
+
+<p><b>56. READING A GAS METER.</b>--To register the quantity of gas that is
+consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
+large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
+indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
+small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
+cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
+gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
+large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
+the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
+the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
+each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
+that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
+feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
+read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
+hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
+between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
+the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
+when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.</p>
+
+<p><b>57.</b> To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
+right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
+quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
+that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
+from the new reading.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
+determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
+the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
+feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
+was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
+5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
+they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
+June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
+from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
+2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
+Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
+burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
+feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 &divide; 1,000 =
+2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34</p>
+
+<p><b>58. PREPAYMENT METERS.</b>--In many places, gas concerns install what are
+called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
+deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
+consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
+they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
+dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
+sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
+When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
+in the meter before more gas will be liberated.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEROSENE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>59.</b> In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
+produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
+for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
+stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
+cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
+and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
+contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
+greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
+will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
+can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
+on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.</p>
+
+<p>Another product of the refinement of petroleum is <i>gasoline</i>. However,
+it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
+dangerous and more expensive.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>ELECTRICITY</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
+popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
+because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
+produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
+was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
+since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
+suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
+undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
+in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
+devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
+large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
+cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
+much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
+understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
+for electricity can be checked.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.</b>--An electric meter, which is similar in
+appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
+placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
+is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
+each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
+passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
+electricity used.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig 2.]</p>
+
+<p>The numbers on the dials represent <i>kilowatt-hours</i>, a term meaning the
+energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
+which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
+1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
+will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
+extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
+from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
+from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
+fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
+is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
+revolution of the hand of that dial registers.</p>
+
+<p>To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
+until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
+read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
+directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
+number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
+right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
+down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
+is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
+first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
+exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
+before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
+the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
+which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
+figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.</p>
+
+<p>After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
+simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
+reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
+registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
+that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
+previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
+kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
+electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
+some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PRINCIPLE OF STOVES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>62.</b> Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
+in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
+burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
+Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
+made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
+many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
+method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
+is in use for cooking in every home.</p>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
+stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
+constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
+order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
+fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of <i>carbon</i>
+and air largely of <i>oxygen</i>, and it is the rapid union of these two
+chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
+stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
+in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
+cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
+which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
+air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
+rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
+flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
+unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
+that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
+with <i>dampers</i>. These devices are located in the air passages and they
+are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
+enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
+around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
+flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
+absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
+The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
+give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
+should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
+stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
+really with the flue.</p>
+
+<p><b>64.</b> Probably one of the most important things considered in the
+construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
+days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
+fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
+consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
+necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
+to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
+for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
+use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
+and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
+the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
+because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
+the right way in which his product should be operated.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.</b>--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
+construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
+parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a <i>cook stove</i>,
+or range, are the firebox <i>a</i>; the grate <i>b</i>; the ash pit <i>c</i>, which
+usually contains an ash-pan <i>d</i>; the oven <i>e</i>; the dampers <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>,
+<i>h</i>, and <i>i</i>; the flue opening <i>j</i> and flue <i>k</i>; openings in the top and
+suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
+extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
+the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
+in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
+that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
+the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
+air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
+constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
+to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
+from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
+really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
+heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
+that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at <i>f</i>
+and <i>g</i> serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
+those shown at <i>h</i> and <i>i</i> serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
+permit it to pass out through the flue.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3]</p>
+
+<p><b>66. Building a Coal Fire.</b>--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
+that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
+to close the dampers <i>f</i> and <i>h </i>and to open the bottom damper <i>g</i> and
+the chimney damper <i>i</i>. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
+or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
+kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
+careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
+of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
+closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
+this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
+turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
+close the dampers <i>g</i> and <i>i</i> so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
+and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
+also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
+new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
+new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
+is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
+that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
+high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
+likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
+any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
+is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
+as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
+in the firebox to burn out.</p>
+
+<p><b>67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.</b>--To get the best results from a cook stove,
+and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
+adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
+oven for baking, close dampers <i>f</i> and <i>i</i> and open dampers <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>.
+With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
+around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
+Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
+left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
+does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
+hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
+of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4]</p>
+
+<p>If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
+be done on top of it, close dampers <i>f</i>, <i>h</i>, and <i>i</i> and open damper
+<i>g</i>. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
+the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
+shown in Fig. 4. While the damper <i>i</i> in the flue is closed in order to
+confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
+the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
+the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
+dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
+the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
+place is behind the damper <i>h</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.</b>--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
+save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
+a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
+next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
+long time, this can be done by what is called <i>banking</i> the fire. To
+achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
+out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
+on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
+new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
+the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
+is, close dampers <i>g</i> and <i>h</i> and open dampers <i>f</i> and <i>i</i>. If the
+banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
+further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
+in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
+not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
+a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
+a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
+starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
+more until the fire is in good condition.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>69. GAS RANGES.</b>--A gas stove for cooking, or <i>gas range</i>, as it is
+frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
+over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
+to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
+flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
+are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
+same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
+of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
+type of gas range. The oven <i>a</i> of this stove is located above the top
+of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
+is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
+this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
+baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
+broiler <i>b</i>, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
+beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners <i>c</i> for cooking. The
+gas for these parts is contained in the pipe <i>d</i>, which is connected to
+a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
+is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
+four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks <i>e</i>, and the oven and the
+broiler by the stop-cock <i>f</i>. The stove is also equipped with a
+simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
+gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock <i>g</i>. To catch
+anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
+enamel sheet <i>h</i>. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
+considerably in keeping the stove clean.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 5]</p>
+
+<p><b>70.</b> Some gas stoves are provided with a <i>pilot</i>, which is a tiny flame
+of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
+stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
+desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
+near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
+burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
+should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
+save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 6]</p>
+
+<p>To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
+A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
+indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
+the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
+a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
+is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
+mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
+the burner is provided with what is called a <i>mixer</i>. This device, as
+shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
+by turning part <i>a</i>, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
+amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
+been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
+the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
+burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
+until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
+adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
+as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
+utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
+thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
+the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
+very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
+used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
+continue to do its work.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p>
+
+<p><b>71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.</b>--A style of gas stove that meets with
+favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
+style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
+advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
+stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
+cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
+that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
+construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
+except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
+compartments for fireless cooking, as at <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. Each of these
+compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
+upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate <i>c</i>, is a
+gas burner <i>d</i>, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
+When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
+is raised, as at <i>b</i>, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
+cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
+has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
+permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
+lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
+<i>a</i>. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
+automatically when the hood is lowered.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p>
+
+<p><b>72.</b> As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
+localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
+gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
+provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
+the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
+which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
+wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
+satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
+stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, <i>a</i> is
+stored in the container <i>b</i>, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
+supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe <i>c</i>. Each burner is
+provided with a door <i>d</i>, which is opened when it is desired to light
+the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw <i>e</i>, which
+serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
+<i>f</i> in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
+burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
+the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
+also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
+bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
+quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.</p>
+
+<p><b>73.</b> The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
+as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
+those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
+flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
+prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
+occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
+heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
+blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
+produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
+stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
+the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
+to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
+accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
+when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
+boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
+charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
+liable to make it give off an uneven flame.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 9]</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>74.</b> ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
+such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
+the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
+used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
+gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
+of the usual type. The oven <i>a</i> is located at one side and contains a
+broiler pan <i>b</i>. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
+which fit lids <i>c</i> that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
+are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
+cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
+hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
+being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box <i>d</i>,
+which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
+hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches <i>e</i> at the
+front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
+heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
+cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
+the switches are several fuse plugs <i>f</i> that contain the fuses, which
+are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
+the current of electricity becomes too great.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 10]</p>
+
+<p>It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
+stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
+products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
+points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
+inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
+off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
+cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
+same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 11]</p>
+
+<p><b>75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.</b>--In addition to electric stoves, there are
+a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
+an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
+toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
+similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
+referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
+which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
+to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
+upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
+turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
+placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.</p>
+
+<p>(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (<i>b</i>) To what is
+leakage in the household due?</p>
+
+<p>(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
+food?</p>
+
+<p>(5) (<i>a</i>) Name the five substances that are found in food, (<i>b</i>) Of what
+value is a knowledge of these food substances?</p>
+
+<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) What is the function of protein in the body? (<i>b</i>) Mention the
+principal sources of protein, (<i>c</i>) Explain the effect of heat on foods
+that contain protein.</p>
+
+<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (<i>b</i>) Mention the two
+forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
+be found.</p>
+
+<p>(8) What is a calorie?</p>
+
+<p>(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
+food.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (<i>a</i>) dry heat; (<i>b</i>) moist heat;
+(<i>c</i>) hot fat.</p>
+
+<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) At what temperature does water boil? (<i>b</i>) How is hard water
+affected by boiling? (<i>c</i>) Explain the uses of water in cooking.</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
+cooking? (<i>b</i>) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
+in using fuel.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
+of a stove.</p>
+
+<p>(15) (<i>a</i>) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (<i>b</i>) What kind of gas flame is
+best for cooking?</p>
+
+<p>(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
+and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
+of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
+5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?</p>
+
+<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) How is heat produced in a stove? (<i>b</i>) What is the purpose of the
+dampers of a stove?</p>
+
+<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
+heat the oven for baking? (<i>b</i>) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
+top of the stove?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (<i>b</i>) How may a
+gas stove be kept in good condition?</p>
+
+<p>(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?</p>
+
+
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center><h2>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)</h2></center>
+
+
+<h2>PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)</h2>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
+considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
+methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
+the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
+overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
+particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
+will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
+mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
+kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
+number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
+as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
+before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
+definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
+use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
+labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
+amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
+cooking is done.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
+shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
+cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
+they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
+aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
+therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
+be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
+can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
+in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
+for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
+seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
+food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
+be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.</p>
+
+<p>The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
+whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
+indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
+other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
+large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
+cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
+exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
+should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
+surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
+more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
+utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
+to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>3. ALUMINUM.</b>--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
+extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
+materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
+aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
+by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
+made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
+it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
+since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
+careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
+than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
+manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
+aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
+institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
+and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
+expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
+casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
+disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
+this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
+aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
+distributed by this metal.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. ENAMEL.</b>--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
+and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
+durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
+will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
+and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
+be the best for wear.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. IRON AND STEEL.</b>--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
+inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
+are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
+griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
+makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
+satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
+other frying.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. EARTHENWARE.</b>--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
+are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
+earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
+the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
+utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
+delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
+lost in such a dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. TIN.</b>--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
+but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
+because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
+such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
+strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
+desirable for them.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. COPPER.</b>--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
+cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
+but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
+kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
+keep clean.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. GLASS.</b>--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
+Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
+that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
+the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
+retaining the heat well.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. WOOD.</b>--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
+outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
+being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
+foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
+when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>LABOR-SAVING DEVICES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE</b> is any apparatus that will permit a certain
+piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
+necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
+labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
+cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
+are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
+appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
+unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
+will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
+secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
+the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
+saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
+Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
+so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
+strength she would use without such a device.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1 (<i>a</i>) (<i>b</i>)]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 2]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3]</p>
+
+<p><b>12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES.</b> Every housewife does not have occasion
+to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
+number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
+save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
+Among them is the <i>rotary egg beater</i> shown in Fig. 1 (<i>a</i>). This is so
+made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
+does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
+<i>egg whip</i>, which is shown in (<i>b</i>). Another inexpensive device that is
+a real help is the <i>potato ricer</i>. This device, one style of which is
+shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
+can be put to make a pur&eacute;e. It is used considerably for mashing
+potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
+and labor. Still another useful device is the <i>meat chopper</i>, or
+<i>grinder</i>, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
+of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
+to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
+and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
+small labor-saving devices, such as the <i>apple corer</i>, the <i>berry
+huller</i>, the <i>mayonnaise mixer</i>, etc., the merits of which every busy
+housewife will do well to consider.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4]</p>
+
+<p><b>13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS.</b> Where baking is done for only a small number
+of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
+much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
+easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
+but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
+sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
+mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
+are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
+bakings are comparatively small.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
+consists of a covered tin pail <i>a</i> that may be fastened to the edge of a
+table by the clamp <i>b</i>. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong <i>c</i>, in
+the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle <i>d</i>.
+The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
+they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
+in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
+dough ingredients, it has a deep pan <i>a</i>, and instead of one kneading
+prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms <i>b</i>, as
+shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels <i>c</i> that fit in a large
+gearwheel <i>d</i> attached to a shaft <i>e</i>, which is turned by means of a
+handle <i>f</i>. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
+necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
+whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 5]</p>
+
+<p><b>16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.</b>--Although machines for washing dishes are to
+be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
+and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
+Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
+the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
+require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
+entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
+dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
+and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. FIRELESS COOKER.</b>--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
+is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
+consists of an insulated box <i>a</i> lined with metal and divided into
+compartments <i>b</i>, with pans <i>c</i> that fit into them. Hotplates, or
+stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
+to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at <i>d</i>, are
+supported in the compartments by metal racks <i>e</i>, and they are lifted in
+and out by means of wire handles <i>f</i>.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig 6.]</p>
+
+<p>To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
+time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
+the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
+heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
+fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
+the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
+still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
+occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
+cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
+requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
+permits of economy in both fuel and time.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_FURNISHING_A_KITCHEN"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN</h3>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
+is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
+and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
+however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
+quantity of food that is to be prepared.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>NECESSARY EQUIPMENT</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Baking dish with cover</li>
+<li>Bread box</li>
+<li>Bread knife</li>
+<li>Bread pans</li>
+<li>Can opener</li>
+<li>Cake knife</li>
+<li>Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper</li>
+<li>Coffee mill</li>
+<li>Coffee pot</li>
+<li>Colander</li>
+<li>Cookie cutter</li>
+<li>Corer, Apple</li>
+<li>Cutting board</li>
+<li>Dishpan</li>
+<li>Double boiler</li>
+<li>Egg beater</li>
+<li>Flour sifter</li>
+<li>Forks</li>
+<li>Frying pan, large</li>
+<li>Frying pan, small</li>
+<li>Garbage can</li>
+<li>Grater</li>
+<li>Kettle covers</li>
+<li>Kettles, two or more</li>
+<li>Knife sharpener</li>
+<li>Knives</li>
+<li>Lemon squeezer</li>
+<li>Long-handled fork</li>
+<li>Measuring cup</li>
+<li>Meat board</li>
+<li>Meat knife</li>
+<li>Mixing bowls</li>
+<li>Mixing spoons</li>
+<li>Molding board</li>
+<li>Muffin pan</li>
+<li>Paring knife</li>
+<li>Pepper shaker</li>
+<li>Pie pans</li>
+<li>Potato masher</li>
+<li>Rinsing, or draining, pan</li>
+<li>Roasting pan</li>
+<li>Rolling pin</li>
+<li>Salt box</li>
+<li>Saucepans</li>
+<li>Spatula</li>
+<li>Tablespoons</li>
+<li>Teakettle</li>
+<li>Teapot</li>
+<li>Teaspoons</li>
+<li>Toaster</li>
+<li>Wire strainer</li>
+<li>Wooden spoon</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<br><b>CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT</b><br>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Bread mixer</li>
+<li>Cake coolers</li>
+<li>Cake mixer</li>
+<li>Cake turner</li>
+<li>Casseroles</li>
+<li>Clock</li>
+<li>Coffee percolator</li>
+<li>Containers for spices and dry groceries</li>
+<li>Cookie sheets</li>
+<li>Cream whip Egg whip</li>
+<li>Fireless cooker</li>
+<li>Frying kettle and basket</li>
+<li>Funnel Glass jars for canning</li>
+<li>Griddle</li>
+<li>Ice-cream freezer</li>
+<li>Ice pick</li>
+<li>Jelly molds</li>
+<li>Nest of bowls</li>
+<li>Pan for baking fish</li>
+<li>Potato knife</li>
+<li>Potato ricer</li>
+<li>Ramekins</li>
+<li>Quart measure</li>
+<li>Scales</li>
+<li>Scissors</li>
+<li>Set of skewers</li>
+<li>Steamer</li>
+<li>Waffle iron</li>
+<li>Wheel cart</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="GETTING_FOODS_READY_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING</h3>
+
+<b>PRELIMINARY PREPARATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
+are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
+their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
+way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
+the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
+served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
+first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
+vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
+certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
+vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
+off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
+is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
+little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
+the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
+<i>blanching</i>. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
+removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
+pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
+for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
+this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means &quot;to
+take color out&quot; and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
+the word means &quot;to remove the covering of&quot; can it be applied to the
+peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
+cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
+them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
+Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
+ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
+poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
+cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
+removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
+advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
+before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
+chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.</b>--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
+is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
+smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
+processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
+that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
+The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
+they mean follow.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>BEATING</b> is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
+mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
+an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
+Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
+making the mixture light.</li>
+
+<li><b>STIRRING</b> is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
+spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
+pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
+simple mixing of ingredients.</li>
+
+<li><b>FOLDING</b> is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
+added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
+by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
+then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
+mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
+well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
+as possible.</li>
+
+<li><b>RUBBING</b> is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
+the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
+other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.</li>
+
+<li><b>CREAMING</b> consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
+becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.</li>
+
+<li><b>CUTTING-IN</b> is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
+desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
+chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.</li>
+
+<li><b>SIFTING</b> is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
+wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
+lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.</li>
+
+<li><b>RICING</b> is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
+vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a pur&eacute;e. This
+result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><b>23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.</b>--In applying the various mixing
+processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
+considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
+thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
+demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
+actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
+in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
+food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
+the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
+yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
+cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
+process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
+doing them.</p>
+
+<p>As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
+application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
+in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
+soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
+ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
+discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
+indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
+about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MEASURING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>24.</b> Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
+course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
+not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
+developed a judgment, or &quot;sense,&quot; of measurement, which amounts to the
+same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
+cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
+time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
+Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
+with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
+and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
+standard teaspoon.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p>
+
+<p><b>25. SCALES.</b>--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
+the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
+platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
+pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
+which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
+correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
+weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
+use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
+and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
+of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
+holds the food.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p>
+
+<p><b>26. MEASURING CUPS.</b>--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
+often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
+preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
+As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
+necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
+measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
+of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
+hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
+quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
+is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
+if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
+up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
+measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
+evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
+with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
+tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
+tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
+cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
+tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
+of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
+a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
+use a spoon.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 9]</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
+of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
+measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
+the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
+the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
+however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
+definite quantities indicated and mean <i>standard</i>, not approximate,
+cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. MEASURING SPOONS.</b>--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
+measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
+However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
+tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
+level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
+it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
+manner shown in Fig. 10 (<i>a</i>). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
+first, as indicated in (<i>a</i>), and then marked through the center with a
+knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (<i>b</i>). Fourths
+and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
+(<i>a</i>), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
+in (<i>b</i>).</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 10]</p>
+
+<p><b>29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.</b>--In measuring some of the
+materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
+them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
+such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
+sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
+measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
+which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
+measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
+because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
+material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
+measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
+it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
+should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
+dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 11]</p>
+
+<p><b>30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</b>--As foods are sold by weight and by
+measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
+is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
+preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
+measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
+practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
+be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
+be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
+<b>AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT</b>. Another table of weights, called the table of <i>Troy
+weight</i>, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
+metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
+because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
+contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
+abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr ><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">437-1/2 grains (gr.)</td><td align="left">= 1 ounce</td><td align="center">oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">16 ounces</td><td align="left">= 1 pound</td><td align="center">lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">100 pounds</td><td align="left">= 1 hundredweight</td><td align="center">cwt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">20 hundredweight</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="left">= 1 ton</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="center">T.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2,000 pounds</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
+make 1 <i>long ton</i> (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
+localities, but the ton, sometimes called the <i>short ton</i>, is in more
+general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.</p>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> The table of <b>LIQUID MEASURE</b> is used for measuring all liquids, and
+is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
+abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>LIQUID MEASURE</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 gills (gi.)</td><td align="left">= 1 pint</td><td align="center">pt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 pints</td><td align="left">= 1 quart</td><td align="center">qt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 quarts</td><td align="left">= 1 gallon</td><td align="center">gal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">31-1/2 gallons</td><td align="left">= 1 barrel</td><td align="center">bbl.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 barrels</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="left">= 1 hogshead</td><td rowspan=2 valign="middle"align="center">hhd.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">63 gallons</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> The table of <b>DRY MEASURE</b> is used for measuring dry foods, such as
+potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
+abbreviations, follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>DRY MEASURE</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2 pints (pt.)</td><td align="left">= 1 quart</td><td align="center">qt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">8 quarts</td><td align="left">= 1 peck</td><td align="center">pk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">4 pecks</td><td align="left">= 1 bushel</td><td align="center">bu.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> Tables of <b>RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES</b> are of value to the
+housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
+understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
+measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
+pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
+approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
+measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
+to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
+been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, &quot;A pint's a
+pound the world around,&quot; which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
+true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
+others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
+measures of most of the common foods:</p>
+<br><br><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, dried</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coffee, whole</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn meal</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Molasses</td><td align="left">1-1/2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Meat, chopped, finely packed</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nuts, shelled</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oats, rolled</td><td align="left">4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Olive oil</td><td align="left">2-1/2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peas, split</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Raisins</td><td align="left">3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, brown</td><td align="left">2-2/3 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, granulated</td><td align="left">2 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar, powdered</td><td align="left">2-3/4 CUPFULS</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn starch</td><td align="left">3/8 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">1/4 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">1/2 OUNCE</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Butter</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn meal</td><td align="left">5 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn starch</td><td align="left">6 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flour</td><td align="left">4 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Molasses</td><td align="left">10 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nuts, shelled</td><td align="left">4 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Raisins</td><td align="left">5 OUNCES</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">8 OUNCES</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+
+<center>In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
+great assistance:</center><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">3 tsp. = 1 Tb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">16 Tb. = 1 c.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><b>35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.</b>--In order to simplify directions and
+recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
+abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
+frequently in cook books are the following:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">tsp. for teaspoonful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">pt. for pint</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tb. for tablespoonful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">qt. for quart</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">c. for cupful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">oz. for ounce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">lb. for pound</td></tr>
+</table>
+<hr style="width: 35%;">
+
+<a name="ORDER_OF_WORK"></a><h3>ORDER OF WORK</h3>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
+planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
+following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
+and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
+mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
+clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
+satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
+and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
+combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
+whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
+the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
+divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
+them to make them enough.</p>
+
+<p>The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
+receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
+wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
+needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.</p>
+
+<p>Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
+regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
+it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
+mixing of the ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
+utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
+operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
+the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
+teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
+for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
+separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
+mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
+process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
+be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
+are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.</p>
+
+<p>If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
+step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
+ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
+the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
+otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TABLE_FOR_COOKING_FOODS"></a><h3>TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS</h3>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
+length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
+what is commonly known as a <i>cookery time table</i>. It should be
+remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
+factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
+determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
+longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
+with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
+baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
+help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
+not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
+proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
+rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
+length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
+hours (abbreviated hr.)</p>
+<br>
+<center><h3>COOKERY TIME TABLE</h3>
+
+<b>MEATS AND FISH</b><br>
+
+<i>Broiled</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Bacon</td><td align="left">3 to 5 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken</td><td align="left">20 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish</td><td align="left">15 to 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, slices</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, very small</td><td align="left">5 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lamb chops</td><td align="left">6 to 8 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Quail or squabs</td><td align="left">8 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steak, thick</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steak, thin</td><td align="left">5 to 7 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Veal chops</td><td align="left">6 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<center><i>Boiled</i></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, corned</td><td align="left">3 to 4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken, 3 lb</td><td align="left">1 to 1-1/4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, bluefish, cod, or bass, 4 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb</td><td align="left">20 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, small</td><td align="left">10 to 15 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fowl, 4 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ham, 12 to 14 lb</td><td align="left">4 to 5 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mutton, leg of</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tongue</td><td align="left">3 to 4 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+
+<center><i>Roasted</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 5 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., well done</td><td align="left">1 hr. 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., well done</td><td align="left">2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare</td><td align="left">1 hr. 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done</td><td align="left">2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chicken, 4 or 5 lb</td><td align="left">1-1/2 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Duck, 5 to 6 lb</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, 3 to 5 lb</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fish, small</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Goose, 10 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 2-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lamb, leg of</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mutton, saddle</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pork, rib, 5 lb</td><td align="left">2 to 2-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Turkey, 10 lb</td><td align="left">2-1/2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>VEGETABLES</b><br>
+
+<i>Boiled</i>
+</center>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Asparagus</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, lima or shell</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans, string</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beets, old</td><td align="left">4 to 6 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beets, young</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brussels sprouts</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cabbage</td><td align="left">35 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carrots</td><td align="left">3/4 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cauliflower</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Green corn</td><td align="left">8 to 12 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Macaroni</td><td align="left">30 to 40 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Onions</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peas</td><td align="left">25 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Potatoes</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spinach</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Turnips</td><td align="left">1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vegetable oysters</td><td align="left">3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+
+<center><h3>BAKED FOODS<br></h3></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left">Beans</td><td align="left">6 to 8 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Biscuits, baking powder</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Biscuits, yeast</td><td align="left">10 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bread, ginger</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bread, loaf</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, corn</td><td align="left">20 to 30 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, fruit</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, layer</td><td align="left">15 to 20 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, loaf</td><td align="left">40 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, pound</td><td align="left">1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cake, sponge</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cookies</td><td align="left">6 to 10 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Custard</td><td align="left">20 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Muffins, baking powder</td><td align="left">15 to 25 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pastry</td><td align="left">30 to 45 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Potatoes</td><td align="left">45 to 60 min.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pudding, Indian</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pudding, rice (poor man's).</td><td align="left">2 to 3 hr.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="CARE_OF_FOOD"></a><h3>CARE OF FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>REASONS FOR CARE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
+foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
+good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
+attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
+care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
+as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
+loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
+and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
+are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
+these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
+appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
+be more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>39.</b> To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
+that nature abounds in <i>micro-organisms</i>, or living things so minute as
+to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
+science as <i>microbes</i> and <i>germs</i>, and they are comprised of <i>bacteria,
+yeasts</i>, and <i>molds</i>, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
+to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
+ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
+scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
+felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
+foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
+are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
+some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.</p>
+
+<p><b>40.</b> It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
+micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
+these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
+articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
+putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
+fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
+are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
+or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
+of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
+cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
+foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
+even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
+constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
+unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
+sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
+longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
+protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
+long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
+covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
+decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
+covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
+micro-organisms thrive.</p>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
+prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
+if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
+reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
+not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
+and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
+makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
+parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
+and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
+the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
+principles.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>METHODS OF CARE</b><br><br>
+
+<b>CLASSIFICATION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>42.</b> As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
+micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
+growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
+from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
+to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
+Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
+very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
+others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
+raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
+but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
+this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
+to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
+preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
+preserving it as for seasoning it.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
+a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
+in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
+or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
+and to do this the process known as <i>sterilizing</i>--that is, the
+destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
+resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
+former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
+preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
+used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
+While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
+sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
+sweetening need be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
+success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
+unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
+grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
+only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
+cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
+in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
+artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
+housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
+accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
+of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
+preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
+of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
+air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
+are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
+is present.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>45.</b> Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
+growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
+for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
+putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
+winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
+without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
+likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
+for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
+keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
+convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
+of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
+storage of foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. THE REFRIGERATOR.</b>--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
+convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
+it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
+some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
+All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
+more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
+as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
+tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
+usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
+unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
+preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
+kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
+the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
+scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
+can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
+matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
+same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
+ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
+is kept in constant motion, or circulation.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig 12.]</p>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
+as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
+there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
+chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
+be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
+flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
+this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
+arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
+taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
+through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
+odors by passing over the ice.</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
+or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
+to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
+at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
+the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
+kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
+placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
+which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
+careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
+arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 13]</p>
+
+<p><b>49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.</b>--The proper placing of foods in a
+refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
+taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
+placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
+steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
+air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
+warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
+carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
+keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
+become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
+properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
+keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
+carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
+other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
+be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
+escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
+vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
+be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
+food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
+ice to melt unnecessarily.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.</b>--It is essential that all parts of the
+refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
+accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
+spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
+that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
+not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
+once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
+taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
+rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
+should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
+pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
+food replaced.</p>
+
+<p>The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
+the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
+lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
+is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
+blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
+the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
+Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
+the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
+gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
+course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
+Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
+it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
+kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
+should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
+be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
+dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>51.</b> While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
+those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
+not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
+adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
+quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
+cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
+In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
+conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
+stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
+majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
+for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
+more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 14]</p>
+
+<p><b>52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.</b>--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
+place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
+it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
+and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
+mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
+winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
+remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
+that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
+otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
+cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
+secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
+These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
+cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
+desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
+should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
+beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
+is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
+other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 15]</p>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
+must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
+brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
+because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
+canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
+15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
+possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
+and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
+to pass through them.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 16]</p>
+
+<p><b>54. WINDOW BOXES.</b>--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
+cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
+the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
+food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
+but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
+or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
+opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
+in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
+window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
+galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
+capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
+and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
+lined with table oilcloth. </p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 17]</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>55.</b> It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
+foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
+foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
+prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
+absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
+growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
+best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
+closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
+cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
+very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>56.</b> Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
+in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
+original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
+they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
+convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
+salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
+too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
+sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
+not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
+bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
+are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
+whenever it is not well protected.</p>
+
+<p>Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
+sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
+rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
+not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
+unless they are stored in dark places.</p>
+
+<p>Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
+are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
+bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>57.</b> Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
+semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
+foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
+from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
+cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
+for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
+quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
+them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
+small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
+quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
+of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.</p>
+
+<p>Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
+very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
+if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
+districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
+being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
+frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
+for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
+thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
+dry place.</p>
+
+<p>Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
+varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
+fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
+spoiling should be removed.</p>
+
+<a name="MENUS_AND_RECIPES"></a><h3>MENUS AND RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>58.</b> As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or <i>bill of fare</i>,
+consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
+are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
+menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or <i>receipt</i>, which is the
+list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
+used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
+recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
+so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
+manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
+ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
+given in the proper order.</p>
+
+<p><b>59.</b> In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
+in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
+follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
+she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
+reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
+provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
+to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
+with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
+never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
+course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
+hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
+later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
+labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
+directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
+will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
+in detail.</p>
+
+<p><b>60.</b> In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
+the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
+prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
+meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
+recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
+should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
+methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
+prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
+to report on the success she has had with each dish.</p>
+
+<b>MENU</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Pan-Broiled Chops</li>
+<li>Mashed Potatoes</li>
+<li>Creamed Peas</li>
+<li>Cabbage Salad</li>
+<li>Orange Fluff with Sauce</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>RECIPES</b></p>
+
+<p><b>PAN-BROILED CHOPS</b></p>
+
+<p>Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
+cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
+Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.</p>
+
+<b>MASHED POTATOES</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
+of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
+tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
+drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
+masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
+order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
+mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
+of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
+consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
+spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
+are light and fluffy.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED PEAS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
+to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
+then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
+their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
+peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
+equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
+be used.</p>
+
+<b>SAUCE FOR PEAS</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
+salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
+heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.</p>
+
+<b>CABBAGE SALAD</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 small red or green sweet pepper</li>
+<li>Dash of pepper</li>
+<li>1 small onion</li>
+<li>Salad dressing</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
+or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
+and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.</p>
+
+<b>CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. vinegar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired</li>
+<li>1/4 c. water</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
+the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
+pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
+it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.</p>
+
+<b>ORANGE FLUFF</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 c. orange juice</li>
+<li>5 Tb. corn starch</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li>
+<li>Pinch of salt</li>
+<li>2 egg whites</li>
+<li>1 pt. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
+cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
+cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
+and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.</p>
+
+<p>When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
+with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
+until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
+molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.</p>
+
+<b>SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 Tb. corn starch</li>
+<li>3/4 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>3/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>2 egg yolks</li>
+<li>1/4 c. orange juice</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
+of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
+the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
+and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
+the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.</p>
+
+<p><b>61.</b> In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
+of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
+required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
+here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
+which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
+for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
+changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
+there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
+be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
+served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
+been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
+be provided for.</p>
+
+<p><b>62.</b> In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
+is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
+allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
+half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
+mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
+put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
+the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
+to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
+be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
+the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
+and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
+salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
+served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
+they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TERMS_USED_IN_COOKERY"></a><h3>TERMS USED IN COOKERY</h3>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
+of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
+cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
+they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
+occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
+menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
+to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
+is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
+has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
+obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
+are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
+of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
+clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
+this science.</p>
+
+<p><b>&Agrave; la; au; aux</b> <i>(ah lah; o; o</i>).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
+smelts &agrave; la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Au gratin</b> (<i>o gra-tang</i>).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
+practice, also flavored with grated cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>Au naturel</b> (<i>o nat-&uuml;-rayl</i>).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
+indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
+dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.</p>
+
+<p><b>B&eacute;chamel</b> (<i>bay-sham-ayl</i>).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
+milk-named from a celebrated cook.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biscuit Glac&eacute;</b> (<i>bis-k&uuml;-ee glah-say</i>).--Ice cream served in glac&eacute;d shells,
+sometimes in paper cases.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bisque.</b>--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
+cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bouch&eacute;es</b> (<i>boosh-ay</i>).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boudin</b> (<i>boo-dang</i>).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bouquet of Herbs.</b>--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
+and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
+firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
+this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caf&eacute; au Lait</b> (<i>ka-fay o lay</i>).--Coffee with milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caf&eacute; Noir</b> (<i>ka-fay nooar</i>).--Black coffee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canap&eacute;s</b> (<i>kan-ap-ay</i>).--Small slices of bread toasted or saut&eacute;d in butter
+and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
+served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
+or dinner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canard</b> (<i>kan-ar</i>).--Duck.</p>
+
+<p><b>Capers.</b>--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
+seasoning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Capon.</b>--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
+of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caramel.</b>--A sirup of browned sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Casserole.</b>--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Champignons</b> (<i>shang-pe-nyong</i>).--The French name for mushrooms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chartreuse</b> (<i>shar-truhz</i>).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
+molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
+dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chiffonade</b> (<i>shif-fong-ad</i>).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then saut&eacute;d
+or used in salads.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chillies.</b>--Small red peppers used in seasoning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chives.</b>--An herb allied to the onion family.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chutney.</b>--An East Indian sweet pickle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Citron.</b>--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Collops.</b>--Meat cut in small pieces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compote.</b>--Fruit stewed in sirup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coquilles</b> (<i>ko-ke-yuh</i>).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
+sometimes served.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cr&eacute;ole, &agrave; la</b> <i>(kray-ol, ah lah</i>).--With tomatoes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Croustade</b> (<i>kroos-tad</i>).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
+out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.</p>
+
+<p><b>Croutons</b> (<i>kroo-tong***</i>).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
+or in soup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Curry.</b>--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
+herbs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Demi-Tasse</b> (<i>duh-mee tass</i>).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
+refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deviled.</b>--Highly seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dill.</b>--A plant used for flavoring pickles.</p>
+
+<p><b>En coquille</b> (<i>ang ko-ke-yuh</i>).--Served in shells.</p>
+
+<p><b>Entr&eacute;es</b> (<i>ang-tray</i>).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
+are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Escarole</b> (<i>ays-kar-ol</i>).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Farce or Forcemeat.</b>--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fillets</b> (<i>fe-lay</i>).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
+and tied.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fillet Mignons</b> (<i>fe-lay me-nyong</i>).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
+served with steak.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fondant.</b>--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
+used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fondue.</b>--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
+several varieties of this preparation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frapp&eacute;</b> (<i>frap-pay</i>).--Semifrozen.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fromage</b> (<i>fro-magh</i>).--Cheese.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glac&eacute</b>; (<i>glah-say</i>).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glaze</b>.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
+foundation for soups and gravies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Goulash</b> (<i>gool-ash</i>).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gumbo</b>.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
+salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Haricot</b> (<i>har-e-ko</i>).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
+and vegetables are finely divided.</p>
+
+<p><b>Homard</b> (<i>ho-mar</i>).--Lobster.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hors d'oeuvres</b> (<i>or-d'uhvr'</i>).--Relishes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Italiene, &agrave; la</b> (<i>e-tal-yang, ah lah</i>).--In Italian style.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jardini&egrave;re</b> (<i>zhar-de-nyayr</i>).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
+their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Julienne</b> (<i>zh&uuml;-lyayn</i>).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Junket.</b>--Milk jellied by means of rennet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kippered.</b>--Dried or smoked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Larding.</b>--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
+inserted before cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lardon.</b>--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legumes.</b>--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
+peas, and lentils.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lentils.</b>--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mac&eacute;doine</b> (<i>mah-say-dooan</i>).--A mixture of green vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marinade</b> (<i>mar-e-nad</i>).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
+cooking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marinate.</b>--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
+seasoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marrons</b> (<i>ma-rong</i>).--Chestnuts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Menu.</b>--A bill of fare.</p>
+
+<p><b>Meringue</b> (<i>muh-rang</i>).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
+well beaten.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mousse</b> (<i>moos</i>).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
+frozen without turning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nougat</b> (<i>noo-gah</i>).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paprika.</b>--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
+is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.</p>
+
+<p><b>P&acirc;t&eacute;</b> (<i>pa-tay</i>).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pimiento.</b>--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pistachio</b> (<i>pis-ta-shioh)</i>.--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.</p>
+
+<p><b>Potage</b> (<i>pot-azh</i>).--Soup.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pur&eacute;e</b> (<i>p&uuml;-ray</i>).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
+been rubbed through a sieve.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rago&ucirc;t</b> (<i>ra-goo</i>).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
+with a sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ramekin.</b>--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
+baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
+which such a mixture is cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>R&eacute;chauff&eacute;</b> (<i>ray-sho-fay</i>).--A warmed-over dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rissoles.</b>--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
+or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
+fried until crisp.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roux</b> (<i>roo</i>).--Thickening made with butter and flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salmi</b> (<i>sal-mee</i>).--A stew or hash of game.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salpicon</b> (<i>sal-pee-kong</i>).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
+a thick sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sauce Piquante</b> (<i>sos-pe-kangt</i>).--An acid sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shallot.</b>--A variety of onion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sorbet</b> (<i>sor-bay</i>).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
+sherbet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Souffl&eacute;</b> (<i>soo-flay</i>).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
+is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
+which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soy.</b>--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
+agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
+and sauces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stock.</b>--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
+vegetables.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sultanas.</b>--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tarragon</b> (<i>tar-ra-gonk</i>).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
+sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tartare Sauce</b> (<i>tar-tar sos</i>).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
+added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
+sauce for fish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Timbale.</b>--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
+rago&ucirc;t.</p>
+
+<p><b>Truffles.</b>--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
+soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
+who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
+abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
+chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vanilla.</b>--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
+this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vinaigrette Sauce</b> (<i>ve-nay-grayt sos</i>).--A sauce made with oil and
+vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
+highly flavored green vegetables and spices.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vol au Vent</b> (<i>vol o vang</i>).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
+p&acirc;t&eacute; or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
+fish, or meat and a cream sauce.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zwieback</b> (<i>tsouee-bak</i>).--Bread toasted twice.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)</b></p>
+
+<p><b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b></p>
+
+<p>(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
+utensils?</p>
+
+<p>(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
+advantages.</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) What is a labor-saving device? (<i>b</i>) Describe one of the
+labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.</p>
+
+<p>(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (<i>a</i>) the rapid boiling of
+spaghetti; (<i>b</i>) the slow cooking of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (<i>a</i>) vegetables; (<i>b</i>)
+meats; (<i>c</i>) fish.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Describe: (<i>a</i>) sifting; (<i>b</i>) stirring; (<i>c</i>) beating; (<i>d</i>) creaming; (<i>e</i>)
+folding.</p>
+
+<p>(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?</p>
+
+<p>(8) Describe the measuring of: (<i>a</i>) cupful of flour; (<i>b</i>) one-half
+teaspoonful of butter; (<i>c</i>) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
+carry out a recipe? (<i>b</i>) Give briefly the order of work that should
+be followed.</p>
+
+<p>(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?</p>
+
+<p>(11) Tell why foods spoil.</p>
+
+<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
+(<i>b</i>) What is meant by the term preservative?</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) What is the aim in canning foods? (<i>b</i>) On what principle does
+success in drying foods depend?</p>
+
+<p>(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
+which it is based.</p>
+
+<p>(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
+and tell which should be covered and why: (<i>a</i>) milk; (<i>b</i>) butter; (<i>c</i>)
+cooked fish; (<i>d</i>) cooked tomatoes; (<i>e</i>) melons; (f) cheese.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.</p>
+
+<p>(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
+ice.</p>
+
+<p>(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
+cared for?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (<i>b</i>) Tell the
+best ways in which to preserve such foods.</p>
+
+<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) What is a menu? (<i>b</i>) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (<i>c</i>)
+In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<p><b>REPORT ON MENU</b></p>
+
+<p>After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
+your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
+making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
+its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
+Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, &quot;Pan-broiled chops,
+tender, well done&quot;; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
+write &quot;Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy&quot;; and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?</p>
+
+<p>Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?</p>
+
+<p>Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?</p>
+
+<p>Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?</p>
+
+<p>Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?</p>
+
+<p>Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
+disagreeable?</p>
+
+<p>Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<center><a name="CEREALS"></a><h2>CEREALS</h2></center>
+
+
+
+<a name="PRODUCTION,_COMPOSITION,_AND_SELECTION"></a><h3>PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION</h3>
+
+<b>PRODUCTION OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.</b>--<i>Cereals,</i> which is the term applied to the
+edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
+When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
+and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
+roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
+not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
+him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
+procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
+of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
+Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
+to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
+chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.</p>
+
+<p>The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
+their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
+have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
+to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
+goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
+crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
+these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
+rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.</b>--With the exception of the desert lands and
+the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
+world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
+the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
+warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
+practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
+of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
+and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
+supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
+inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
+of cereals.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.</b>--The abundance of the world's grain supply
+makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
+various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
+entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
+cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
+classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
+require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
+Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
+quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
+price that is fairly uniform.</p>
+
+<p>Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
+proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
+income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
+of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
+food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
+an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
+are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
+practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
+be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
+fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
+is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
+cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
+increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
+energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
+of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.</b>--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
+products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
+being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
+should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
+them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
+study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
+meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
+cereals, which are commonly referred to as <i>breakfast foods.</i> The only
+additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
+spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
+wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
+table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
+large measure to them.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COMPOSITION OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
+distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
+mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
+cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
+contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
+while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
+small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
+contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
+is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
+are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
+a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
+food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
+certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
+that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
+about by the addition of other substances.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
+proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
+less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
+and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
+scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
+<i>germ,</i> which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
+sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
+bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
+the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
+is generally lost.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.</b>--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
+but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
+differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
+protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
+yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
+and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
+<i>gluten,</i> a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
+gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
+gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
+bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
+successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
+amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
+expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
+is one of the cheaper varieties.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. FAT IN CEREALS.</b>--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
+heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
+cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
+used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
+material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
+used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
+fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
+stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
+and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
+much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
+the milling process.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.</b>--The food substance found in the greatest
+proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
+contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
+rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
+oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
+distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
+microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
+almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
+from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
+structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
+thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
+explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
+is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
+that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
+energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
+cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
+material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
+quantity to place them with the protein foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.</b>--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
+minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
+valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
+required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
+explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
+outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
+this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
+contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
+minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
+sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
+vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
+cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
+those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. WATER IN CEREALS.</b>--Cereals contain very little water in their
+composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
+their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
+quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
+of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
+large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
+could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
+grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
+permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
+amounts it would add materially to their bulk.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.</b>--In addition to the five food substances that
+are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
+as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
+material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
+and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
+fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
+long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
+digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
+for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
+that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
+include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
+the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.</b>--Not all grains, or cereals,
+contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
+one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
+substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
+regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
+Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
+the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
+their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
+food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
+in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
+lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
+protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
+in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
+this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
+they are of value as a food.</p>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>TABLE I</b></center>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=5 align="center"><b>COMPOSITION OF CEREALS</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Protein</td><td align="center">Fat</td><td align="center">Carbohydrate</td><td align="center">Cellulose</td><td align="center">Mineral Matter or Ash</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Oats</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Barley</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Rye</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Barley</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Wheat</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Wheat</td><td align="center">Buckwheat</td><td align="center">Corn</td><td align="center">Corn</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Rye</td><td align="center">Oats</td><td align="center">Rice</td><td align="center">Rice</td></tr>
+</table><br><br><br>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="CEREALS_AS_A_FOOD"></a><h3>CEREALS AS A FOOD</h3>
+
+<b>USES OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
+problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
+the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
+evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
+consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
+consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
+served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
+description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
+cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
+constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
+digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
+desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
+solid foods fed to them.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
+breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
+they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
+used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
+an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
+dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
+advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
+certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
+the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
+used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
+eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
+a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and saut&eacute;d
+and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
+also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
+because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
+evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
+When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
+or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
+whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
+economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
+the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
+to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
+are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
+ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
+to those which are poorly cooked in the home.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.</b>--So that the housewife may go
+about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
+for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
+harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
+which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
+is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
+a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
+applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
+further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
+the bran covering, and in this form they are known as <i>grits.</i> At other
+times they are ground finer and called <i>meal,</i> and still finer and
+called <i>flour,</i> being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
+various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
+for example, <i>cracked wheat</i> and <i>rolled oats.</i></p>
+
+<p>Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
+in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
+used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
+preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
+as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
+rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
+malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
+generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
+of digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.</b>--Besides knowing about the
+ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
+familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
+In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
+tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
+to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
+sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
+its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
+sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
+chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
+Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
+not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
+temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
+standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
+similar raw cereals in packages.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
+They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
+food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
+cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
+their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
+market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
+ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
+expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
+expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
+cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.</p>
+
+<p>Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
+housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
+her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
+the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
+other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
+hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
+breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
+fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
+usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
+cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
+expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.</b>--As a further aid in coming to an
+understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
+Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
+they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
+grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
+made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CARE OF CEREALS.</b>--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
+dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
+the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
+preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are
+not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in
+addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up
+keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given
+to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food.
+The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to
+remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh
+and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they
+do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore
+their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared
+cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for
+instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that
+particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or
+jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used
+less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and
+other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is
+poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable
+care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large
+quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they
+will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To
+preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins
+made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.</p>
+<br>
+
+<center><b>TABLE II</b></center><br>
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><b>GRAIN PRODUCTS</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=19 align="left">Cereals</td><td rowspan=5 align="left">Whole Grains</td><td align="left">Pearl barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hulled wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hominy: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=6 align="left">Crushed Grains</td><td align="left">Farina: Wheat or corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cream of Wheat: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cracked Wheat: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hominy Grits: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wheat Grits: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Samp: Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=4 align="left">Meal</td><td align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oats</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=4 align="left">Prepared Cereals</td><td align="left">Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shredded Grain: Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left">Starch</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left"> Wheat</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Macaroni</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Vermicelli</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Spaghetti</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glucose</td><td colspan=2 rowspan=2 align="left">Usually corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sirup</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=3 align="left"> Cereal Coffee</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"> Rye</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Barley</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan=5 align="left">Flour</td><td colspan=2 align="left">Wheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rye</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Corn</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Buckwheat</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="left">Rice</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquors</td><td colspan=2 rowspan=4 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malted Drinks </td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beer</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Whisky</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alcohol:</td><td colspan=2 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Feed for animals:</td><td colspan=2 align="left">All grains</td></tr>
+</table>
+<br><br><br>
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="PREPARATION_OF_CEREALS_FOR_THE_TABLE"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE</h3>
+
+<b>METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.</b>--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require
+practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only
+those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly
+for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are
+neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be
+subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking
+is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be
+softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only
+effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible,
+cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that
+might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a
+variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.</b>--In the process of cooking,
+cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by
+performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn
+starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one
+glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The
+mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if
+the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be
+found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which
+boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but
+will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form.
+This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with
+water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst
+their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the
+contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of
+cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what
+is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion,
+but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if
+any, is digestible.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1]</p>
+
+<p><b>23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.</b>--Before the cooking of cereals is
+attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all
+utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them
+so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be
+done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which
+are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for
+cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler <i>a</i>; a
+measuring cup <i>b</i>, a knife <i>c</i>, and spoons <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, for measuring; a
+large spoon <i>f</i>, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of
+cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just
+what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan
+here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done
+systematically and with the least expenditure of time.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.</b>--While cereals may be cooked
+in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are
+practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water
+should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the
+cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps
+forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1
+teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred
+into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming
+lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook
+until it thickens. The process up to this point is called <i>setting</i> a
+cereal, or grain. After the cereal is <i>set</i>, it may be boiled, steamed,
+or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected
+should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness.
+The terms <i>setting</i> and <i>set</i> should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so
+that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily
+understood.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.</b>--Very often the cereal, after it is set,
+is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the
+method of <i>boiling</i> is practiced. This method, however, is not to be
+recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way
+require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to
+keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming
+pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this
+condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of
+rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking
+is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.</b>--Probably the most
+satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is
+concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at <i>a</i>,
+Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as <i>steaming</i>, or <i>dry
+steaming</i>, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes
+within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal
+is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan,
+which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should
+contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is
+ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from
+time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan
+will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.</p>
+
+<p>This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be
+disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one
+day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they
+may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are
+served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling
+point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because
+they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the
+long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature
+develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking
+at the boiling point.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.</b>--In a kitchen that is
+equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for
+cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of
+fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in
+the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at
+the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the
+fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready
+to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the
+cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this
+method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither
+additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In
+reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if
+they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be
+ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.</b>--An old method of cooking cereals or
+starchy foods is called <i>browning</i>, or <i>toasting</i>, and it involves
+cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow
+pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned
+slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until
+an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is
+developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much
+better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this
+means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.</b>--In cooking cereals by any
+method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use
+liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind
+of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground
+requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If
+the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it
+should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked
+cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to
+pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are
+difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked
+cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are
+too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess
+of liquid is evaporated by boiling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gruels</i> are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal.
+They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water,
+and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces,
+and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a
+sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass
+that is thin enough to pour.</p>
+
+<p>The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form,
+the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this
+fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the
+numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be
+experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to
+cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not
+until they are mushy in consistency.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="INDIAN_CORN,_OR_MAIZE"></a><h3>INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> The word <i>corn</i> has been applied to various grains and is now used
+in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley
+was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire
+year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name
+corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is
+the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly
+developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country.
+The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a
+vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when
+they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe
+until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much
+favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the
+last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name <i>Indian
+corn</i>, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general
+kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. <i>Field corn</i>, as a rule, is
+grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to
+animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of
+three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one
+being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a
+variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food
+for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for
+animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes
+preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more
+decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared
+as cereal food for man, are <i>hominy</i> and <i>corn meal</i>. <i>Sweet corn</i> is
+not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used
+for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. <i>Pop
+corn</i>, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is
+used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore,
+at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal
+varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are
+hominy and corn meal.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>32. HOMINY</b> is whole corn from which the outside covering has been
+removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form
+may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the
+home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the
+pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to
+make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even
+with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or
+crushed to form what is called <i>samp</i>, or <i>grits</i>, and when it is ground
+still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both
+white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than
+in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in
+bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be
+included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large
+quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is
+very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is
+particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal,
+because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.</p>
+
+<p><b>33.</b> So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and
+the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are
+here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy
+forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To
+get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly
+familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that
+each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all
+recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare
+each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right
+means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely
+once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety
+to the daily menus in the home.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. HOMINY.</b>--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be
+purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy
+serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made,
+as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be
+used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time
+to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making
+hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of
+other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various
+lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with
+the requirements of the household.</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Quarts</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 qt. water</li>
+<li>1 Tb. lye</li>
+<li>1 qt. shelled corn</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put
+the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the
+corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they
+are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir
+sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the
+grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water
+and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this
+process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace
+of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they
+burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is
+still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to
+be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. BUTTERED HOMINY.</b>--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked
+hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a
+breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a
+vegetable.</p>
+
+<b>BUTTERED HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 pt. cooked hominy</li>
+<li>3 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the
+butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy
+gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve
+while hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. CREAMED HOMINY.</b>--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not
+only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food
+value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner
+vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED HOMINY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 pt. cooked hominy</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it
+with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook
+slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. HOMINY GRITS.</b>--The cereal sold under the name of <i>hominy grits</i> is
+prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has
+practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles
+cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to
+prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in
+this form:</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY GRITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. water</li>
+<li>1 c. hominy grits</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the
+hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then
+place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream
+or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 2]</p>
+
+<p><b>38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.</b>--No waste need result from hominy that is not used
+at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many
+ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into
+croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either saut&eacute;d or baked, or
+used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared
+by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form
+hominy and cheese souffl&eacute;, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to
+be very appetizing.</p>
+
+<b>HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFL&Eacute;</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. cooked hominy</li>
+<li>1/2 c. hot milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot
+milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the
+yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the
+whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered
+baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.</b>--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and
+high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to
+advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides,
+such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or
+cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six
+persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that
+there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.</p>
+
+<b>CORN-MEAL MUSH</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling
+point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the
+fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent
+the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been
+properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is
+unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when
+it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most
+convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is
+thickened.</p>
+
+<p>A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to
+cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost
+constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the
+heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of
+boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn
+them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the
+hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. SAUT&Eacute;D CORN-MEAL-MUSH.</b>--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may
+be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a
+mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then saut&eacute;d.
+Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons,
+and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it
+serves to give variety to meals. For saut&eacute;ing mush, a heavy iron or
+steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of
+thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put
+enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking
+utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the
+surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and
+allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so
+as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be
+observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in saut&eacute;ing. This
+characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve
+the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.</b>--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a
+meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To
+make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for saut&eacute;ing. Then cut this
+into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide.
+Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and saut&eacute; them in
+hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with
+either butter or sirup or both.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.</b>--Saut&eacute;d corn-meal mush and corn-meal
+croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it
+has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small
+quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a
+garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal
+mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it
+to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been
+floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal
+into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes
+with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="WHEAT"></a><h3>WHEAT</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world
+and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a
+very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and
+Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the
+land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it
+was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this
+country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat
+than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount
+of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and
+thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make
+bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to
+bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from
+this grain.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the
+coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain
+whole. This is called <i>hulled</i>, or <i>whole</i>, <i>wheat</i>, and requires
+soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may
+be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other
+preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some
+of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been
+implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this
+Section, these preparations include <i>wheat grits</i>, such foods as <i>cream
+of wheat</i> and <i>farina</i>, and many <i>ready-to-eat cereals</i>. In the
+preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but
+neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable
+quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods
+bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking,
+equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing
+ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the
+grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that
+these foods require but very little additional attention before serving.
+The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time,
+therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served
+and eaten.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>45. HULLED WHEAT.</b>--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very
+little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It
+is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good
+substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it
+requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that
+the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of
+the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it
+does not require thorough mastication.</p>
+
+<b>HULLED WHEAT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. hulled wheat</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add
+the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook
+directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a
+double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. WHEAT GRITS.</b>--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially
+by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of
+the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when
+they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make
+an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or
+gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one
+to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying
+recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had
+by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.</p>
+
+<b>WHEAT GRITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. wheat grits</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the
+fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the
+formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and
+then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. CREAM OF WHEAT.</b>--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is
+all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and
+granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much
+cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still,
+cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When
+made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:</p>
+
+<b>CREAM OF WHEAT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. cream of wheat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream
+of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation
+of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then
+place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with
+cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.</b>--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to
+a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when
+the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise
+give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in
+the manner here explained.</p>
+
+<b>CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. cream of wheat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. dates</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the
+dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove
+the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of
+wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just
+enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk
+and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. FARINA.</b>--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same
+as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It
+is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain
+sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as
+has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it,
+before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more
+water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged.
+Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but,
+as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor
+if desired.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>3/4 c. farina</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift
+the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to
+prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and
+allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.</b>--Graham flour is a wheat product that is
+high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat
+grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is
+not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and
+nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. dates</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When
+perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the
+salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook
+until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2
+hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces.
+Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or
+milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.</b>--Numerous ways have been devised for
+utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result
+from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For
+instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as
+barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded,
+sliced, and saut&eacute;d like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded
+cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice
+that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over
+wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into
+custards and souffl&eacute;s, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in
+which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA CUSTARD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. cold farina</li>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. nutmeg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then
+add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a
+moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any
+sauce desired.</p>
+
+<b>FARINA SOUFFL&Eacute;</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. cold farina</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated
+cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg
+whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered
+baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to
+reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot
+oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once
+upon taking from the oven.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RICE"></a><h3>RICE</h3>
+
+<b>VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>52. RICE,</b> next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any
+other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows
+only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best
+land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water.
+This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice.
+<i>Carolina rice</i>, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the
+United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas <i>Japanese rice</i>, which
+originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China
+and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the
+Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal,
+for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon
+loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast
+crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it
+must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the
+demands of this country.</p>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two
+coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the
+grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown
+coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to
+remove, is called, after its removal, <i>rice polishings</i>. At one time, so
+much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand
+for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was
+unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great
+extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness,
+unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount
+of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some
+of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a
+glazed appearance. This is called <i>polish</i>, and is sometimes confounded
+with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these
+terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin
+inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice.
+In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is
+practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.</p>
+
+<p><b>54.</b> To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in
+order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains
+are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the
+whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance,
+the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In
+either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is
+plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite
+period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it
+should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to
+remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which
+rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating
+that is put on in polishing rice.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR RICE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>55.</b> Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a
+different proportion of water. These methods are <i>boiling</i>, which
+requires twelve times as much water as rice; the <i>Japanese method</i>,
+which requires five times as much; and <i>steaming</i>, which requires two
+and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed,
+however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly
+cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent
+the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be
+stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.</p>
+
+<p><b>56. BOILED RICE.</b>--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare
+rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish
+itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be
+served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be
+wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be
+utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used
+to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The
+following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:</p>
+
+<b>BOILED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil
+rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch
+coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily
+crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander,
+and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash
+out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by
+shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or
+milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.</b>--Rice prepared by the Japanese
+method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some
+use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method
+has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.</p>
+
+<b>JAPANESE METHOD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>5 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for
+15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and
+place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the
+water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy.
+Serve in the same way as boiled rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. STEAMED RICE.</b>--To steam rice requires more time than either of the
+preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then,
+too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will
+have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in
+the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for
+a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.</p>
+
+<b>STEAMED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it
+for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook
+until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the
+rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in
+the same way as boiled rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. CREAMED RICE.</b>--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is
+sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed
+rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food
+substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its
+palatability.</p>
+
+<b>CREAMED RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. cream</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice
+and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour,
+or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a
+few minutes longer. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>60. ORIENTAL RICE.</b>--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in
+flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or
+serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is
+prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty
+dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch
+or dinner.</p>
+
+<b>ORIENTAL RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rice</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 slice onion</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for
+steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the
+tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix
+well, and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. BROWNED RICE.</b>--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice
+is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared
+by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no
+fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice
+until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated
+in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the
+same way as boiled or steamed rice.</p>
+
+<p><b>62. SAVORY RICE.</b>--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in
+the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good
+substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the
+following recipe:</p>
+
+<b>SAVORY RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. browned rice</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. chopped celery</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1 small onion, chopped</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1/4 c. chopped pimiento</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and
+cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the
+last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion
+finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before
+serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>63. LEFT-OVER RICE.</b>--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice
+may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may
+be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures,
+or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It
+may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes,
+cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals
+that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation
+of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time
+produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a
+dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets
+with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to
+utilize left-over rice.</p>
+
+<b>RICE WITH PINEAPPLE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. steamed or creamed rice</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>6 rings pineapple</li>
+<li>3/4 c. whipped cream</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little
+cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that
+they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple,
+and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with
+an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish
+with the whipped cream before serving.</p>
+
+<p><b>65.</b> Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with
+left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by
+the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a
+light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional
+flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.</p>
+
+<b>RICE PATTIES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. stale crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. celery salt</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>2 c. steamed rice</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs,
+slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be
+necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other
+ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of
+the crumbs and saut&eacute; them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with
+sauce, if desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of
+left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing
+dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy,
+dish in a luncheon.</p>
+
+<b>SPANISH RICE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 small onion</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice</li>
+<li>1 c. chopped meat</li>
+<li>1/2 c. meat stock or gravy</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>2 Tb. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1/4 c. stale crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice,
+chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered
+baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture
+and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="OATS"></a><h3>OATS</h3>
+
+<b>COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> As an article of food, <b>OATS</b> are used very extensively. In Scotland,
+this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as
+the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet
+the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or
+cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly
+good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very
+little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than
+any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make
+raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made
+into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this
+way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in
+the form of <i>oatmeal</i> and <i>rolled oats</i>. In the preparation of oatmeal
+for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small
+pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat
+between large rollers.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR OATS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>68.</b> The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and
+rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled
+oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by
+merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><b>69. ROLLED OATS.</b>--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this
+cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with
+hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the
+accompanying recipe shows.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED OATS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>3 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking.
+Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time,
+stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming
+mushy. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.</b>--The combination of rolled oats and apples
+is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a
+breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the
+apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and
+mineral salts.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2/3 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>6 medium-sized apples</li>
+<li>1 c. water</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until
+they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours.
+Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1
+cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not
+soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal
+dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an
+apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with
+rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking
+the apples, and serve hot with cream.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4]</p>
+
+<p><b>71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.</b>--If an appetizing dish for warm
+weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then
+have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4.
+When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is
+high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in
+the meal for which it is used.</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. rolled oats</li>
+<li>3 c. water</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>12 stewed prunes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then
+force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that
+have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a
+sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the
+juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds,
+that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats
+jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food
+out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.</b>--Every housewife should refrain from throwing
+away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining
+from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can
+be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit,
+poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and
+then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked
+peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this
+purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this
+cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down
+until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into
+pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and
+then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan
+would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be
+served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple,
+sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with
+cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled
+oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:</p>
+
+<b>ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>3/4 c. crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1 c. cooked rolled oats</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika
+into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly
+beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form
+the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the
+remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and saut&eacute; then in butter. Garnish with
+parsley and serve.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BARLEY"></a><h3>BARLEY</h3>
+
+<b>ORIGIN AND USE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>73. BARLEY</b> is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat.
+However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown
+through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the
+most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back
+as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has
+also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according
+to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it.
+Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding
+the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by
+placing three grains of barley end to end.</p>
+
+<p><b>74.</b> Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food
+from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the
+manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods
+and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley
+grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of
+sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are
+then dried, and the sprouts, which are called <i>malt sprouts</i>, are broken
+off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really
+<i>malt</i>, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted
+cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it
+is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added,
+and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>75.</b> In the United States, <i>pearl barley</i> is the name applied to the most
+common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is
+removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in
+the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast
+cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long
+cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small
+amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute
+the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take
+whole milk.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR BARLEY</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>76. PEARL BARLEY.</b>--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory
+way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler,
+although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to
+prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody;
+nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even
+after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough
+mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of
+starchy foods.</p>
+
+<b>PEARL BARLEY</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. pearl barley</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may
+contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over
+the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for
+3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be
+completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.</b>--Cooked barley does not contain very much
+flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually
+necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor.
+Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the
+accompanying recipe.</p>
+
+<b>PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. pearl barley</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>5 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>1 c. dates, figs, or prunes</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then
+put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added.
+After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a
+double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used,
+wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four
+pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and
+then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as
+explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small
+pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it
+from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.</b>--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal
+should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be
+added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked
+barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be saut&eacute;d in butter
+until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared
+in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RYE,_BUCKWHEAT,_AND_MILLET"></a><h3>RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET</h3>
+
+<p><b>79.</b> RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be
+cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is
+not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of
+bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it
+contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for
+successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when
+used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar
+flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some
+persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons
+from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently
+combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat
+cereal foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>80. BUCKWHEAT</b> is used less extensively than any of the other cereals
+already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives
+in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows
+to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds,
+which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to
+beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was
+originally called <i>beech wheat</i>. Practically the only use to which
+buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes,
+recipes for which are given in another Section.</p>
+
+<p><b>81. MILLET</b> as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United
+States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for
+cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing
+a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the
+smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very
+hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the
+people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since,
+in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries,
+it is ground into flour and used for making bread.</p>
+
+<a name="PREPARED,_OR_READY-TO-EAT,_CEREALS"></a><h3>PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS</h3>
+
+<p><b>82.</b> All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require
+cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that
+are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among
+these are the cereal foods known as <i>flakes</i>. These are first made by
+cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting
+it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake
+foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact,
+because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that
+has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals,
+principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded,
+pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into
+loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly
+baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of
+these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye
+and barley.</p>
+
+<p><b>83.</b> The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at
+the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have
+been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the
+starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into
+<i>dextrine</i>, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass
+in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should
+not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all
+prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on
+advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly
+overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For
+instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but
+every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat,
+which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen
+the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to
+be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food
+acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods
+which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an
+effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an
+indirect effect.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_CEREALS"></a><h3>SERVING CEREALS</h3>
+
+<p><b>84.</b> Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals
+may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called
+on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any
+other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a
+rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is
+served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with
+cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal
+courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few
+spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing
+change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to
+lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the
+diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or
+in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously
+heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they
+are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this
+process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and
+that makes them tough.</p>
+
+<p>To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food
+elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served
+with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold,
+milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some
+persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take
+them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very
+good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally
+served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer
+them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except
+to add flavor.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="ITALIAN_PASTES"></a><h3>ITALIAN PASTES</h3>
+
+<b>PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>85.</b> In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed,
+macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this
+Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly
+cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN
+PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a
+flour called <i>semolina</i>, which is derived from a native wheat that is
+very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of
+ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was
+taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported
+from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the
+variety of wheat called <i>durum</i>, which is grown in the spring-wheat
+territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In
+fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now
+takes the place of what was formerly imported.</p>
+
+<p><b>86.</b> To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has
+been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff
+dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of
+metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in
+the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender
+tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the
+manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for
+market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies
+in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily
+prepared and digested.</p>
+
+<p><b>87.</b> Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are
+<i>macaroni</i>, <i>spaghetti</i>, and <i>vermicelli</i>. Macaroni is the largest in
+circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small
+and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of
+them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining
+the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their
+color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook.
+To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray
+or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When
+they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight;
+if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks.
+All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in
+size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of
+poor quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>88.</b> Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances
+are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is
+found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat
+used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in
+most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein,
+or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of
+meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of
+wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though,
+being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made
+from wheat.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>89.</b> In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as
+well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their
+preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these
+foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they
+can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in
+order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are
+made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time
+required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and
+dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another
+important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in
+boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of
+macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling
+until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion
+they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether
+these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes
+through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the
+fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and
+elastic they have not cooked enough.</p>
+
+<p>In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but
+spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be
+substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also
+be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used
+in soups or served with sauce or gravy.</p>
+
+<p><b>90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.</b>--Possibly the simplest way in which to
+prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the
+accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of
+any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this
+way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to
+take the place of meat.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<b>CREAM SAUCE</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 1/2 c. milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling
+water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the
+butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until
+smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly
+so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then
+add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread
+or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the
+crumbs are brown. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.</b>--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the
+place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared
+with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when
+eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in
+the same meal.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH EGGS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>4 hard-boiled eggs</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted
+water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the
+milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given
+in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on
+the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on
+top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the
+sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the
+dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>92. MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON.</b>--Macaroni alone is somewhat
+tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added
+to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given,
+tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the
+flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in
+which it is low.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>8 thin slices bacon</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted
+water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the
+bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes,
+and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer
+of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of
+macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of
+bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>93. MACARONI WITH CHEESE.</b>--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably
+more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the
+macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The
+cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for
+macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CHEESE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>3 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>3 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1-1/2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 c. grated or finely cut cheese</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been
+added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then
+gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it
+thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and
+sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer
+with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour.
+Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 5]</p>
+
+<p><b>94. MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO.</b>--Although the food combinations
+given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many
+persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni.
+Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be
+used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>1 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in
+the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a
+layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour
+one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with
+butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of
+macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese,
+butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni,
+put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food
+for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE.</b>--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham
+remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty
+dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat,
+it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds
+nutrition to the dish.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>2/3 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham</li>
+<li>1/4 c. crumbs</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to
+which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it
+in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and
+season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish,
+placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the
+top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer,
+and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley
+and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.</b>--The combination of canned kidney beans
+and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing
+dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe
+here given.</p>
+
+<b>MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. macaroni</li>
+<li>2 qt. water</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>3/4 c. hot milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. canned tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1 c. canned kidney beans</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain
+it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the
+flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the
+hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a
+sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper.
+Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all
+together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish
+and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.</b>--The accompanying recipe for
+spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that
+this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as
+macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of
+Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned,
+is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.</p>
+
+<b>SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. spaghetti</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>2 qt. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 Tb. flour</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. grated cheese</li>
+<li>1 can tomatoes</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 small onion, chopped</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/2 c. water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been
+added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the
+water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped
+onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and
+to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a
+little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese,
+1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the
+cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.</p>
+
+<p><b>98. LEFT-OVER ITALIAN PASTES.</b>--No cooked Italian paste of any kind
+should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli
+can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in
+soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to
+utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over
+food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw
+eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in
+bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.</p>
+
+<a name="BREAKFAST_MENU"></a><h3>BREAKFAST MENU</h3>
+
+<p><b>99.</b> A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that
+it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at
+least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that
+have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no
+difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes
+have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the
+success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the
+answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The
+recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if
+the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the
+amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.</p>
+
+<b>MENU</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Berries and Cream or Oranges</li>
+<li>Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream</li>
+<li>Scrambled Eggs</li>
+<li>Buttered Toast</li>
+<li>Cocoa or Coffee</li>
+</ul>
+
+<b>SCRAMBLED EGGS</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>5 eggs</li>
+<li>1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan,
+put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook
+this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir
+it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not
+burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.</p>
+
+<b>BUTTERED TOAST</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the
+desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place
+the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under
+a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even
+light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with
+butter, and serve while hot and crisp.</p>
+
+<b>COCOA</b><br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>3 Tb. cocoa</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir
+the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for
+several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk
+in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several
+minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds
+to its flavor.</p>
+
+<b>BOILED COFFEE</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of
+ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg,
+pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed.
+Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil.
+After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water
+down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep
+hot and then serve.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>CEREALS</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (<i>b</i>) How
+may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?</p>
+
+<p>(2) (<i>a</i>) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods.
+(<i>b</i>) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (<i>b</i>) What care in
+storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (<i>b</i>) Describe the
+structure of cereal grains.</p>
+
+<p>(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?</p>
+
+<p>(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in
+cereals, and what are its purposes?</p>
+
+<p>(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (<i>b</i>) Describe
+the process of setting a cereal.</p>
+
+<p>(10) (<i>a</i>) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (<i>b</i>) What
+are the advantages of the double-boiler method?</p>
+
+<p>(11) (<i>a</i>) What influences the proportion of water required and the
+length of time necessary to cook cereals? (<i>b</i>) Is it an advantage to
+cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you
+would use them.</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (<i>b</i>)
+Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may
+be utilized.</p>
+
+<p>(14) (<i>a</i>) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the
+proportion of water to rice in each one. (<i>b</i>) How should rice grains
+look when they are properly cooked?</p>
+
+<p>(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.</p>
+
+<p>(16) (<i>a</i>) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared
+ones? (<i>b</i>) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be
+predigested.</p>
+
+<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals?
+(<i>b</i>) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?</p>
+
+<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) How are Italian pastes made? (<i>b</i>) Mention and describe the
+three principal varieties of Italian paste, (<i>c</i>) What tests can be
+applied to judge the quality of these foods?</p>
+
+<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (<i>b</i>) How much
+does macaroni increase upon being boiled?</p>
+
+<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (<i>b</i>)
+What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat
+substitute?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>REPORT ON MENU</b><br><br>
+
+<p>After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?</p>
+
+<p>Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?</p>
+
+<p>Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently
+toasted? unevenly browned?</p>
+
+<p>Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?</p>
+
+<p>Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="BREAD"></a><center><h2>BREAD</h2></center>
+
+<b>BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="IMPORTANCE_OF_BREAD_AS_FOOD"></a><h3>IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>1. BREAD</b> is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the
+word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour
+which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The
+making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods
+practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes
+of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would
+amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by
+the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from
+suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note
+the advancement that has been made.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the
+same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people.
+The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed
+with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat,
+compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very
+difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the
+dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new
+dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass
+to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in
+place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course,
+more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern
+bread-making processes, in which substances known as <i>leavening agents</i>,
+or <i>ferments</i>, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the
+substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation
+under favorable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States,
+whenever the term <i>bread</i> is used alone it means <i>yeast</i>, or <i>leavened</i>,
+<i>bread</i>, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is
+referred to as <i>hot bread</i>, or <i>quick bread</i>, as is fully explained in
+another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases
+throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always
+meant when the term bread is used alone.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made
+light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it
+was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that
+the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through
+this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better
+grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much
+attention has been given to these matters that at present the three
+important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the
+milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and
+scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial
+manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of
+practically all civilized nations.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief
+article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present
+time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a
+greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it.
+Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it
+does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it
+formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the
+food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as
+well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may
+present to her family only the best quality of this food.</p>
+
+<p>Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past,
+bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or
+rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves
+that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any
+other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the
+family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly
+nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare
+of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which,
+besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the
+household expense.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in
+a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a
+wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it
+inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person
+enjoys &quot;home-made&quot; bread so much more than what is made commercially
+that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch
+of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found
+difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to
+master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After
+she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and
+practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a
+consequent waste of material.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="INGREDIENTS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING"></a><h3>INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING</h3>
+
+<b>INGREDIENTS REQUIRED</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making
+is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number,
+being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar,
+salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the
+yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted
+that the more the housewife knows about *bread-making materials and
+processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is
+extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as
+possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food,
+containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This
+does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article
+of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition
+that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>FLOUR</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>7. GRAINS USED FOR FLOUR.</b>--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous
+grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye,
+are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other
+grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake,
+so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with
+white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very
+long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they
+contain considerable protein in the form of <i>gluten</i>. This is the
+substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition
+that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the
+toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for
+the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light,
+porous loaf.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United
+States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries,
+particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable
+use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact
+that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is
+considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that,
+although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is
+not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a
+light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is
+generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture,
+but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of
+unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other
+grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed
+by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the
+greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain
+is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in
+developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to
+which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour
+of a good quality may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the
+nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of
+these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of
+gluten, are known as <i>gliadin</i> and <i>glutenin</i>. The gliadin imparts
+elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin
+gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in
+the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the
+fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions
+in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown
+and used in the United States, namely, <i>spring</i>, or <i>hard, wheat</i> and
+<i>winter</i>, or <i>soft, wheat</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT</b> is so named because it is sown in the spring
+of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known,
+the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were
+made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted
+in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must
+be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America,
+it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the
+southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late
+summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a
+correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten
+that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough,
+elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread
+dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from
+spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and
+pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from
+soft wheat is more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT</b> derives its name from the fact that it is
+planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance
+in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind
+that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring
+wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat,
+because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it
+does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the
+other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as
+bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or
+crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used
+extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with
+spring wheat to make what is called a <i>blend flour</i>, which may be used
+for all purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.</b>--In its natural state, wheat contains all
+the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in
+nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its
+composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has
+been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">PER CENT.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Protein</td><td align="right">11.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fat</td><td align="right">2.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carbohydrates</td><td align="right">71.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mineral salts</td><td align="right">1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cellulose</td><td align="right">1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1]</p>
+
+<p>So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be
+more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a
+grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1.
+At <i>a</i> is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped
+until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat
+found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At <i>b</i>
+is shown the inside of the kernel, or the <i>endosperm</i>, as it is called,
+which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral
+salts. Surrounding these, as at <i>c</i>, is a layer of coarse cells that
+contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the
+outer husk, as at <i>d, e, f</i>, and <i>g</i>, are layers of bran, which are
+composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of
+starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran
+covering, <i>h</i>. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it
+cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of
+cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain,
+or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with
+starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow
+harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most
+gluten occurring next to the bran covering.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.</b>--Great advances have been made in the
+production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of
+man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted
+in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude
+device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form
+of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of
+these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower
+one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding
+apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power
+was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out
+of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills,
+has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process,
+by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls
+instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to
+separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is
+taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning
+process, called <i>scouring</i>, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in
+order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from
+dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by
+heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers,
+which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and
+which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of
+the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put
+through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the
+milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are
+repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat
+closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the
+grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting
+cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign
+material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. GRAHAM FLOUR.</b>--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ,
+etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as
+flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all
+the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and
+is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this
+kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the
+kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in
+the germ is liable to become rancid.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.</b>--The best grades of fine white flour make bread
+of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made
+from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the
+choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the
+woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the
+grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then
+pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name
+whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the
+grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and
+the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely
+flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained.
+Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so
+fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread
+made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours
+produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour,
+because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts,
+which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is
+not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists
+in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.</b>--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at
+one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it
+is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to
+avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives
+are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases,
+it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it,
+provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a
+small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both
+bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as
+has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter
+wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such
+flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of
+both very well.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.</b>--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and
+is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality,
+is called <i>high-grade patent</i>; the next grade, <i>bakers'</i>; and the next,
+<i>second-grade patent</i>. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called
+<i>red dog</i>. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used
+considerably for the making of paste.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance,
+because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread.
+Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of
+good flour and should buy accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its
+quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from
+spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or
+that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark,
+chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality.
+The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour,
+when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be
+found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty.
+When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth
+and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly
+in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains
+slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the
+same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too
+much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour
+might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor
+any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is
+characteristic of flour.</p>
+
+<p>The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United
+States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the
+quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour
+must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. CARE OF FLOUR.</b>--There is considerable economy in buying flour in
+large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured,
+it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors
+very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if
+possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is
+purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be
+accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it
+will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour
+sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can
+be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and
+vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after
+it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly
+purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should
+be returned to the dealer.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>YEAST</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.</b>--How yeast came to be discovered is not
+definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely
+accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to
+remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was
+found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was,
+it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its
+action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time
+everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued
+study and observation have brought to light enough information to show
+that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces
+light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing
+everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all
+things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this
+plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant,
+namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar
+proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is
+the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these
+conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast
+grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be
+detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As
+every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice
+is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the
+bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the
+top. These bubbles are a form of gas called <i>carbon-dioxide</i>, or
+<i>carbonic-acid, gas</i>. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it
+will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or
+acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the
+three results of the action of the ferment.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the
+changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this
+plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large
+proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the
+yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is
+added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms
+the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter
+than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic,
+glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough
+is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must
+be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to
+be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in
+others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness
+or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what
+produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long
+enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by
+baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven
+off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so
+little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active
+that it is not noticeable.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. COMMERCIAL YEAST.</b>--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food,
+they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be
+kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will
+increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of
+these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of
+yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese,
+canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on
+the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers'
+vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure,
+unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no
+longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is
+carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in
+such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a
+favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on
+the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the
+well-known process of &quot;setting&quot; a sponge is to obtain a large number of
+yeast plants from a few.</p>
+
+<p>Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--<i>moist</i> and
+<i>dry</i>. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to
+select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well
+as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.</p>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> Moist yeast, which is usually called <i>compressed yeast</i>, consists
+of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort
+of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is
+sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the
+plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough
+mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of
+making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and
+has no odor except that of yeast.</p>
+
+<p>Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to
+make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep
+the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good
+longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low
+enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it
+inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the
+source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from
+manufacturers or dealers.</p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the
+same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount
+of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch
+or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the
+plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast
+requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time,
+facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not
+within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of
+the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation
+in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast
+is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought
+about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these
+processes, a smaller quantity is required.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. LIQUID YEAST.</b>--Some housewives are so situated that they find it
+difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this
+disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made
+bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves.
+To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are
+stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary
+room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with
+bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such
+yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount.
+Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it
+should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark
+place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner
+explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.</p>
+
+<p>More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of
+liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever
+this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of
+the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may
+be retained for the next baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. QUALITY OF YEAST.</b>--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is
+the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course,
+accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition,
+it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts
+from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast
+cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted,
+the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast,
+whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and
+reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should
+be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have
+no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the
+results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that
+a fresh supply should be prepared.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>YEAST AIDS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires
+something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid
+growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the
+carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid
+growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are
+usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are
+most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always
+added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture
+that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has
+been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the
+potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the
+water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the
+ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added
+as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase
+the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be
+mashed and added to it.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MILK AND FAT IN BREAD</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread.
+While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve
+the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making.
+Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point
+that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that
+the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color
+than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an
+essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use
+too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast.
+Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless
+fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it
+does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and
+flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb
+much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3
+cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With
+this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of
+bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the
+quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about
+one-third as much liquid as flour.</p>
+
+<p>The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is
+explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is
+desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one
+eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is
+sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or
+four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of
+carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast
+used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as
+has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread
+light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful
+of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the
+ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTENSILS_FOR_BREAD_MAKING"></a><h3>UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING</h3>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 2.]</p>
+
+<p><b>33. NECESSARY EQUIPMENT.</b>--Not many utensils are required for bread
+making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the
+best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated
+in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover <i>a</i>; a flour sieve <i>b</i>;
+measuring cups <i>c</i> of standard size, one for moist and one for dry
+ingredients, measuring spoons <i>d</i>, and a case knife or a spatula <i>e</i> for
+measuring; a long-handled spoon <i>f</i> for mixing; and baking, or bread,
+pans <i>g</i>. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding
+board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment
+mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.</p>
+
+<p>The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in
+the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which
+the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be
+found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large
+and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3
+1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be
+made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only
+requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same
+material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than
+others, the baking will then be more uniform.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT.</b>--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all
+that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one
+style of which is described in <i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 2, will be
+found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large
+quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to
+devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course,
+often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread,
+as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by
+her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>cooler</i>, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and
+supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a
+good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices
+is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching
+a wire netting over a wooden frame.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BREAD-MAKING_PROCESSES"></a><h3>BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES</h3>
+
+<b>ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>35.</b> The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make
+bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being
+understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making
+bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the
+dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the
+dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it
+is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to
+be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is
+of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread
+making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course,
+skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the
+more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the
+processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery.
+Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in
+which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper
+consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well,
+before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize
+good wheat bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>36.</b> Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been
+learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government
+authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as
+its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour
+and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat.
+The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that
+should not be overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be
+regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The
+top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually
+spoken of as the &quot;bloom&quot; of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should
+have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which
+is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed
+slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf
+should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same
+results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut
+surface of the loaf.</p>
+
+<p>The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right,
+wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite
+&quot;sheen,&quot; which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than
+directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be
+small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These
+points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to
+the light.</p>
+
+<p>The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat
+difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in
+order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain
+this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by
+treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to
+all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="MAKING_THE_DOUGH"></a><h3>MAKING THE DOUGH</h3>
+
+<b>PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>37.</b> The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important
+one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by
+means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the
+starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together,
+and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are
+combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast,
+they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time
+necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised
+in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless
+they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm
+and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added,
+be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If
+water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is
+preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast
+should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water
+used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread
+from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>38.</b> As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment,
+they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different
+methods, one of which is known as the <i>short process</i> and the other as
+the <i>long process</i>. As their names indicate, these methods are
+characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each
+method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount
+of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her
+work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it
+tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process;
+whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and
+labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired.
+The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in
+the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in
+the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is
+employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures
+must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are
+combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as
+shown in Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p><b>39. LONG PROCESS.</b>--By the long process, there are two ways of combining
+the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the <i>sponge
+method</i> and the other as the <i>straight-dough method</i>.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed
+when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the
+yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening
+by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these
+ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in
+the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the
+quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this
+mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain
+warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through
+the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and
+knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is
+accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until
+it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to
+be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in
+the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.</p>
+
+<p><b>41.</b> The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the
+method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading
+and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To
+make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for
+the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all
+of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then
+allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be
+kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in
+the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.</p>
+
+<p>The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough
+rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to
+the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this
+process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to
+this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. QUICK PROCESS.</b>--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients,
+there are also two methods of procedure--the <i>sponge method</i> and the
+<i>straight-dough method</i>. The chief differences between the methods of
+this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast
+used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast
+must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the
+entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact
+that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge
+method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of
+about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p><b>43.</b> The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its
+completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that
+will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this
+method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat,
+liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour
+to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it
+has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the
+remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus
+formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it
+from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape
+it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to
+rise sufficiently, bake them.</p>
+
+<p><b>44.</b> The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the
+quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added
+when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough
+instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff
+dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less.
+It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as
+possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled
+in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into
+loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and
+proceed with the baking.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CARE_OF_THE_RISING_DOUGH"></a><h3>CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH</h3>
+
+<p><b>45. PURPOSE OF RISING.</b>--Rising is an important part of the process of
+bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its
+purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well
+as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been
+evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to
+permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to
+make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three
+risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the
+short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough
+methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is
+shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread
+most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is
+not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too
+fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise
+too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be
+made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been
+placed in the oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>46. TEMPERATURE FOR RISING.</b>--As has been mentioned, the best results are
+obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout
+its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86
+degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan
+is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is
+followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various
+methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the
+ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the
+sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of
+hot water.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4]</p>
+
+<p><b>47.</b> Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple
+bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To
+make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it
+with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side
+of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center
+of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the
+sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single
+gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should
+be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should
+be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air
+being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be
+baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The
+temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to
+105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be
+kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of
+hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform
+temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process
+sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature
+of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or
+dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very
+carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain
+the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread
+mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is
+done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about
+90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 5]</p>
+
+<p><b>49.</b> To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is
+advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for
+determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will
+save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been
+gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal
+kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are
+indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be
+kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept
+outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the
+dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform
+temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking
+bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The
+temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with
+the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be
+considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the
+bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means
+of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the
+dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust
+does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to
+soften completely before the next kneading is begun.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 6]</p>
+
+<p><b>50. TIME REQUIRED FOR RISING.</b>--No definite rule can be given for the
+length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on
+the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise
+quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or
+retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly.
+Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A
+good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small
+piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or
+a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when
+it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel
+containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan
+is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with
+dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep
+warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has
+doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is
+entirely full.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="KNEADING_THE_DOUGH"></a><h3>KNEADING THE DOUGH</h3>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p>
+
+<p><b>51. PURPOSE OF KNEADING.</b>--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to
+knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of
+kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of
+kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is
+produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to
+blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread
+making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the
+finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat
+difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not
+proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the
+bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be
+attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the
+kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 9]</p>
+
+<p><b>52. KNEADING MOTIONS.</b>--Several motions are involved in the kneading of
+bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out
+the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on
+which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a
+molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing
+bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in
+Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over
+the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by
+patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8,
+take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold
+the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then
+work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10,
+push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn
+the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another
+direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the
+dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the
+hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 10]</p>
+
+<p>To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour
+should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care
+should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The
+lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the
+quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too
+stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As
+soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the
+hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much
+flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such
+dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to
+be softened.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SHAPING_THE_DOUGH_INTO_LOAVES"></a><h3>SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES</h3>
+
+<p><b>53.</b> After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it
+is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has
+risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed,
+it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then
+shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be
+exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much
+to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 11]</p>
+
+<p><b>54.</b> In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the
+sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose,
+and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been
+sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and
+then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in
+which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust
+each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large
+bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In
+working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf,
+and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and
+as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape
+can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 12]</p>
+
+<p><b>55.</b> As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in
+Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the
+pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after
+it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped
+dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At <i>a</i>, Fig.
+13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and
+at <i>b</i> is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen
+sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To
+produce the result illustrated at <i>b</i>, the dough must be kept in a warm
+temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard
+crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a
+metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard
+crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in
+the pan, as at <i>a</i>, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="BAKING_THE_BREAD"></a><h3>BAKING THE BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.</b>--The various processes in the making of bread
+that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried
+out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done,
+the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention
+should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best
+results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked
+for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of
+the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and
+forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain
+changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is
+hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the
+bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is
+cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and
+then toasted.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.</b>--In baking bread, it is necessary first
+to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient
+strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the
+usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425
+degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the
+baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven
+thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the
+temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat
+may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white
+paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of
+these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence
+baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at
+first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast
+plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of
+course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is
+killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will
+expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked
+in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms
+on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If
+the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the
+air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an
+oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400
+degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will
+continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin
+to brown in about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 14]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 15]</p>
+
+<p><b>58.</b> Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The
+inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15
+shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by
+exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is
+the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is
+advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to
+do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the
+loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into
+the oven.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount
+of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the
+mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.</b>--The time required for
+baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also
+important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the
+size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one
+made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1
+hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been
+explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in
+about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should
+proceed rather slowly.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 16]</p>
+
+<p>To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the
+air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed
+that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves
+will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like
+those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side
+than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident
+that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the
+oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position.
+Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an
+even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides
+of the pan.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 17]</p>
+
+<p><b>60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.</b>--As soon as the bread has baked
+sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans,
+and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A
+bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in
+Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such
+a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of
+the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever
+plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be
+carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted
+to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat
+surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm,
+because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not
+keep so well.</p>
+
+<p>After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the
+receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been
+previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine,
+so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise
+injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well
+covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To
+keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried
+every 2 or 3 days.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SCORING_BREAD"></a><h3>SCORING BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.</b>--By the <i>scoring</i> of bread is meant simply
+the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is
+agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and
+they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be
+scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread,
+as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to
+have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it
+themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the
+good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes
+of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So
+that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she
+should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.</p>
+
+
+<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center"><b>SCORE CARD</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">External Appearance:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shape</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Size</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">Crust:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Shade</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uniformity of Color</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Character</td><td align="left">2 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Depth</td><td align="left">2-8 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lightness</td><td align="left">20 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">Internal Appearance:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Even distribution of gas</td><td align="left">10 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Moisture</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elasticity</td><td align="left">5 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Color</td><td align="left">15 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flavor</td><td align="left">30 %</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> Total</td><td align="left">100 %</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.</b>--A study of the score card will reveal
+that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for
+appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor.
+To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly
+after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly
+perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that
+are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the
+bread scores.</p>
+
+<p><b>63.</b> The <i>shape</i> of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5,
+should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig.
+15 would fall below perfect.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>size</i> of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined
+from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must
+be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary
+considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against,
+for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already
+mentioned would score high with regard to size.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>crust</i>, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden
+brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its <i>shade</i>. A
+pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the
+required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and
+the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust
+for <i>uniformity of color</i>. After these points are scored, a slice of
+bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may
+be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice
+must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the
+slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by
+holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from
+the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut,
+the <i>character</i> of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its
+tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of
+sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The <i>depth</i> of the
+crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives
+a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred
+kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short
+time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score
+so high.</p>
+
+<p><b>64.</b> The <i>lightness</i> of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is
+cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it
+receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will
+be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too
+light, the holes will be large and coarse.</p>
+
+<p><b>65.</b> The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several
+characteristics. For the <i>even distribution of gas</i>, which is determined
+by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has
+been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be
+distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes,
+which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the
+entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some
+large and some small holes. The <i>moisture</i> in the bread, which receives
+5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between
+the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist
+enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The
+<i>elasticity</i>, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger
+gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be
+elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not
+break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic,
+a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains.
+Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to
+toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score
+15 for <i>color</i>, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy
+white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor
+quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would
+denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.</p>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> The last thing to be scored, namely, the <i>flavor</i>, merits 30 points.
+To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If
+it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the
+correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may
+receive a perfect score.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="USE_OF_THE_BREAD_MIXER"></a><h3>USE OF THE BREAD MIXER</h3>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it
+practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the
+other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As
+has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as
+three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread
+mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so
+necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it
+is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various
+sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.</p>
+
+<p><b>68.</b> In using a bread mixer like that described in <i>Essentials of
+Cookery</i>, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly
+mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough
+has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The
+amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients
+and the method that is followed.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient
+type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in
+its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted.
+The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which
+is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These
+knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to
+rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed
+after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread
+mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by
+hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last
+rising and before they are placed in the pans.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_BREAD"></a><h3>SERVING BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>69.</b> Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter
+of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it
+does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some
+foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of
+those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few
+ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not
+be amiss.</p>
+
+<p>As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served
+until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it
+should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the
+preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in
+size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in
+the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.</p>
+
+<p>Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a
+bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add
+variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved
+in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a
+hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially
+when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed
+between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at
+the table.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such
+bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are
+uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them
+quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven
+until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have
+become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great
+care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist
+and soggy.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="BREAD_RECIPES"></a><h3>BREAD RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>70.</b> In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making
+principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time
+become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used,
+there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These
+recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white
+flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in
+which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken
+up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various
+ingredients used in the making of bread.</p>
+
+<p><b>71.</b> The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For
+instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this
+amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to
+any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a
+disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over
+chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any
+mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.</p>
+
+<p>The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although
+sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be
+employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to
+the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.</p>
+
+<p>The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion
+of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition
+to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which
+rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked.
+Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as
+a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread
+recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated
+specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely
+on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much
+greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When,
+in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding
+the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added
+cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some
+instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make
+the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by
+a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily
+acquired with practice in bread making.</p>
+
+<p><b>72.</b> The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely
+of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the
+consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during
+the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal,
+nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along
+this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes
+should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the
+recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in
+bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all
+of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>73. WHITE BREAD.</b>--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly
+referred to as <i>white bread</i>, is used to a much greater extent than any
+other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which
+they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the
+exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance
+economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the
+long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of
+the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes
+are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of
+course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be
+increased proportionately.</p>
+
+<b>WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 qt. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>3 qt. flour</li>
+<li>1 c. flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the
+remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge
+where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the
+morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen
+sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has
+doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded,
+shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until
+they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.</p>
+
+<p>Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the
+sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the
+flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may
+be followed.</p>
+
+<b>WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 cakes compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 qt. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>3 qt. flour</li>
+<li>1 c. flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to
+them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm
+liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour,
+according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the
+straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two.
+However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will
+require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the
+dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been
+kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let
+it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>74. WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD.</b>--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a
+distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of
+bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since
+it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the
+diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe,
+whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for
+bread made of the finer flours.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>3 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>8 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the
+yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the
+liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether
+the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed
+according to the directions previously given for making bread by the
+quick process.</p>
+
+<p>The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and
+if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>75. GRAHAM BREAD.</b>--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use
+should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and
+mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham
+and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents
+the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour.
+The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process,
+although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half
+the amount of yeast.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add
+the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over
+these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white
+flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then
+knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let
+rise, and bake.</p>
+
+<p>A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting
+removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the
+flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.</p>
+
+<p><b>76. GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS.</b>--To increase the food value of graham bread,
+nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable
+variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out
+by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the
+quantity of yeast must be reduced.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>1/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. chopped nuts</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with
+the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white
+flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham
+flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it
+doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and
+let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more,
+according to the size of the loaves.</p>
+
+<p><b>77. WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD.</b>--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is
+produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds
+to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread
+with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is
+employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used,
+but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Small Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 yeast cake</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>6 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to
+the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour
+in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour,
+depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the
+fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped
+into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans,
+proceed with the baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>78. BRAN BREAD.</b>--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle
+lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is
+used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in
+the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.</p>
+
+<b>BRAN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>6 Tb. molasses</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 yeast cake</li>
+<li>1/4 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. sterilized bran</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is
+lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as
+well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this
+mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran
+and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it
+rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in
+the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake
+in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>79. RYE BREAD.</b>--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy.
+When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore,
+in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used
+with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of
+bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for
+the long process.</p>
+
+<b>RYE BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>3 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>6 c. rye flour</li>
+<li>4 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast
+that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then
+stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the
+sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is
+formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and
+shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until
+they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the
+surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put
+them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the
+dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of
+each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the
+bread that is very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>80. CORN BREAD.</b>--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to
+make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times
+when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value,
+because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or
+less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short
+process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing
+the quantity of yeast.</p>
+
+<b>CORN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 yeast cake</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>4-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve.
+Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt,
+the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with
+some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a
+dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let
+it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased
+pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>81. RICE BREAD.</b>--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of
+rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of
+wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as
+rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist
+longer than bread in which they are not used.</p>
+
+<b>RICE BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Three Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. uncooked rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. water</li>
+<li>1 Tb. salt</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/2 yeast cake</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm liquid</li>
+<li>6 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water
+until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to
+become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it
+to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and
+allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour
+and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and
+knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves
+have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>82. SALT-RISING BREAD.</b>--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention
+were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary
+bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of
+bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons
+are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture
+is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method
+given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way
+from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first
+mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm
+temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make
+such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this
+precaution rather than to any other cause.</p>
+
+<b>SALT-RISING BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for Two Loaves</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. fresh milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 tsp. sugar</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>7 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow
+this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight,
+when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough
+flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until
+it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a
+dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in
+pans, let it rise again, and bake.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="RECIPES_FOR_ROLLS,_BUNS,_AND_BISCUITS"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS</h3>
+
+<p><b>83.</b> While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it
+should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as
+rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of
+the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs,
+fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these
+things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they
+should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and
+biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape
+them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the
+pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped
+with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise
+until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface
+of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and
+water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this
+purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to
+be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a
+higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves,
+as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for
+baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering
+the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the
+edges will not touch when they are baking.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 18]</p>
+
+<p>So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and
+biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to
+advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has
+been attained.</p>
+
+<p><b>84. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS.</b>--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none
+meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of
+which is shown at <i>a</i>, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any
+kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are
+baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that
+includes gravy or fat meat.</p>
+
+<b>PARKER HOUSE ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 pt. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 pt. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of
+the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of
+which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients
+half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it
+rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until
+the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in
+a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the
+dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the
+rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter;
+mark it through the center, as at <i>b</i>, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a
+kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at <i>c</i>. Place the pieces of dough
+thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise
+until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at <i>d</i>.
+Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration:
+Fig. 19]</p>
+
+<p><b>85. DINNER ROLLS.</b>--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially
+desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made
+small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the
+rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to
+prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (<i>a</i>). If
+they are placed as in (<i>b</i>), that is, close together, only part of the
+crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe,
+dinner rolls are very palatable.</p>
+
+<b>DINNER ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg white</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 20]</p>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat,
+salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of
+the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this
+mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg
+white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and
+then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll
+out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls
+with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them
+rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to
+which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about
+15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.</b>--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired,
+luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are
+very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be
+even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For
+rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:</p>
+
+<b>LUNCHEON ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg white</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls.
+Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in
+a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise
+until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.</b>--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so
+common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to
+the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same
+advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked
+they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 pt. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>4 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake,
+salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and
+then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double
+in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15
+to 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.</b>--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are
+not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious.
+Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light
+meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here
+given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM NUT BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>2 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>4 Tb. brown sugar</li>
+<li>2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>2-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. chopped nuts</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar,
+salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder
+of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed
+rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the
+graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and
+then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.</b>--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour
+provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is
+lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are
+especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of
+the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable
+form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:</p>
+
+<b>NUT OR FRUIT BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>4 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>3 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the
+milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour.
+Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the
+remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and
+form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them
+with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven.
+Bake for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>90. SWEET BUNS.</b>--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like
+those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very
+much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in
+this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend
+variety to the usual kind of bun.</p>
+
+<b>SWEET BUNS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1 c. lukewarm scalded milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1 tsp. lemon extract</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to
+the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into
+this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until
+it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon
+extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let
+the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise,
+and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 21]</p>
+
+<p><b>91. COFFEE CAKE.</b>--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be
+served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made
+according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled
+over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more
+of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with
+the dough.</p>
+
+<b>COFFEE CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Cake</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 cake compressed yeast</li>
+<li>1/2 c. lukewarm milk</li>
+<li>1 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. brown sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt.
+Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is
+light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the
+remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise
+until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch
+thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light.
+Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with
+3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15
+minutes in a moderately hot oven.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 22]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 23]</p>
+
+<p><b>92. CINNAMON ROLLS.</b>--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some
+persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake
+recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it
+1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1
+tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2
+cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the
+roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices
+close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light,
+as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="TOAST"></a><h3>TOAST</h3>
+
+<p><b>93.</b> As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat.
+To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care
+must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast
+may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the
+toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility
+of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used
+and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the
+surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of
+thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during
+the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist.
+Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a
+heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that
+collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as
+they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various
+kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual
+shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>94.</b> If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable
+attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast.
+Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before
+a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to
+burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to
+reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should
+be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good
+results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This
+device has become a rather common household article where electricity is
+used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table
+and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it
+will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is
+fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from
+a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person
+who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly
+with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the
+burned portion.</p>
+
+<p><b>95. MILK TOAST.</b>--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by
+many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known
+as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk
+that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a
+little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose
+if desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>96. FRENCH TOAST.</b>--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better
+known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in
+making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the
+bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove
+very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<b>FRENCH TOAST</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 tsp. sugar</li>
+<li>8 slices of bread</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of
+bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the
+bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and saut&eacute; it until the under side
+is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup
+or jelly.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="LEFT-OVER_BREAD"></a><h3>LEFT-OVER BREAD</h3>
+
+<p><b>97.</b> Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many
+uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its
+moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and
+makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut
+into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be
+served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made
+of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to
+be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and
+various entr&eacute;es. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used
+for these purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>98.</b> The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches,
+or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have
+been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown
+away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the
+warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into
+crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a
+rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a
+coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones.
+Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are
+put into jars or cans.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for
+there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form.
+For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes;
+for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for
+stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for
+covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes;
+for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters
+that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes,
+and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can
+be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps
+of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>BREAD</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.</p>
+
+<p>(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?</p>
+
+<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) What is gluten? (<i>b</i>) Why is it necessary for the making of bread?</p>
+
+<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) What is meant by a blend flour? (<i>b</i>) When is its use indicated?</p>
+
+<p>(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?</p>
+
+<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) What is yeast? (<i>b</i>) What things are necessary for its growth? (<i>c</i>)
+What temperature is best for its growth?</p>
+
+<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (<i>b</i>) What part does this
+play in bread making?</p>
+
+<p>(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?</p>
+
+<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) What will hasten the bread-making process? (<i>b</i>) What will retard
+it?</p>
+
+<p>(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for
+making a loaf of bread.</p>
+
+<p>(11) What are the advantages of: (<i>a</i>) the long process of bread making?
+(<i>b</i>) the quick process?</p>
+
+<p>(12) What is: (<i>a</i>) a sponge? (<i>b</i>) a dough?</p>
+
+<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (<i>b</i>) How is it possible to tell
+when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?</p>
+
+<p>(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?</p>
+
+<p>(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?</p>
+
+<p>(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?</p>
+
+<p>(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?</p>
+
+<p>(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking
+rolls and bread?</p>
+
+<p>(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you
+have scored it.</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="HOT_BREADS"></a><center><h2>HOT BREADS</h2></center>
+
+
+<b>REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="HOT_BREADS_IN_THE_DIET"></a><h3>HOT BREADS IN THE DIET</h3>
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as
+the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As
+these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and
+are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to
+call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter
+or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening
+agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion
+of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all
+bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs,
+sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced
+an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include
+popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake
+or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and
+beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they
+help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the
+housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their
+use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain
+kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit
+and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United
+States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New
+England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most
+persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they
+may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive
+disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a
+minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="PRINCIPAL_REQUIREMENTS_FOR_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery,
+as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and
+applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles
+pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are
+measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the
+necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that
+are formed.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully
+considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product.
+No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of
+inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands
+attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance,
+in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used
+is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity
+of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and
+other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the
+proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is
+necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening
+material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in
+measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite
+amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used,
+unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so
+it is with all the materials used for hot breads.</p>
+
+<p>The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence
+on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and
+excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the
+beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the
+light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter
+comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results
+are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to
+follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle
+and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to
+combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of
+importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the
+right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which
+attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking
+requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is
+to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the
+principles underlying the process of baking.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="LEAVENING_AGENTS"></a><h3>LEAVENING AGENTS</h3>
+
+<b>CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required
+in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and
+to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials,
+including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added.
+With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients
+requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is
+given in <i>Bread</i> regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also
+the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best
+quality that can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to
+leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of
+three classes, namely, <i>organic, physical</i>, and <i>chemical</i>. The organic
+agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that
+is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of
+this class of leavening agents is given in <i>Bread</i> and as it is not
+employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to
+it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air
+into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical
+leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that
+have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>PHYSICAL LEAVENING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air
+into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle
+that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is
+definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then
+heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that
+the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an
+aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven,
+the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached
+338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to
+some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the
+oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of
+degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the
+more opportunity will the gas have to expand.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a
+mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding
+beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating
+may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to
+be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and
+folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or
+dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can
+be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually
+beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this
+purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not
+until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg
+white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after
+all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be
+used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be
+folded in.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by
+means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken.
+Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is
+done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is
+baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as
+possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of
+imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better
+than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated
+before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will
+begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an
+aerated mixture.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>CHEMICAL LEAVENING</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by
+an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in
+their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an
+acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and
+heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that
+expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the
+gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or
+harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and
+the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt
+that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to
+chemical leavening agents.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives
+themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made
+from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were
+more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later
+on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid
+in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent
+in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however,
+has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical
+leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses,
+and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so
+that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may
+be obtained, a discussion of each is here given.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.</b>--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening
+purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to
+produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not
+make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of
+acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has
+taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than
+sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24
+hours old.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters
+and doughs for hot breads is <i>1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of
+sour milk.</i> So as to derive the best results in using these chemical
+leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed
+together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is
+sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed
+when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the
+result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these
+leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other
+ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in
+the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and
+the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be
+substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for
+these ingredients by using <i>1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour
+milk</i>. This information should prove valuable to the housewife,
+especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not
+be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are
+required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient
+amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. SODA AND MOLASSES.</b>--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar
+cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation
+that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles
+that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm
+place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with
+soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in
+hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon
+dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these
+ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as
+uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept
+in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been
+manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard
+fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot
+breads and cakes is <i>1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses</i>, or
+just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk.
+To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the
+liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses
+burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as
+an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.</b>--Some housewives are inclined to use soda
+and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no
+advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some
+baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce
+the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of
+tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture
+of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should
+be measured in the proportion of <i>twice as much cream of tartar as
+soda.</i> As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be
+sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is
+used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg
+white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream
+of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds
+up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. BAKING POWDER.</b>--Without doubt, baking powder is the most
+satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three
+varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an
+alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler
+of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting
+upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical
+action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or
+a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas
+that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is
+stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat
+are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes
+place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot
+breads and cake.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually
+varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of
+the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents
+a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of
+this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may
+be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate
+of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a
+baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The
+cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a
+pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other
+powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound
+contain a mixture of phosphate and alum.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping
+qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being
+injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the
+cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less
+effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more
+gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much
+controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking
+powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have
+not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of
+baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to
+their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder
+should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she
+is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of
+the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the
+composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each
+kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This
+information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her
+considerably in making a selection.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is
+regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with
+soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual
+proportion being <i>2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour</i>. Sometimes
+this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of
+8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds
+of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other
+dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry
+ingredients.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good
+grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less
+than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many
+housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to
+make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory:</p>
+
+<b>RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER</b>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 lb. cream of tartar</li>
+<li>1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda</li>
+<li>1/4 lb. corn starch</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the
+bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be
+better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales
+that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them
+together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them
+well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The
+baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be
+rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<a name="HOT-BREAD_UTENSILS_AND_THEIR_USE"></a><h3>HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE</h3>
+
+<b>PURPOSE OF UTENSILS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1]</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two
+kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form
+the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it
+is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot
+bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients,
+such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be
+collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will
+be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the
+quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and
+if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then
+to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so
+satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really
+demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular
+attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the
+mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and
+put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put
+into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for
+preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl <i>a</i> of the proper
+size for mixing; a smaller bowl <i>b</i> for beating eggs, provided eggs are
+to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups <i>c</i>, one for dry
+ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon <i>d</i>, a case
+knife <i>e</i>, and a teaspoon <i>f</i> for measuring and mixing; an egg beater
+<i>g</i> and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may
+take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use
+will be found for both of these utensils.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 2]</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures
+depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to
+be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2
+or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those
+illustrated at <i>h</i>, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have
+tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked
+in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow
+pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and
+waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to
+present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so
+in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results
+thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3]</p>
+
+<p><b>21. GRIDDLES.</b>--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig.
+3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of
+different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such
+utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones
+are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron
+griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent
+the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than
+soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease.</p>
+
+<p>The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are
+to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if
+a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large
+griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted
+frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this
+respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other
+kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its
+entire surface.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 5]</p>
+
+<p>Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to
+prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not
+tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the
+right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and
+this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material.
+Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat,
+placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to
+heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the
+surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons
+and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such
+utensils are desired.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. WAFFLE IRONS.</b>--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of
+two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way
+that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as
+in Fig. 4 (<i>a</i>). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may
+be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to
+the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view
+(<i>a</i>) and open in (<i>b</i>), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it, a
+stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set
+in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle
+iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed,
+the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be
+turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while
+the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly
+greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it
+will run out when the griddle is turned over.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>THE MIXTURE</b><br><br>
+
+<b>VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p><b>23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.</b>--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced
+are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary
+if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This
+difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and
+liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a <i>batter</i> and a
+large proportion, a <i>dough</i>. It will be well to note, however, that some
+kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others.
+Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other
+ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the
+difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or
+has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the
+general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names
+of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are <i>thin batter</i>, <i>thick
+batter</i>, <i>soft dough</i>, and <i>stiff dough</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. A THIN BATTER</b> is one in which the general proportion of liquid and
+flour is <i>1 measure of flour</i> to <i>1 measure of liquid</i>. Such a batter,
+when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of
+thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and
+griddle cakes.</p>
+
+<p><b>A THICK BATTER,</b> which is known as a <i>drop</i>, or <i>muffin</i>, <i>batter</i>, is
+one that is made of <i>2 measures of flour</i> and <i>1 measure of liquid</i>. A
+batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its
+own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters.</p>
+
+<p><b>A SOFT DOUGH</b> is one whose proportions are <i>3 measures of flour</i> and <i>1
+measure of liquid</i>. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is,
+without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid
+than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds
+of cake are made of this form of dough.</p>
+
+<p><b>A STIFF DOUGH</b> is made of <i>4 measures of flour</i> and <i>1 measure of
+liquid</i>. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled
+with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie
+crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS.</b> While the general
+proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases,
+they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are
+added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid
+required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used.
+To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon
+reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to
+try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general
+proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake
+recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who
+understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be
+would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour.
+Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that
+calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough
+that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a
+recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind
+makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain
+recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to
+originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding,
+attention should always be given to details that will assist in
+obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="PREPARING_THE_MIXTURE"></a><h3>PREPARING THE MIXTURE</h3>
+
+<p><b>26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.</b>--Before the mixing of the
+ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads
+is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be
+collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be
+used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to
+flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then,
+to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it
+into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and
+then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever
+dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain
+any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them
+carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other
+dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice.
+Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then
+leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using
+neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it
+should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint
+cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should
+be measured with the same exactness.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.</b>--The manner in which a batter or a dough
+is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished
+product depends on the order in which the various steps are
+accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such
+mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because
+they produce equally good results.</p>
+
+<p>In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and
+the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid
+ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before
+it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used
+for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the
+whites being beaten separately and folded in last.</p>
+
+<p>The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small
+quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including
+the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are
+combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten
+into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the
+fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft
+and sticky and therefore difficult to handle.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="BAKING_THE_MIXTURE"></a><h3>BAKING THE MIXTURE</h3>
+
+<p><b>28. REGULATING THE OVEN.</b>--When the ingredients have been properly
+combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of
+waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in
+connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven;
+therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be
+properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when
+it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to
+this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture
+is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand
+until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven
+and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these
+conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used,
+should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be
+heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the
+case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume
+considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them
+or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done
+before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is
+regulated.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.</b>--Quick breads that are to be baked in the
+form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads
+need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As
+they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to
+penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.</b>--Regulating the oven
+and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the
+housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the
+woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and
+inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the
+results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming
+more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter,
+as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone
+or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an
+indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be
+reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of
+any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be
+secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the
+form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring
+contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven
+and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is
+a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove
+equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at
+the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device
+keeps it stationary.</p>
+
+<p><b>31.</b> If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of
+the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven
+with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on
+experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can
+be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that
+of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven
+that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the
+hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not
+test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven
+is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn
+a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in
+4 minutes in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<p><b>32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.</b>--As is pointed out in
+<i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the
+bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space,
+air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to
+do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise
+after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they
+should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they
+will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near
+the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard
+its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked
+sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown
+on the top.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.</b>--Recipes for baked dishes usually state
+the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot
+always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at
+different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has
+baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable
+tests that have been devised for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as
+possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other
+part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because
+the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is
+therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without
+particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that
+place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to
+the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be
+continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of
+toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near
+the stove.</p>
+
+<p>Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form
+a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the
+finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it
+springs back into place, the baking is completed.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="SERVING_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>SERVING HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten
+hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible
+after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal
+for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them
+whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination
+with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey
+is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to
+advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or
+steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured
+over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be
+served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny
+muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very
+attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be
+served with salad for a light luncheon.</p>
+
+<p>Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as
+preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are
+better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are
+preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices
+that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting
+done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the
+addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake
+that can be used for dessert.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<a name="POPOVER_RECIPES"></a><h3>POPOVER RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>35. POPOVERS.</b>--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits
+that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means
+of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not
+difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal
+proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing
+popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes
+just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed
+to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is
+possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating
+to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising
+is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This
+knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy.</p>
+
+<b>POPOVERS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten
+egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly
+smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups.
+Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a
+moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted
+from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 6.]</p>
+
+<p><b>36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.</b>--Popovers made according to the preceding
+recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the
+fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are
+removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce,
+marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either
+warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered
+sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish.</p>
+
+<p><b>37. NUT PUFFS.</b>--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of
+liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind,
+aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the
+incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added;
+but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg
+white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a
+batter of this kind considerably increases its food value.</p>
+
+<b>NUT PUFFS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/4 c. chopped nuts</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten
+egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg
+white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot,
+well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven
+about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p>
+
+<p><b>38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.</b>--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour
+instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made
+light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the
+whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This
+coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is
+due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown
+in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food
+substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk.</p>
+
+<b>WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg
+yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the
+batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat
+well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake
+in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="GRIDDLE-CAKE_RECIPES"></a><h3>GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--During the preparation of the
+batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be
+sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before
+the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that
+requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small
+cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the
+griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and
+produces smoke.</p>
+
+<p>When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it
+is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle
+from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly
+round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the
+cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the
+other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both
+sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown
+before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and
+should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by
+reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of
+griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a
+tendency to make them heavy.</p>
+
+<p><b>40. GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin
+batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are
+often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent
+griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered
+that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and
+less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle
+cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them.
+If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems
+to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to
+dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For
+instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if
+pastry flour is used, more flour may be required.</p>
+
+<b>GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the
+egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry
+ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted
+fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the
+batter is mixed.</p>
+
+<p><b>41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made
+by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of
+sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising,
+such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is
+very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one
+calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle
+thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken
+the mixture.</p>
+
+<b>SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>2 c. sour milk (not thick)</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour
+milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity
+should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and
+bake at once on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake
+mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor.
+Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in
+griddle cakes and other hot breads.</p>
+
+<b>CORN GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. boiling water</li>
+<li>2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a
+bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder,
+salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and
+add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a
+hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.</b>--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that
+are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried.
+Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture
+helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another
+purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken
+up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of
+rice will not stick together in chunks.</p>
+
+<b>RICE GRIDDLE CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/2 c. cold cooked rice</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice
+into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the
+melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p><b>44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.</b>--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more
+than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical
+flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat
+flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent
+necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of
+those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these
+contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from
+these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water,
+and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a
+griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they
+are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up
+the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves
+very satisfactory is the following:</p>
+
+<b>BUCKWHEAT CAKES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. scalded milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. fine bread crumbs</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 yeast cake</li>
+<li>3/4 c. lukewarm water</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 Tb. molasses</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. soda</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve
+the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the
+bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and
+let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the
+molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a
+hot griddle.</p>
+
+<p>If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter,
+to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this
+each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong
+buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a
+slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour
+greater and that of the buckwheat smaller.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="WAFFLE_RECIPES"></a><h3>WAFFLE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.</b>--The procedure in making waffles is
+very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture
+is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on
+both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being
+careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is
+turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place
+several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so
+doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In
+pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with
+batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out
+when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less
+batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the
+fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the
+waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat
+the process.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 8.]</p>
+
+<p><b>46. WAFFLES.</b>--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are
+illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to
+add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are
+especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with
+sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy.</p>
+
+<b>WAFFLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 eggs</li>
+<li>1-2/3 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and
+whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the
+dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites
+stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions
+given in Art. 45.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. RICE WAFFLES.</b>--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing
+left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the
+waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry
+ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush
+the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals
+other than rice may also be used in this way.</p>
+
+<b>RICE WAFFLES</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-3/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2/3 c. cooked rice</li>
+<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work
+the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk
+of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it
+into the batter. Bake as previously directed.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="MUFFIN_RECIPES"></a><h3>MUFFIN RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p>[Illustration: Fig. 9]</p>
+
+<p><b>48.</b> Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of
+hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in
+a pan like that shown at <i>h</i>, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as
+other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or
+additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by
+nearly every one.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. PLAIN MUFFINS.</b>--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or
+one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to
+the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added
+any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of
+flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or
+baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer
+and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin
+recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using
+soda instead of baking powder.</p>
+
+<b>PLAIN MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add
+the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.</b>--Muffins containing blueberries can be made
+successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example,
+dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often
+used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of
+the excessive amount of acid they contain.</p>
+
+<b>BLUEBERRY MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1/3 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>2-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. fresh blueberries</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg
+and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the
+salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first
+mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold
+them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds
+full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>51. DATE MUFFINS.</b>--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used
+for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the
+dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry
+them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp
+knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or
+four pieces.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 10.]</p>
+
+<p><b>52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.</b>--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an
+illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain
+white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour
+and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its
+chief value lies in the variety that results from its use.</p>
+
+<b>CORN-MEAL MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add
+to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat.
+Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven
+for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.</b>--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is
+produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be
+substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is
+used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply,
+sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the
+correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is
+undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be
+substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one
+thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the
+materials are used in correct proportion.</p>
+
+<b>GRAHAM MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/4 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. white flour</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1 c. sour milk</li>
+<li>1/3 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put
+the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses,
+and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted
+fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>54. RICE MUFFINS.</b>--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making
+of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added
+hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something
+else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be
+used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins.</p>
+
+<b>RICE MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>5 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>3/4 c. hot, cooked rice</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add
+half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the
+milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat
+last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot
+oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>55. BRAN MUFFINS.</b>--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the
+laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they
+will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of
+muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in
+the same way as many cereals.</p>
+
+<b>BRAN MUFFINS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1-1/2 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 c. bran</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the
+bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased
+muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+25 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CORN-CAKE_RECIPES"></a><h3>CORN-CAKE RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p><b>56. CORN CAKE.</b>--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal
+foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water,
+and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long
+journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid
+transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a
+great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such
+purposes and were called <i>journey cakes.</i> From this term came the name
+<i>Johnny cake,</i> which is often applied to cake of this kind. The
+combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does
+not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is
+still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is
+used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the
+greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and
+break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of
+corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour
+improves the consistency.</p>
+
+<b>CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3/4 c. yellow corn meal</li>
+<li>1-1/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add
+the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into
+a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.</b>--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more
+flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind
+made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains
+more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such
+persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the
+taste of those who are to eat the cake.</p>
+
+<b>SOUTHERN CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>1/2 c. flour</li>
+<li>3 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and
+sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted
+fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for
+about 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. MOLASSES CORN CAKE.</b>--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates,
+is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of
+molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of
+molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding
+flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product.</p>
+
+<b>MOLASSES CORN CAKE</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>3/4 c. flour</li>
+<li>3-1/2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>2 Tb. melted fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the
+milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour
+into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about
+30 minutes.</p>
+
+<a name="BISCUIT_RECIPES"></a><h3>BISCUIT RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 11]</p>
+
+<p><b>59. BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS.</b>--The ability of the housewife as a cook is
+very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very
+simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements
+are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce
+excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder
+biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients
+be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may
+be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served
+with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of
+this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling
+water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry.</p>
+
+<b>BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the
+dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour
+the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up
+the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in
+good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and
+lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 12]</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 13.]</p>
+
+<p>Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is
+about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the
+biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty
+surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about
+an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so
+that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 14.]</p>
+
+<p><b>60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.</b>--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits
+resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should,
+because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for
+emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the
+dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of
+this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13,
+or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to
+20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.</b>--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit
+mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is
+always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in
+Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used,
+cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with
+baking powder.</p>
+
+<b>PINWHEEL BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>2 Tb. fat f</li>
+<li>3/4 c. milk</li>
+<li>2 Tb. butter</li>
+<li>1/3 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1 Tb. cinnamon</li>
+<li>3/4 c. chopped raisins</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for
+baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is
+about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface
+with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and
+sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this
+sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll
+the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15.
+Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a
+shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a
+hot oven for about 20 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 15.]</p>
+
+<p><b>62. BEATEN BISCUITS.</b>--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread
+known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the
+South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South.
+Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating,
+but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a
+few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is
+lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient.
+When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine
+and close and the surface should be smooth and flat.</p>
+
+<b>BEATEN BISCUITS</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient to Serve Twelve</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 qt. pastry flour</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/3 c. fat</li>
+<li>1 c. milk or water</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or
+water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it
+with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few
+seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by
+cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several
+times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow
+pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 16.]</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="MISCELLANEOUS_HOT-BREAD_RECIPES"></a><h3>MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES</h3>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17.]</p>
+
+<p><b>63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.</b>--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread
+like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or
+without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet
+milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk
+may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may
+be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a
+bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a
+rule, they are very fond of it.</p>
+
+<b>SOFT GINGERBREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>1/4 c. sugar</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>2 tsp. ginger</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cinnamon</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1/2 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1/4 c. butter or other fat</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the
+egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first
+mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into
+a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35
+minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin
+pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.</b>--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons
+is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17.]</p>
+
+<p>Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2
+hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or,
+to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown
+bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig.
+18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially
+for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of
+course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very
+satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that
+the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no
+harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the
+centre of the loaf.</p>
+
+<b>BOSTON BROWN BREAD</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 c. white flour</li>
+<li>1 c. graham flour</li>
+<li>1 c. corn meal</li>
+<li>3/4 tsp. soda</li>
+<li>2 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>3/4 c. molasses</li>
+<li>1-3/4 c. sweet milk</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add
+the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover
+that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture
+and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a
+moderate oven for a few minutes before serving.</p>
+
+<p><b>65. NUT LOAF.</b>--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value
+and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to
+most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high
+price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very
+fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea.</p>
+
+<b>NUT LOAF</b><br>
+(<i>Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf</i>)<br>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 c. flour</li>
+<li>1/2 c. sugar</li>
+<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>4 Tb. fat</li>
+<li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 c. milk</li>
+<li>1/2 c. English walnuts</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in
+the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the
+nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan,
+and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="UTILISING_LEFT-OVER_HOT_BREADS"></a><h3>UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS</h3>
+
+<p><b>66.</b> As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the
+utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in
+large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for
+which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should
+never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used.
+The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so
+that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them
+into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should
+be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The
+moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the
+intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear
+as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in
+this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have
+become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then
+toasting them.</p>
+<br>
+
+<a name="LUNCHEON_MENU"></a><h3>LUNCHEON MENU</h3>
+
+<p><b>67.</b> As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that
+should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers
+to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve
+six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased
+or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese
+and tomatoes may be found in <i>Cereals,</i> and that for baking-powder
+biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section.
+Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>MENU</b><br>
+
+Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes<br>
+Baking-Powder Biscuit<br>
+Jam<br>
+Watercress-and-Celery Salad<br>
+Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce<br>
+Tea<br>
+
+<b>RECIPES</b><br><br>
+
+<b>WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible
+to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the
+leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of
+celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the
+watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls
+of French dressing made as follows:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li>
+<li>6 Tb. oil</li>
+<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it
+forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and
+continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad.</p>
+<br>
+
+<b>TEA</b><br><br>
+
+<p>Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald
+the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of
+freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is
+obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and
+sugar with it if desired.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;">
+
+<b>HOT BREADS</b><br><br>
+
+<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br>
+
+<p>(1) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What
+are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs?</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> What is a leavening agent? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What is the effect of
+leavening agents on batters and doughs?</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> How is physical leavening accomplished? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> On what does the
+success of breads raised by physical leavening depend?</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> How is chemical leavening brought about? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> What two things
+must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening
+agent for making a flour mixture light?</p>
+
+<p>(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate
+leavening agents?</p>
+
+<p>(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with:
+<i>(<i>a</i>)</i> each cupful of sour milk? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> each cupful of molasses?</p>
+
+<p>(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with
+the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture?</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should
+be used to 1 cupful of flour? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> How should baking powder be combined
+with the other ingredients?</p>
+
+<p>(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for
+making and baking a dough mixture.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used
+for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a thin batter; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a thick batter; <i>(<i>c</i>)</i> a soft dough;
+<i>(<i>d</i>)</i> a stiff dough.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> thin batters; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i>
+thick batters; <i>(<i>c</i>)</i> soft doughs; <i>(<i>d</i>)</i> stiff doughs.</p>
+
+<p>(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and
+flour for a batter or a dough?</p>
+
+<p>(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients
+for hot-bread mixtures.</p>
+
+<p>(14) What is the approximate temperature for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a moderate oven?
+<i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a hot oven?</p>
+
+<p>(15) Mention a simple test for: <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> a moderate oven; <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> a hot
+oven.</p>
+
+<p>(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not
+they are properly baked?</p>
+
+<p>(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently?</p>
+
+<p>(18) <i>(<i>a</i>)</i> Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than
+muffins? <i>(<i>b</i>)</i> Which should be baked in a moderate oven?</p>
+
+<p>(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven?</p>
+
+<p>(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk
+and soda for liquid and leavening.</p>
+
+<b>REPORT ON MENU</b><br><br>
+
+<p>After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your
+answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making
+out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its
+condition by means of the terms specified here.</p>
+
+<p>Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly
+flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too
+little liquid?</p>
+
+<p>Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor
+texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt?</p>
+
+<p>Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed?
+properly seasoned?</p>
+
+<p>Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is
+observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the
+popover cups)? overdone?</p>
+
+<p>Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter?</p>
+
+<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br>
+<a name="INDEX"></a><center><h2>INDEX</h2></center>
+
+<b>A</b><br>
+<br>
+Abbreviations of measures,<br>
+Absorption and digestion of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Abundance of production of cereals,<br>
+Acquiring skill in bread making,<br>
+Action of yeast,<br>
+Adjusting cook-stove dampers,<br>
+Agents, Classes of leavening,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Leavening,<br></span>
+Aids, Yeast,<br>
+A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">la creole, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Albumin,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Effect of cooking on,<br></span>
+Aluminum cooking utensils,<br>
+Anthracite, or hard, coal,<br>
+Apple, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corer,<br></span>
+Artificial gas,<br>
+Ash, or mineral salts,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pan, Coal-stove,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pit, Coal-stove,<br></span>
+Au gratin, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">naturel, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Avoirdupois weight,<br>
+<br>
+<b>B</b><br>
+<br>
+Bacon, Composition of,<br>
+Bacteria,<br>
+Baked hot breads, Testing,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">potatoes,<br></span>
+Bakers' flour,<br>
+Baking bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between roasting and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes, Procedure in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oven temperature for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">powder,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-powder biscuits,<br></span>
+Baking powder, Recipe for,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">the hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">waffles, Procedure in,<br></span>
+Balanced diet, Elements of a,<br>
+Banana, Composition of,<br>
+Banking a coal fire,<br>
+Barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pearl,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use and origin of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with fruit, Pearl,<br></span>
+Batter, Thick,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Thin,<br></span>
+Batters and doughs,<br>
+Bean, Composition of dry navy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of fresh shelled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of green string,<br></span>
+Beaten biscuits,<br>
+Beating of food ingredients,<br>
+B&eacute;chamel, Meaning of,<br>
+Beech wheat,<br>
+Beef, Composition of dried,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">suet, Composition of,<br></span>
+Biscuit glace,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">recipes,<br></span>
+Biscuits, Baking-powder,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Beaten,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Emergency,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls, and buns, Recipes for,<br></span>
+Bisque, Meaning of,<br>
+Bituminous, or soft, coal,<br>
+Blanching foods,<br>
+Blend flour,<br>
+Blueberry muffins,<br>
+Body, Function of water in the,<br>
+Boiled coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Boiler, Cooking cereals in double,<br>
+Boiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking cereals by,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">on foods, Effect of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">point,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">to sterilize water,<br></span>
+Boston brown bread,<br>
+Bouch&eacute;es, Meaning of,<br>
+Boudin, Meaning of,<br>
+Bouquet of herbs,<br>
+Boxes, Window,<br>
+Braizing,<br>
+Bran bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+Bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">after baking, Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and cake mixer,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as food, Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baking hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boston brown,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bran,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of toasted,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole-wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Convenient equipment for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between hot and leavened,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Care of the rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Motions used in kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dough, Purpose of kneading,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Leavened,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Long-process, sponge method of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Acquiring skill in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Combining the ingredients in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Convenient equipment for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Ingredients for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long process of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long-process, sponge method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Long-process, straight-dough method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making materials, Proportion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Necessary equipment for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making processes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick process of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick-process, sponge method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-making requirements,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Utensils for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milk and fat in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixer, Use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixture, Preparation of hot-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Object of scoring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oven temperature for baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">recipes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Salt-rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scoring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sponge,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Utilizing left-over hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">White,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with nuts, Graham,<br></span>
+Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between yeast and hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General proportions used in hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mixtures used for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principal requirements for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of utensils for making hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Requirements and processes for making hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving hot,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties of mixtures in hot,<br></span>
+Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">menu,<br></span>
+Broiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pan,<br></span>
+Brown bread, Boston,<br>
+Browned rice,<br>
+Browning, or toasting, of cereals,<br>
+Buckwheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rye, and millet,<br></span>
+Building a coal fire,<br>
+Buns, Fruit or nut,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham nut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nut or fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls, and biscuits,<br></span>
+Buns, Sweet,<br>
+Butter, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of peanut,<br></span>
+Buttered hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">toast,<br></span>
+Buttermilk, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>C</b><br>
+<br>
+Cabbage salad,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-salad dressing,<br></span>
+Caf&eacute; au lait, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">noir, Meaning of,<br></span>
+Cake, Coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mixers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Molasses corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Southern corn,<br></span>
+Cakes, Buckwheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Procedure in baking griddle,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice griddle,<br></span>
+Calorie, or calory, Definition of,<br>
+Canap&eacute;s, Meaning of,<br>
+Canard, Meaning of,<br>
+Candy, Composition of stick,<br>
+Canned fruit, Composition of,<br>
+Canning of foods,<br>
+Capers, Meaning of,<br>
+Capon, Meaning of,<br>
+Caramel, Meaning of,<br>
+Carbohydrates,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Elements in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+Carbon,<br>
+Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas,<br>
+Card, Explanation of score,<br>
+Care of bread after baking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread in oven,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food in refrigerator,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of the refrigerator,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of the rising bread dough,<br></span>
+Carolina rice,<br>
+Casein,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Effect of cooking on,<br></span>
+Casserole, Definition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of,<br></span>
+Celery, Composition of,<br>
+Cellars, Storing food in,<br>
+Cellulose, Cooking foods containing,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Place of,<br></span>
+Cereal flakes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">selection, Factors that govern,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Setting a,<br></span>
+Cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Abundance of production of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as a food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Browning, or toasting, of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">by boiling, Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">by dry heat, Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbohydrates in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cellulose in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Economic value of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fat in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for the table, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mineral matter in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Origin of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Points to observe in cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Prepared, or ready-to-eat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Production of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Protein in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Ready-to-eat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">undergo in cooking, Changes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Uses of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Water in,<br></span>
+Champignons, Meaning of,<br>
+Chartreuse, Meaning of,<br>
+Cheese, Composition of cottage,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of cream,<br></span>
+Chemical composition of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">leavening,<br></span>
+Chestnut coal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Chiffonade, Meaning of,<br>
+Chillies, Meaning of,<br>
+Chives, Meaning of,<br>
+Chop, Composition of lamb,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of pork,<br></span>
+Chopper, Meat,<br>
+Chops, Pan-broiled,<br>
+Chutney, Meaning of,<br>
+Cinnamon rolls,<br>
+Citron,<br>
+Clinkers,<br>
+Coal and coke,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Anthracite, or hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bituminous, or soft,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chestnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fire, Building a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fire, Building a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pea,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+Coal range,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sizes of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stove,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove dampers,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove firebox,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove for cooking, General construction of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-stove grate,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties of,<br></span>
+Cocoa,<br>
+Coconut, Composition of,<br>
+Cod, Composition of fresh,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of salt,<br></span>
+Coffee,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake,<br></span>
+Coke,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and coal,<br></span>
+Collops, Meaning of,<br>
+Commercial yeast,<br>
+Common labor-saving devices,<br>
+Composition and varieties of oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of apple,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bacon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of banana,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef steak,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef suet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of buckwheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of butter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of buttermilk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of canned fruit,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of carbohydrates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of celery,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals, Table showing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of chestnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coconut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooked macaroni,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooked oat breakfast food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of corn bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cottage cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cream,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cream cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dried beef,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dried fig,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of dry navy bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of egg white and yolk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food, Chemical,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food materials,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh cod,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh shelled bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fruit jelly,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grape juice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grapes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of green corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of green string bean,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of honey,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lamb chop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mackerel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of maple sugar,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of molasses,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of olive oil,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of onion,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oyster,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of parsnip,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of peanut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of peanut butter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork chop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of potato,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of raisins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of rye bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of salt cod,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of skim milk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of smoked ham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of smoked herring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of stick candy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of strawberry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of sugar,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of toasted bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of walnut,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of white and yolk of egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole egg,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole milk,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whole wheat bread,<br></span>
+Compote, Meaning of,<br>
+Compressed yeast,<br>
+Constituents, Food principles, or,<br>
+Conveying heat to food, Methods of,<br>
+Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fireless,<br></span>
+Cookery, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Terms used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">time table,<br></span>
+Cooking cereals by boiling,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals in double boiler,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals in fireless cooker,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Points to observe in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Preparation for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Purpose of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals with dry heat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">food, Reasons for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods, Table for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Getting foods ready for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Heat for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of using moist heat for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">processes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice, Japanese method of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice, Methods of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Uses of water in,<br></span>
+Cooking utensils, Aluminum,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Copper,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Earthenware,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Enamel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Glass,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Iron and steel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Tin,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">utensils, Wooden,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with dry heat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with hot fat,<br></span>
+Copper cooking utensils,<br>
+Coquilles, Meaning of,<br>
+Corer, Apple,<br>
+Corn bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake, Molasses,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-cake recipes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cake, Southern,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of green,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Field,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Maize, or Indian,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal croquettes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal mush,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-meal mush, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meal, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pop,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sweet,<br></span>
+Cottage cheese, Composition of,<br>
+Cracked wheat,<br>
+Cream cheese, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of tartar and soda,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat with dates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sauce,<br></span>
+Creamed hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">peas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Creaming of food ingredients,<br>
+Croquettes, Corn-meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rolled-oats,<br></span>
+Croutons, Meaning of,<br>
+Cups, Measuring,<br>
+Curry,<br>
+Custard, Farina,<br>
+Cutting-in of food ingredients,<br>
+<br>
+<b>D</b><br>
+<br>
+Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Coal-stove,<br></span>
+Date muffins,<br>
+Dates, Cream of wheat with,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham mush with,<br></span>
+Demi-tasse, Meaning of,<br>
+Deviled, Meaning of,<br>
+Dextrine, Formation of,<br>
+Diet, Hot breads in the,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Well-balanced,<br></span>
+Dietetics, Definition of,<br>
+Digestion and absorption of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Dill, Meaning of,<br>
+Dinner rolls,<br>
+Dish-washing machines,<br>
+Double boiler, Cooking cereals in,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">boiler, Use of,<br></span>
+Dough, Kneading bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Making bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Motions used in kneading bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soft,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stiff,<br></span>
+Doughs and batters,<br>
+Dressing, Cabbage-salad,<br>
+Dried beef, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fig, Composition of,<br></span>
+Dry heat, Cooking cereals by,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">heat, Cooking with,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">measure,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steaming,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Drying of foods,<br>
+<br>
+<b>E</b><br>
+<br>
+Earthenware cooking utensils,<br>
+Economic value of cereals,<br>
+Effect of boiling on foods,<br>
+Egg beater, Rotary,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of white and yolk of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">whip,<br></span>
+Eggs, Scrambled,<br>
+Electric meter, Reading an,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and utensils,<br></span>
+Electricity as a fuel,<br>
+Emergency biscuits,<br>
+En coquille, Meaning of,<br>
+Enamel cooking utensils,<br>
+Endosperm, Meaning of,<br>
+Entr&eacute;es,<br>
+Equipment for bread making, Convenient,<br>
+Escarole, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>F</b><br>
+<br>
+Factors that govern cereal selection,<br>
+Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of,<br>
+Farina,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">custard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">souffl&eacute;,<br></span>
+Fat and milk in bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking with hot,<br></span>
+Fat in cereals,<br>
+Fats,<br>
+Ferments, or leavening agents,<br>
+Field corn,<br>
+Fig, Composition of dried,<br>
+Fillet mignons, Meaning of,<br>
+Fillets, Meaning of,<br>
+Firebox, Coal-stove,<br>
+Fireless cooker,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cooker, Cooking cereals in,<br></span>
+&nbsp;-cooking gas stoves,<br>
+Flour,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bakers',<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Blend,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Grains used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">High-grade patent,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Kinds of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milling of wheat,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Red dog,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scouring,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Second-grade patent,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Flue, Coal-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">opening of a coal stove,<br></span>
+Fluff, Orange,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauce for orange,<br></span>
+Folding of food ingredients,<br>
+Fondant, Meaning of,<br>
+Fondue, Meaning of,<br>
+Food, Absorption of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cereals as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chemical composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestion and absorption of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cellars, Storing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Beating of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Creaming of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Cutting-in of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Folding of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Mixing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Ricing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Rubbing of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Sifting of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ingredients, Stirring of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Matters involved in right selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of caring for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or fuel, value,<br></span>
+Food, Preparation of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">principles or constituents,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Problem of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reasons for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">substances,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value,<br></span>
+Foods, Blanching,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Canning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Drying of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of variety of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of breakfast,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Storing of non-perishable,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Storing of semiperishable,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with ice, Keeping,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">without ice, Keeping,<br></span>
+Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of,<br>
+Frapp&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+French toast,<br>
+Fricasseeing,<br>
+Fromage, Meaning of,<br>
+Fruit bread, Whole-wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of canned,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">jelly, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or nut buns,<br></span>
+Frying,<br>
+Fuel, Use of coal as a,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of coke as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of electricity as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of gas as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of kerosene as a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value, Food, or,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Value of gas as,<br></span>
+Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for,<br>
+<br>
+<b>G</b><br>
+<br>
+Gas,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Artificial,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as fuel, Use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">as fuel, Value of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Measurement of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meter, Reading a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Natural,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ranges, Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove, Mixer of a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stove, Pilot of a,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves, Fireless-cooking,<br></span>
+General proportions, Applying knowledge of,<br>
+Germ, Definition of,<br>
+Germs,<br>
+Gingerbread, Soft,<br>
+Glac&eacute;, Biscuit,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Glass cooking utensils,<br>
+Glaze, Meaning of,<br>
+Gliadin,<br>
+Glucose,<br>
+Gluten,<br>
+Glutenin,<br>
+Goulash, Meaning of,<br>
+Graham bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread with nuts,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mush with dates,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">nut buns,<br></span>
+Grain for market, Preparation of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products, Table of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Structure of wheat,<br></span>
+Grains used for flour,<br>
+Grape juice, Composition of,<br>
+Grapes, Composition of,<br>
+Grate, Coal-stove,<br>
+Green corn, Composition of,<br>
+Griddle-cake recipes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Procedure in baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cakes, Sour-milk,<br></span>
+Griddles,<br>
+Grinder,<br>
+Grits,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hominy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Wheat,<br></span>
+Gumbo, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>H</b><br>
+<br>
+Ham, Composition of smoked,<br>
+Hard water, How to soften,<br>
+Haricot, Meaning of,<br>
+Heat, Cooking cereals with dry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking with dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking, Discussion of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking with moist,<br></span>
+Herring, Composition of smoked,<br>
+High-grade patent flour,<br>
+Homard, Meaning of,<br>
+Hominy,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and cheese souffl&eacute;,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Buttered,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grits,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+Honey, Composition of,<br>
+Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of,<br>
+Hot bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Distinction between leavened and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture. Baking the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Testing of baked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Preparation of,<br></span>
+Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread recipes, Miscellaneous,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-bread utensils and their use,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Utilizing left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Baking of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Combining ingredients for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Correct oven temperature for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Distinction between yeast and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads in the diet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Mixtures used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Principal requirements for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Purpose of utensils for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Regulating the oven for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Requirements and processes for making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Serving,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads, Varieties of mixtures and general,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">proportions used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fat, Cooking with,<br></span>
+Hotplates,<br>
+Hulled, or whole, wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">wheat,<br></span>
+Huller, Berry,<br>
+<br>
+<b>I</b><br>
+<br>
+Ice, Keeping foods with,<br>
+Indian corn, or maize,<br>
+Ingredients, Beating of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Combining hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creaming of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cutting-in of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Folding of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mixing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Processes involved in mixing food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">required for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Ricing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rubbing of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sifting of food,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stirring of food,<br></span>
+Iron and steel cooking utensils,<br>
+Irons, Waffle,<br>
+Italian pastes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Preparation of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pastes, Varieties of,<br></span>
+Italiene, Meaning of a la,<br>
+Japanese method of cooking rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Jardini&eacute;re, Meaning of,<br>
+Jelly, Composition of fruit,<br>
+Juice, Composition of grape,<br>
+Julienne, Meaning of,<br>
+Junket, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>K</b><br>
+<br>
+Keeping foods with ice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">foods without ice,<br></span>
+Kerosene as a fuel, Use of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stoves and their operation,<br></span>
+Kilowatt-hours in meter reading,<br>
+Kippered, Meaning of,<br>
+Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a,<br>
+Kneading bread dough,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread dough, Motions used in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread dough, Purpose of,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>L</b><br>
+<br>
+Labour-saving devices,<br>
+Lactose,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Occurrence of,<br></span>
+Lamb chop, Composition of,<br>
+Lard, Composition of,<br>
+Larding, Meaning of,<br>
+Lardon, Meaning of,<br>
+Leavened bread,<br>
+Leavening agents,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">agents, Classes of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">agents, or ferments,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chemical,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Physical,<br></span>
+Left-over barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over corn-meal mush,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over hominy,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over hot bread, Utilizing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over rolled oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over wheat cereals,<br></span>
+Legumes, Meaning of,<br>
+Lentils, Meaning of,<br>
+Liquid measure,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Loaf, Nut,<br>
+Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into,<br>
+Long process of bread making,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making white bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, sponge method of bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, straight-dough method of bread making,<br></span>
+Luncheon menu,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>M</b><br>
+<br>
+Macaroni,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and kidney beans,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of cooked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Italian style,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese and tomato,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cream sauce,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with eggs,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with tomato and bacon,<br></span>
+Mac&eacute;doine, Meaning of,<br>
+Machines, Dish-washing,<br>
+Mackerel, Composition of,<br>
+Maize,<br>
+Malt sprouts,<br>
+Maple sugar, Composition of,<br>
+Marinade, Meaning of,<br>
+Marinate, Meaning of,<br>
+Market, Preparation of grains for the,<br>
+Marrons, Meaning of,<br>
+Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils,<br>
+Matter, Mineral,<br>
+Mayonnaise mixer, The,<br>
+Meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for corn,<br></span>
+Meaning of breakfast foods,<br>
+Measure, Dry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Liquid,<br></span>
+Measurement of gas,<br>
+Measures, Abbreviations of,<br>
+Measuring,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cups,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Precautions to observe,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">spoons,<br></span>
+Meat chopper,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grinder,<br></span>
+Menu, Breakfast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Luncheon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Menus and recipes,<br>
+Meringue, Meaning of,<br>
+Meter, Gas,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reading a gas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Reading an electric,<br></span>
+Meters, Prepayment,<br>
+Micro-organisms,<br>
+Microbes,<br>
+Milk and fat in bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of skim,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soda and sour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">toast,<br></span>
+Millet,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buckwheat, and rye,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+Milling of wheat flour,<br>
+Mineral matter,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">matter in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salts,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salts, Purpose of,<br></span>
+Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes,<br>
+Mixer, Gas-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mayonnaise,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Use of the bread,<br></span>
+Mixers, Bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cake,<br></span>
+Mixing of food ingredients,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food ingredients, Processes involved in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">processes, Application of,<br></span>
+Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread,<br>
+Mixtures used for hot breads,<br>
+Moist heat, Cooking with,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">yeast,<br></span>
+Molasses and soda,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corn cake,<br></span>
+Molds,<br>
+Motions used in kneading bread dough,<br>
+Mousse, Meaning of,<br>
+Muffin recipes,<br>
+Muffins, Blueberry,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bran,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Date,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Graham,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Plain,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+Mush, Corn-meal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Saut&eacute;d corn-meal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with dates, Graham,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>N</b><br>
+<br>
+Natural gas,<br>
+Navy bean, Composition of dry,<br>
+Non-perishable foods, Storing of,<br>
+Nougat, Meaning of,<br>
+Nut buns, Graham,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">loaf,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or fruit buns,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">puffs,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>O</b><br>
+<br>
+Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Oatmeal,<br>
+Oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and varieties of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rolled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with apples, Rolled,<br></span>
+Olive oil, Composition of,<br>
+Onion, Composition of,<br>
+Orange fluff,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fluff, Sauce for,<br></span>
+Order of work,<br>
+Oriental rice,<br>
+Oven, Coal-stove,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for hot breads, Regulating the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature, Determining and regulating,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature for baking bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">temperature for hot breads,<br></span>
+Oxygen,<br>
+Oyster, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>P</b><br>
+<br>
+Pan-broiled chops,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">broiling,<br></span>
+Paprika,<br>
+Parker House rolls,<br>
+Parsnip, Composition of,<br>
+Pastes, Italian,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for Italian,<br></span>
+Pat&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+Patent flour, High-grade,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour, Second-grade,<br></span>
+Patties, Rice,<br>
+Pea coal,<br>
+Peanut butter, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+Pearl barley,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">barley, Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">barley with fruit,<br></span>
+Peas, Creamed,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauce for,<br></span>
+Physical leavening,<br>
+Pilot, Gas-stove,<br>
+Pimiento, Meaning of,<br>
+Pineapple, Rice with,<br>
+Pinwheel biscuits,<br>
+Piquante, Meaning of sauce,<br>
+Pistachio, Meaning of,<br>
+Plain muffins,<br>
+Point, Boiling,<br>
+Polishings, Rice,<br>
+Pop corn,<br>
+Popover recipes,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with fruit,<br></span>
+Pork chop, Composition of,<br>
+Potage, Meaning of,<br>
+Potato, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ricer,<br></span>
+Potatoes, Baked,<br>
+Powder, Baking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipe for baking,<br></span>
+Precautions to observe in measuring,<br>
+Preparation for cooking cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking foods,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals for the table,<br></span>
+Preparation of food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grains for the market,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of hot-bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals,<br>
+Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for,<br>
+Prepayment meters,<br>
+Principle of stoves,<br>
+Principles, or constituents, Food,<br>
+Problem of food,<br>
+Processes and requirements for making hot breads,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Application of mixing,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Bread-making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">involved in mixing food ingredients,<br></span>
+Production of cereals,<br>
+Products, Cereal,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table of grain,<br></span>
+Proportion of bread-making materials,<br>
+Proportions, Applying knowledge of general,<br>
+Protein,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+Puffs, Nut,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Pur&eacute;e, Meaning of,<br>
+Purpose,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of baking bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cooking cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of kneading bread dough,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of utensils for making hot breads,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>Q</b><br>
+<br>
+Quality,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of yeast,<br></span>
+Quick,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Hot or,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of combining bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making white bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">process of making whole-wheat bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, sponge method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-process, straight-dough method of combining,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread ingredients,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>R</b><br>
+<br>
+Rago&ucirc;t, Meaning of,<br>
+Raisins, Composition of,<br>
+Ramekin, Meaning of,<br>
+Range, Coal,<br>
+Ranges, Description of gas,<br>
+Reading,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">a gas meter,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">an electric meter,<br></span>
+Ready,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-to-eat cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-to-eat, or prepared, cereals,<br></span>
+Reasons for cooking food,<br>
+R&eacute;chauff&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+Recipe, Definition of,<br>
+Red-dog flour,<br>
+Refrigerator,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of food in,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of the,<br></span>
+Refrigerators,<br>
+Refuse,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between waste and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Relative weights and measures, Tables of,<br>
+Requirements,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and processes for making hot breads,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of bread making,<br></span>
+Rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiling,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Browned,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carolina,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">griddle cakes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Japanese,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Japanese method of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">muffins,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oriental,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">patties,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">polishings,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Savory,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spanish,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steamed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steaming,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties and structure of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">waffles,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with pineapple,<br></span>
+Ricer, Potato,<br>
+Ricing of food ingredients,<br>
+Rising,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">&nbsp;bread dough, Care of the,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">&nbsp;Temperature for bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time required for bread,<br></span>
+Rissoles, Meaning of,<br>
+Roasting,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinction between baking and,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of,<br></span>
+Rolled,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-oats croquettes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-oats jelly with prunes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oats with apples,<br></span>
+Rolls,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buns and biscuits, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cinnamon,<br></span>
+Dinner,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Luncheon,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Parker House,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Whole-wheat,<br></span>
+Rotary egg beater,<br>
+Roux, Meaning of,<br>
+Rubbing of food ingredients,<br>
+Rye,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">buckwheat, and millet,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Description of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>S</b><br>
+<br>
+Salad, Cabbage,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Watercress-and-celery,<br></span>
+Salmi, Meaning of,<br>
+Salpicon, Meaning of,<br>
+Salt cod, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-rising bread,<br></span>
+Salts, Mineral,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purpose of mineral,<br></span>
+Sauce, Cream,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for orange fluff,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for peas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">piquante, Meaning of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of tartare,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning of vinaigrette,<br></span>
+Saut&eacute;d corn-meal mush,<br>
+Sauteing,<br>
+Savoury rice,<br>
+Scales,<br>
+Score card, Explanation of,<br>
+Scoring bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Object of,<br></span>
+Scouring of flour,<br>
+Scrambled eggs,<br>
+Second-grade patent flour,<br>
+Selection and care of cereals,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of food,<br></span>
+Semiperishable foods, Storing of,<br>
+Semolina,<br>
+Serving bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">hot breads,<br></span>
+Setting a cereal or grain,<br>
+Shallot, Meaning of,<br>
+Shaping bread dough into loaves,<br>
+Shelled bean, Composition of fresh,<br>
+Sifting of food ingredients,<br>
+Simmering, or stewing,<br>
+Sizes of coal,<br>
+Skim milk, Composition of,<br>
+Small electric utensils,<br>
+Smoked ham, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">herring, Composition of,<br></span>
+Soda and cream of tartar,<br>
+Soda and molasses,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and sour milk,<br></span>
+Soft dough,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">gingerbread,<br></span>
+Softening hard water,<br>
+Soluble starch,<br>
+Sorbet, Meaning of,<br>
+Souffl&eacute;, Meaning of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Farina,<br></span>
+Sour milk, Soda and,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-milk griddle cakes,<br></span>
+Southern corn cake,<br>
+Soy, Meaning of,<br>
+Spaghetti,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with cheese and tomato sauce,<br></span>
+Spanish rice,<br>
+Sponge method of making bread, Long-process,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">method of making bread, Quick-process,<br></span>
+Spoons, Measuring,<br>
+Spring, or hard, wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or hard, wheat, Flour made from,<br></span>
+Sprouts, Malt,<br>
+Starch,<br>
+Steak, Composition of beef,<br>
+Steamed rice,<br>
+Steamer,<br>
+Steaming,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rice,<br></span>
+Steel-and-iron cooking utensils,<br>
+Sterilize water, Boiling to,<br>
+Sterilizing,<br>
+Stewing or simmering,<br>
+Stick candy, Composition of,<br>
+Stiff dough,<br>
+Stirring of food ingredients,<br>
+Stock, Meaning of,<br>
+Storing food in cellars,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of non-perishable foods,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of semiperishable foods,<br></span>
+Stove ash pan, Coal-,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ash pit, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dampers, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flue opening, Coal-,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oven, Coal-,<br></span>
+Stoves and utensils, Electric,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fireless-cooking gas,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Operation of kerosene,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principle of,<br></span>
+Straight-dough method of bread making,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-dough method of bread making, Long-process,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-dough method of bread making, Quick-process,<br></span>
+Strawberry, Composition of,<br>
+String bean, Composition of green,<br>
+Structure and varieties of rice,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of wheat grain,<br></span>
+Substances, Food,<br>
+Suet, Composition of beef,<br>
+Sugar,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of maple,<br></span>
+Sultanas, Meaning of,<br>
+Sweet buns,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corn,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>T</b><br>
+<br>
+Table, Cookery time,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of grain products,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing composition of cereals,<br></span>
+Tables of relative weights and measures,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of weights and measures,<br></span>
+Tarragon, Meaning of,<br>
+Tartare sauce, Meaning of,<br>
+Temperature, Determining and regulating oven,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for hot breads, Correct oven,<br></span>
+Terms used in cookery,<br>
+Testing baked hot-bread mixture,<br>
+Thick batter,<br>
+Thin batter,<br>
+Timbale, Meaning of,<br>
+Time for baking and care of bread in oven,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">required for bread rising,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">table, Cookery,<br></span>
+Tin cooking utensils,<br>
+Toast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Buttered,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">French,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Milk,<br></span>
+Toasted Bread, Composition of,<br>
+Toasting,<br>
+Troy weight,<br>
+Truffles, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>U</b><br>
+<br>
+Utensils, Aluminum cooking,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and their use, Hot-bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Copper cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Earthenware cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Enamel cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for baking the hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for bread making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for furnishing a kitchen,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for preparing hot-bread mixture,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Glass cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Importance of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Iron and steel cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Materials used for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Small electric,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tin cooking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Wooden cooking,<br></span>
+<br>
+<b>V</b><br>
+<br>
+Value, Food,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Food, or fuel,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cereals, Economic,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of gas as fuel,<br></span>
+Vanilla, Meaning of,<br>
+Varieties and composition of oats,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and structure of rice,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of coal,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of Italian pastes,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mixtures used in hot breads,<br></span>
+Variety of foods, Importance of a,<br>
+Vermicelli,<br>
+Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of,<br>
+Vol au vent, Meaning of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>W</b><br>
+<br>
+Waffle irons,<br>
+Waffles,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">procedure in baking,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span>
+Walnut, Composition of,<br>
+Waste and refuse, Distinction between,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span>
+Water as a food substance,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiling to sterilize,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">How to soften hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in cereals,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the body, Function of,<br></span>
+Watercress-and-celery salad,<br>
+Weight, Avoirdupois,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Troy,<br></span>
+Weights and measures, Tables of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and measures, Tables of relative,<br></span>
+Wheat,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and wheat products, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Beech,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Composition of whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cereals, Left-over,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cracked,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flour, Milling of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grain, Structure of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">grits,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hulled,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hulled, or whole,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Origin and use of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">products, Recipes for,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spring, or hard,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Winter, or soft,<br></span>
+White bread,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Long process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">bread, Quick process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of egg, Composition of,<br></span>
+Whole egg, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">milk, Composition of,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat bread,<br></span>
+Whole-wheat bread, Composition of,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat bread, Quick process of making,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat flour,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat fruit bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat puffs,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-wheat rolls,<br></span>
+Window boxes,<br>
+Winter, or soft, wheat,<br>
+Wooden cooking utensils,<br>
+Work, Order of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>Y</b><br>
+<br>
+Yeast,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Action of,<br></span>
+Yeast aids,<br>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and hot breads, Distinction between,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Commercial,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Compressed,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dry,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Liquid,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Moist,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or leavened, bread,<br></span>
+<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Quality of,<br></span>
+Yeasts,<br>
+Yolk of egg, Composition of,<br>
+<br>
+<b>Z</b><br>
+<br>
+Zwieback,<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
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