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<pre>
The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History
by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton
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Title: Introductory American History
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<table align="center" width="90%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0" summary="bookspace">
<tr>
<td><br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2 class="c2">INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2>
<p>BY</p>
<p>HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON</p>
<p>PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY</p>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2>1912</h2>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
<br>
<p>This volume is the introductory part of a course in American
history embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee
of Eight of the American Historical Association.<a href=
"#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> <a name="FNanchor1">The plan</a>
calls for a continuous course running through grades six, seven,
and eight. The events which have taken place within the limits of
what is now the United States must necessarily furnish the most
of the content of the lessons. But the Committee urge that enough
other matter, of an introductory character, be included to teach
boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of age that our
civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of the
Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of
our country in its true historical setting. The Committee
recommend that about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to
this preliminary matter, and that the remainder of the year be
given to the period of discovery and exploration.</p>
<p>The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four
lines of development in the world's history leading up to
American history proper.</p>
<p>First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by
which the ancient civilized world, originally made up of
communities like the Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and
eastern Mediterranean Seas, spread to southern Italy and adjacent
lands. The Roman conquest of Italy and of the barbarian tribes of
western Europe expanded the civilized world to the shores of the
Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new nations grew up.
The migration of Europeans to the American continent was the
final step.</p>
<p>Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in
extent was a growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of
what we call geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the
herald of an expanding world.</p>
<p>A third process was the creation and transmission of all that
we mean by civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the
effort should be to "show, in a very simple way, the civilization
which formed the heritage of those who were to go to America,
that is, to explain what America started with."</p>
<p>The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate
the three or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in
American colonization with enough of their characteristic
incidents to give the child some feeling for the name 'England,'
'Spain,' 'Holland,' and 'France.'"</p>
<p>No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of
Greece, Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an
attempt would be utterly destructive of the plan. Only those
features of early civilization and those incidents of history
have been selected which appear to have a vital relation to the
subsequent fortunes of mankind in America as well as in Europe.
They are treated in all cases as introductory. Opinions may
differ upon the question of what topics best illustrate the
relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of opportunity for
the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a textbook
based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of
selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to
illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may
prefer Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler
dramatic development. In the same way teachers may desire to give
more emphasis to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval
civilization or certain heroic persons treated very briefly in
this book. Exercises similar to those inserted at the end of each
chapter offer means of supplementing work provided in the
text.</p>
<p>The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of
the Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a
natural culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same
plan of division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore,
open with the study of the first permanent English
settlements.</p>
<p>The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than
most of the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is
treated, we hope, with such simplicity and definiteness of
statement that it will be comprehensible and instructive to
pupils of the sixth grade.</p>
<p>At the close of the book will be found a list of references.
From this teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and
descriptions to illustrate any features of the subject which
especially interest their classes. In the index is given the
pronunciation of difficult names.</p>
<p>We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with
wise advice and criticism.</p>
<blockquote><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a><a name="Footnote_1">The
Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's,
1909.</a></blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<table border="0" summary="Contents" cellspacing="2" cellpadding=
"0">
<tr>
<td width="75" align="center"> </td>
<td width="516">
<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> </td>
<td width="516"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3892"></a>CHAPTER</h4>
</td>
<td width="516"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="4451"></a>I.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#2260">THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2589"></a>II.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1086">OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="4974"></a>III.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#2718">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="1808"></a>IV.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#3618">GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="4930"></a>V.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1080">NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3582"></a>VI.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#3538">THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3165"></a>VII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4038">THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF
THE ATLANTIC</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="1050"></a>VIII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1461">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3639"></a>IX.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4119">CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2725"></a>X.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#3638">EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3319"></a>XI.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1175">HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN
THEMSELVES</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3039"></a>XII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4072">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3986"></a>XIII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4657">TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE
LATER MIDDLE AGES</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2963"></a>XIV.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#2209">THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2434"></a>XV.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4968">OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW
WORLD</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3614"></a>XVI.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#2556">EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE
MAINLAND</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2459"></a>XVII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4514">THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH
AMERICA</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="3853"></a>XVIII.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4361">RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2317"></a>XIX.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1511">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE
AMERICA</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="1276"></a>XX.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#4788">THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER
SPAIN</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4><a name="2767"></a>XXI.</h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a href="#1568">THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE
AMERICA</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4> </h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a name="1597"></a><a href="#4410">REFERENCES FOR
TEACHERS</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
<h4> </h4>
</td>
<td width="516">
<h4><a name="1510"></a><a href="#4994">INDEX AND PRONOUNCING
VOCABULARY</a></h4>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2>INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="2260"></a><a href="#4451">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
<p>THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</p>
<br>
<p><b>The Emigrant and what he brings to America</b>. The
emigrant who lands at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any
other seaport, brings with him something which we do not see. He
may have in his hands only a small bundle of clothing and enough
money to pay his railroad fare to his new home, but he is
carrying another kind of baggage more valuable than bundles or
boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other baggage is
the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought from
the fatherland.</p>
<p>He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which
he hopes to labor in America. In his native land he has been
taught to obey the laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This
fits him to share in our self-government. He also brings great
memories, for he likes to think of the brave and noble deeds done
by men of his race. If he is a religious man, he worships God
just as his forefathers have for hundreds of years. To understand
how the emigrant happens to know what he does and to be what he
is, we must study the history of the country from which he
comes.</p>
<p><b>All Americans are Emigrants</b>. If this is true of the
newcomer, it is equally true of the rest of us, for we are all
emigrants. The Indians are the only native Americans, and when we
find out more about them we may learn that they, too, are
emigrants. If we follow the history of our families far enough
back, we shall come upon the names of our forefathers who sailed
from Europe. They may have come to America in the early days when
there were only a few settlements scattered along our Atlantic
coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War changed
the English colonies into the United States.</p>
<p>Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians,
we are simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the
Europe in which our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our
story. In order to understand our own history we must know
something of the history of England, France, Germany, Italy, and
other European lands.</p>
<p><b>What the early Emigrants brought</b>. If we read the story
of our forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers
to several important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek
for new lands or for new ways to lands already known? How did the
people of Europe live at the time he discovered America? What did
they know how to do? Were they skilful in all sorts of work, or
were they as rude and ignorant as the Indians on the western
shores of the Atlantic?</p>
<p>The answers which history will give to these questions will
say that the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought
with them much of the same knowledge and many of the same customs
and memories which emigrants bring nowadays and which we also
have. It is true that since the time the first settlers came men
have found out how to make many new things. The most important of
these are the steam-engine, the electric motor, the telegraph,
and the telephone. But it is surprising how many important
things, which we still use, were made before Columbus saw
America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="009.gif" src=
"Pictures/009.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING
VESSEL<br>
The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered
great hardships</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been
discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men
could make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The
ships in which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large
and wonderful to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were
steered with the help of a compass, an instrument which the
Indians had never seen.</p>
<p>Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been
known hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest
was the art of writing. The way to write words or sounds was
found out so long ago that we shall never know the name of the
man who first discovered it. The historians tell us he lived in
Egypt, which was in northern Africa, exactly where Egypt is now.
Some men were afraid that the new art might do more harm than
good. The king to whom the secret was told thought that the
children would be unwilling to work hard and try to remember
because everything could be written down and they would not need
to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to
put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made
several letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a
mixture of little pictures and queer marks.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="010.gif" src=
"Pictures/010.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Old and New Inventions</b>. Those who first discover how to
make things are called inventors, and what they make are called
inventions. Now if we should write out a list of the most useful
inventions, we could place in one column the inventions which
were made before the days of Columbus and in another those which
have been made since. With this list before us we may ask which
inventions we could live without and which we could not spare
unless we were willing to become like the savages. We should find
that a large number of the inventions which we use every day
belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is another
reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and
working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our
forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="011.gif" src=
"Pictures/011.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>A Plan of Study</b>. The discovery of America was made in
1492, at the beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before
Modern Times were the Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand
years. These began three or four hundred years after the time of
Christ or what we call the beginning of the Christian Era. All
the events that took place earlier we say happened in Ancient
Times. Much that we know was learned first by the Greeks or
Romans who lived in Ancient Times.</p>
<p>It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called
Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards,
and many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent
of Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of
what they knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out
how these things were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages
and what they added to them. This will help us to find out what
our forefathers started with when they came to live in
America.</p>
<br>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides
his baggage?</p>
<p>2. Why are all Americans emigrants?</p>
<p>3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America
bring with them?</p>
<p>4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone
or the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the
map. How did Egyptian writing look?</p>
<p>5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were
invented before he discovered America?</p>
<p>6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient
Times? By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the
art of writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented?
In what Times was the telephone invented?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising
folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of
sailing ships, ships used now and those used long ago.</p>
<p>2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country
stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from
ports like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now
live.</p>
<p>3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the
map the European country from which his parents or his
grandparents or his forefathers came.</p>
<p>4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his
forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each
find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each
tell the most interesting hero story from among the stories of
the mother country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the
tools used in the old home were like the tools his parents use
here.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1086"></a><a href="#2589">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
<br>
<p>OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</p>
<p><b>Ancient Cities that still exist</b>. In Ancient Times the
most important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean.
The northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The
first is Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the
Atlantic Ocean; the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the
third, the end of which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece.
Beyond Greece is Asia Minor, the part of Asia which lies between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. (See the <a name=
"1897"></a><a href="#4350">map[2]</a>.)</p>
<p>The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in
Ancient Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks,
just as they were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the
cities that the Greeks and Romans built are still standing.
Alexandria was founded by the great conqueror Alexander.
Constantinople used to be the Greek city of Byzantium. Another
Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern French city of
Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times, except that
it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name of
Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum.</p>
<p><b>Ruins which show how the Ancients lived</b>. In many of
these cities are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of
carving, vases, mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we
may see and from which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans
lived. Near Naples are the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city
suddenly destroyed during an eruption of the volcano
Vesuvius.</p>
<p>For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or
twenty feet of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets
and the walls of the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and
the walls in many places were only partly standing, but things
which in other ancient cities had entirely disappeared were kept
safe in Pompeii under the volcanic ashes.</p>
<p>The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see
how its inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit
their public buildings and their private houses, can handle their
dishes and can look at the paintings on their walls or the
mosaics in the floors. But interesting as Pompeii is, we must not
think that its ruins teach us more than the ruins of Rome or
Athens or many other ancient cities. Each has something important
to tell us of the people who lived long ago.</p>
<p><b>Ancient Words still in Use</b>. The ancient Greeks and
Romans have left us some things more useful than the ruins of
their buildings. These are the words in our language which once
were theirs, and which we use with slight changes in spelling.
Most of our words came in the beginning from Germany, where our
English forefathers lived before they settled in England. To the
words they took over from Germany they added words borrowed from
other peoples, just as we do now. We have recently borrowed
several words from the French, such as tonneau and limousine,
words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the name
automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek
word.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="015.gif" src=
"Pictures/015.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII<br>
The houses of the better sort were<br>
built with an open court in the center</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming
into our language from other languages. Several thousand have
come from Latin, the language of the Romans; several hundred from
Greek, either directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the
French. The word school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was
borrowed from the French, who took it from the Greeks. Geography
is another word which came, through French and Latin, from the
Greeks, to whom it meant that which is written about the earth.
The word grammar came in the same way. The word alphabet is made
by joining together the names of the first two Greek letters,
alpha and beta.</p>
<p>Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and
this is not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek.
Some of these are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil,
apostle, and martyr. The Greeks have handed down to us many words
about government, including the word itself, which in the
beginning meant "to steer." Politics meant having to do with a
<i>polis</i> or city. Several of the words most recently made up
of Greek words are telegraph, telephone, phonograph, and
thermometer.</p>
<p><b>Many Words borrowed from the Romans</b>. Nearly ten times
as many of our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the
Greeks, and it is not strange, because at one time the Romans
ruled over all the country now occupied by the Italians, the
French, the Spaniards, a part of the Germans, and the English, so
that these peoples naturally learned the words used by their
conquerors and governors.</p>
<p><b>Interesting Ancient Stories</b>. In the poems and tales
which we learn at home or at school are stories which Greek and
Roman parents and teachers taught their children many hundred
years ago. We learn them partly because they are interesting, and
because they please or amuse us, and partly because they appear
so often in our books that it is necessary to know them if we
would understand our own books and language. Who has not heard of
Hercules and his Labors, of the Search for the Golden Fleece, the
Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of Ulysses? We love modern fairy
stories and tales of adventure, but they are not more pleasing
than these ancient stories.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="017.gif" src=
"Pictures/017.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE PLAIN OF MARATHON</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Story of the Greeks</b>. Our language and our books are
full of memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story
of the Greeks comes before the story of the Romans, for the
Greeks were living in beautiful cities, with temples and
theaters, while the Romans were still an almost unknown people
dwelling on the hills that border the river Tiber.</p>
<p><b>Memories of Greek Courage</b>.<a name="3953"></a><a href=
"#4598">[11]</a> The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took place
in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of Persia
about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was
no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe.
Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings,
others by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together
when any danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned
traitor and helped the enemy against the others. The most
dangerous enemy the Greeks had, until the Romans attacked them,
was the kingdom of Persia, which stretched from the Aegean Sea
far into Asia. In the war with the Persians the Greeks fought
three famous battles, at Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, the
stories of which men have always liked to hear and remember.</p>
<p><b>Preparing for Marathon, 490 B.C.</b> To the Athenians
belong the glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city
of Athens now stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters
still attract students and travelers to Greece. The plain of
Marathon lay more than twenty miles to the northeast, and the
roads to it led through mountain passes. When the Athenians heard
that the hosts of the Great King of Persia were approaching, they
sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to ask aid of Sparta, a city
one hundred and forty miles away, in the peninsula now called the
Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of Greece. This runner
reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans said it would
be against their religious custom to march before the moon was
full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy alone--one
small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten
thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by
a thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of
Plataea.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="019.gif" src=
"Pictures/019.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS<br>
From a Greek vase of about the time of the battle of
Marathon</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>How the Athenians were Armed</b>. Although the Persians had
six times as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so
well armed for hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was
the bow and arrow, while the Greeks used the lance and a short
sword. The Greek soldier was protected by his bronze helmet,
solid across the forehead and over the nose; by his breastplate,
a leathern or linen tunic covered with small metal scales, with
flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves or pieces of metal
in front of his knees and shins. He was also protected by a
shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his knees.
According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten
generals, each commanding one day in turn.</p>
<p><b>The Battle-ground</b>. Marathon was a plain about two miles
wide, lying between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads
ran toward Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost
reached the sea, the other up a narrow valley and over the
mountains. The Athenians were encamped in this valley, where they
could attack the Persians if they tried to follow the shore
road.</p>
<p>The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near
the shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they
had so many more soldiers than the Athenians and because they
meant to use their horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched
the Persians, not knowing what it was best to do. Half the
generals did not wish to risk a battle, but Miltiades was eager
to fight, for he feared that delay would lead timid citizens or
traitors to yield to the Persians. He finally gained his wish,
and on his day of command the battle was ordered.</p>
<p><b>The Battle</b>. The Persians by this time had decided to
sail around to the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen
on board their ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew
up their foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their
comrades--the Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run.
The Persians thought this madness, because the Greeks had no
archers or horsemen. But the Greeks saw that if they moved
forward slowly the Persians would have time to shoot arrows at
them again and again.</p>
<p>When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the
two ends of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore.
In the center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks
were not at first successful, and were forced to retreat. But
those who had been victorious came to their rescue, attacked the
Persians in the rear, and finally drove them off. The Persians
ran into the sea to reach the ships, and the Athenians followed
them. Some of the Greeks were so eager in the fight that they
seized the sides of the ships and tried to keep them from being
rowed away, but the Persians cut at their hands and made them let
go.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="021.gif" src=
"Pictures/021.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS<br>
Where a great sea-fight between<br>
Greeks and Persians took place</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The News of the Victory</b>. The Athenians had won a
victory of which they were so proud that they meant it never
should be forgotten. Their city had suddenly become great through
the courage and self-sacrifice of her citizens. One hundred and
ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on the battle-field their
comrades raised over their bodies a mound of earth which still
marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner Pheidippides to
bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until he reached
the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on his
lips, he fell dead.</p>
<p><b>Other Victories of the Greeks</b>. Marathon was only the
beginning of Greek victories over the Persians, only the first
struggle in the long wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years
after Marathon the Spartans won everlasting glory by their heroic
stand at the Pass of Thermopylae --three hundred Greeks against
the mighty army of the Persian king Xerxes. The barbarian hordes
passed over their bodies, took the road to Athens, burned the
city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight which took place on
the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian territory and
the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to Athenian
courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader,
Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other
Greeks wanted to sail away.</p>
<p><b>Why Marathon is remembered</b>. The victories of Marathon
and Salamis were great not only because small armies of Greeks
put to flight the hosts of Persia, they were great because they
saved the independence of Greece. If the Greeks had become the
subjects and slaves of Persia, they would not have built the
wonderful buildings, or carved the beautiful statues, or written
the books which we study and admire. When we think of the Greeks
as our first teachers we feel as proud of their victories as if
they were our own victories.</p>
<p><b>The Wars of the Greek Cities</b>. The Athenians had done
the most in winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore
Athens was for many years the most powerful city in Greece. The
Spartans were always jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a
century after the victory of Marathon they conquered and humbled
Athens. The worst faults of the Greeks were such jealousies and
the desire to lord it over one another. Greek history is full of
wars of city against city, Sparta against Athens, Corinth against
Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In these wars many heroic
deeds were done, of which we like to read, but it is more
important for us to understand how the Greeks lived.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the <a name=
"1921"></a><a href="#4350">map[3].</a> (For each difficult name
find the pronunciation in the index.)</p>
<p>2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which
tell us how the people lived?</p>
<p>3. From what country did most of our words come in the
beginning? Why are they now called English? What peoples used the
word geography before we did? About how many words do we get from
the Greeks, and how many from the Romans?</p>
<p>4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the
Romans? Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived.</p>
<p>5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the
Greeks?</p>
<p>6. Find the city of Athens on the <a name="1416"></a> <a href=
"#4350">map[4].</a> Find Sparta. Where was Marathon? What city
won glory at Marathon?</p>
<p>7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and
Asia Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising
folders. Collect postal cards giving such pictures.</p>
<p>2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned <a name=
"4598"></a><a href="#3953">[11]</a> and tell it.</p>
<p>3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed
from the way the Greek soldiers were.</p>
<p>4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a
"Marathon."</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="2718"></a><a href="#4974">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
<br>
<p class="c3">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</p>
<p><b>The Greek Cities.</b> The Greeks lived in cities so much of
the time that we do not often think of them as ever living in the
country. The reason for this was that their government and
everything else important was carried on in the city. The cities
were usually surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made
them safe from sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was
often a lofty hill, which we should call a fort or citadel, but
which they called the upper city or acropolis. There the people
lived at first when they were few in number, and thither they
fled if the walls of their city were broken down by enemies.</p>
<p>In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain.
Its top was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one
were steep cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful
temples.</p>
<p><b>Private Houses.</b> Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did
not spend much money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses
would seem small, badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But
what their houses lacked was more than made up by the beauty and
splendor of the public buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and
especially the temples.</p>
<p><b>Temples</b>. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds
of worshipers like the large churches of Europe and America
to-day. Religious ceremonies were most often carried on in the
open air. The Parthenon, the most famous temple of Ancient Times,
was small. Its principal room measured less than one hundred feet
in length. Part of this room was used for an altar and for the
ivory and gold statue of the goddess Athena.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="025.gif" src=
"Pictures/025.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Parthenon</b>. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a
similar temple, we notice the columns in front and along the
sides. The Parthenon had eight at each end and seventeen on each
side. They were thirty-four feet high. A few feet within the
columns on the sides was the wall of the temple. Before the
vestibule and entrances at the front and at the rear stood six
more columns. The beauty of the marble from which stones and
columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders
carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the
pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon
the columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above
the columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a
frieze) ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The
temple was not left a glistening white, but parts of it were
painted in blue, or red, or gilt, or orange.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="026.gif" src=
"Pictures/026.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO<br>
The Parthenon is the large temple on the right</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Other Greek Temples.</b> This beautiful temple is now
partly ruined. Ruins of other temples are on the Acropolis, and
one better preserved, called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill.
There are also similar ruins in many places along the shores of
the Mediterranean. The most interesting are <a name="1547">at</a>
<a href="#2229">Paestum</a> in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily.
Long before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans
how to construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings,
and this the Romans later taught the peoples of western
Europe.</p>
<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="027.gif" src=
"Pictures/027.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GREEK ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Greek Methods of Building still used.</b> If we look at our
large buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek
buildings. Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is
imitated; sometimes this form is changed as the Romans changed
it, or as it was changed by builders who lived after the time of
the Romans. If the model of the whole building is not used, there
are similar pillars, or gables, or the sculpture in the pediment
and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks had three kinds of
pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric is simple
and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top, delicate and
beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with leaves
springing gracefully from the top of the pillar.</p>
<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="028.gif" src=
"Pictures/028.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Theaters</b>. The first Greek theater was only a smooth
open space near a hillside, with a tent, called a
<i>skené</i>, or scene, in which the actors dressed. Later
an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed on the hillside,
and across the open end was placed the <i>scene</i>, which had
been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a
house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are
furnished with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters
thousands of people gathered. Plays were generally given as a
part of religious festivals, and there were contests between
writers to see which could produce the best play. Sometimes the
plays followed one another for three days from morning until
night. Many of them are so interesting that people still read
them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied them,
and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write
plays.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="029.gif" src=
"Pictures/029.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Stadium.</b> A building which somewhat resembled the
theater was the stadium, where races were run. The difference was
that it was oblong instead of half round. The most famous
stadium, at Olympia, was seven hundred and two feet long, with
raised seats on both sides and around one end of the running
track. The other end was open. About fifty thousand persons used
to gather there to watch the races.</p>
<p><b>Porticoes.</b> There were other buildings, some for meeting
places, some for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes,
where the judges held court or the city officers carried on their
business. The porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over,
with occasionally a second story. As they stretched along the
sides of a square or market place they added much to the beauty
of a city.</p>
<p><b>Greek Sculpture.</b> We know that the Greeks were skilful
sculptors because from the ruins of their cities have been dug
wonderful marble and bronze statues which are now preserved in
the great museums of the world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and
Rome, and here in America, in New York and Boston. Museums which
cannot have the original statues usually contain copies or casts
of them in plaster. The statues are generally marred and broken,
but enough remains to show us the wonderful beauty of the
artist's work. Among the most famous are the Venus, of Melos (or
"de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a museum called the
Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia in Greece;
and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in
London.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="030.gif" src=
"Pictures/030.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS)<br>
An ancient Greek statue now in the Vatican</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the
Greek statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may
learn how such beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to
excel the Greeks, but are content to remain their pupils.</p>
<p><b>Painting and Pottery</b>. The Greeks were also painters,
makers of pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of
their workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in
the ruins of ancient buildings and tombs.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="031.gif" src=
"Pictures/031.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A GREEK BOOK<br>
The upper picture, shows the book open</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>What the Boys were taught</b>. The Greek boys were not very
good at arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or
their fingers to help them in reckoning. In learning to write
they smeared a thin layer of wax over a board and marked on that.
There was a kind of paper called papyrus, made from a reed which
grew mostly in Egypt, but this was expensive. Rolls were made of
sheets of it pasted together, and these were their books. One of
the books the boys studied much was the poems of Homer--the Iliad
and the Odyssey--which tell about the siege of Troy and the
wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these long poems by
heart. They also stored away in their memories the sayings of
other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know what
to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in
such excellent words.</p>
<p><b>Games and Exercises for Boys.</b> It is not surprising that
Greek boys knew how to play, but it is surprising that they
played many of the games which boys play now, such as
hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks and drakes, and blind man's
buff. They even "pitched pennies." In school the boys were taught
not only to read and write, but to be skilful athletes, and to
play on the lyre, accompanying this with singing. The gymnasium
was often an open space near a stream into which they could
plunge after their exercises were over. They were taught to box,
to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear. Military
training was important for them, since all might be called to
fight for the safety of their city.</p>
<p><b>The Olympic Games.</b> Boys and young men were trained as
runners, wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because
they enjoyed these exercises and the Greeks thought them an
important part of education, but also that they might bring back
honors and prizes to their city from the great games which all
the Greeks held every few years. The most famous of these games
were held at Olympia. There the Greeks went from all parts of the
country, carrying their tents and cooking utensils with them,
because there were not enough houses in Olympia to hold so many
people. Wars even were stopped for a time in order that the games
might not be postponed.</p>
<p><b>The Rewards of the Victors.</b> The principal contest was a
dash for two hundred yards, although there were longer races and
many other kinds of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to
see the most brutal sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands
and arms were covered with heavy strips of leather stiffened with
pieces of iron or lead. For the games men trained ten months,
part of the time at Olympia. The prize was a crown of wild olive,
and the winner returned in triumph to his city, where poets sang
his praises, a special seat at public games was reserved for him,
and often artists were employed to make a bronze statue of him to
be set up in Olympia or in his own city.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="033.gif" src=
"Pictures/033.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GREEK GAMES--RUNNING<br>
From an antique vase</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Government of Athens.</b> The citizen of Athens, and of
other Greek cities, had more to do with his government than do
most Americans with theirs. As nearly all work was done by
slaves, he had plenty of time to attend meetings. All the
citizens could attend the great assembly, or <i>ecclesia</i>,
where six thousand at least must be present before anything could
be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be admitted to
citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized, from
Athens as hurtful to its welfare.</p>
<p>There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less
important questions without laying them before the general
assembly. This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but
members of the council whose term had ended had a right to object
to any new member as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council
ruled for a tenth of the year, and they chose their president by
lot every day, so that any worthy man at Athens had a chance to
be president for a day and a night.</p>
<p>Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six
thousand judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a
thousand and one, or even fifteen hundred and one, took part.
Before such large courts and assemblies it was necessary to be a
good speaker to be able to win a case or persuade the citizens.
Some of the greatest orators of the world were Athenians, the
best known being Demosthenes.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="034.gif" src=
"Pictures/034.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Socrates.</b> The Athenians were not always just, although
so many of them acted as judges. One court, composed of five
hundred and one judges, condemned to death Socrates, the wisest
man of the Greeks and one of the wisest in the world. He did not
make speeches, or write books, or teach in school. He went about,
in the market place, at the gymnasium, and on the streets, asking
men, young and old, questions about what interested him most,
that is, What is the true way to live? If people did not give him
an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions, until
sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he
asked questions about everything that he did not believe in
anything, not even in the religion of his city.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="035.gif" src=
"Pictures/035.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SOCRATES<br>
After the marble bust in the Vatican</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Death of Socrates, 399 B.C</b>. After a while the
enemies of Socrates accused him of being a wicked man who
persuaded young men to be wicked. He was tried by an Athenian
court, which made the terrible blunder of finding him guilty and
condemning him to death. According to the Athenian custom he was
obliged to drink a cup of poisonous hemlock. This he did, after
talking to his friends cheerily about how a good man should live.
As he wrote no books we have learned about him from his friends.
The most famous of these was Plato, who is also counted among the
wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives of these men
is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to live
after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of
building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived?</p>
<p>2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens
look?</p>
<p>3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment.
Show where the frieze was placed. Find on a <a name="2092"></a><a
href="#4350">map[5]</a> Paestum.</p>
<p>4. What did the Greeks first mean by a <i>scene</i>? Why do we
still study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters?</p>
<p>5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such
buildings?</p>
<p>6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues?</p>
<p>7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about
the great public games of the Greeks.</p>
<p>8. How were the Greek rolls or books made?</p>
<p>9. Tell the story of Socrates.</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek
buildings?</p>
<p>2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.</p>
<p>3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a
papered room.</p>
<p>4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and
the government of your town?</p>
<p>5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the
courts in your town?</p>
<p>6. Are Olympic games held now? Where?<br>
</p>
<p>7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners
at Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic
games?</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="3618"></a><a href="#1808">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
<br>
<p>GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</p>
<p><b>When the Atlantic was unknown</b>. One of the most
important things done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore
the coasts and lands of Europe and to make settlements wherever
they went. At first they knew little of the western and northern
parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek whom we call the "Father of
History," and who was a great traveler, said, "Though I have
taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an assurance from
any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side of
Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark
shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood
that tin and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called
the "ends of the earth." As tin came from England, it is plain
that he had heard a little of that island.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="037.gif" src=
"Pictures/037.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED<br>
BY THE GREEK HISTORIAN HERODOTUS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Greek Emigrants.</b> Long before Athens became a great and
beautiful city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on
distant shores. Those who lived on the western coast of Asia
Minor, as well as those who lived where the kingdom of Greece is
now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The Greek colonies were
very important, because by them the ancient civilized world was
made larger, just as by the settlement of America the modern
world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from home
for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England
and Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a
new land to make a living and obtain property, or they did not
like the way their city was ruled, and being unable to change
this, resolved to build elsewhere a city which they could manage
as they pleased.</p>
<p><b>How they located a New City.</b> There were several
different lands to which they could go, just as the European of
to-day may sail for the United States or South America or
Australia. They could attempt to settle on the shores of the
Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa, or try to reach
Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France and
Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice
of the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These
priests knew more about good places for settlements than most
other persons, because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi
and the priests were wise enough to inquire about all parts of
the world.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="4350"><img alt="039.gif" src=
"Pictures/039.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><i>The territory occupied by the Greeks<br>
is indicated by solid black</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#4761">[1]</a> <a href=
"#1897">[2]</a> <a href="#1921">[3]</a> <a href=
"#1416">[4]</a> <a href="#2092">[5]</a> <a href=
"#1974">[6]</a> <a href="#2910">[7]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to
locate their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They
discovered that these words meant that an earlier band of
emigrants had passed by the wonderful harbor of the present city
of Constantinople and had settled instead on the other shore of
the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they chose the better place
and began to build the city of Byzantium, which later became
Constantinople.</p>
<p><b>Mother and Daughter Cities.</b> Solemn ceremonies took
place when colonists departed. They carried with them fire from
the hearth of the mother city in order to light a similar fire on
their new hearth, for every city had its hearthstone and on it a
fire that was never quenched. The ties between the mother and the
daughter city were close, and the enemies of one were the enemies
of the other. He who wished to visit the colony usually went to
the mother city to find a ship bound thither.</p>
<p><b>Where the Settlements were made.</b> When the Greek sailors
first entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean,
and called it the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until
that time they had been accustomed to sail only from island to
island in the Aegean Sea. After a while they made settlements all
around the shores of the Black Sea, and in later times Athens
drew from this region her supply of grain. Still more important
settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for it was
through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks
knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes
and to the Romans.</p>
<p><b>Dangers of the Voyage.</b> At first Greek sailors feared
the dangers of the western Mediterranean as much as those of the
Black Sea. They imagined that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful
monsters Scylla and Charybdis lurked in the Straits of Messina
waiting to seize and swallow the unlucky passer-by. On the slopes
of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought, hideous, one-eyed giants, the
Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites with the quivering flesh
of many captives.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="2229"></a><img alt="041.gif" src=
"Pictures/041.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><a href="#1547">GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN
ITALY</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Greeks in the West</b>.<a name="1660"></a><a href=
"#3255">(See map[7a].)</a> The earliest settlement of the Greeks
in Italy was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay
of Naples. Later these colonists entered the bay and founded the
"new city," or Neapolis, which we call Naples. Finally there were
so many Greek cities in southern Italy that it was named "Great
Greece." The Greeks also made settlements in what is now southern
France and eastern Spain. The principal one was Massilia, or
Marseilles. Through the traders of this city the ancient world
obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country which is now
called England.</p>
<p><b>Greek Colonies as Centers of Civilization.</b> The Greeks
in these colonies traded with the natives whose villages were
near by, and many of the natives learned to live like the Greeks.
In this way the Greeks became teachers of civilization, and the
Greek world, which at first was made up of cities on the shores
of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place to place along the
coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="042.gif" src=
"Pictures/042.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A GREEK TRIREME</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Greek Ships.</b> The ships of the Greeks were very
different from modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by
steam, nor did they rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships
do. They had sails, but were driven forward mostly by their oars.
The trireme, or ordinary war-ship, had its oars arranged in three
banks, fifty men rowing at once. After these had rowed several
hours, or a "watch," another fifty took their places, and finally
a third fifty, so that the ships could be rowed at high speed all
the time. With the aid of its two sails a trireme is said to have
gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a night. These
boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and fifteen
feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not
high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak,
which, driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides.
The Greek grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more
capable of enduring rough weather.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="043.gif" src=
"Pictures/043.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ALEXANDER THE GREAT<br>
After the bust in the Capitoline Museum, Rome</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 to 323
B.C.</b> Greek ways of living were also carried eastward as well
as westward. The enlargement of the Greek world in this direction
was due to Alexander the Great, the most skilful soldier and the
ablest leader of men among all the Greeks. Alexander was king of
Macedon, and like the earlier Greeks he regarded the Persians as
his enemies, and made war upon them. After conquering the
Persians he marched across western Asia until he had reached the
Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well as a
conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were
named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is
still the chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language
commonly spoken throughout the lands near the eastern
Mediterranean. This is the reason why in later times the New
Testament was written in Greek.</p>
<p><b>Alexandria</b>. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the
center and Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a
great library which contained over five hundred thousand volumes
or rolls. There also was the museum or university, in which many
learned men were at work. The best known of these men was Euclid,
who perfected the mathematics which we call geometry, and
Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape and size of
the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on his
great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce.
From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships
to be admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking
for many of the beautiful things which the Greeks made.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks
emigrate to the colonies?</p>
<p>2. Point out on the <a name="4761"></a><a href=
"#4350">map[1]</a>, the lands to which they might go. Name
several cities which they built.</p>
<p>3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother
city?</p>
<p>4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece?</p>
<p>5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed.</p>
<p>6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he
reign? How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning
victories?</p>
<p>7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times?</p>
<p>8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do
Americans go to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it
was for the Greeks to reach their colonies?</p>
<p>2. What country now has the most colonies?</p>
<p>3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops.</p>
<p>4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden
Horn?" Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at
Marseilles?</p>
<p>5. Collect pictures of these cities.</p>
<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
<p>(Chapters II, III, and IV)</p>
<p><i>Ten things we owe to the Greeks</i>:</p>
<p>1. Many useful words.</p>
<p>2. Many interesting tales.</p>
<p>3. Many examples of heroism.</p>
<p>4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings.</p>
<p>5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes.</p>
<p>6. How to write great plays.</p>
<p>7. How to speak before large audiences.</p>
<p>8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato.</p>
<p>9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics.</p>
<p>10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live,
and think and act as they did.</p>
<p><i>Two important dates</i>:</p>
<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323
B.C.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1080"></a><a href="#4930">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
<br>
<p>NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</p>
<p><b>The Greek Colonies and the Carthaginians</b>. The Greek
colonies were sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native
tribes whose lands they had seized or by the wilder tribes that
dwelt further from the coast. In Sicily their most dangerous
neighbors were the Carthaginians at the western end of the
island. The chief town of these people was Carthage, situated
opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now Tunis. The
Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of
Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because
of their many ships held control of a large part of the western
Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very
early times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and
silver.</p>
<p><b>The Greeks and the Romans</b>. In Italy the most dangerous
neighbors of the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived
half-way up the western side of the peninsula along the river
Tiber. The history of the Romans, like the history of the Greeks,
is full of interesting and wonderful tales. Some of them are
legends, such as every people likes to tell about its early
history. They relate how the city was founded by two brothers,
Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the
Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the
farmer Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in
sixteen days drove off the neighboring tribes which were
attacking the Romans and then went back to his plough.</p>
<p><b>The Gauls burn Rome, 390 B.C.</b> The Romans told stories
of their defeats as well as of their victories. One of these
tells how hosts of Gauls, a people of the same race as the
forefathers of the French, streamed southward from the valley of
the Po. The Romans were alarmed by such tall men, with fierce
eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords crashed through the
frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop the invaders,
but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from Rome,
this army was destroyed.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="047.gif" src=
"Pictures/047.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline,
the steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of
the older senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge
from the fury of the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in
ivory chairs in the market place or Forum at the foot of the
Capitoline hill. The Gauls at first gazed in wonder at the
strange sight of the motionless figures. When one of them
attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the senator
struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and
priests and slew them.</p>
<p>The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long
time the Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At
last they discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point
of scaling the height when some geese, sacred to the goddess
Juno, cackled and flapped their wings until the garrison was
aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong down the precipice. The
garrison was saved, but the city was burned. This happened in
Rome just one hundred years after the battle of Marathon in
Greece.</p>
<p><b>The Caudine Forks.</b> Another adventure did not have so
happy an ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a
tribe living on the slopes of the Apennines, who were continually
attacking the Greek cities on the coast. The war was caused by
the attempt of the Romans to protect one of the Greek cities. The
Roman generals, with a large army, in making their way into the
Samnite country attempted to march through a narrow gorge which
broadened out into a plain and then was closed again at the
farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge
they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones.
They also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they
hastened to retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance
closed in the same way. After vain attempts to force a passage or
to scale the surrounding heights they were obliged to
surrender.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="048.gif" src=
"Pictures/048.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and
soldiers, each clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke"
made of two spears set upright with one laid across, while they
stood by and jeered. If any Roman looked angry or sullen at his
disgrace, they struck or even killed him. This was called the
disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass where the Romans
were caught.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="3255"><img alt="049.gif" src=
"Pictures/049.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#1660">[7a]</a> <a href=
"#3449">[8]</a> <a href="#2799">[9]</a> <a href=
"#1828">[10]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Romans and the Greek Cities.</b> Not many years after
this the Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern
Italy. The Greeks of Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now,
called to their aid Pyrrhus, who ruled a part of Alexander's old
kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful general, and he had with him,
besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen, many trained elephants. A
charge of these elephants was too much for the Romans, who were
already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers of
Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in
this they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek
soldiers that Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and
we are ruined." In a third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he
was defeated, and returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters
of the Greek cities in Italy.</p>
<p><b>The Romans Conquerors of Italy.</b> By this time there were
few tribes south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as
their masters. All Italy was united under their rule. This was
the first step in the conquest of the world that lay about the
Mediterranean Sea and in the extension of that ancient world to
the shores of the Atlantic and to England. Before we read the
story of the other conquests we must inquire who the Roman people
were and how they lived.</p>
<p><b>How the Romans lived.</b> In early times most of the Romans
were farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned
according to the number of cattle he owned. Their manner of
living was simple and frugal. Like the Greek, the Roman had his
games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but used slaves or freedmen as
drivers. He also went to the theater, although he thought it
unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an occupation was for
foreigners or slaves.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="051.gif" src=
"Pictures/051.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Roman Boys at School.</b> The boys at school did not learn
poems, as did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws
made by the Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read,
copied, and learned by heart. Their interest in laws was the
first sign that they were to become the world's greatest
lawmakers.</p>
<p><b>Roman Women.</b> In their respect for women the Romans were
superior to the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the
women's apartments of the house, as she was expected to do at
Athens, but was her husband's companion, received his guests,
directed her household, and went in and out as she chose.</p>
<p><b>Patricians and Plebeians</b>. The men of the families which
first ruled Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest
were plebeians or common people. There were also many slaves, but
they had no rights. At first only the patricians knew exactly
what the laws were, because the laws were not written in a book.
When disputes arose between patricians and plebeians about
property, the plebeians believed the patricians changed the laws
in order to gain an advantage over their poorer neighbors.</p>
<p>The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the
city and refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then
they compelled the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called
the <a name="1656"></a><a href="#2126">Twelve Tables.</a> At this
time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the
Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all
the offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles
themselves.</p>
<p><b>Government at Rome</b>. The Romans had once been ruled by
kings, but now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls
were chosen each year because the Romans feared that a single
consul might make himself a king, or, at least, gain too much
power. The real rulers of Rome, however, were the senators, the
men who had held the prominent offices. There were assemblies of
the people, but these generally did what the senators or other
officers told them to do.</p>
<p>Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who
drew up a list or census of the citizens and of their property.
Another officer was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the
plebeians to protect them against the patricians. The tribune was
not at first a member of the senate, but he was given a seat
outside the door, and if a law was proposed that would injure the
plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which means "I forbid," and the
law had to be dropped. This is the origin of our word "veto."</p>
<p><b>How the Romans treated the Italians</b>. The Romans were
wise in their dealings with the cities or tribes which they
conquered. They not only sent out colonies of their
fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands they had seized,
but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in their
government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of
Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their
wars with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread
over Italy.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="053.gif" src=
"Pictures/053.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks
in Sicily? Find Carthage on the <a name="3449"></a><a href=
"#3255">map[8]</a>. Where did the Carthaginians come from
originally? Find Phoenicia on the <a name="1974"></a><a href=
"#4350">map[6]</a></p>
<p> </p>
<p>2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy?
Find the Tiber and Rome on the <a name="2799"></a><a href=
"#3255">map[9]</a>.</p>
<p>3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How
long was this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the
death of Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of
Macedon?</p>
<p>4. Find the land of the Samnites on the <a name="1828"></a><a
href="#3255">map[10]</a>. Tell the story of the Caudine
Forks.</p>
<p>5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to
help them against the Romans? What did he say after his second
battle with the Romans?</p>
<p>6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the
Romans as masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians?</p>
<p>7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from
the ways of the Greeks.</p>
<p>8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern
themselves?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient
Rome."</p>
<p>2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy.</p>
<p>3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over
Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians?</p>
<p>4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii.
3-25, and tell what is said there about the riches of the
Tyrians. Find out who destroyed Tyre.</p>
</blockquote>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="054.gif" src=
"Pictures/054.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AN EARLY ROMAN COIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="3538"></a><a href="#3582">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
<br>
<p>THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</p>
<p><b>Rome in Peril</b>. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took
about two hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples
living in the other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took
nearly as long again. Only twice in these four or five hundred
years was Rome in serious danger of destruction. Once it was by
the Gauls, as we have read, who captured all the city except the
citadel. The second time it was by the Carthaginians, who lived
on the northern coast of Africa. The Romans were finally
victorious over all their enemies because they were patient and
courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that they could
be conquered.</p>
<p><b>Cause of War with Carthage</b>. The Carthaginians were
angry at the way the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm
the steady growth of the Roman power, and feared that the Romans,
if masters of Italy, would attack their trade with the cities of
the western Mediterranean. A quarrel broke out over a city in
Sicily. At first the Carthaginians seemed to have the best of it,
because they had a strong war fleet while the Romans had only a
few small vessels. But the Romans hurriedly built ships and
placed upon each a kind of drawbridge, fitted with great hooks
called grappling-irons. These they let down upon the enemy's
decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and over these
drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the
Carthaginian ships.</p>
<p>When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a
great sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would
leave the cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward
the Romans took advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to
demand more money and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder
the Carthaginians were angry. The result was a new and more
terrible war.</p>
<p><b>Hannibal</b>. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by
Hannibal, who understood how to fight battles better than any of
the generals whom the Romans sent against him. The story is told
that when he was a boy his father made him promise, at the altar
of his city's gods, undying hatred to Rome. Even the Romans
thought him a wonderful man. Their historians said that toil did
not wear out his body or exhaust his energy. Cold or heat were
alike to him. He never ate or drank more than he needed. He slept
when he had time, whether it was day or night, wrapping himself
in a military cloak and lying on the ground in the midst of his
soldiers. He did not dress better than the other officers, but
his weapons and his horses were the best in the army.</p>
<p><b>War carried into Italy, 218 B.C</b>. Hannibal decided that
the war should be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome.
He started from Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled,
marched across southern Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the
Alps. To climb the Alps was the most difficult part of his long
journey.</p>
<p><b>Crossing the Alps</b>. There were no roads across the
mountains, only rough paths used by the mountaineers, who
constantly attacked Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly
upon them from behind a turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks
upon them from above. The elephants, the horses, and the baggage
animals of the army were frightened, and in the tumult many of
them slipped over the precipices and were dashed on the rocks
below. For five days the army toiled upward, and then rested two
days on the summit of the pass.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="057.gif" src=
"Pictures/057.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and
the paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush
by thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a
landslide, and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a
thousand feet. In order to build a new road it was necessary to
crack the rocks. This the soldiers did by making huge fires and
pouring wine over the heated surface. At last, worn out, ragged,
and half starved, the army reached the plains of Italy, but with
a loss of half its men.</p>
<p><b>How Hannibal won a Victory</b>. The first great battle with
the Romans was fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and
in it Hannibal showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a
Roman army. It was a winter's day and the river was swollen by
rains. The two camps lay on opposite banks. In the early morning
Hannibal sent across the river a body of horsemen to attack the
Roman camp and draw the Romans into a battle. At the same time he
ordered his other soldiers to eat breakfast, to build fires
before their tents to warm themselves, and to rub their bodies
with oil, so that they might be strong for the coming fight.</p>
<p>The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the
Carthaginian horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out
of camp, chasing the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy
waters the Romans waded breast-high, and when they came up on the
opposite bank they were benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal
knew that the Romans had crossed the river he attacked them
fiercely with all his troops. Two thousand men whom he had placed
in ambush fell upon the rear of their line. Their allies were
frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing that destruction was
certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke through the
Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the army was
destroyed.</p>
<p><b>Roman Endurance</b>. This was not the last of the Roman
defeats. Two other armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the
next two years. In the battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand
Romans, including eighty senators, were slain. The news filled
the city with weeping women, but the senate did not think of
yielding. When their allies deserted them, they besieged the
faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers, and sold the
inhabitants into slavery.</p>
<p>They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but
tried to wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his
troops and by making it difficult for him to get food for his
army. They carried the war into Spain and finally into Africa,
and when, with a weakened army, Hannibal faced them there, they
defeated him. His defeat was the ruin of Carthage, for the
unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet destroyed, to pay the
Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain to them.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="059.gif" src=
"Pictures/059.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ROMAN SOLDIER</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Other Roman Triumphs</b>. The war with Carthage ended two
hundred and two years before the birth of Christ. In the wars
that followed, Roman armies fought not only in Spain and Africa,
but also in Greece and Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also
Corinth, a Greek city. Roman generals enriched themselves and
sent great treasures back to Rome. Roman merchants grew rich
because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth were ruined or
because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade with any
city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but in
the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores
of the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the
Romans had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some
things and they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the
arts of living. The ancient world became a sort of partnership,
and we call its civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek
and Roman.</p>
<p><b>The Romans as Rulers</b>. The Romans at first treated the
lands in Sicily, Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered
territories, or provinces, sending to rule over them officers who
were to act both as governors and judges. With these men went
many tax-collectors or "publicans." The Romans were obliged to
leave in most provinces a large body of soldiers to put down any
attempt at rebellion. Often the officers and the publicans robbed
the country instead of ruling it justly.</p>
<p><b>Evil Results of Conquest</b>. During the wars the Romans
had lost many of their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich
in the business of providing for the armies and navies, and they
were eager for new wars in order to make still bigger fortunes.
Hannibal's marches up and down Italy had driven thousands of
farmers from their homes, and they had wandered to Rome for
safety and food. When the war was over many of them did not go
back to their homes. Those who did found that they could no
longer get fair prices for their crops because great quantities
of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands. Wealthy
men bought the little farms and joined them, making great estates
where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and
olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for
slaves were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about
eight cents apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while
the rich sent everywhere for new luxuries.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="061.gif" src=
"Pictures/061.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GLADIATORS<br>
After carvings on the tomb of Scaurus</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Cruel Sports</b>. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers
and victorious generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals
were turned loose to tear one another to pieces. What was worse,
human prisoners were compelled to fight, armed with swords or
spears. These men were called gladiators, and often were
specially trained to fight with one another or with wild
beasts.</p>
<p><b>Some Things the Romans learned</b>. But the successes of
the Romans brought them other things which were good. They took
the buildings of the Greeks as models and built similar temples
and porticoes in Rome, especially about the old market place or
Forum. Their own houses, which in earlier times were nothing but
cabins, they enlarged, and if they were rich enough, built
palaces, adorned with paintings and with statues. Unfortunately
many of these came from the plunder of Greek cities, for the
Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer Romans
continued to live in wretched hovels.</p>
<p><b>The Theater</b>. The Romans learned more about the theaters
of the Greeks. Their plays were either translated into Latin from
Greek or retold in a different manner from the original Greek.
The Romans did not succeed in writing any plays of their own
which were as good as the plays of the Greeks.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="062.gif" src=
"Pictures/062.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE,
FRANCE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The New Education of the Romans</b>. The Greeks also taught
the Romans how to write poems and histories. The first histories
were written in Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write
in Latin prose and poetry as good as much that had been written
by the Greeks. Greek became the second language of every educated
Roman, and thus he could enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as
those written by Romans. The education of the Roman boy now began
with the poems of Homer, and the young man's education was not
thought to be finished until he had traveled in Greece and the
lands along the eastern Mediterranean.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long
to conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did
all this happen?</p>
<p>2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did
Hannibal promise his father? What sort of a leader was
Hannibal?</p>
<p>3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of
the Trebia?</p>
<p>4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield?</p>
<p>5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this
war with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon,
and after the death of Alexander the Great?</p>
<p>6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule
these colonies?</p>
<p>7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What
became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get
their slaves?</p>
<p>8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was
the Graeco-Roman world?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean
mark on each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor,
and Egypt, the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding
these dates in any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford,
Myers, Morey, West, Wolfson.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4038"></a><a href="#3165">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
<br>
<p>THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC</p>
<p><b>New Conquests of the Romans.</b> The Romans had as yet
conquered only civilized peoples like themselves, with the
exception of the tribes in Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman
armies were to push northward over the plains and through the
forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into unknown Germany, and over
the Channel into Britain, equally unknown. They were to be
explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were to carry
their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so increase
greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as the
Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient
civilized world was beginning to move from its older center, the
Mediterranean, toward the shore of the Atlantic.</p>
<p><b>Ancestors of the French and the Germans.</b> The tribes
living in Gaul were not at that time called French, but Gallic.
The Gauls were like the Britons who lived across the Channel in
Britain. The German ancestors of the English had not yet crossed
the North Sea to that land. Beyond the Rhine lived the Germans,
who had but little to do with the Romans and the Greeks and were
still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away from the Roman
settlements were not much more civilized.</p>
<p>The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was
that the Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the
land or dug in mines or traded along the rivers, while the
Germans had no towns and dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their
wealth, like that of the early Romans, was their cattle. The land
they cultivated was divided between them year after year, so that
a German owned only his hut and the plot of ground or garden
about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed on high
hills and were protected by strong walls.</p>
<p><b>The Terrible Germans.</b> The Romans had at first been
afraid of the Gauls, because they had never forgotten how
terribly these people had once defeated them. But since that time
they had fought the Gauls so often that they were losing this
fear. They now dreaded more to meet the Germans, who seemed like
giants because they were taller even than the Gauls.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="065.gif" src=
"Pictures/065.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GALLIC WARRIORS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Gallic and German Warriors.</b> The leaders of the Germans
were sometimes kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called
<i>duces</i>, from which comes our word duke. The Gallic
chieftains were adorned with gold necklaces, bracelets, and
rings. When they went out to battle, they wore helmets shaped
like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies were
protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their
principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic
nobles were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted
followers, who shared the joys of victory or died with them in
case of defeat. It was a disgrace to lose one's sword or to
survive if the leader was killed.</p>
<p><b>How the Germans lived.</b> When the Germans were not
fighting they were idle, for all work was done by women and
slaves. They were great drinkers and gamblers, and often in their
games a man would stake his freedom upon the result. If he lost,
he became the slave of the winner. The Germans respected their
wives, even if they compelled them to do the hard work. The women
sometimes went with the men to battle, and their cries encouraged
the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce reproaches
of the women drove them back to the fight.</p>
<p><b>Religion of the Germans.</b> We remember the religion of
the Germans because four days of the week are named for their
gods or the gods of their neighbors across the Baltic. Their
principal god was Wodan, or Odin, god of the sun and the tempest.
Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday is named for Thor, the
Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw, gave a name to
Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The German,
like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place where
brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days in
feasting.</p>
<p><b>Julius Caesar.</b> Julius Caesar was the great Roman
general who conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions
across the Rhine into Germany and over the Channel into Britain.
He was a wealthy noble who, like other nobles, held one office
after another until he became consul. He was also a great
political leader, and with two other men controlled Rome. We
should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them
"triumvirs."</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="067.gif" src=
"Pictures/067.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">JULIUS CAESAR<br>
<b>After the bust in the Museum at Naples</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Caesar in Gaul.</b> As soon as Caesar became governor of
the province of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful
general as well as a successful politician. He interfered in the
wars between the Gauls, taking sides with the friends of the
Romans. When a large army of Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it
and drove it back across the Rhine. One war led to another until
all the tribes from the country now called Belgium to the
Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman people.
His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three
times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and
energy he always succeeded in gaining the victory.</p>
<p><b>Vercingetorix, Gallic Hero.</b> The great hero of the Gauls
in their struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a
young noble who lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His
father had been killed in an attempt to make himself king of his
native city. Vercingetorix believed that if the Gauls did not
unite against the Romans they would soon see their lands become
Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no match for the Romans
in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to starve the Romans
out of the country. He planned to destroy all village stores of
grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which
wandered from the main army in search of food.</p>
<p><b>Caesar and Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix found the work
of conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally
driven to take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul.
Here the Romans prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug
miles of deep trenches about the fortress so that the imprisoned
Gauls could not break through. They dug other trenches to protect
themselves from the attacks of a great army of Gauls which came
to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches were fifteen or twenty
feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades and ramparts, and
filled with water where this was possible. Several times the
Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness and
stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day.</p>
<p><b>Death of Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix now proved that
he was a real hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if
this would save the town. But Caesar demanded the submission of
all the chiefs. When they had laid down their arms before the
conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on a gaily decorated horse. He
rode around the throne where Caesar sat, dismounted in front,
took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His fate was hard.
He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the triumphal
procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death in
a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the
French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of
Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many
years afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman
provinces.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="069.gif" src=
"Pictures/069.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE
RHINE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Caesar in Germany</b>. Caesar crossed the Rhine into
Germany on a bridge which his engineers built in ten days. He
laid waste the fields of the tribes near the river in order to
make the name of Rome feared, and then returned to Gaul and
destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to Britain, the last
time marching a few miles north of where London now stands. His
purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls to
attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as
far as the hills of Scotland.</p>
<p><b>The German Hero Hermann</b>. The Romans were not fortunate
in their later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When
Caesar's grandnephew Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army
under Varus into the forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a
leader of the Germans, gathered the tribes together and utterly
destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever Augustus thought of this
dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus, give me back my
legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern boundaries
of the Roman conquests.</p>
<p><b>Gauls and Britons become Roman</b>. Although the Gauls had
fought stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the
Italians themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and
began to use Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their
schools were sometimes regarded as better than the schools in
Italy, and Roman youths were sent to Gaul to learn how best to
speak their own language. The Britons also became very good
Romans. Even the Germans frequently crossed the Rhine and
enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned to their own
country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them.</p>
<p><b>The Interest of Americans in Roman Successes</b>. For
Americans the influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul,
Germany, and Britain is more important than their work in the
eastern Mediterranean, because from those countries came the
early settlers of America. The civilization which the Romans
taught the peoples of western Europe was to become a valuable
part of the civilization of our forefathers.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="1634"><img alt="071.gif" src=
"Pictures/071.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395
A.D.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#4829">[12]</a> <a href=
"#3355">[13]</a> <a href="#2495">[14]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Size of the Roman World.</b> We may realize how large the
world of the Romans was by observing on a modern map that within
its limits lay modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the
southern part of Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the
Turkish Empire both in Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis,
Algeria, and Morocco. For a time they also ruled north of the
Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they are descended from
Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were influenced
by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not try
to bring them under their rule.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="072.gif" src=
"Pictures/072.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC, IN
BRITTANY, FRANCE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>No modern empire has included so many important countries. If
we compare this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of
the Greeks, we shall understand how useful it was that the Romans
adopted much of the Greek civilization, for they could carry it
to places that the Greeks never reached.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the
Mediterranean, into what other countries did they march?</p>
<p>2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the
Gauls lived.</p>
<p>3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from
that of the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to
the Gauls?</p>
<p>4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods?</p>
<p>5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What
was the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of
Vercingetorix.</p>
<p>6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did
Caesar go?</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="073.gif" src=
"Pictures/073.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS
CAESAR</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time
of Augustus?</p>
<p>8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much
like the Romans?</p>
<p>9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest
of Gaul and Britain?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who
ever lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin
his wars in Gaul? What difference was there between what these
two generals did? Whose work is the more important for us?</p>
<p>2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each
country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This
will take a long time, but many pictures may be found in
advertising folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies.</p>
<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
<p>(Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII)</p>
<p><i>How the Graeco-Roman world was built up</i>:</p>
<p>1. The Greeks drive back the Persians.</p>
<p>2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the
Mediterranean and Black Seas.</p>
<p>3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern
Mediterranean.</p>
<p>4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their
ways of living.</p>
<p>5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their
colonies.</p>
<p>6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the
Mediterranean.</p>
<p>7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain.</p>
<p><i>Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman
world</i>:</p>
<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C.
Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal,
202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C.</p>
</blockquote>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="074.gif" src=
"Pictures/074.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR</td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1461"></a><a href="#1050">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
<br>
<p class="c3">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</p>
<p><b>Strife at Rome.</b> While the Romans were conquering the
ancient world they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain
men resolved that Rome should not be managed any longer by the
noble senators for their own benefit or for the benefit of rich
contractors and merchants. They wished to have the idle crowds of
men who packed the shows and circuses settled as free farmers on
the unused lands of Italy.</p>
<p>Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius
Gracchus, sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other
nobles looked upon them with hatred and killed them, first
Tiberius and afterward Caius. These murders did not end the
trouble. The leaders on both sides armed their followers, and
bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals led their
armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an army
into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the
republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these
generals put to death hundreds of their enemies.</p>
<p><b>Caesar rules Rome.</b> The strife in the city had ceased
for a time when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared
power with Caesar as a "triumvir," joined the senators in
planning his ruin. Caesar led his army into Italy to the borders
of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is cast,'" he crossed the
sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome. Pompey and his
party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into those who
followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was
everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He
brought back order into the government of the city and of the
provinces, but in the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the
senate-house by several senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had
been his friend.</p>
<p><b>Origin of the Title "Emperor."</b> Caesar had not been
called "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his
titles was "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from
which our word "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor
of Rome. In later times the very word Caesar became an imperial
title, not only in the Roman Empire, but also in modern Germany,
for "Kaiser" is another form of the word "Caesar."</p>
<p><b>Beginnings of the Empire.</b> Caesar's successor was his
grandnephew Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of
his titles. Augustus carried out many of Caesar's plans for
improving the government in Rome and in the provinces. The people
in the provinces were no longer robbed by Roman officers. Many of
them became Roman citizens. After a time all children born within
the empire were considered Romans, just as if they had been born
in Rome.</p>
<p><b>The Roman Empire.</b> The Roman Empire carried on the work
which the republic had begun. It did some things better than the
republic had done them. Within its frontiers there was peace for
two or three hundred years. Many people had an opportunity to
share in all the best that the Greeks and Romans had learned.
Unfortunately the peoples imitated the bad as well as the
good.</p>
<p><b>Roman Roads.</b> As builders the Romans taught much to
those who lived after them. Their great roads leading out from
Rome have never been excelled. In Gaul these roads served,
centuries later, to mark out the present French system of
highroads and showed many a route to the builders of railroads.
They were made so solid that parts of them still remain after two
thousand years.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="077.gif" src=
"Pictures/077.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Augustus Caesar After the statue in the
Vatican</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>How these Roads were built.</b> In planning their roads the
Romans did not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep
valleys or marshy lands. They often pierced the hills with
tunnels and bridged the valleys or swamps. In building a road
they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide and pounded the earth
at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom was placed a
layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of broken
stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was
covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken
tiles, which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On
the top were laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that
there need be no jar when a wagon rolled over the road.</p>
<p>Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and
fro throughout the empire, but especially for troops or
government messengers sent with all speed to regions where there
was danger of revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by
the barbarians.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="078.gif" src=
"Pictures/078.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Aqueducts.</b> Next to their roads the most remarkable
Roman structures were the aqueducts which brought water to the
city from rivers or springs, some of them many miles away. Had
they known, as we do, how to make heavy iron pipes, their
aqueducts would have been laid underground, except where they
crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used were not
strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water,
and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which
stretches from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the
streams of flowing water were carried in stone channels resting
upon arches which sometimes reached the height of over ninety
feet.</p>
<p><b>The Claudian Aqueduct.</b> The Claudian aqueduct, which is
the most magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for
about seven miles and a half. Although broken in many places, and
though the water has not flowed through its lofty channels for
sixteen hundred years, it is one of the grandest sights in the
neighborhood of Rome. If we add together the lengths of the
aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which provided Rome
with her water supply, the total is over three hundred miles.
They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water a
day.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="079.gif" src=
"Pictures/079.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT<br>
Completed by the Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D.<br>
The structure was nearly a hundred feet high</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Public Baths</b>. The Romans used great quantities of water
for their public baths, which were large buildings with rooms
especially made for bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges.
They were also, like the Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise,
conversation, and reading. Many were built as monuments by
wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee was charged for
entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and the wages
of those who managed the baths.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="080.gif" src=
"Pictures/080.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Two Famous Buildings</b>. Many of the Roman temples,
porticoes, and theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the
Romans used the arch more than did the Greeks, and in this the
builders of later times imitated them. Among their greatest
buildings were the amphitheaters, from the benches of which
crowds watched gladiators fighting one another or struggling with
wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was the
Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were
one hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six
hundred and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and
twelve. There were seats enough for forty-five thousand persons.
The lowest seats were raised fifteen feet above the arena or
central space where men or wild beasts fought. Through an
arrangement of underground pipes the arena could be flooded so
that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a real naval
battle.</p>
<p>Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold
the crowds that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having
seats for two hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the
Romans became more and more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some
equally splendid buildings were used for better things.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="081.gif" src=
"Pictures/081.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE PANTHEON</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Pantheon.</b> One of these was the Pantheon, a temple
which was afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is
now used as the burial-place of the Italian kings. The most
remarkable part of it is the dome, which has a width of a little
over one hundred and forty-two feet. No other dome in the world
is so wide. The Romans were very successful in covering large
spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later builders of
domes and arches are their pupils.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="082.gif" src=
"Pictures/082.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ARCH OF TITUS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Basilicas</b>. The Romans had other large buildings called
basilicas. These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in
the center covered by a great roof. They were used as places for
public meetings. One of them had one hundred and eight pillars
arranged in a double row around the sides and ends of this
central space. The name basilica is Greek and means "royal." Some
of these basilicas were used as Christian churches when the
Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was
then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the
aisles.</p>
<p><b>Triumphal Arches.</b> The Romans built beautiful arches to
celebrate their victories. Several of these still remain, with
sentences cut into their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of
their builders. Modern people have taken them as models for
similar memorial arches.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="083.gif" src=
"Pictures/083.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the
Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Roman Law.</b> The Romans did much for the world by their
laws. They showed little regard for the rights of men captured in
war and were cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they
considered carefully the rights of free men and women. Under the
emperors the lawyers and judges worked to make the laws clearer
and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor Justinian, who ruled at
the time when the empire was already half ruined by the attacks
of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to gather into
a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws lasted
long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of
the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our
laws in America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="084.gif" src=
"Pictures/084.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND<br>
Unearthed not many years ago at Aldborough.<br>
Such stones laid in the form of designs or pictures are called
Mosaics</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus try to do?</p>
<p>2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to
ruin him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman
leaders?</p>
<p>3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the
origin of the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die?</p>
<p>4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized
the Roman Empire?</p>
<p>5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were
their roads built? Do any traces of them still remain?</p>
<p>6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure
water?</p>
<p>7. What was a Roman bath?</p>
<p>8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their
buildings? Name the largest buildings in Rome. What was a
basilica? Of what use were basilicas to the Christians later?</p>
<p>9. Do you remember the earliest form of the <a name=
"2126"></a> <a href="#1656">Roman law?</a> What did Justinian do
with the laws in his day? Are these laws important to us?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and
Augustus?</p>
<p>2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman
roads and if they are likely to last as long. What different
kinds of roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a
small model of a Roman road?</p>
<p>3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities
provided with great public baths like those of the Romans?</p>
<p>4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the
revised statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the
code of Justinian, only not so brief.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="085.gif" src=
"Pictures/085.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4119"></a><a href="#3639">CHAPTER IX</a></h2>
<br>
<p>CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</p>
<p><b>The Religion of the Jews.</b> Among the cities captured by
the Romans was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories
from the Old Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived
David, the shepherd boy who, after wonderful adventures, became
king of his people. There his son Solomon built a temple of
dazzling splendor. Among this people had arisen great
preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that religion
did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in
justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for
religion, just as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans
a genius for government.</p>
<p><b>The Jews conquered by the Romans.</b> When the Jews first
heard of the Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who
made and unmade kings. In later years they learned that the
Romans were hard masters and they feared and hated them. The
Jewish kingdom was one of the last countries along the shores of
the Mediterranean which the Romans conquered, but like all the
others it finally became a Roman province.</p>
<p><b>Jesus of Nazareth.</b> A few years before the Jewish
kingdom became a Roman province there was born in a village near
Jerusalem a child named Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in
Nazareth he gathered about him followers or disciples whom he
taught to live and act as is told in the books of the New
Testament.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="087.gif" src=
"Pictures/087.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of
Olives in the distance</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first
held by a little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a
city of Asia whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman
citizenship, believed that the message of the new religion was
meant for all nations. He taught it in many cities of Asia Minor
and Greece, and even went as far west as Rome. Several of the
epistles or letters in the New Testament were written by Paul to
churches which he had founded or where he had taught. So it
happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which
multitudes consider even more important than the art and
literature of the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the
Romans.</p>
<p><b>Why the Christians were persecuted.</b> The Romans at first
refused to permit any one in their empire to call himself a
Christian. They disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that
the Roman gods were real gods, asserting that these gods were
mere images in wood and stone. The Christians did this also, but
in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst offense of the
Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of secret
society and held meetings to which other persons were not
admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies.</p>
<p>The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their
refusal to join in the public ceremonies which honored the
emperor as if he were a god who had given peace and order to the
world and who was able to reward the good and punish the evil.
The Christians believed it to be wrong to join in the worship of
an emperor, whether he were alive or dead.</p>
<p><b>Christians put to Death.</b> The Romans were cruel in their
manner of punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered
death in its most horrible forms. Some were burned, others were
tortured, others were torn to pieces by wild animals in the great
amphitheaters to satisfy the fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst
of the Roman emperors, who, many thought, set Rome on fire in
order that he might enjoy the sight of the burning city, tried to
turn suspicion from himself by accusing the Christians of the
crime. He punished them by tying them to poles, smearing their
bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches.</p>
<p><b>The Christians allowed to Worship.</b> The new religion
spread rapidly from province to province in spite of these
persecutions. At first the Christians worshiped secretly, but
later they ventured to build churches. Finally, three centuries
after the birth of Christ, the emperors promised that the
persecutions should cease and that the Christians might worship
undisturbed.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="089.gif" src=
"Pictures/089.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Roman Empire becomes Christian about 325 A.D.</b>
Constantine was the first emperor to become Christian. He was the
one who made the Greek city Byzantium the capital of the empire
and for whom it was renamed Constantinople. For a time both the
old Roman religion and the Christian religion were favored by the
emperors, but before the fourth century closed the old religion
was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the Roman gods were
mostly country people, called in Latin <i>pagani</i>, and
therefore their religion was called "paganism."</p>
<p><b>How the Church was ruled.</b> One of the reasons why the
Christians had been successful in their struggle with the Roman
emperors was that they were united under wise and brave leaders.
The Christians in each large city were ruled by a bishop, and the
bishops of several cities were directed by an archbishop. In the
western part of the empire the bishop of Rome, who was called the
pope, was honored as the chief of the bishops and archbishops,
and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the eastern part the
archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria and
Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in authority
with him.</p>
<p>There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks.
The priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks
lived in groups in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their
purpose was to dwell far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary
life and give themselves to prayer and fasting; sometimes they
acted as a brotherhood of teachers in barbarous communities,
teaching the people better methods of farming, and carrying the
arts of civilized life beyond the borders of the empire.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times?</p>
<p>2. Do you remember any of the stories of David?</p>
<p>3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David
ruled?</p>
<p>4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth
of Jesus Christ?</p>
<p>5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How
did the Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ
before the emperors allowed the Christians to worship
undisturbed?</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="091.gif" src=
"Pictures/091.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES<br>
Abbey of Saint-Germain des Prés<br>
as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and moat or ditch</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a
Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old
Roman gods?</p>
<p>7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named?
What two kinds of clergy were there?</p>
<p><i>Important date</i>: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became
Christian.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="3638"></a><a href="#2725">CHAPTER X</a></h2>
<br>
<p>EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</p>
<p><b>The Middle Ages.</b> It was more than a thousand years from
the time of Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is
called "Mediaeval," or the "Middle Ages." During these long
centuries the ancient civilized world of the Roman Empire was
much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on the southern shores of
the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or Moors. The Moors
conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands of
Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The
Turks, the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet"
Mohammed, who died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies
of the Christians.</p>
<p><b>Western Europe.</b> The other part of the European world
was also changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic
were now more important than those on the shores of the
Mediterranean. The names of the different countries were changed.
Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there was France; instead of
Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for Germania,
Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire, was
finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa
and Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories
ruled by dukes, princes, or kings.</p>
<p><b>Fate of Civilization.</b> The most important question to
ask is, How much of the manner of living or civilization of the
Greeks and the Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The
answer is found in the history of the Middle Ages. In this
history is also found what men added to that which they had
learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The emigrants to America
were to carry with them knowledge which not even the wisest men
of the ancient world had possessed.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="093.gif" src=
"Pictures/093.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">WALL OF AURELIAN<br>
This wall enclosed the ancient city of Rome.<br>
It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five feet
high, and had three hundred towers</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Mediaeval German Emigrants.</b> The first part of the
history of the Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from
whom most of our forefathers were descended began to move from
the northern forests towards the borders of the Roman Empire.
Many thousand men had already crossed the Rhine and the Danube to
serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes an unusually strong and
skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans had also crossed
the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich Gallic
nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and
the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers.
The Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit
of work and were glad to hire these foreigners.</p>
<p><b>Story of Ulfilas.</b> Many of the Goths who lived north of
the Danube had forsaken their old gods and become Christians.
They were taught by Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them,
afterward a missionary. He translated the Bible into the Gothic
language, and this translation is the most ancient specimen of
German that we possess. Many of the other German tribes learned
about Christianity from the Goths, and although they might be
enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of the
Church.</p>
<p><b>The Goths invade the Roman Empire.</b> The Roman emperors
tried to prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier
in great numbers, because, once across, if they did not find work
and food, they became plunderers. Not many years after
Constantine's death, a million Goths had passed the Danube and
had plundered the country almost to the walls of Constantinople.
This was not like the invasion of a regular army, which comes to
fight battles and to arrange terms of peace.</p>
<p>The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example,
moved as a whole people, with their wives and children, their
cattle, and the few household goods they owned. Wherever they
wished to settle they demanded of the Romans one third, sometimes
two thirds, of the land. They soon learned to be good neighbors
of the older inhabitants, although at first they were little
better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the Goths, led
them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did not
injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the
churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about
plundering villages and attacking cities did far greater damage.
The Roman government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the
provinces fell into the hands of German kings.</p>
<p><b>Beginnings of England, France, and Germany.</b> Britain was
attacked by the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany
across the North Sea. (See map<a name="4829"></a><a href=
"#1634">[12]</a>) They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves
of them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country
was then called Angle-land or England, and the people
Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen.</p>
<p>The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the
Franks from the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name
France to the land.</p>
<p>At about the same time the other German tribes that had
remained in Germany united under one king.</p>
<p><b>The Result of Barbarian Attacks.</b> The part of the
ancient world which lay about Constantinople was less changed
than the rest during the Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople
were high and thick, and they withstood attack after attack until
1453. Within their shelter men continued to live much as they had
lived in Ancient Times. A few delighted to study the writings of
the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the other countries of western
Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The ancient baths,
amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled and fell.
The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the Colosseum
as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This was
done in every country where Roman buildings existed.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="096.gif" src=
"Pictures/096.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still
stranger fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at
another as a prison and gradually became the home of hundreds of
the criminals and the poor of the city. "Every archway held its
nest of human outcasts. From stone to stone they cast their
rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the very entrails of
the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the pursuit
of the officers of the law."</p>
<p>Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France,
and few from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of
Italy and France and England did not know how to read Greek. Many
of them also ceased to read the writings of the ancient
Romans.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="097.gif" src=
"Pictures/097.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This
church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its
walls show some of the bricks of the original chapel</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The English become Christians, 597 A.D.</b> Christianity
had spread throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the
religion of all the tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon
the ruins of the Empire. The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded
Britain, were still worshipers of the gods Wodan and Thor. They
had never learned from the Goths of Ulfilas anything about
Christianity.</p>
<p>One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys
were offered for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a
monk and was the abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing
and asked who they were. He was told they were Angles. "Angels,"
he cried, "yes, they have faces like angels, and should become
companions of the angels in heaven." When this good abbot became
pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they established
themselves at Canterbury.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="098.gif" src=
"Pictures/098.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Missionaries to the Germans and the Slavs</b>. The
conversion of the English helped in the spread of Christianity on
the Continent, for Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest
missionary to the Germans. He won thousands from the worship of
their ancient gods and founded many churches. The Slavs, who
lived east of the Germans, were taught by missionaries from
Constantinople instead of from Rome.</p>
<p><b>The Educated Men of the Middle Ages.</b> The missionaries
and teachers of the Church had been educated like the older
Romans. They read Roman books, and tried to preserve the
knowledge which both Greeks and Romans had gathered. Influenced
by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the north also tried
to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the priests
of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some
parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved,
although the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful
cities were mere heaps of ruins.</p>
<p><b>The Vikings.</b> The emigration of whole peoples from one
part of Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was
overrun. New peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out
the tribes which had already settled within its boundaries and
were learning the ways of civilization.</p>
<p>One of these peoples came from the regions now known as
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They were called Danes by the
English, and Northmen or Normans by other Europeans. They had
another name, Vikings, which was their word for sea-rovers.</p>
<p>It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than
march on the land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked
nothing better than to fight and conquer and rob in other
countries. There was not a land in western Europe, even as far
south as Sicily, that they did not visit. Wherever they went they
plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a blackened trail.</p>
<p><b>The Danes in England.</b> The Danes ravaged the eastern and
southern shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery,
partly because there was little left to take, they began to
settle in the land. Alfred, the greatest of the early English
kings, was driven by them into the swamps for a while, but in the
year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of them in battle and
persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a Christian.
Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion of
England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes
was obeyed there.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="100.gif" src=
"Pictures/100.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A VIKING SHIP AT SEA</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Danes become Normans</b>. No more Danes or Northmen
came to trouble England for a time, but instead they crossed the
Channel to France and rowed up the Seine and tried to capture
Paris. A few years later a Frankish king gave them the city of
Rouen, further down the Seine, and the region about it which was
called Normandy. These Normans also accepted Christianity.</p>
<p><b>The Vikings become Discoverers.</b> Before another hundred
years had passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult
than sailing up rivers and burning towns. They were the first to
venture far out of sight of land, though their ships were no
larger than our fishing boats. These bold sailors visited the
Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of Scotland, and finally
reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle flourished,
and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up with
the old homeland and with the British islands.</p>
<p>Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a
colony to Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further
west. He called it Greenland because, he said, men would be more
easily persuaded to go there if the land had a good name. This
was probably in the year 985.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="101.gif" src=
"Pictures/101.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Discovery of Vinland.</b> Eric had a son, called Leif
Ericson, or Leif the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well
received at the court of King Olaf. Not long before missionaries
had persuaded Olaf and his people to give up their old gods and
accept Christianity, and Leif followed their example. Leif set
out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the new
religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and
to his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the
summer, for on the way his ship was driven out of its course and
came upon strange lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large
trees grew. The milder climate and stories of large trees useful
for building ships aroused the curiosity of the Greenlanders.</p>
<p>They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North
America at places which they called Helluland, that is, the land
of flat stones; Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where
the grape-vines grow. Helluland was probably on the coast of
Labrador, Markland somewhere on the shores of Newfoundland, and
Vinland in Nova Scotia.</p>
<p><b>The Settlement in Vinland.</b> Thornfinn Karlsefni, a
successful trader between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to
plant a colony in the new lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to
the number of one hundred and sixty men and several women, set
out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded with supplies and
many cattle. They built huts and remained three or four winters
in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement disappeared long
ago.</p>
<p>They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking
Indians, with coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with
whom they traded red cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between
the Northmen and the Indians, who outnumbered them. So many
Northmen were killed that the survivors became alarmed and
returned to Greenland.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="103.gif" src=
"Pictures/103.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN<br>
The American lands they found are marked with diagonal lines</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Vinland forgotten.</b> The voyages to Vinland soon ceased
and the discoveries of Leif and his followers were only
remembered in the songs or "sagas" of the people. They thought of
Vinland mainly as a land of flat stones, great trees, and fierce
natives. Nor did the wise men of Europe who heard the Northmen's
story guess that a New World had been discovered. It was probably
fortunate that five hundred years were to go by before Europeans
settled in America, for within that time they were to learn a
great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had
left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the
ruins of the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses,
where few knew of them. The more Europeans possessed before they
set out, the more Americans would have to start with.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="104.gif" src=
"Pictures/104.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA
MANUSCRIPT</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval"
period?</p>
<p>2. Show on the <a name="3355"></a><a href="#1634">map[13]</a>,
what part of the Roman Empire was conquered by the
Mohammedans.</p>
<p>3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and
Spain, Why were they changed to what they are now?</p>
<p>4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from
their homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a
living?</p>
<p>5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian
religion? When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they
ask of the inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years
separated the capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the
Gauls?</p>
<p>6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes
conquered Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople
was captured?</p>
<p>7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many
cities? Who tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and
the Romans had done? Who used the language of the Romans?</p>
<p>8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians.
Who taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city
did the Slavs receive missionaries?</p>
<p>9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas?
Where did they make settlements?</p>
<p>10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America.
Why did the Northmen leave Vinland?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this
chapter.</p>
<p>2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned
in the chapter on the countries where they settled.</p>
<p>3. Ask children in school who know some other language than
English what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain,
and Italy.</p>
<p><i>Important dates</i>:</p>
<p>Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D.</p>
<p>Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1175"></a><a href="#3319">CHAPTER XI</a></h2>
<br>
<p>HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES</p>
<p><b>Heroes of the Middle Ages.</b> The Middle Ages, like
Ancient Times, are recalled by many interesting tales. Some of
them, such as the stories of King Arthur and his Knights, the
story of Roland, and the Song of the Niebelungs, are only tales
and not history. Others tell us about great kings, Charlemagne
and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of Germany, or
St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was Alfred, who
fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally conquered and
persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule.</p>
<p><b>King Alfred began to reign in 871.</b> King Alfred was a
skilful warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of
peace. When he was a boy he had shown his love of books. His
mother once offered a beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize
to the one of her sons who should be the first to learn it.
Alfred could not yet read, but he had a ready memory, and with
the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and won the prize.</p>
<p>At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few
even of the clergy could read. During the long wars with the
Danes many books had been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more
useful than books and ceased to care about reading. King Alfred
feared that the Saxons would soon become ignorant barbarians, and
sent for priests and monks who were learned and were able to
teach his clergy. He sent even into France for such men.</p>
<p><b>Early English Books.</b> As it would be easier for people
to learn to read books written in the language they spoke rather
than in Latin, Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin
books into English. Among these was a history written by a Roman
before the Germans had overthrown the Roman Empire. This history
told about the world of the Greeks and the Romans.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="107.gif" src=
"Pictures/107.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE<br>
From a copy in the British Museum</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year
to year of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was
called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history
written in the English language. It was carefully kept for many
years after Alfred's death. Another wise thing Alfred did was to
collect the laws or "dooms" of the earlier kings, so that every
one might know what the law required.</p>
<p><b>The Beginning of a Navy.</b> Alfred has been called the
creator of the English navy. He thought that the only way to keep
the Danes from plundering his shores was to fight them on the
sea. He built several ships which were bigger than the Danish
ships, but they were not always victorious, for they could not
follow the Danish ships into shallow water. Nevertheless, the
Danes could not plunder England as easily as before.</p>
<p><b>The New Army.</b> Alfred organized his fighting men in a
better way. In times past the men had been called upon to fight
only when the Danes were near, but now he kept a third of his men
ready all the time, and another third he placed in forts, so the
rest were able to work in the fields in safety. There are good
reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred as a hero.</p>
<p><b>William the Conqueror began to rule England in 1066.</b>
About a hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke
of Normandy, crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English
king in battle, and seized the throne. This was not altogether a
misfortune to the English, for they came under the same ruler as
the Normans and they shared in all that the men of the Continent
were beginning to learn. For one thing, builders from the
Continent taught the English to construct the great Norman
churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees.
Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the
chiefs or lords that were inclined to oppress the common
people.</p>
<p><b>Henry II.</b> Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled
over most of western France as well as over England. His officers
and nobles were tired out by his endless traveling in his lands,
which extended from the banks of the river Loire in France to the
borders of Scotland. All Englishmen and Americans should remember
him with gratitude because of the improvements he made in the
ways of discovering the truth when disputes arose and were
carried into courts.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="109.gif" src=
"Pictures/109.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br>
From the Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the
Conqueror. The figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred
and thirty feet long, and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight
colors are used</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Ordeals and Trials by Battle.</b> Before Henry's reign it
was the custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the
truth by arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals.
The two most common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the
ordeal by water. In the ordeal by fire an iron was heated
red-hot, and after it had been blessed by a priest it was put
into the hand of the man the truth of whose word was being
tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His hand
was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that
time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for
they thought God would keep an innocent man from being
punished.</p>
<p>In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water
which had been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the
people thought the water would not receive him. If he sank at
once, he was pulled out and treated as if he had told the
truth.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="110.gif" src=
"Pictures/110.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">TRIAL BY BATTLE<br>
After a drawing in an old manuscript</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose
dispute was to be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each
was armed with a hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who
gave up lost his case.</p>
<p><b>Trial by Jury.</b> King Henry introduced a better way of
finding out the truth. He called upon twelve men from a
neighborhood to come before the judges, to promise solemnly to
tell what they knew about a matter, and then to decide which
person was in the right. They were supposed to know about the
facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with one
another before they made a decision.</p>
<p>Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two
groups, one to tell what they knew and the other to listen and
decide what was true. Those who told what they knew were called
the witnesses, and those who listened and decided were called
jurors. The name jurors came from a Latin word meaning to take an
oath.</p>
<p><b>Richard the Lionhearted.</b> King Henry had two sons,
Richard and John. Richard was the boldest and most skilful
fighter of his time. When the news was brought to England that
Jerusalem had been captured by the Mohammedans, he led an army to
Palestine to recapture it. He failed to take the city, but he
became famous throughout the East as a fearless warrior and was
ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death his
brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as
Richard was brave and generous.</p>
<p><b>The Great Charter.</b> The leaders of the people, the
nobles and the clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In
1215 they raised an army and threatened to take the kingdom from
John and crown another prince as king. John was soon ready to
promise anything in order to obtain power once more, and the
nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede on the river Thames, a
few miles west of London, and compelled him to sign a list of
promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate promises, it
was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did not
keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on
him, and he even said that this would be their duty.</p>
<p><b>Promises of the Charter.</b> Many of the articles of the
Great Charter were important only to the men of King John's day,
but others are as important to us as to them. In these the king
promised that every one should be treated justly. He said he
would not refuse to listen to the complaints of those who thought
they were wronged. The king also promised that he would not
decide in favor of a rich man just because the rich man might
offer him money. He would put no one in prison who had not been
tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important promise
the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of
the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people
to have something to say about how their money should be spent.
This right is a very important part of what we call
self-government.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="112.gif" src=
"Pictures/112.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Promises of the Great Charter renewed.</b> In after times
whenever the English thought a king was doing them a wrong they
reminded him of the promises made by King John in the Great
Charter and demanded that the promises be solemnly renewed.</p>
<p>In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns
to send a number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and
clergy to talk over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings,
soon followed Simon's example by asking the townsmen for advice
about matters of government. After a while this became the
custom. Occasionally the king wanted the advice of the clergy,
the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and called them
together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an
assembly in which talking or discussion goes on.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="113.gif" src=
"Pictures/113.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster
Abbey<br>
WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The English Parliament.</b> Only the most important nobles
or lords could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the
meeting would be too large to do any business. The other lords
chose certain ones from their number to go in place of all the
rest. We call such men representatives. In this way, besides the
men who represented the towns, there were present these nobles
who represented the landowners of the counties. Gradually these
nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own, while
the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in
another assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of
Commons and the House of Lords, and the two made up the
parliament.</p>
<p><b>An Assembly of Representatives.</b> This parliament was a
great invention. The English had discovered a better way of
governing themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We
call it the representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived
far from Rome wanted to take part in the elections, he was
obliged to leave his farm or his business and travel to Rome, for
only the citizens who were at Rome could have a share in making
the laws. It never occurred to the Romans that the citizens
outside of Rome could send some of their number as
representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament
was an important step towards what we mean in America by
"government of the people, for the people, and by the
people."</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle
Ages. What stories have you learned about these heroes?</p>
<p>2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show
his love of books? What did he do to help his people to a
knowledge of books?</p>
<p>3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back
the Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English
navy?</p>
<p>4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the
English and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help
them?</p>
<p>5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an
ordeal and a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed
and what did they do? How were they afterwards divided?</p>
<p>6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a
king was his brother John?</p>
<p>7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called
"Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget
these promises?</p>
<p>8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to
talk over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this
body finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided?</p>
<p>9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention?
What did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome
and wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of
the story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne,
Frederick the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen.</p>
<p>2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and
those of to-day, and explain their differences.</p>
<p>3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is
guilty.</p>
<p>4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes
the laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the
whole country?</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4072"></a><a href="#3039">CHAPTER XII</a></h2>
<br>
<p>THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</p>
<p><b>What the English owed to their European Neighbors</b>. If
the English succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how
to govern themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected
them from attack, and they could quarrel with their king without
running much risk that their enemies in other countries would
take advantage of the quarrel to seize their lands or attempt to
conquer them.</p>
<p>The French were not so well placed. France also was not united
like England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were
almost independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and
dukes. In France it would not have been wise for the people to
quarrel with the king, for he was their natural protector against
cruel lords. Germany and Italy were even more divided, with not
only counties and duchies, but also cities nearly as independent
as the ancient cities of Greece.</p>
<p>The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the
English were doing, and some of these were so well done that the
English were ready to accept these Europeans as their teachers.
The memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had done remained
longer in southern France and Italy because so many buildings
were still standing which reminded Frenchmen and Italians of the
people who built them.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="117.gif" src=
"Pictures/117.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Classes of People.</b> The people of Europe, as well as of
England, were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The
clergy seemed to form another class because there were so many of
them. Besides the parish priests and the bishops there were
thousands of monks, who were persons who chose to dwell together
in monasteries under the rule of an abbot or a prior, rather than
live among ordinary people where men were so often tempted to do
wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others. The monks worked
on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the libraries, or
prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to read
were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries
or the bishops' houses there were few books.</p>
<p><b>The Nobles.</b> The nobles were either knights, barons,
counts, or dukes. In England there were also earls. Many
mediaeval nobles ruled like kings, but over a smaller territory.
They gained their power because they were rich in land and could
support many men who were ready to follow them in battle, or
because in the constant wars they proved themselves able to keep
anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or a town. Timid and
peaceable people were often glad to put themselves under the
protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed by
other fighting nobles.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="118.gif" src=
"Pictures/118.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE<br>
1. The Donjon-keep. 2. Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court.<br>
5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7. Mount, where justice was
executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings,
who were at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring
nobles as well as peasants under their own rule and to compel
every one to obey the same laws. After this the nobles became
what we call an aristocracy, proud of their family history,
generally living in better houses and owning more land than their
neighbors, but with little power over others.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="119.gif" src=
"Pictures/119.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF
FRANCE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Castles</b>. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle
Ages were obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses
called castles. They were often placed on a hilltop or on an
island or in a spot where approach to the walls could be made
difficult by a broad canal, or moat, filled with water. At
different places along the walls were towers, and within the
outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to
capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the
enemy. These castles were gloomy places to live in until,
centuries later, their inner walls were pierced with windows.
Many are still standing, others are interesting heaps of
ruins.</p>
<p><b>Knighthood</b>. The lords of the castles were occupied
mostly in hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords
from interfering with them or to win for themselves more lands
and power. They hunted that they might have meat for their
tables. In later times, when it was not so necessary to kill
animals for food, they hunted as a sport. Fighting also ceased to
be the chief occupation, although the nobles were expected to
accompany the king in his wars.</p>
<p>From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the
Church as priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A
boy was sent to the castle of another lord, where he served as a
page, waiting on the lord at table or running errands. He was
trained to ride a horse boldly and to be skilful with the sword
and the lance. When his education was finished he was usually
made a knight, an event which took place with many interesting
ceremonies.</p>
<p>The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons
and arms for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the
altar of the church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night.
In the final ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received
a slight blow on the neck from the sword of some knight, or
perhaps of the king. His armor covered him from head to foot in
metal, and sometimes his horse was also covered with metal
plates. When he was fully armed, he was expected to show his
skill to the lords and ladies who were present.</p>
<p><b>The Duties of a Knight.</b> The duties of the knight were
to defend the weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful
to his lord and king, and to be courteous even to an enemy. A
knight true to these duties was called "chivalrous," a word which
means very much what we mean by the word "gentlemanly." There
were many wicked knights, but we must not forget that the good
knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping promises,
respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="121.gif" src=
"Pictures/121.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Peasants.</b> Most of the people were peasants or
townsmen. There were few towns, because many had been burned by
the barbarian tribes which broke into the Roman Empire, or had
been destroyed in the later wars. The peasants were crowded in
villages close to the walls of some castle or monastery. They
paid dearly for the protection which the lord of the castle or
the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were obliged to
work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring him
eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They
also gave him a part of their harvest.</p>
<p><b>The Townsmen</b>. At first the towns belonged to lords, or
abbots, or bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and
ruled themselves or received officers from the king. When they
ruled themselves, their towns were called communes. The citizens
agreed that whenever the town bell was rung they would gather
together. Any one who was absent was fined. For them "eternal
vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the belfries of
these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the citizens
of to-day of the struggles of the early days.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="122.gif" src=
"Pictures/122.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">VIEW OF CARCASSONNE<br>
This is an ancient city in France founded by the Romans</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The men of each occupation or trade were organized into
societies or guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices.
There were guilds of goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers,
that is, workers in gold and iron and sellers of fish. The
merchants also had their guilds. In many towns no one was allowed
to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was not a member of a
guild.</p>
<p><b>Old Cities which still exist.</b> Many of the towns which
grew up in the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England
and Europe. Their citizens can look back a thousand years and
more over the history of their city, can point to churches, to
town halls, and sometimes to private houses, that have stood all
this time. They can often show the remains of mediaeval walls or
broad streets where once these walls stood, and the moats that
surrounded them. The traveler in York or London, in Paris, in
Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches for the
relics about which so many interesting stories of the past are
told.</p>
<p><b>Venice and Genoa.</b> One of the most fascinating of these
old cities is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from
the shore of Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of
the Adriatic. Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a
Roman city on the mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in
the fifth century after Christ. In many places piles had to be
driven into the loose sands to furnish a foundation for houses.
The Venetians did not try to keep out the water but used it as
streets, and instead of driving in wagons they went about in
boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks had done
in those same waters hundreds of years before.</p>
<p>Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and
Taranto, the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the
peninsula to the west was another trading city called Genoa,
which was the birthplace of Columbus.</p>
<p><b>Modern Languages</b>. While the people of mediaeval times
were building city walls and towers to protect themselves they
were also doing other things. Almost without knowing it they
formed the languages which we now speak and write--English,
German, French, Italian, and Spanish.</p>
<p>The English and German languages are closely related because
the forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany,
taking their language with them. This older language was
gradually changed, but it still remained like German. Dutch is
another language like both English and German.</p>
<p>There are many words in these languages borrowed from other
peoples. Englishmen, because of their long union with western
France, borrowed many words from the French. The French did not
invent these words, for the French language grew out of the Latin
language which the French learned from the Romans.</p>
<p><b>How Modern Languages were formed</b>. In English we have
two sets of words and phrases: one is used in writing books or
speeches, the other in conversation. When the Gauls learned
Latin, the language of Rome, most of them learned the words used
in conversation and did not learn the words of Roman books.
Before long spoken words differed so much from the older written
words that only scholars understood that the two had belonged to
the same language. This new language was French. In the same way
Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in
Italy and Spain.</p>
<p>When men began to write books in the new languages, the
changes went on more slowly because the use of words in books
kept the spelling the same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was
still used in the religious services of the Church and in the
schools and universities.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="125.gif" src=
"Pictures/125.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Schools in the Middle Ages.</b> In the Middle Ages most
boys and girls did not go to school. Education was principally
for those who expected to become priests or monks. The schools
were in the monasteries or in the houses or palaces of the
bishops. The students were taught a little Latin grammar, to
write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned
arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the
festivals of the Church should come; and music, so much as was
then known of it. Printing had not been invented, so there were
no text-books for them to study, and written books or manuscripts
were too costly. Students listened to the teacher as he read from
his manuscripts and copied the words or tried to remember
them.</p>
<p><b>The Beginning of Universities.</b> If students remained in
the schools after these things had been learned, they studied the
laws of the Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious
questions which are called theology. Some teachers talked in such
an interesting way about such questions that hundreds of students
came to listen. Like other kinds of workers, who were organized
in societies or guilds, the teachers and students formed a guild
called a university. The teachers were the master-workmen, and
the students were the apprentices.</p>
<p><b>Where the Students lived.</b> In the beginning the
universities had no buildings of their own, and the teachers
taught in hired halls, the students boarding wherever they could
find lodgings. Partly to help students who were too poor to pay
for good lodgings, and partly to bring the students under the
direct rule of teachers, colleges were built. These were not
separate institutions like the American colleges, but simply
houses for residence, although later some teaching was done in
them.</p>
<p><b>Some Famous Universities.</b> The oldest university was in
Bologna in Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the
Romans to its students eight hundred years ago. The University of
Paris was called the greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its
students numbered sometimes between six and seven thousand. About
the same time the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge
were formed, and there, many years later, a large number of the
men who settled in America were educated.</p>
<p><b>The Wisdom of the Arabs.</b> Students in these universities
obtained several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs,
the followers of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long
before Europeans thought of founding universities the Arabs had
flourishing schools and universities in Spain. The capital of the
Mohammedan Empire was first at Bagdad on the Euphrates, where
once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of the tales of the
Arabian Nights.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="127.gif" src=
"Pictures/127.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the
fourteenth century</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>What Europeans borrowed from the Arabs.</b> The Arabs had
learned much of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and
they also found out much for themselves. The numerals which we
use are Arabic; and algebra, one of our principal studies in
mathematics, was thought out by the Arabs. Their learned men were
deeply interested in the books of Aristotle, an ancient Greek,
who had been a teacher of Alexander the Great. They translated
his books into Arabic, and Christian students in Spain translated
the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the University of
Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other
thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found
in this Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what
Aristotle had written in Greek.</p>
<p>[Illustration 128: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors
in the twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the
Moorish architecture.]</p>
<p><b>Builders in the Middle Ages.</b> The Greeks and the Romans
had been great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded
in building churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which
equaled in grandeur and beauty the best that the ancient builders
had made. The large churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because
their builders were able to place masses of stone high in the air
and to cover immense spaces with beautiful vaulted roofs.
Builders nowadays imitate, but not often, if ever, equal them.
Fortunately the original buildings are still standing in many
English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and
Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt,
and Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and
Rome.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="129.gif" src=
"Pictures/129.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear,
showing the arches and buttresses</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Church Building.</b> The Italians began by building
churches like Roman basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported
by heavy walls, were also used north of the Alps, and the method
of building was named Romanesque, or in England, Norman. The
architects or builders of western France discovered a way of
roofing over just as large spaces without using such heavy walls,
so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows. Instead
of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls
between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called
buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was
sometimes more than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor.
The glass of the windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from
the Bible or from lives of sainted men and women. The outer
walls, especially the western front, the doorways and the towers,
were richly carved and adorned with statues, and often with the
figures of strange birds and beasts which lived only in the
imagination of the builders. This method of building was named
Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town halls
and private houses. Architects use similar methods of building
nowadays.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="130.gif" src=
"Pictures/130.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic
interior</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Renaissance.</b> Men who could build and adorn great
churches and town halls and who were eager to study in the new
universities should be called civilized. The barbarous days were
gone, but men still had much to learn from the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Many of the ancient buildings were in ruins, the statues
half buried or broken, the paintings destroyed, and the books
lost. Men began to search for what was left of these things and
to study them carefully to learn what the Graeco-Roman world had
been like. After a while students could think of nothing else,
and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the Romans
and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first
interested in these things is called the Renaissance or
"rebirth," because men were so unlike what they had been that
they seemed born again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the
Middle Ages came to an end.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="131.gif" src=
"Pictures/131.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ST. PETER'S AT ROME</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Petrarch.</b> One of the earliest of these "new" men was
Petrarch, an Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a
hundred years before Columbus. He wished above all things to
read, copy, and possess the writings of the Romans, and
especially of Cicero, an orator and writer who lived in the days
of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends searched for the
manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved, hidden
away in monastery libraries.</p>
<p>The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent
large sums of money in collecting and copying ancient writings.
At this time a beginning of the great libraries of Europe was
made, Petrarch tried to learn Greek, but could find no one in
Italy able to teach him.</p>
<p><b>Greek Books brought again to Italy.</b> Shortly after
Petrarch died some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the
aid of the pope and the kings of the West in an attempt to drive
back the Turks, who had already crossed into Europe and settled
in the lands which they now occupy. Unless help should be sent to
Constantinople, the city would certainly fall into their hands.
With these Greeks was one of those men who still loved to read
the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to remain a
few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek to
the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a
grammar of the Greek language, in order that after he had
returned to Constantinople others might be able to continue his
teaching.</p>
<p>Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly
as they had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their
agents to Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar
brought back to Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land
to which students from Germany, France, and England went to learn
Greek and to obtain copies of Greek books. It was fortunate that
so many books had been brought from Constantinople, for at last,
in 1453, the Turks captured that city and no place in the East
was left where the books of the Greeks were studied as they had
been at Constantinople.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="133.gif" src=
"Pictures/133.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH
CENTURY</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Invention of Printing.</b> After collectors of Greek
and Roman writings had made several good libraries, partly by
purchase, partly by copying manuscripts belonging to others, a
great invention was made which enabled these writings to be
spread far and wide and placed in the hands of every student.
This invention was the method of printing with movable types. It
is not quite certain who made the invention, although John
Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the
inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the
same time, that is, about 1450.</p>
<p><b>Different Kinds of Type.</b> In forming their type the
German printers imitated the lettering made by copyists with a
quill. Their type is called Gothic, and it is still widely used
in German books. The Italian printers made their letters more
round and simple in shape, imitating the handwriting of the best
Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in which many European
peoples, as also the English and the Americans, print their
books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which,
because they were the inventors, is named <i>italic</i>.</p>
<p><b>The Aldine Press.</b> One of the most famous printers of
this early time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci.
He gathered about him a number of Greeks and planned to print all
the Greek manuscripts that had been discovered. This he did in
beautiful type, imitated from the handwriting of one of his Greek
friends. He sold the books for a price per volume about equal to
our fifty cents, so that few scholars were too poor to buy.</p>
<p><b>Some Early Printed Books.</b> Another great printer was the
Englishman William Caxton, who learned the art in the
Netherlands. Among the books he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury
Tales. The first book printed by Gutenberg was the Bible in
Latin. Early in the sixteenth century, through the labors of a
Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the German Froben,
the New Testament in Greek was printed.</p>
<p><b>Architecture and Sculpture.</b> The artists and the
architects of this time began to imitate the buildings they found
or that they unearthed. They used round arches and domes more
than the pointed arches and vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders.
Sculptors pictured in stone the stories of the Greek and Roman
gods and heroes. Statues long buried in ancient ruins were dug
up, and great artists like the Italian Michel Angelo studied them
and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut. On every hand
men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of the
founders of the civilized world.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="135.gif" src="Pictures/135.gif"
border="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer
in France and Italy than in Germany and England?</p>
<p>2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle
Ages? What was the difference between a parish priest and a
monk?</p>
<p>3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what
sorts of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the
"keep"?</p>
<p>4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How
was a young man made a knight? What were the duties of a
knight?</p>
<p>5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the
Middle Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves?
What was a guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their
cities?</p>
<p>6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember
Genoa?</p>
<p>7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow?
How were the changes made in the old language? Where did the
English get their language? Was it just like the English we
speak?</p>
<p>8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the
word "university" mean then? Name two or three universities
founded then which still exist. What did the Arabs teach
Christian students?</p>
<p>9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages
especially like to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why
do we admire these great churches?</p>
<p>10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more
Roman and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living
and thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first
of these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek
books?</p>
<p>11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new
knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where
do we get our Roman and <i>italic</i> type? What books did the
Venetian printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous
German printer.</p>
<p>12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance
like to study and imitate?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different
European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why
are they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight?</p>
<p>2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of
castles still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls.</p>
<p>3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from
advertising folders.</p>
<p>4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do
the students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle
Ages?</p>
<p>5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect
pictures of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain,
or Africa, or Asia.</p>
<p>6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find
pictures of churches in America which resemble them.</p>
<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
<p class="c4">How ancient civilization was preserved</p>
<p>1. What ruined so many ancient cities?</p>
<p>2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the
Romans had done?</p>
<p>3. What language did the churchmen continue to use?</p>
<p>4. How did the missionaries help?</p>
<p>5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the
Romans had known?</p>
<p>6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks
had known?</p>
<p>7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help
in preserving the ancient knowledge?</p>
<p>8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men
of Petrarch's time do?</p>
<p>9. What help came from the invention of printing?</p>
<p>10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance
learn about the Greeks and the Romans?</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="137.gif" src=
"Pictures/137.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH
CENTURY</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4657"></a><a href="#3986">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2>
<br>
<p>TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES</p>
<p><b>The Perils of Traders.</b> There was a time in the Middle
Ages when merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to
another for fear of being plundered by some robber lord or common
thief. If they traveled by sea they might also be attacked by
robbers. Some of these robbers, like the Northmen, came from
afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put out from near-by
ports when there seemed nothing better to do.</p>
<p>This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great
lords succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the
merchants armed vessels of their own to drive the pirates from
the sea. As trade grew greater the towns became richer and
stronger and the robbers and pirates fewer, so that the number of
merchant ships increased rapidly and long voyages were
attempted.</p>
<p><b>Fairs.</b> At first trade was carried on at great fairs,
held in places convenient for the merchants of England and
western Europe. The fairs lasted about six weeks, and one fair
followed another. As soon as the first was over the merchants
packed their unsold wares and journeyed to the next. At the fairs
were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks from the East,
skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and other
products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain.</p>
<p><b>The Treasures of the East.</b> Men in the Middle Ages were
dependent for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly
called the East. By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India,
China, or the Molucca Islands, where the choicest spices still
grow. Spices were a great luxury, and were needed to flavor the
food, because the manner of cooking was poor and there was little
variety in the kinds of food. Most of the cotton cloth, the
silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also procured from the
East.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="139.gif" src=
"Pictures/139.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Routes to the East.</b> No one knew that it was possible to
reach Asia by sailing around the southern point of Africa or
through what is called the Strait of Magellan. The products of
the East were brought to Europe by several routes, two reaching
the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in Egypt, a third at Antioch, in
Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern shore of the Black
Sea.</p>
<p>The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the
deserts from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern
India. Ships from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice
struggled with one another for the right to bring back these
precious wares and sell them to the merchants of Europe, who were
ready to pay high prices.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="140.gif" src=
"Pictures/140.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE
AGES</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Venetian Traders.</b> Merchants from Germany came to Venice
to trade the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and
silks, which they carried back across the Alps. Once a year the
Venetians sent a fleet of vessels westward through the straits of
Gibraltar and along the Atlantic shore as far as Bruges and
London. The voyage was long and dangerous, and the Venetians
traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for two or
three times what they cost in Venice.</p>
<p><b>The Crusades.</b> One event that brought to the Venetians
an opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The
Mohammedans had long held a large part of Spain, and towards the
end of the eleventh century they threatened France and Italy.
They also attacked what was left of the Roman Empire in the East,
and the emperors sent to the pope and the western kings frantic
appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen, Germans, Englishmen,
and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire to go to
Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy
City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries
large armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories,
sometimes being defeated in battle or overcome by disease.</p>
<p><b>What the Venetians gained from the Crusades.</b> Most of
the Crusaders went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no
ships of their own they often took passage in Venetian ships. The
Venetians asked large sums for this, and also succeeded in
obtaining all the rights of trade in many of the seaports which
were captured. Sometimes the Venetians undertook to govern
islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along the coasts,
but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than to
build up an empire.</p>
<p><b>The new Venetian Ships</b>. The Crusaders who returned to
Europe brought back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and
their tales made other men eager for them. For this reason more
ships were built to sail in the Mediterranean. The shipowners
attempted to make their ships larger and stronger. They were
larger than those built by the English or by other peoples along
the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There is an
account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells
us that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews
of one thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but
had a mast, sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they
could use if the wind was favorable.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="142.gif" src=
"Pictures/142.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">VENETIAN SHIPS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Dangers of the Sea.</b> One difficulty about sailing was
the lack of any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night,
of telling the direction in which they were going. The sailors
did not like to venture far from shore, although the open sea is
safer during a storm than a wind-swept and rocky coast. At the
time when the sailors of the Mediterranean were building up their
trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and the Black Sea, two instruments
came into use which enabled them to tell just where they
were.</p>
<p><b>The Compass.</b> One of these instruments was the compass,
which the Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs
before the Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle,
rub its point with a magnet, and lay the needle on a cork
floating in water, he will have a rough sort of compass. The
point of the needle wherever it may be turned will swing back
towards the north, thus guiding the sailors.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="143a.gif" src=
"Pictures/143a.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MARINER'S COMPASS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story
that at first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused
to sail under a captain who used it. But a century later it was
in general use, and had been so much improved that even in the
severest storms the needle remained level and pointed steadily
towards the north.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="143b.gif" src=
"Pictures/143b.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AN ASTROLABE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Astrolabe.</b> The other instrument, called the
astrolabe, was a brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To
this circle were fastened two movable bars, at the ends of which
were sights, or projecting pieces pierced by a hole. The
astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that one bar was
horizontal and the other could be moved until through its sights
some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on
the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above
the horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the
place where they were. In a similar way their longitude could be
found out.</p>
<p>The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could
be used only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments
it was possible to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle
of the fourteenth century ships from Genoa and Portugal had
visited the Madeira and the Canary Islands, and even the Azores
which are a thousand miles from the mainland.</p>
<p><b>What Men thought about a Sea Route to the East.</b> Men
learned more about other strange lands through a Venetian
traveler, Marco Polo, who wrote an account of his wonderful
journey to the court of the Grand Khan, or Emperor of the
Mongols, of his travels through China, and of his return to
Persia by sea.</p>
<p>Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was
a great marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in
sailing around Africa it would be impossible to reach the region
of the spices and silks and jewels which they so much desired.
They also thought that the heat in the tropics was so intense
that at a certain distance down the coast of Africa they would
find the water of the ocean boiling. These things and the tales
of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had terrified
them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling.</p>
<p><b>The Mongols</b>. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the
court of the Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were
great conquerors, and they not only subdued the Chinese but
marched westward, overrunning most of Russia and stopping only
when they were on the frontiers of Italy. For a long time
southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital was just
north of the Great Wall of China.</p>
<p>The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to
the pope for missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's
father and uncle while on a trading expedition had found their
way to his court, and on a second journey, in 1271, they took
with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years. The emperor was much
interested in his western visitors and took young Marco into his
service.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="145.gif" src=
"Pictures/145.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After
an old Chinese manuscript</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Marco Polo's Travels.</b> Marco Polo traveled over China on
official errands, while his father and uncle were gathering
wealth by trade. After many years they desired to return to
Italy, but the emperor was unwilling to lose such able servants.
It happened, however, that the emperor wished to send a princess
as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of Persia, also a Mongol
sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to be trustworthy
seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal
husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went
on to Italy.</p>
<p>They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that
their relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize
them. It was like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned
to his native Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by
nobody. The Polos proved the truth of what they said by showing
the great treasures which they had sewed into the dresses of
coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which they wore. They displayed
jewels of the greatest value, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and
sapphires.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="2613"><img alt="146.gif" src=
"Pictures/146.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS<br>
The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black,<br>
and that first described by Marco Polo is dotted</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#4070">[16]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>What Marco Polo told</b>. In the account Marco Polo wrote
of his travels and of the countries he had visited he described a
wonderful palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered
with gold and silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people,
and its ceiling was inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco
Polo so large, so rich, and so beautiful that no man on earth
could design anything to equal it. The robes of the emperor and
his twelve thousand nobles and knights were of silk and beaten
gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with precious
stones.</p>
<p>Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in
the costly wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and
cheap. He described from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen
hundred miles from the mainland. Its people, he said, were white,
civilized, and wondrously rich. The palace of the emperor of
Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and floors were of
solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick.</p>
<p><b>Reasons for finding a Sea Route to the East</b>. Tales of
such great wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach
the East. Marco Polo had shown that it was possible to sail past
India, through the islands, to the eastern coast of Asia. When
printing was invented his account was printed, and the copy of
that book which Columbus owned is still preserved. Upon its
margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about geography.</p>
<p>Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales
of the East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the
land was lost, because the Mongol emperors were driven out of
China and the new rulers would not permit Europeans to enter the
country. The ordinary caravan routes to the East were also closed
not long afterwards. In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople,
drove away the Italian merchants, and prevented European sailors
from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years later the Turks seized
Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately before this
happened a better route had been discovered.</p>
<p><b>The Portuguese Sailors</b>. During the Middle Ages the
Portuguese princes fought to recover Portugal from the Moors.
When this was done they were eager to cross the straits and
attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry of Portugal made an
expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to know more
about the coast south of the point beyond which European sailors
dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea
of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="148.gif" src=
"Pictures/148.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old
picture</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been
called "The Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely
promontory in southern Portugal, and gathered about him learned
men of all peoples, Arabian and Jewish mathematicians, and
Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this new school of
seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to sail
farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had
gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed
Cape Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without
suffering the fate which men had once feared. But they were
discouraged when they found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the
coast turned southward again, for they had hoped to sail eastward
to Asia.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="149.gif" src=
"Pictures/149.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA<br>
The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East.<br>
The solid line shows the new Portuguese route</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Cape of Good Hope discovered</b>. At last in 1487 the end
of what seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate
captain who accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a
family of daring seamen. He had been sailing southward along the
coast for nearly eight months, when a northerly gale drove him
before it for thirteen days. The weather cleared and Diaz turned
eastward to find the coast. As he did not see land he turned
northward and soon discovered land to the west. This showed that
he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew were
unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the
western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of
Storms, but the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned,
named it the Cape of Good Hope, for now he knew that an
expedition could be sent directly to the Indies.</p>
<p>Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was
the most wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about.</p>
<p><b>The Sea Route to India.</b> Eleven years later the
Portuguese king sent Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt
to reach the coast of India by sailing around the Cape of Good
Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da Gama was successful and landed
at Calicut on the south-western coast of India. He returned to
Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty times the cost of
the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the East which
enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
<b>QUESTIONS</b></p>
<p>1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who
traveled by sea or land? What was a fair?</p>
<p>2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes?
Point these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in
Italy? How did the Venetians get their wares to London?</p>
<p>3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the
Mohammedans? What did the Venetian traders gain by these wars?
Describe a large Venetian ship of this time.</p>
<p>4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail
great seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe
was made.</p>
<p>5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern
Asia? Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he
return to Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had
visited?</p>
<p>6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to
Asia? What did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How
was the Cape of Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this
voyage?</p>
<p>7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the
voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade?</p>
<p><br>
<b>EXERCISES</b></p>
<p>1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must
have been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the
Moluccas, or China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or
London?</p>
<p>2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and
cloves?</p>
<p>3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China?
Where has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols.
Collect pictures of China and Japan.</p>
<p>4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo.</p>
<p>5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of
Portugal. Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United
States.</p>
<p><br>
<b>REVIEW</b></p>
<p>STEPS TOWARDS THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA</p>
<p>Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain.</p>
<p>Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain.</p>
<p>Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland.</p>
<p>Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages
to London and Bruges.</p>
<p>Marco Polo's travels in China and the East.</p>
<p>Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape
of Good Hope.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="2209"></a><a href="#2963">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2>
<br>
<p>THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</p>
<p><b>Christopher Columbus</b>. Six years before Vasco da Gama
made his famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new
trade route for the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had
formed and carried out a much bolder plan. This was Christopher
Columbus, and his plan was to sail directly west from Europe into
the unknown ocean in search of new islands and the coast of Asia.
Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in Italy, had followed his
younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably led there by the
fame of Prince Henry's explorations.</p>
<p>The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for
the Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their
expeditions along the coast of Africa. All the early associations
of Columbus were with men interested in voyages of discovery, and
particularly with those engaged in the daring search for a sea
route to India.</p>
<p><b>How Columbus formed his Plan</b>. Columbus gathered all the
information on geography which he could from ancient writers and
from modern discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was
shaped like a ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned,
why might not a ship sail around it from east to west? Or,
better, why not sail directly west to India, and perhaps find
many wonderful islands between Europe and Asia? His imagination
was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the marvelous
riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of
going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly
boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most
men of the fifteenth century to be madness.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="153.gif" src=
"Pictures/153.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS<br>
The oldest known picture of Columbus,<br>
in the National Library, Madrid</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>His Notion of the Distance to Asia.</b> Columbus made two
fortunate errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He
imagined that Asia extended much farther eastward than it
actually does, making it nearer Europe, and estimated the earth
to be smaller than it is. His figures placed Japan less than
3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead of the 12,000
miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought Japan
would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated.</p>
<p><b>How he secured Help.</b> Even so, many years passed before
Columbus was able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself,
and needed the help of some government to fit out such an
expedition. He may have tried to get his native city, Genoa, to
help him. There is such a story. If he did, it was without
success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal, where he lived
a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in the
discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the
same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to
undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise.</p>
<p>The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him
waiting many years for an answer. They thought that they had more
important work in hand. There was another king in Spain at the
time, the king of the Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the
Christian king and queen, were trying to conquer the Moors, and
thus to end the struggle between Christians and Mohammedans for
the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly eight centuries.
This war required all the strength and revenue of Spain.</p>
<p>Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly
discouraged, the war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the
seat of their former power, was finally taken in January, 1492.
Now was a good time to ask favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and
to plan large enterprises for the future. Powerful friends aided
Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen Isabella was persuaded
to promise him all the help that he needed.</p>
<p><b>The Ships of Columbus</b>. Three ships, or caravels as they
were called, were fitted out. The <i>Santa Maria</i> was the
largest of the three, but it was not much larger than the small
sailing yachts which we see to-day. It was about ninety feet long
by twenty feet broad, and had a single deck. This was Columbus's
principal ship or flagship. The second caravel, the <i>Pinta</i>,
was much swifter, built high at the prow and stern, and furnished
with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the officers, but
without a deck in the center. The third and smallest caravel,
called the <i>Niña</i>, the Spanish word for baby, was
built much like the <i>Pinta</i>. Ninety persons made up the
three crews.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="1790"><img alt="155.gif" src=
"Pictures/155.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC<br>
The shaded portions represent the land as Columbus expected to
find it.<br>
The light outline of the Americas shows the actual position of
the land</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#1871">[15]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the
shores of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never
gone far out into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller
vessels in a voyage of discovery, because they would be able to
run close to the shores and into the smaller harbors and up the
rivers.</p>
<p><b>Beginning of the Voyage</b>. The expedition set sail from
Palos in Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary
Islands. These were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus
as the most convenient starting-point. The little fleet was
delayed three weeks at the islands making repairs. On September 6
Columbus was off again. He struck due west from the Canaries.</p>
<p><b>The Terrors of the Voyage</b>. While the little fleet was
still in sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly
frightened the sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an
event an omen of evil. But the expedition had fine weather day
after day. Steady, gentle, easterly winds, the trade winds of the
tropics, wafted them slowly westward. But the timid sailors began
to wonder how they would ever be able to return against winds
which seemed never to change from the east.</p>
<p>Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area
than the whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared
they might be driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in
quicksands. They imagined, too, that great sea-monsters were
lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to devour them.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="157.gif" src=
"Pictures/157.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS<br>
After the reconstructed model<br>
exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The first Signs of a New Land.</b> In spite of fears and
complaints, and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward
course for more than four weeks. Then as he began to see so many
birds flying to the southwest, he concluded that land must be
nearer in that direction. He had heard that most of the islands
held by the Portuguese were discovered by following the flight of
birds. So on October 7 the westward course was changed to one
slightly southwest.</p>
<p>From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating
branches, occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits
of cane, were encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers
became common sights. The Queen had promised a small pension to
the one who should first see land. Columbus had offered to give a
silken doublet in addition. With what eagerness the sailors must
have kept on the lookout!</p>
<p><b>The great Discovery.</b> At last as the fleet was sailing
onward in the bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if
carried by hand along a shore. A few hours later, about two
o'clock on the morning of October 12, a sailor on the
<i>Pinta</i> saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a few
miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for
daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they
approached the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus
named it San Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know
which one of the Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it
was the one now called Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with
the royal standard and banners flying to take possession of the
land in the name of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.</p>
<p><b>Where Columbus thought he was.</b> The astonished
inhabitants of the island soon gathered to see the strange
sight--the landing of white men in the West Indies. They looked
upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the white men as gods. Nor
was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The people were a
strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and painted to
suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of
self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that
chattered in the trees above them. Such savages bore little
resemblance to the people whom Marco Polo said inhabited the
Spice Islands.</p>
<p>Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not
far from Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas
satisfied him that he was in the ocean near the coast of Asia,
for had not Marco Polo described it as studded with thousands of
spice-bearing islands? He had not found any spices, but the air
was full of fragrance and the trees and herbs were strange in
appearance. Of course if the islands were the Indies, the people
must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and this name
clung to the red men, although their islands were not the true
Indies.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="159.gif" src=
"Pictures/159.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST
LANDED</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Search for the Golden East.</b> Columbus thought that
the natives meant to tell him in their sign language of a great
land to the south where gold abounded. He set off in search of
this, and came upon a land the natives called Cuba. Its large
size convinced him that he had at last found the Asiatic
mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew knowing many
languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found neither
cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great
disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search
for the riches which he expected to find.</p>
<p><b>The Misfortunes of Columbus.</b> While on the coast of
Cuba, Pinzon, the commander of the <i>Pinta</i>, deserted him.
Pinzon, whose ship was swifter than the others, probably wished
to be the first to get home, in order to tell a story which would
gain him the credit of the discovery of the Indies. A few days
later Columbus discovered a large island which the natives called
Hayti, and which he called Española or "Spanish Land." At
every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco Polo
had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Española
Columbus's own ship, the <i>Santa Maria</i>, was totally wrecked.
Such disasters convinced him that it was high time to return to
Spain with the news of his discovery.</p>
<p><b>Preparations for Return to Spain.</b> As there was not room
for both crews on the tiny <i>Niña</i>, his one remaining
ship, it became necessary to leave about forty sailors in
Española. A fort was built, and supplies were left for a
year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to Spain. Ten
Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his friends
in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the
language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their
people.</p>
<p><b>The Search for China renewed.</b> There was rejoicing in
Palos when the voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon
Columbus. It was now easy to get men and money for another
voyage. In September, 1493, Columbus started to return to his
islands, this time with seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men,
all confident that they would soon see the marble palaces of
China, and secure a share in the wealth of the Spice Islands. No
one yet realized that a new world--two great continents--lay
between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus went
directly to Española, where he found that his colony of
the previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new
settlement was quickly started. A little town called Isabella was
built, with a fort, a church, a market place, public granary, and
dwelling-houses. Isabella was the first real settlement in the
New World.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><a name="2414"><img alt="161.gif" src=
"Pictures/161.gif"></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b> <a href="#3037">[17]</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Other Voyages to the New World.</b> Columbus made two other
voyages. He continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he
believed to be near. He made a third voyage from Spain to the
West Indies in 1498. He sailed farther south, and came upon the
mainland which later was called South America. A fourth
expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call Central
America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he
had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the
coast of Asia.</p>
<p><b>The sad End of Columbus's Life.</b> The close of his life
was a sad one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches
which he had expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the
islands had rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely
before the king and queen of misgovernment in his territories.
Once his opponents had him carried to Spain chained like a common
prisoner. He was given his liberty on reaching Spain, but the
people had become prejudiced against him.</p>
<p>Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his
brother Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to
pass a crowd of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them
with hoots: "There go the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland,
the man who has discovered a land of vanity and deceit, the grave
of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships and disappointments broke down
the great discoverer, and he died neglected and almost forgotten
by the people of Spain.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="163.gif" src=
"Pictures/163.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the
plan Diaz had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama
carried out a few years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz
desire to find a sea route to India? Had anybody before Columbus
believed the earth round?</p>
<p>2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of
the earth? Why was this a fortunate error?</p>
<p>3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why
did he find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain
finally favored his cause? Who were the Moors?</p>
<p>4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the
West Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised?</p>
<p>5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his
first voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands
did he find on his later voyages? What did he think he had
found?</p>
<p>6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the
Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity
and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by
this?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing
ships of other explorers of that day. How does the deck
arrangement on those differ from the ocean steamships of to-day?
What advantage would ships like those of Columbus have over
present steamships in exploring strange coasts? What
disadvantages?</p>
<p>2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were
afraid to go on and wished to turn back to Spain.</p>
<p>3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where
Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and
China. What great mass of land was really very near the island he
first discovered? <a name="1871"></a><a href="#1790">(See
map[15].)</a></p>
<p>4. Find from the maps on <a name="2910"></a><a href=
"#4350">(Greek World)[7]</a>, <a name="2495"></a><a href=
"#1634">(Roman World)[14]</a>, <a name="4070"></a><a href=
"#2613">(The world after Polo's journey[16])</a>, and <a name=
"3037"></a><a href="#2414">(The world as known after
Columbus[17])</a>, how much more the Romans knew of the world
than the Greeks had known, the Europeans after Marco Polo's
journey than the Romans, and the Europeans after Columbus's
voyage than after Marco Polo's journey.</p>
<p><i>Important Date</i>--1492. The discovery of America by
Columbus.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4968"></a><a href="#2434">CHAPTER XV</a></h2>
<br>
<p>OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD</p>
<p><b>The Race to the Indies.</b> The discovery of all the lands
which make what we call the New World came very slowly. It was
the work of many different explorers. Most of the expeditions
sent out to the new islands went in search of a passage to India.
It was a fine race. Each nation was eager to see its ships the
first to reach India by the westward route. All were disappointed
at finding so much land between Europe and Asia. It seemed to
them to be of little value and to block the way to the richer
countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered the
great continents which we know as North and South America.
Columbus had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a
turning-point in history.</p>
<p><b>John Cabot.</b> John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time
in the service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of
discovery. This was five years after Columbus discovered the West
Indies. Cabot had heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain
had occupied unknown islands. He planned to do the same for King
Henry VII of England. For his voyage he had a single vessel no
larger than the <i>Niña</i>, the smallest ship in the
fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew. He passed
around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west
until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North
America somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the
southern end of Nova Scotia.</p>
<p><b>Cabot's Discovery.</b> John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but
he found notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making
nets, which showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human
beings. Like Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of
China.</p>
<p><b>The Cabot Voyages forgotten.</b> Before the end of 1497
John Cabot was back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and
his son, Sebastian Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found
lands in the following year. The Cabot voyages, however, were
soon almost forgotten by the people of England.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="166.gif" src=
"Pictures/166.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SEBASTIAN CABOT<br>
After the picture ascribed to Holbein</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Naming of the New Lands.</b> Why was our country named
America rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and
northern continents which we call the Americas were named for
Americus Vespucius rather than for Christopher Columbus. This
seems the more strange since we know so little about the life of
Americus. Americus Vespucius was born in Florence, Italy, and
like many other young Italians of that day entered the service of
neighboring countries. He went to Spain and accompanied several
Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new continent which
Columbus had discovered on his third voyage.</p>
<p>Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the
leader in any expedition. But he seems to have written to his
friends interesting accounts of what he had seen. In one of these
letters Americus seems to have written boastfully of how he had
found lands which might be called a new world. He said that the
new continent was more populous and more full of animals than
Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate was even more
temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was clearly a
new world.</p>
<p><b>Why Americus was regarded as the Discoverer of America.</b>
The statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the
newly invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so
could be read by the learned of all countries. They were
impressed by the belief of Americus that he had seen a new world
and not simply the Indies. This was especially true of men living
outside of Spain who had heard little of Columbus or his
discovery.</p>
<p>Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery
was a way to the Indies and the finding of islands on the way
thither less important. Besides, when he saw what we call South
America he had no idea that it was a new world. The people of
Europe either never knew that he had discovered the mainland or
had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a great deal about
Americus and his doings. It is not strange that Americus rather
than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer of
America.</p>
<p><b>Two Names for the New Lands.</b> Even then the new
continent might not have been called America but for the
suggestion of a young scholar of the time. Martin
Waldseemüller, a professor of geography at the college of
St. Dié, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography.
In his description of the parts of the world unknown to the
ancients, he suggested naming the continent stretching to the
south for Americus.</p>
<p> </p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="168.gif" src="Pictures/168.gif"
border="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">FACSIMILE Of the passage in the
<i>Cosmographia Introductio</i> (1507),<br>
by Martin Waldseemüller, in which the name of America<br>
is proposed for the New World.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
<b>The facsimile's transcription reads as follows:</b><br>
<br>
Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta
pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa
est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore
sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam
dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint
nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi
navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Waldseemüller thought Americus had been the real
discoverer of this continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these
regions are more widely explored, and another fourth part has
been discovered by Americus Vespucius, I do not see why any one
may justly forbid it to be named Amerige--that is, Americ's Land,
from Americus, the discoverer."</p>
<p>Others adopted Waldseemüller's suggestion and the name
America came into general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards
continued to call all the new lands by the name which Columbus
had given them--the Indies. America was at first the name for
South America only, but later was also used by writers for the
other continent which was soon found to the north. It was natural
to distinguish the two continents as South and North America.</p>
<p><b>Balboa.</b> The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless
search for the real Indies, but the more they explored the more
they saw that a great continental barrier was lying across the
sea passage to Asia. A few began to suspect that after all
America was not a part of Asia. Vasco Nuñez Balboa was one
of these. Balboa was a planter who had settled in
Española. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his
creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a
vessel bound for the northern coast of South America. From there
he went to the eastern border of Panama with a party of gold
seekers. The Indians told him of a great sea and of an abundance
of gold on its shores to be found a short distance across the
isthmus. It is probable that the Indians wished to get rid of the
Spaniards as neighbors.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="169.gif" src=
"Pictures/169.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">VASCO NUÑEZ BALBOA</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Balboa's Discovery of the Pacific.</b> Balboa resolved to
make a name for himself and to be the discoverer of the other
sea. He set off in 1513. The land is not more than forty-five
miles wide at Panama, but it is almost impassable even to this
day. For twenty-two days the hardy adventurers advanced through a
forest, dense with thickets and tangled swamps and interlacing
vines--so thick that for days the sun could not be seen--and over
rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to an open sea
stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the South
Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given
it afterward.</p>
<p>Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of
land was comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that
North America, too, was narrower than it proved to be, and the
search for the passage to the Indies was pushed with greater
vigor.</p>
<p><b>Magellan.</b> A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had
really won the race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and
Columbus for India, the land of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He
had won in 1497 by going around the Cape of Good Hope. Another
explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally, reached the Indies in a
long westward voyage lasting two years, from 1519 to 1521.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="170.gif" src=
"Pictures/170.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">FERDINAND MAGELLAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Beginning of Magellan's Voyage.</b> Magellan, himself a
Portuguese, tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of
Portugal to aid him in his project. He succeeded better in Spain,
and sailed from there in 1519 with a small fleet given him by the
young king Charles. The five ships in his fleet were old and in
bad repair, and the crews had been brought together from every
nation. They sailed directly to South America, and spent the
first year searching every inlet along the coast for a
passage.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="171.gif" src=
"Pictures/171.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>They found that the natives of South America used for food
vegetables that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts."
The Indians called them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of
the great foods of to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter
was passed on the cold and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan
called the natives "Patagones," the word in his language meaning
big feet, from the large foot-prints which they left on the
sand.</p>
<p><b>The Strait of Magellan.</b> Magellan finally found a
strait, since named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed
his ships through it amid the greatest dangers. The change from
the rough waters of the strait to the calm sea beyond made the
word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem the most suitable name for the
vast body of water which they had entered.</p>
<p><b>The First Voyage across the Pacific.</b> From the western
coast of South America Magellan struck boldly out into the
Pacific Ocean on his way to Asia. The crews suffered untold
hardships. The very rats which overran the rotten ships became a
luxurious article of food which only the more fortunate members
of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen lived for days on
the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These were soaked
in sea-water and roasted over the fire.</p>
<p>Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam,
where plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of
small islands, of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his
word for robbers, used because the natives were such robbers. The
expedition discovered a group of islands afterwards called the
Philippines. There Magellan fell in with traders from the Indies
and knew that the remainder of the voyage would be through
well-known seas and over a route frequently followed. Poor
Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was
killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the
natives.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="173.gif" src=
"Pictures/173.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523<br>
After Magellan's voyage, but before<br>
the exploration of North America had gone far</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice
Islands, across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope,
and so back to Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons
of cloves, worth more than enough to pay the whole cost of the
expedition. Such was the value of the trade Europe was so eagerly
seeking.</p>
<p><b>What Magellan had shown the People of Europe.</b>
Magellan's voyage had, however, been a great event. Historians
are agreed that it was the greatest voyage in the history of
mankind. It had shown in a practical way that the earth is a
globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had long taught, for a
ship had sailed completely around it.</p>
<p>But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not
dreamed. He had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay
between Europe and Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which
the Spanish explorers had found, and which other people were
beginning to call the Americas, were really a new world entirely
separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia as Columbus had
thought.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at
finding two continents between Europe and Asia?</p>
<p>2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this
land was? Why did the English people take little interest in this
voyage?</p>
<p>3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that
Americus Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did
the Spaniards continue to call the new region? Why did the
Spaniards have one name and the other Europeans another name for
a long time?</p>
<p>4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men
search for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more
vigorously after Balboa's expedition?</p>
<p>5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in
history? What three things had Magellan shown the European
world?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter
who helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite
the name of each the name of the land he discovered.</p>
<p>2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map,[173.gif], and make a
list of the lands or countries he passed. Look at the map of
North America on this old map, and at the one on [229.gif]. How
do you account for the queer shape of North America on the old
map?</p>
<p class="c4">Important date</p>
<p>1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage around the
world.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="2556"></a><a href="#3614">CHAPTER XVI</a></h2>
<br>
<p>EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND</p>
<p><b>The Civilization of the Mexican Indians.</b> Early Spanish
explorers on the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the
mainland more highly civilized than the natives of the West
Indies. Some of these, especially the Aztecs, lived in large
villages or cities and were ruled by powerful chiefs or kings.
They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers several
stories in height.</p>
<p>Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the
Spanish had seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and
coated with hard white plaster. Some of them were of immense size
and could hold many families. Doors had not been invented, but
hangings of woven grass or matting of cotton served instead.
Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle answered for
door-bells.</p>
<p>The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved
with a sort of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like
the old Roman aqueducts, although not so large, carried water
from the neighboring hills for fountains and rude public
baths.</p>
<p>The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their
families. Workmen made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils
and dishes of pottery for every-day use. The people cultivated
the fields around the cities, raising a great variety of foods,
and even built ditches to carry water for irrigating the fields.
All this was in striking contrast with the simple habits of the
West Indians.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="177.gif" src=
"Pictures/177.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE<br>
Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Cruel Customs of the Aztecs.</b> With all the good features
of Mexican life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over
the other Indians, there was much that was hideous and cruel. The
Aztecs, the most powerful tribes, were continually at war with
their neighbors. They lived mainly upon the plunder of their
enemies and the tribute which they took from those they had
conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly idols as
gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives
taken in war as human sacrifices.</p>
<p><b>Spanish Ideas of Mexico.</b> The reports of the Aztec
civilization and of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited
the interest and greed of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the
China which Marco Polo had described, and might offer a chance of
immense wealth for those who should conquer it. In truth, Mexican
civilization did resemble that of Asia more than anything that
the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a powerful chief or king of
the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol Emperor of Persia or
China.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="178.gif" src=
"Pictures/178.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MONTEZUMA,<br>
THE LAST KING OF MEXICO<br>
After Montanus and Ogilby</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Cortés.</b> In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent
Hernando Cortés to explore and conquer Mexico. The
expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now situated. The ships were
then sunk in order to cut off all hope of retreat for the
soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cortés, "were means
of retreat necessary!" Cortés, with great skill, worked up
the zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All
thought it a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the
practice of offering human sacrifices, and to force the Christian
religion upon the natives.</p>
<p>The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of
Mexico, which was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom.
Cortés and his men had learned the Indian mode of fighting
from ambush, and also how successfully to match cunning and
treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent his invasion
of their country.</p>
<p><b>How the Spaniards and the Aztecs fought.</b> The Mexican
warriors, though they fought fiercely, were no match for the
Spaniards. The Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow,
using arrows pointed with a hard kind of stone. They carried for
hand-to-hand fighting a narrow club set with a double edge of
razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind of armor made from
quilted cotton. But such things were useless against Spanish
bullets shot from afar.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="179.gif" src=
"Pictures/179.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ARMOR OF CORTÉS<br>
After an engraving of the original in the National Museum,
Madrid</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick
armor and shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the
Spanish leaders were mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly
appearance to the simple-minded Indians. The story is told that
the Mexicans believed that one of their gods had once floated out
to sea, saying that, in the fulness of time, he would return with
fair-skinned companions to begin again his rule over his people.
Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of the white men as the return
of this god and thought that resistance would be useless. Such
natives sent presents, made their peace with Cortés, and
so weakened the opposition to the conquerors.</p>
<p><b>Cortés in Peril.</b> Cortés easily entered
the City of Mexico, and forced Montezuma to resign. But here the
natives attacked his army in such numbers that he had to retreat
to escape capture. The Spaniards fled from the city at night amid
the onslaught of the inhabitants fighting for their religion and
their homes.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="180.gif" src=
"Pictures/180.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS<br>
After Van Menken.<br>
There are in the naval museum at Annapolis<br>
guns captured in the Mexican War supposed to be those used by
Cortés</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cortés
started in the evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000
Indian allies, and 80 horses. There were left in the morning 500
soldiers, 2,000 allies, and 20 horses. Cortés is said to
have buried his face in his hands and wept for his lost
followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking Mexico.
He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to
return to the attack on the capital city.</p>
<p><b>Capture of the City of Mexico.</b> The siege which
followed, lasting nearly three months, has rarely been matched in
history for the bravery and suffering of the natives. The
fighting was constant and terrible. The fresh water supply was
cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and famine aided the
invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and
Cortés entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the
Aztecs. A greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse
and rebuild the City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish
civilization, and Mexico a New Spain. By such work Cortés
showed that he could be not only a great conqueror, but also an
able ruler in time of peace.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="181.gif" src=
"Pictures/181.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS<br>
From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Pizarro.</b> A few years after Cortés conquered
Mexico a second army conquered another famous Indian kingdom.
Francisco Pizarro commanded this expedition, which set out from
Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been with Balboa at the discovery of
the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and, like his master, had become
interested in the stories the Indians told of a rich kingdom far
to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians described was
that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The Spaniards
called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by softening
the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a native
Indian chieftain.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="182.gif" src=
"Pictures/182.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S<br>
It is more than eight feet high and five feet across,<br>
and was dug up in the central square of the City of Mexico<br>
more than one hundred years ago</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Conquest of Peru.</b> Pizarro found the Incas divided as
usual by civil wars and incapable of much resistance. One of
their rival chiefs was outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro
by a trick, and was himself made a prisoner instead. He offered
to give Pizarro in return for his freedom as much gold as would
fill his prison room as high as he could reach. The offer was
accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases, plates, images,
and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian idols, was
gathered together.</p>
<p>The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost
$7,000,000 worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As
much more was taken from the Indians by force. The whole was
divided among the conquerors. Pizarro's share was worth nearly a
million dollars. But the poor chief who had made them suddenly
rich was suspected of plotting to have his warriors ambush them
as they left the country, was tried by his conquerors, and put to
death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over. Peru, like
Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement. Emigrants,
instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of going
on into the newer regions which Cortés and Pizarro had
won.</p>
<p><b>Emigrants to Spanish America.</b> It was much harder in the
sixteenth century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is
today. The first and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in
getting permission to leave Spain. No one could go who had not
secured the king's consent. The emigrant must show that neither
he nor his father nor his grandfather had ever been guilty of
heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had been steadfast
Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give her
consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of
Spain could not secure permits to move to the New World.
Foreigners of whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and
were usually kept out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly
for Spaniards.</p>
<p><b>Hardships of the Sea Voyage.</b> Those who did go to the
colonies found the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has
related that it cost him about one hundred and eighty dollars for
the passage, and that he provided his own chickens and bread. The
danger to sailing ships from storms was much greater than it is
today for steamships. The voyage required three or four weeks and
not uncommonly as many months.</p>
<p><b>The Need of Laborers.</b> The hardships and dangers of the
voyage and the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept
most people from going to the New World. Emigration was slow,
amounting to about a thousand a year. There were always fewer
capable white laborers than the landowners in the colonies needed
for their work, for there was much to do in clearing the land and
preparing it for use. The landowners were usually well-to-do
Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields themselves. A
great many of the laborers who migrated to America served in the
army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The
craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm
laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies,
during the early history of the colonies, made slaves of the
Indians and compelled them to take the place of the laborers they
needed and could not obtain.</p>
<p><b>Indian Slavery.</b> The people of Europe thought that the
whole world belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians,
whether Indian or negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity
or of being made slaves. The choice of Christianity did not
always save them from the fate of slavery. In this the Spaniards
were no more cruel than their neighbors the English or the
French. The Spanish planters from the beginning forced the
Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work in
their mines.</p>
<p>The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the
Indian unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves
did not do the tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful
quarters rapidly broke down the natives. The white men also
brought into the island diseases which they, with their greater
experience, could resist, but from which, one writer says, the
Indians died like sheep with a distemper.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="185.gif" src=
"Pictures/185.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A SPANISH GALLEON<br>
Ships like this carried the Spanish emigrants to America</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Slavery destroys the West Indians.</b> When the number of
the Indians in Española and Cuba had decreased so much
that there were not enough left to meet the needs of the
planters, slave-hunters searched the neighboring islands for
others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly gone, and the
planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves, the king
of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he
did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same
purpose, and the change merely meant that negroes took the place
of Indians as slaves. The story of the change is in great part
the story of the life of Bartholomew de Las Casas.</p>
<p><b>Las Casas.</b> The father of Las Casas was a companion of
Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain,
taking with him a young Indian slave whom he gave to his son.
This youth became greatly interested in the race to which his
young slave belonged. In 1502 he went to Española to take
possession of his father's estate. The planter's life did not
long satisfy him and finally he became a priest. He moved from
Española to Cuba, the newer colony.</p>
<p>Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and
gave his own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the
abuses of slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves,
and secured many reforms which lessened the hardships of their
lot. Since the planters demanded more laborers and Las Casas
thought the negro would be hardier than the Indian, he advocated
negro slavery in place of Indian slavery as the less of two
evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his king, Charles V,
to put an end to Indian slavery of every form.</p>
<p>His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West
Indies. They had decreased until almost none were left. It is
said that there were two hundred thousand Indians in
Española in 1492, and that in 1548 there were barely five
hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken place in the other
islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to save the
Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless
islanders.</p>
<p><b>Negro Slavery.</b> Las Casas later regretted that he had
advised the planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the
Indians. Some negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the
coast of Africa during their explorations and taken to Europe as
slaves. Columbus carried a few of these to the West Indies with
him, and others had followed his example, but negro slavery had
grown very slowly until after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery,
when it increased rapidly in Spanish America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="187.gif" src=
"Pictures/187.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in
the Academy, Mexico.<br>
Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to shield the
natives from Spanish cruelty</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Missions of the Mainland.</b> Las Casas became at one
time a missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors
located on the southern border of Mexico, in a region called by
the Spaniards the "Land of War." Three times a Spanish army had
invaded the country, and three times it had been driven back by
the native defenders. Las Casas wished to show the Spaniards that
more could be accomplished by treating the Indians kindly than by
bloody warfare and conquest.</p>
<p>He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of
the Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as
Christian teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won
the friendship of the Indians in time and changed the land of
constant warfare into one of peace. They led the natives to
destroy their idols and to give up cannibalism. The mission
established among them and kept up by the monks who were
attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up on
the mainland.</p>
<p><b>The Work of the Missions.</b> Influenced by the work of Las
Casas against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the
Spaniards bent their efforts to preserve and Christianize the
natives wherever they came upon them in America. Catholic priests
gathered the Indians into permanent villages, which were called
missions. Within about one hundred years after the death of
Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000 Indians in
such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to build
better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen
practices.</p>
<p>Every mission became a little industrial school for children
and parents alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and
trades and the customs and language of their teachers. Each
Indian cultivated his own plot of land and worked two hours a day
on the farm belonging to the village. The produce of the village
farm supported the church. The monks or friars who had charge of
the mission cared for the poor, taught in the schools, preserved
the peace and order of the village, and looked after the
religious welfare of all.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="189.gif" src=
"Pictures/189.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations,
and planters established farms around them, and they became
Spanish villages in every respect like those in the islands or in
the Old World, except that many inhabitants in the towns on the
mainland were Indians. The emigrants freely intermarried with the
Indians and a mixed race took the place of the old inhabitants.
The customs, language, religion, and rule of Spain prevailed in
this New Spain, though in some ways the new civilization was not
so good as that of the Old World.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did
they differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly
anxious to conquer Mexico?</p>
<p>2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards?
How many soldiers and Indian allies did Cortés lose in one
battle? How long did it take Cortés to conquer Mexico?</p>
<p>3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later?
By whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors,
Cortés and Pizarro, in their expeditions?</p>
<p>4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the
West Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians
and begin making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in
this change?</p>
<p>5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish
Missions accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian
tribes in Mexico?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and
occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United
States, or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or
from some neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the
Aztecs in these respects or the West Indians?</p>
<p>2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four
hundred years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find
out who may not come into the United States to-day. What did it
cost one traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century?
Find out the cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How
long did it take to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length
of a voyage from Europe to-day.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4514"></a><a href="#2459">CHAPTER XVII</a></h2>
<br>
<p>THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA</p>
<p><b>Ponce de Leon.</b> While men like Cortés were
exploring and conquering the countries on the west shore of the
Gulf of Mexico, others began to search the vast regions to the
north. One of these explorers was Ponce de Leon, who had come to
Española with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards spent many
years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood from
something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond
the Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if
he bathed in it.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="191.gif" src=
"Pictures/191.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">PONCE DE LEON</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search
of this wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where
flowers grew in great abundance. It was the Easter season in
1513. Since the Spanish call this season <i>Pascua Florida</i> or
Flowery Easter, Ponce called the new flowery country Florida. He
went ashore near the present site of St. Augustine, and later,
while trying to establish a settlement, lost his life in a battle
with the Indians.</p>
<p><b>Explorations of North American Coast.</b> Other Spanish
explorers between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast
from Florida to Vera Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to
Labrador. They sought continually for a passage to India. Every
large inlet was entered, for it might prove to be the
long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of North America took
shape on the maps of that time. Two famous expeditions into the
interior of the country did much to enlarge this knowledge. One
was made by De Soto through the region which now forms seven
southern states of the United States, and the other was by
Coronado through the great southwest.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="192.gif" src=
"Pictures/192.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">HERNANDO DE SOTO</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>De Soto.</b> Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in
Spain, had won fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of
Spain, to reward his bravery and skill in conquering Indians,
made him Governor of Cuba. In those days the Governor of Cuba
controlled Florida. It was a larger Florida than the present
state of that name, for Spanish Florida included the whole north
coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into the continent
without any definite boundary.</p>
<p><b>The Story of the Gilded Man.</b> De Soto had heard a
fanciful story of a country so rich in gold that its king was
smeared every morning with gum and then thickly sprinkled with
powdered gold, which was washed off at night. De Soto thought
this country might be somewhere in Florida, and prepared to
search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language <i>El
Dorado.</i></p>
<p><b>The Comrades of De Soto.</b> More than six hundred men,
some of them from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain
and Portugal, flocked to De Soto's banner. They sold their
possessions at home and ventured all their wealth in the hope of
obtaining great riches in Florida.</p>
<p><b>De Soto's Route through the South of North America.</b> De
Soto crossed from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and
advanced northward by land to an Indian village near Apalachee
Bay. Here he spent the first winter. A white man, whom the
Indians had taken captive twelve years before and finally
adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an
interpreter.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="193.gif" src=
"Pictures/193.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a
journey into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed
northeasterly through the country now within Georgia and South
Carolina, as far, perhaps, as the border of North Carolina. From
here it passed through the mountains, and turned southwesterly
through Tennessee and Alabama until a large Indian village called
Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of Mobile Bay.
Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The Alabama
Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by.
Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the
unknown interior.</p>
<p><b>The Hardships of the Journey.</b> His army was almost
exhausted by the difficulties of the journey. A road had to be
cut and broken through thickets and forest, paths had to be made
through the many swamps, and fords found across the rivers. It
frequently became necessary to stop for months at a time, to let
the horses, worn out from travel and starving because of the
scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The stores which the
army brought with them soon gave out. The men were forced to live
like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots of wild
plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of
their scanty stores of corn and beans.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="194.gif" src=
"Pictures/194.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">INDIANS BROILING FISH</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Indians.</b> De Soto was cruel in
his treatment of the conquered natives along his route. Many of
his officers came with him really for the purpose of obtaining
Indian slaves for their plantations in Cuba. Indian women were
made to do the work of the camp. Indian men were chained together
and forced to carry the baggage. The chiefs were held as hostages
for the good behavior of the whole tribe. The Indians who tried
to shirk work or offered resistance were killed without
mercy.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="195.gif" src=
"Pictures/195.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the
white men, and left him the enemy of any who should come to those
regions in after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped
destruction at the hands of the enraged savages. They attacked
the Spaniards with all their strength at Mauvilla, and again
while they were in camp in northern Mississippi for the winter of
1540-1541. These two battles with the Indians cost the Spaniards
their baggage, which was destroyed in the burning villages. New
clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of wild animals.
Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets, shirts,
stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked
much like a band of Robinson Crusoes.</p>
<p><b>The Discovery of the Mississippi.</b> De Soto marched on
northwesterly until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the
site of the present city of Memphis. There he came upon a great
river. One of his officers tells us that the river was so wide at
this point that if a man on the other side stood still, it could
not be known whether he were a man or not; that the river was of
great depth, and of a strong current; and that the water was
always muddy.</p>
<p>De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or
Great River, but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans
have adopted the Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had
probably passed the mouth of the Mississippi River before De
Soto, and wondered at its mighty size, but De Soto was the first
white man to approach it from the land and to appreciate the
importance of his discovery.</p>
<p><b>Wanderings west of the Mississippi.</b> The Spaniards cut
down trees, made them into planks and built barges on which they
crossed the Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year
through the endless woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now
within the state of Arkansas. They probably went as far west as
the open plains of Oklahoma or Texas. In these border regions
between the forests and the prairies they met Indians who used
the skins of the buffalo for clothing.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="197.gif" src=
"Pictures/197.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Death and Burial of De Soto.</b> The severe winter of
1541-1542 discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent
nearly three years in a vain search. The natives whom they had
found made clothing from the fiber in the bark of mulberry trees
and from the hides of buffaloes, and stored beans and corn for
food, but such things seemed of little value to the seekers for
the Gilded Man.</p>
<p>De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish
a colony somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his
purpose to send to Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement
as a base, make a farther search in the plains of the great West.
He did not live to carry out his plan. Long exposure and anxiety
had weakened him. The malaria of the swamps attacked him, and he
died within a few days. His body was wrapped in mantles weighted
with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered in the midst
of the great river he had discovered.</p>
<p>His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the
Indians. The Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the
Sun, and now he had died like any other mortal. They were afraid
if the Indians found his body they would cease to believe that
the strangers were immortal and would massacre them all. The
Indians were told that the great leader had gone to Heaven, as he
had often done before, and that he would return in a few
days.</p>
<p><b>Results of De Soto's Journey.</b> The weary survivors built
boats, floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed
cautiously along the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four
years and three months, and half of the army which set out had
perished. However, the expedition of De Soto will always remain
one of the most remarkable journeys in the history of North
America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into the
interior. With it had begun the written history of the country
now composing at least eight states in the United States,
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama,
Mississippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the
present Oklahoma and Texas, and had certainly passed down the
Mississippi River through Louisiana.</p>
<p><b>The Story of the Seven Cities.</b> While De Soto was
exploring the southeastern part of North America a second
expedition searched the southwest. Both were looking for rich
Indian kingdoms like Mexico and Peru. The second expedition came
about in this manner. Some of the Indians from northern Mexico
told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in the distant past
their ancestors came forth from seven caves.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="199.gif" src=
"Pictures/199.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of
their own about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time
Spain was overrun by the Moors in the eighth century, seven
bishops, flying from persecution, had taken refuge, with a great
company of followers, on an island or group of islands far out in
the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built Seven Cities.
Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of their
wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have
actually seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to
tell them of these Seven Cities instead of seven caves.</p>
<p>The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much
trouble in understanding the Indian languages. They had long
expected to find the Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was
rumor that white travelers had seen them north of Mexico.</p>
<p><b>The Journey of Friar Marcos.</b> In 1539 the Viceroy of
Mexico sent a frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together
with a negro, Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for
them. Friar Marcos traveled far to the north. He inquired his way
of the Indians, always asking them about Seven Cities. He
described them as large cities with houses made of stone and
mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him, directed him to
seven Zuñi villages or pueblos. The first of these they
called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven
Cities of Cibola.</p>
<p>The good friar himself never entered even the first of them.
His negro, Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the
way, but this rough, greedy fellow offended the Indians, who
promptly murdered him. When the friar approached he found the
Indians so excited and hostile that he dared not enter their
village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill at a distance,
from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola. The
houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the
wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and
gave him the idea of a much larger and richer city than really
existed. Friar Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened,
hurriedly retraced his steps.</p>
<p><b>Coronado.</b> There was great excitement in Mexico over the
story Friar Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew,
as such stories always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing
else was thought of in all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made
ready a great army for the conquest of the Seven Cities of
Cibola. He gave the command to his intimate friend, Francisco de
Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany him, but it was necessary
to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of nobles, eager to go,
traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the viceroy's
permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors to
their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as
a title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great
wealth when the Seven Cities should be discovered!</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="201.gif" src=
"Pictures/201.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ZUÑI PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Army of Coronado.</b> In the early part of 1540,
Coronado set forth from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf
of California. He had an army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly
all the younger sons of nobles. They were fitted out with
polished coats of mail and gilded armor, carried lances and
swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from the large
stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few footmen
armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and
Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white
masters. Some led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage,
or drove the oxen and cows, the sheep and swine which would be
needed on the journey. A small fleet carried part of the baggage
by way of the Gulf of California, prepared also to help Coronado
in other ways, and to explore the Gulf to its head.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="202.gif" src=
"Pictures/202.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE ROUTE OF CORONADO</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Route of Coronado to Cibola.</b> The large army marched
slowly through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon
became impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small
following of picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous
wilderness of northern Mexico and across the desert plains of
southeastern Arizona. After a march lasting five months, over a
distance equal to that from New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon
the Seven Cities of Cibola; but the real Seven Cities of Cibola
as Coronado found them bore little resemblance to what he had
expected.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="203.gif" src=
"Pictures/203.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">A ZUÑI PUEBLO</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The real Seven Cities of Cibola.</b> The first city of
Cibola was an Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed
houses, built of stone and sun-dried clay. The houses were
entered by climbing ladders to the top and then passing down into
the rooms as we enter ships through hatches. The people wore only
such clothes as could be woven from the coarse fiber of native
plants, or patched together from the tanned skins of the cat or
the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but only small
and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some
skill in making small things for house and personal decoration,
mainly in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green
stone.</p>
<p>The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of
poor villages inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that
Coronado had found the Zuñi pueblos in the western part of
New Mexico. The conquest of these was a wofully small thing for
so grand and costly an expedition. No gold or silver or precious
jewels had been found.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="204.gif" src=
"Pictures/204.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CANYON OF THE COLORADO</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Canyon of the Colorado.</b> Yet the wonders of the
natural world about them astonished and interested the Spaniards.
Some of their number found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River
and vividly described it to their comrades. As they looked into
its depths it seemed as if the water was six feet across,
although in reality it was many hundred feet wide. Some tried
without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream below or
to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who
staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the
cliff were about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far
as they could swore that when they reached these rocks they found
them bigger than the great tower of Seville, which is two hundred
and seventy-five feet high.</p>
<p><b>Coronado in New Mexico.</b> Coronado marched from the
Cities of Cibola eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River,
and settled for the winter in an Indian village a short distance
south of the present city of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The
Spaniards drove the natives out, only allowing them to take the
clothes they wore.</p>
<p><b>A Winter in an Indian Village.</b> The soldiers passed the
severe winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best
houses of the Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and
beans had been left by the unfortunate owners. The live stock
brought from Mexico furnished an abundance of fresh meat.
Coronado required the Indians to furnish three hundred pieces of
cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the place of
their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians
time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to
take their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a
soldier came upon an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he
compelled the unlucky fellow to exchange with him without more
ado.</p>
<p>Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts
of his men made him much loved by them, but much hated by the
Indians. It is no wonder that such treatment drove the Indians
into rebellion, and that Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel
war of reconquest and revenge.</p>
<p><b>The Tale of Quivira.</b> An Indian slave in one of the
villages cheered Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale
about a wonderful city, many days' journey across the plains to
the northeast, which he called Quivira. The king of Quivira, he
said, took his nap under a large tree, on which were hung little
gold bells, which put him to sleep as they swung in the air.
Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of wrought gold.
The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his hearers to
make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he could
in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless
plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown.</p>
<p><b>The Search for Quivira.</b> The slave's story deceived the
Spaniards. Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of
finding a rich country and marched away in search of Quivira. He
traveled to the northeast for seventy-seven days. There were no
guiding land marks. Soldiers measured the distance traveled each
day by counting the footsteps. The plains were flat, save for an
occasional channel cut by some river half buried in the sand;
they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small rim
of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses.</p>
<p><b>Quivira.</b> The most marvelous sight of the long journey
was the herds of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians
guided Coronado in the end to a cluster of Indian villages which
they called Quivira. This was somewhere in what is now central
Kansas near Junction City. The Indians were in all probability
the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met with a bitter
disappointment.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="207.gif" src=
"Pictures/207.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">INDIAN TEPEES</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered
Indian villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening
grass or straw or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the
poorest and most barbarous which he had met. Coronado was,
however, fortunate in securing a supply of corn and buffalo meat
in Quivira for his long return journey.</p>
<p><b>Coronado's Opinion of the West.</b> A year later a
crestfallen army of half-starved men clad in the skins of animals
stumbled back homeward through Mexico in straggling groups. Great
sadness prevailed in Mexico, for many had lost their fortunes
besides friends and relatives in the enterprise. Coronado seemed
to the people of the time to have led a costly army on a
wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions he had
crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away
from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country
was neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth
keeping.</p>
<p><b>Results of Coronado's Explorations.</b> We know better
to-day the value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved
the age-long mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the
southwest of the United States of our day. The rich region now
included in the great states of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it was soon after
described for the European world. His men had explored the Gulf
of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its
source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower
California was not an island but a part of the mainland. Others
soon explored the entire coast of California to the limits of the
present state of Oregon.</p>
<p><b>How De Soto and Coronado came near meeting.</b> De Soto and
Coronado together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to
the center of North America. A story which was told by De Soto's
men shows how close together the two great explorers were at one
time. While Coronado was in Quivira, De Soto was wandering along
the borders of the plains west of the Mississippi River, though
neither knew of the nearness of the other. An Indian woman who
ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De Soto's, nine days
later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains there would
have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the
meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot
refrain from wondering how different would have been the ending
with the two great armies united and encouraged to continue their
explorations.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What
did he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered
Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards understood
it?</p>
<p>2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did
he search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he
planning to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable?
Through what present states of the United States did he pass?</p>
<p>3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities?
Why did he expect to find them there? What was the story of the
Seven Cities? Of the Seven Caves?</p>
<p>4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of
Cibola? What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North
America in search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to
Quivira? What did he find Quivira to be?</p>
<p>5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he
found out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of
the present states of the United States did his route touch?</p>
<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
<p>1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus (map,
161.gif), Magellan (map, 173.gif), De Soto (map, 195.gif),
Coronado (map, 202.gif), on the knowledge of the new world.</p>
<p><i>Important date</i>--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi
by De Soto.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4361"></a><a href="#3853">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h2>
<p>RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</p>
<p><b>The Rivals of Spain</b>. When the early voyages to America
and Asia were ended, the French, the English, and the other
northern peoples of Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for
new lands and for new routes to old lands. The French had sent a
few fishermen to the Banks of Newfoundland, and that was all. The
English had made one or two voyages and appeared to be no longer
interested. (See 166.gif, Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only
sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers, or keen traders, occupied much
of the time in the struggle against the North Sea, which
threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and cities.</p>
<p><b>The Trade-Winds</b>. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a
great advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for
such voyages. To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good
Hope. To go to America a southern route was taken, for in the
North Atlantic the prevailing winds are from the southwest, while
south of Spain the trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making
it easy to sail to America. To take the northern route, which was
the natural one for French and English sailors, would be to
battle against head winds and heavy seas.</p>
<p><b>The Spaniards and the Portuguese divide the World</b>. The
Spaniards and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave
them the right to all new lands which should be found and to all
trade by sea with the Golden East. Two years after the first
voyage of Columbus the Spaniards agreed with the Portuguese that
a line running 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should
separate the regions claimed by each. The Spaniards were to hold
all lands discovered west of that line, and the Portuguese all
east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by the
Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the
Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that
especially interests us as students of American history.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="211.gif" src=
"Pictures/211.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol,
England, in memory of the first sailor from England to visit
America</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Main Question.</b> Were the Spaniards to keep what they
claimed and continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The
answer to this question is found in the history of Europe during
the sixteenth century. Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were
drawn into quarrels in Europe which cost them many men and much
money. The consequence was that they were unable to make full use
of their discoveries, even if they had known how. Before the
century was ended their rivals, the English and the French, were
stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects, had
rebelled against them.</p>
<p><b>The English and the French desire a Share</b>. Men had such
great ideas of the immense wealth of the Indies that the
successes of one nation made the other nations eager for some
part of the spoil. Englishmen and Frenchmen were not likely to
allow the Portuguese to take all they could find by sailing
eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards to keep
whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by
following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for
new routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they
saw by the way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels
came from this rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other
causes.</p>
<p><b>King Charles and King Francis</b>. About the time
Cortés conquered Mexico, his master, King Charles of
Spain, began a war against Francis, the king of France. As long
as these two kings lived they were either fighting or preparing
to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only, there might have
been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and claimed others
which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region north
of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a
district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As
he was the German emperor besides, the French king thought him
too dangerous to be left in peace. These wars have little to do
with American history, except that they helped to weaken the king
of Spain and to prevent the Spaniards from making the most of
their early successes in colonizing.</p>
<p><b>Religion a Cause of Strife.</b> Religion was the most
serious cause of quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king
of Spain was the prince most injured by the struggle. At the time
of Prince Henry of Portugal and of Columbus all peoples in
western Europe worshiped in the same manner, taught their
children the same beliefs, and in religious matters they all
obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles began
in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over
Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who
rebelled and founded a republic of their own. The English finally
became the principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom
were of the same religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish
methods of defending religion, especially after the Spaniards had
massacred a band of French settlers in America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="213.gif" src=
"Pictures/213.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">EMPEROR CHARLES V</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The "Reformers."</b> Many men became discontented at the
way the Church was managed. At first all were agreed that the
evils of which they complained could be removed if priests,
bishops, and pope worked together to that end. After a while some
teachers in different countries not only complained of evils, but
refused to believe as the Church had taught and as most people
still believed. They did not mean to divide the Christian Church
into several churches, but they thought they understood the words
of the Bible better than the teachers of the Church.</p>
<p><b>The Reformation.</b> At that time people who were not
agreed in their religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the
same countries. The princes and kings who were faithful to the
Church ordered that the new teachers and their followers should
be punished. Other princes accepted the views of the "reformers,"
and soon began to punish those of their subjects who continued to
believe as the Church taught. In Germany these princes were
called "Protestants," because they protested against the efforts
of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of the
new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused
to remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the
pope.</p>
<p><b>Catholic and Protestant Leaders.</b> The most famous
leaders of the Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola,
a Spaniard, Reginald Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an
Italian. Loyola had been a soldier in his youth, but while
recovering from a serious wound, resolved to be a missionary.
With several other young men of the same purpose he founded the
Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the Protestants the
greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John Calvin, a
Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at Wittenberg
in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise.
Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis
resolved to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was
obliged to leave the country. He settled in the Swiss city of
Geneva.</p>
<p><b>The Lutheran Church.</b> Luther's teachings were accepted
by many Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated
the Bible into German. After a while his followers formed a
Church of their own which was called Lutheran. It differed from
the Roman Catholic Church in the way it was governed as well as
in what it taught.</p>
<p><b>The French Huguenots.</b> Calvin lived in Geneva, but most
of those who accepted his teachings continued to live in France.
The nickname Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They
were not permitted by the French king to worship as Calvin
taught, but by 1562 so many nobles had joined them that it was no
longer possible to treat them as criminals. They were permitted
to hold their meetings outside the walled towns. The leader whom
they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Both he and
they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the
Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which
the king of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects.</p>
<p><b>The King of Spain and the Netherlands.</b> Philip II
inherited from his father Charles seventeen duchies, counties,
and other districts north of France in what is now Belgium and
Holland. Charles had known how to manage these people, because he
was brought up among them. The task of managing them was not
easy. Each district or city had its own special rights and its
people demanded that these should be respected by the ruling
prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule
the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled
the people of Spain.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="216.gif" src=
"Pictures/216.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE
NETHERLANDS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Protestants in the Netherlands.</b> The trouble was made
worse because many of the Netherlanders became followers of
Luther or Calvin, and brought their books into the country. Now
Philip, like his father Charles, was faithful to the teachings of
the Church, and thought it was his duty to punish such persons.
The result was that Philip soon had two kinds of enemies in his
Netherland provinces, those who did not like the way he ruled and
those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and the two
united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were
driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border
from France.</p>
<p><b>The Netherlands.</b> The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are
well named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live,
because much of the land is below the level of the sea at high
tide, and some of it at low tide. For several hundred years the
Dutch built dikes to keep back the sea, or pumped it out where it
flowed in and covered the lower lands. Occasionally great storms
broke through the dikes and caused the Dutch months or years of
labor. A people so brave and industrious were not likely to
submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they would
rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views,
which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the
southern Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became
Calvinists generally emigrated to the northern cities, like
Amsterdam, where they were safer.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="217.gif" src=
"Pictures/217.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Map Of The Netherlands</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>William of Orange</b>. William, Prince of Orange, was the
leader of the Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by
Charles, Philip's father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the
great ceremony held in Brussels when Charles gave up his throne
to Philip. William was called the "Silent," because he was
careful not to tell his plans to any except his nearest friends.
When Philip returned to Spain, William was made governor or
<i>stadtholder</i> of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland,
Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other
great nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with
the heretics and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the
southern Netherlanders and the northern Netherlanders were
united, although the southern Netherlanders remained faithful to
the Roman Catholic religion.</p>
<p><b>Spain and England</b>. The English at first had no reason
to quarrel with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the
Netherlanders, who were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they
sold great quantities of wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges,
Brussels, and Ghent, and bought fine cloth woven in those towns.
The friendship of the ruler of the Netherlands seemed necessary,
if this trade was to prosper. It was the trouble about religion
which finally made the English and the Spaniards enemies.</p>
<p><b>Henry VIII</b>. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of
England, the king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to
refuse obedience to the pope. The king called himself the head of
the Church in England. Lutheran views crept into the country as
they had done into the Netherlands, but King Henry at first
disliked the Lutherans quite as much as he grew to dislike the
pope.</p>
<p><b>The English Church</b>. So long as Henry lived not much
change was made in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the
Church. During the short reign of his son, the English Church
became more like the Protestant Churches on the Continent, except
that in England there were still archbishops and bishops, and the
government of the Church went on much as before. When Henry's
daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop these changes, and
for a few years her subjects were again obedient to the pope, but
she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth, became
queen.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="219.gif" src=
"Pictures/219.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The English Church and the Catholics</b>. In religious
matters Queen Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother
had done. All persons were forced to attend the religious
services carried on in the manner ordered in the prayer-book.
Roman Catholics could not hold any government office. They were
punished if they tried to persuade others to remain faithful to
the older Church. Philip did not like this, but for a time he
preferred to be on friendly terms with the English.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="220.gif" src=
"Pictures/220.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Queen Elizabeth</b>. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for
forty-five years. The English regard her reign as the most
glorious in their history. Before it was over they proved
themselves more than a match for the Spaniards on the sea. They
also began to seek for routes to the East and to attempt
settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The Greek and
Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and
Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to
make the English language the rival of the languages of Greece
and Rome. This was the time when Shakespeare wrote his first
plays.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or
Portugal than from England?</p>
<p>2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did
they draw the line of division?</p>
<p>3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what
countries did King Charles rule?</p>
<p>4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was
chiefly injured by such struggles?</p>
<p>5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they
called?</p>
<p>6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants?
Who were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name?</p>
<p>7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands
quarrel?</p>
<p>8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived?
Who was the hero of the Dutch?</p>
<p>9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly?
What king of England refused to obey the pope?</p>
<p>10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How
did Elizabeth settle the question of religion?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and
towns.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1511"></a><a href="#2317">CHAPTER XIX</a></h2>
<p class="c3">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA</p>
<p><b>Cartier</b>. During the reign of Francis I, the French made
the first serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far
East and to settle the new lands that seemed to lie directly
across the pathway. In 1534 Jacques Cartier was sent with two
ships in search of a strait beyond the regions controlled by
Spain or Portugal which would lead into the Pacific Ocean.
Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland and into
the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf of
St. Lawrence.</p>
<p><b>Cartier at Montreal</b>. Cartier made a second voyage in
the following year, exploring the great river which he called the
St. Lawrence. He went up the river until the heights of Mount
Royal or Montreal, as he called them, appeared on his right hand,
and swift rapids in the river blocked his way in front. The name
Lachine rapids, or the China rapids, which was afterwards given
to these, remains to remind us that Cartier was searching for a
passage to China.</p>
<p><b>The First Winter in Canada</b>. Cartier spent the severe
winter which followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the
site of the modern city of Quebec. The expedition returned to
France with the coming of spring.</p>
<p><b>Attempts to plant a Colony at Quebec.</b> Several years
later, in 1541, Cartier and others attempted to establish a
permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get
good colonists to settle in the cold climate so far north, the
leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons for debtors and
criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They selected the
neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in 1535,
where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their
colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a
new settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the
hostility of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all
gladly returned to France.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="223.gif" src=
"Pictures/223.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement
on the St. Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St.
Lawrence would prove the long-sought passage to China had to be
given up, but the river which he had discovered and so thoroughly
explored proved to be a great highway into the center of North
America.</p>
<p><b>Coligny's Plan for a Huguenot Colony.</b> Nearly thirty
years later the French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the
plan of establishing a colony in America, which would be a refuge
for the Huguenots if their enemies got the upper hand in France.
An expedition left France in 1564, and selected a site for a
settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns river in Florida. It
seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline, was quickly
built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They were
chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented
tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them.</p>
<p><b>The Misdeeds of the Colonists.</b> They spent their time
visiting distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and
silver, or plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West
Indies. No one thought of preparing the soil and planting seeds
for a food supply. It seemed easier to rob neighbors. The
provisions which they had brought with them gave out. Game and
fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but they were
without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year had
passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to
digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge
of angry Indians confronted them.</p>
<p><b>Relief sent to the Colony.</b> In August, 1565, just as the
half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an
expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few
young nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three
hundred in all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of
supplies and other things needed by a colony in a new country. It
looked then as though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan
and establish a permanent colony in America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="225.gif" src=
"Pictures/225.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN
FLORIDA From De Bry's Voyages</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Fort Caroline and the Spaniards.</b> The French had,
however, settled in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult
to settle in America at any place along the Atlantic coast
without doing so. The Spaniards regarded all North America from
Mexico to Labrador as lying within Florida. The attempt of the
French to settle on the lands claimed by the king of Spain was
sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct of the
French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the
West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest
of robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's
followers more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were
Huguenots.</p>
<p><b>Menendez.</b> At the time the news reached Spain of
Coligny's settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro
Menendez, was preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and
thus after a long delay carry out the task which De Soto had
vainly attempted. Menendez was naturally as eager as the king to
drive out the French intruders. So an expedition larger than was
planned at first was hurried off. Menendez was to do three
things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize the
Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida.</p>
<p><b>The Defeat of the French Fleet.</b> Menendez with a part of
his fleet arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the
relief expedition which Coligny had sent over came into harbor.
His ships attacked and scattered those of the French. The vessels
of the French for the most part sought refuge on the high seas.
They were too swift to be overtaken, but no match for the Spanish
in battle. Menendez decided to wait for the rest of his ships
before making another attack on Fort Caroline. Meanwhile he
sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles till he came to
an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine.</p>
<p><b>St. Augustine founded.</b> A friendly Indian chief readily
gave his dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like
structure, made of the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with
palmetto leaves. Soldiers quickly dug a ditch around it and threw
up a breastwork of earth and small sticks. The colonists who came
with Menendez landed and set about the usual work of founding a
settlement. Such was the beginning of the Spanish town of St.
Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in the United
States.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="227.gif" src=
"Pictures/227.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY
MENENDEZ<br>
Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>French sail to attack St. Augustine.</b> Both sides
prepared for a terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and
the Spaniards in their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French
struck the first blow. A few of the weaker and the sick soldiers
were left at Fort Caroline to stand guard with the women and
children. The main body aboard the ships advanced by sea to
attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered and wrecked
the French fleet before it arrived.</p>
<p><b>Menendez destroys Fort Caroline</b>. Menendez now took
advantage of the storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading
through swamps and fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale.
His drenched and hungry followers fell like wild beasts upon the
few French left in the fort. About fifty of the women and
children were spared to become captives. As many men escaped in
the forests around the fort, but the greater part were
killed.</p>
<p><b>Capture of the shipwrecked French</b>. The French fleet had
been wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St.
Augustine. A few days later Menendez discovered some survivors
wandering along the coast, half starved, trying to live on the
shell-fish they found on the beach, and slowly and painfully
working their way back toward Fort Caroline. The Frenchmen begged
Menendez to be allowed to remain in the country till ships could
be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling to make any terms
with them.</p>
<p><b>Murder of the Captives</b>. The unhappy Frenchmen were
taken prisoners, and, a few hours later, put to death. Other
shipwrecked refugees were captured a few days later, and these
suffered the same fate. Nearly three hundred perished in this
cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless deed, and yet such was
the character of all warfare at the time. Menendez believed that
he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain think Menendez
unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of the
Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say
to him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as
to those he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys."</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="229.gif" src=
"Pictures/229.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS
OF DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="230.gif" src=
"Pictures/230.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Spanish clash with French over Colonization
attempts</td>
</tr>
</table>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore
and settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why
France had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of
the continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he
specially interested in St. Lawrence region?</p>
<p>2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine
rapids, given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence
river?</p>
<p>3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French
colony in North America? How much had he and his friends
accomplished for France in North America?</p>
<p>4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in
America? Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on
the map on 230.gif. Give several reasons why they soon got into
trouble with the Spaniards.</p>
<p>5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do?
What things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St.
Augustine? Find it on the map, 230.gif.</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. Examine the map of North America in 1541 on 229.gif. What
parts of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can
you see why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great
river?</p>
<p>2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French
explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from
Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in
one of your geographies.</p>
<p><i>Important Date</i>: 1565. The founding of St.
Augustine.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4788"></a><a href="#1276">CHAPTER XX</a></h2>
<p>THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN</p>
<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Netherlanders.</b> Two years after
the cruel massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II,
the King of Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the
Netherlanders, and sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke
of Alva, who was as pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing
prominent nobles, and he would have arrested the Prince of
Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A court was set up which
condemned many persons to death, including the greatest nobles of
the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of Blood. Alva also
turned the merchants against him by compelling them to pay the
"tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods every
time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so
thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to
Spain.</p>
<p><b>The Beggars of the Sea.</b> Just then something happened
which gave Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance.
The men who were resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands
had been nicknamed the "Beggars." When they were driven from the
cities they took to the sea. The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes
found a port of refuge in La Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the
western coast of France, and sometimes they put into friendly
English harbors. From these places they would sail out and attack
Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572 ordered a fleet of
these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their own shores
and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success
encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to
rise and expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns.</p>
<p><b>The French promise Aid</b>. As soon as Coligny heard the
news he urged the French king to send an army into the
Netherlands and take vengeance not only for the massacre at Fort
Caroline, but also for all the wrongs that he and his father and
his grandfather had ever received at the hands of the Spaniards.
The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the Netherlanders
promising aid.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="233.gif" src=
"Pictures/233.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">GASPARD DE COLIGNY<br>
After the portrait in the Public Library, Geneva</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Massacre of Huguenots in Paris</b>. The plan was never
carried out. While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in
Paris, his enemies attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed
these enemies, including the king's mother, persuaded the king
that Coligny and the Huguenots were plotting against him, and
goaded the king into ordering the murder of all the Huguenots in
Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands of Huguenots
perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen
Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny
had missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon
to have other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to
help the Dutch. These new enemies were the English.</p>
<p><b>The English drawn into the Conflict</b>. The religious
troubles in England had been growing more serious. Two or three
plots were made to assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the
throne Queen Mary of Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip
began to encourage these plotters, especially after the pope in
1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth and forbidden her subjects to
obey her as queen. She was sure to be dragged into the struggle
in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have seen that she had
once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of Coligny
and his followers frightened the English and made many of them
anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the
Continent, the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were
utterly destroyed.</p>
<p><b>Growth of English Trade</b>. If England should be drawn
into war, her safety would depend mainly upon her ships.
Englishmen had always taken to the sea, as was natural for men
whose shores were washed by the Atlantic, the Channel and the
North Sea, but they were slow in building fleets of ships either
for trade or for war. The trade of the country with other peoples
in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by foreigners. Yet since
the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a change had taken
place. English merchants found their way to all markets. They
also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the religious
troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill to
England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and
silks.</p>
<p><b>The new English Navy</b>. The English navy was growing. One
of the new ships, <i>The Triumph</i>, carried 450 seamen, 50
gunners, and 200 soldiers. Besides harquebuses for the soldiers,
there were many kinds of cannon with strange names, such as
culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines, and rabinets. Four of
the cannon were large enough to shoot a cannon-ball eight inches
in diameter. But it was on the skill and courage of her men
rather than upon the size of her ships that England relied for
victory.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="235.gif" src=
"Pictures/235.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE<br>
After the painting at Buckland Abby, England</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Sir Francis Drake</b>. One of these men was Francis Drake.
He was son of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the
rigging of the great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the
streets. In time young Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a
small trading vessel. Fortune smiled on the lad early in life.
His master died, and out of love for the apprentice who had
served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis Drake became
thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most
popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains.</p>
<p><b>Slave-Traders</b>. He often went with his cousin, John
Hawkins, on voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from
slave-traders along the coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they
found, and carried them to the Spanish planters of the West
Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout and humane as other men
of their time. They simply could not see any wrong in enslaving
the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they enjoyed the wild
life of the slave-trader with its dangers and rich rewards.</p>
<p><b>Why Drake hated the Spaniards</b>. The king of Spain tried
to keep the trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted
to prevent the trade of the English slavers with the West Indies.
Spanish ships-of-war ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins
and Drake hoped for large profits. The Spaniards won thereby the
undying hatred of Drake.</p>
<p><b>The Dragon of the Seas</b>. It was a time, too, when
Drake's countrymen at home shared his intense hatred of the
Spaniard. While England and Spain were not at war with one
another, English and Spanish traders fought whenever they met on
the high seas. The English made the Spanish settlements in
America their special prey. At certain times of the year Spanish
ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and
silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like
many another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of
their precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his
cunning and courage. More than once he was forced to bury his
treasures in the sand to lighten his ships that they might sail
the faster, and escape his pursuers. The Spaniards came to know
and to fear Drake as the Dragon of the Seas.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="237.gif" src=
"Pictures/237.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SPANISH TREASURE SHIP</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Drake's Venture</b>. Drake once formed the plan to take a
fleet into the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure
ships where they would be less on their guard. A fleet of five
ships was made ready. Contributions from wealthy merchants and
powerful nobles, perhaps a gift from Queen Elizabeth herself,
gave him the means for unusual luxuries in the equipment of his
fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were taken on board
Drake's own ship, the <i>Pelican</i>, or the <i>Golden Hind</i>
as he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left
Plymouth in 1577. One after another of the ships turned back or
was destroyed on the long voyage of twelve months across the
Atlantic and through the Strait of Magellan.</p>
<p><b>Beyond the Strait of Magellan</b>. The <i>Golden Hind</i>
alone remained to carry out the original project. As it entered
the Pacific Ocean a furious storm drove the little vessel
southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions where the oceans meet.
No one before had sailed so far south.</p>
<p><b>The first Prizes</b>. Drake regained control of his ship
when the storm had passed, and sailed northward along the coast,
plundering and robbing as he went. Once, as a land-party was
searching along the shore for fresh water, it came upon a
Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver beside him. His nap
was disturbed long enough to take away his burden. Further on
they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train of
Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The
Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their
boats. A treasure ship, nicknamed the <i>Spitfire</i>, on the way
to Panama, was captured after a long chase of nearly eight
hundred miles. Drake obtained from it unknown quantities of gold
and silver. With such a rich load, his thoughts turned to the
homeward voyage.</p>
<p><b>Drake's Voyage around the World</b>. By this time a host of
Spanish war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture
him on his return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now
confronted with real danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He
and many other Englishmen of his day were sure a passage would be
found somewhere through North America between the Atlantic and
the Pacific. Spanish, French, and English explorers had all
carried on the search for this passage. Drake decided to return
by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the coast of
California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington as
far as Vancouver.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="239.gif" src=
"Pictures/239.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he
gave up the search.</p>
<p>After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles
above the modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the
Pacific to return home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by
going around the world. He touched at the Philippines, visited
the Spice Islands, and slowly worked his way around the Cape of
Good Hope. The <i>Golden Hind</i>, long since given up as lost,
reached England in the fall of 1580, after nearly three years'
absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around the world.
Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor.</p>
<p><b>Drake's Reward</b>. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake
told of outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most
gorgeous robes she visited his ship, where a banquet had been
prepared. While Drake knelt at her feet she made him a knight.
And so it was that the man whom the Spaniards called with good
reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the English called by a new
title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the greatest sea-captain
of the age. His ship, the <i>Golden Hind</i>, was ordered to be
preserved forever.</p>
<p><b>The Dutch Struggle against Spain</b>. A few years after
Drake returned the English took a deeper interest in the struggle
between Philip and the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of
help from the French Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals
more boldly than ever. The Spanish soldiers treated the towns
which surrendered so savagely that the other towns decided it was
better to die fighting than to yield. The siege of Leyden became
famous because, after food had given out and the inhabitants were
starving their friends cut the great dikes in order that the
boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might be
floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood
also drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of
the city a strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the
dikes could again be replaced.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="241.gif" src=
"Pictures/241.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Death of William of Orange</b>. King Philip had come to
the conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the
Dutch could not be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince
William's head, offering a large sum of money to any one who
should kill him. The first attempts failed, but finally in 1584
he was shot.</p>
<p><b>Sir Philip Sidney</b>. The murder of William alarmed the
English for Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already
aided men who were plotting against her. She sent an army into
the Netherlands to aid the Dutch, although she had not made up
her mind to attack Philip directly. The army did not give much
help to the Dutch, but it is remembered because a noble English
poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in one of the
battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back,
tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men
always do, and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it
was brought to him he saw on the ground a common soldier more
sorely wounded than he. He immediately sent the water to the
soldier saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine."</p>
<p><b>The Invincible Armada</b>. The king of Spain now decided
that he could not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly
punished the English. He even planned to put himself upon the
English throne, claiming that he was the heir of one of the early
kings of England. Months were spent in preparing a great fleet,
an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the Channel, take on
board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross over to
England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's
usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so
much shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had
to be postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of
Spain's beard."</p>
<p><b>The Armada in the Channel</b>. It was July, 1588, before
the "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English
Channel. Many of the Spanish ships were larger than the English
ships, but they were so clumsy that the English could outsail
them and attack them from any direction they chose. Moreover, the
Spaniards needed to fight close at hand in order that the
soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in the fray. The
English kept out of range of these guns and used their heavy
cannon.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="243.gif" src=
"Pictures/243.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br>
After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians<br>
following a tapestry in the House of Lords</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Destruction of the Armada</b>. With the English ships
clinging to the flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards
moved heavily up the Channel. In the narrower waters between
Dover and Calais the English attacked more fiercely, and sank
several Spanish vessels. Soon the others were fleeing into the
North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many sought to reach Spain
by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some of these ships
were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's proud
fleet returned to Spain.</p>
<p><b>Effect of the Defeat of the Armada on Spain</b>. This was
the last attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain
had been exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies
for the Invincible Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and
the English attacked and plundered Spanish vessels wherever they
found them.</p>
<p><b>The Independence of the Dutch</b>. The ruin of the Armada
also meant that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent
of the Spanish king. Seven of the northern provinces had already
formed a union and had begun to call themselves the United
Netherlands. They were growing richer while their neighboring
provinces on the south, which had decided to return to their
allegiance to Spain, grew poorer.</p>
<p><b>First Voyage of the Dutch to the East</b>. Even while the
fight was going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had
not permitted them to trade while he could control them. One of
these places was Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch
obtained spices which the Portuguese brought from the East
Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized Portugal, and the Dutch could
no longer go to Lisbon. This made them anxious to find their way
to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out. This voyage was
unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the Dutch had
almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of Spain,
from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across
the Atlantic to the shores of America.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name
was given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the
Netherlands? Why were they given this name?</p>
<p>2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the
Netherlands? Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people
were ready to help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least
why the English were willing to help the Dutch against Spain?</p>
<p>3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to
make a navy?</p>
<p>4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the
Spaniards? What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he
come to go around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since
Magellan made his voyage?</p>
<p>5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards
think of him? Why did each people think as it did?</p>
<p>6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why
did this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder?</p>
<p>7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and
make himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out
his plan? Why were the English victorious in the great battle
with the Armada? Where was the battle fought?</p>
<p>8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the
Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of
Spain?</p>
<p>9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war
with Spain ended?</p>
<p>10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French
for trade and settlements in America?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous
voyage around the world? See the map on 239.gif.</p>
<p>2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in
Chapters 19 and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and
settling America?</p>
<p>3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and
the southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day.</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="1568"></a><a href="#2767">CHAPTER XXI</a></h2>
<p>THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA</p>
<p><b>English Interest in America Awakened</b>. Voyages like
those made by Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout
England to learn more about the New World. Until this time even
the great discoveries of Columbus and the Cabots had failed to
stir the English people to take part in the exploration and
settlement of the Americas. The principal reason was because
their attention was occupied by the struggle between their
monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should
govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth
had been on the throne some years.</p>
<p>Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned
their ships toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as
he had done, mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on
board the ships of Spain bound homeward. Some of them explored
the coast of North America, hoping to find valuable regions that
had not fallen into the possession of the Spaniards.</p>
<p><b>The Northwest Passage</b>. Martin Frobisher made three
voyages, the last in 1578, in search of a passage through North
America to China. He entered the bay which bears his name, and
the strait which was later called after Hudson, but failed to
find a passage. Drake attempted to find the western entrance to
such a passage in 1579 as a short cut homeward when he tried to
avoid his Spanish pursuers.</p>
<p><b>Gilbert</b>. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey
Gilbert. He wished to build up another England across the sea,
just as the people of Spain were building up another Spain. He
planned to do this by establishing farms to which he and others
might send laborers who could not find work at home. Queen
Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage him, and to repay him
for the expense of carrying the emigrants over, she promised him
the land for six hundred miles on each side of his
settlements.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="247.gif" src=
"Pictures/247.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">CHARLCOTE HALL<br>
An English Manor House of the time of Queen Elizabeth</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Failure of Gilbert's Expedition</b>. Gilbert tried twice to
plant a colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Sir Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in
the expedition of 1578. He would have been in the disastrous
second attempt in 1583 had not Queen Elizabeth, full of
forebodings of danger to her favorite, refused to let him go. As
it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert took a large
supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please the
savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless
commander.</p>
<p>The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583.
The ship that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted
before they were out of sight of England. One was left in
Newfoundland. The wreck of the largest ship, with most of the
provisions, off Cape Breton, so discouraged the crews that they
prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the plan to settle on such
barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to return on the
<i>Squirrel</i>, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This
was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of
the little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran
into a fearful storm as it approached the Azores.</p>
<p>Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he
refused to desert his companions, with whom he had passed through
so many storms and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by
his reply, "Do not fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land."
One night the <i>Squirrel</i> suddenly sank. All on board were
lost. Such was the sad ending of the first efforts to establish
an English colony in North America.</p>
<p><b>Raleigh</b> Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan
which his kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the
height of his favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him
wealthy, especially by the gift of large estates which she had
taken from others. She readily promised him the same privileges
in America which she had offered to Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless
thought that he might increase his fortune and win glory for
himself and for his country by planting English colonies in the
New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the
undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able
commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had
fortune, skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a
friend of poets and scholars and a student of books; like Drake,
he was a natural leader of men.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="249.gif" src=
"Pictures/249.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Virginia</b>. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an
expedition to explore the coast for a suitable site for a colony.
His men sailed by way of the Canaries, and came upon North
America in the neighborhood of Pamlico Sound, avoiding the stormy
route directly across the Atlantic which Gilbert had followed.
They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore of Newfoundland
and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North Carolina
and Virginia.</p>
<p>They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were
particularly pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by
the Indians Roanoke Island. They noted with wonder the
overhanging grape-vines loaded with fruit, the fine cedar trees
which seemed to them the highest and reddest in the world, the
great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless deer in
the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth
was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed
it to be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and
made Raleigh a knight.</p>
<p><b>The first English Colonists</b>. Raleigh made several
attempts to plant a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was
led by John White in 1587. White had visited Virginia on an
earlier voyage, and painted more than seventy pictures of Indian
life, representing their dress and their manner of living. These
may still be seen in the British Museum in London. His interest
in the country and its Indian population made his appointment as
governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the selection of
colonists in order to secure farmers rather than gold-seekers.
Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony of
about one hundred and fifty persons.</p>
<p><b>Roanoke</b>. White and his followers settled on Roanoke
Island. They found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers
had built some years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several
huts were still standing, but they were falling to pieces. The
first task was to rebuild the huts and move into them from their
ships. A baby girl was born a few days after the landing, the
first child born of English parents in the New World. Her father,
Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her mother, Eleanor
Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was given the
name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be her
home.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="251.gif" src=
"Pictures/251.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>The Colonists in Danger</b>. The little colony must have
foreseen the hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for
before Governor White had been in America two months, he was sent
back to England to obtain more provisions, White, from his own
account, did not wish to leave his daughter and
granddaughter.</p>
<p><b>White's Search for Aid</b>. White returned to England in
the fall of 1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England
was alarmed by the rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to
land an invading army. The friends of Virginia in England were
too busy protecting their own homes from the invader to give heed
to the needs of the farmer colonists across the sea. White
traveled through England, seeking aid for his friends and family,
but was disappointed everywhere.</p>
<p><b>Why Raleigh gave no Help</b>. Raleigh had by no means
forgotten his colonists, but his queen and his country had the
first claim on him through the long war with Spain. Twice during
this period, he found time and means to prepare relief
expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped the first one just as
it was ready to sail, because all the ships were needed at that
moment for service in the war. A second expedition was attacked
by the Spaniards and forced to return.</p>
<p><b>The lost Colony</b>. White finally secured passage for
himself on a fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and
relief supplies of his own, but as a passenger on another man's
ship. It was the summer of 1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four
years after his departure. The colonists were not to be found.
Their houses were torn down. The chests which they had evidently
buried in order to hide them from the Indians had been dug up and
ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers which he had
left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were torn
and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through with
rust.</p>
<p>One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large
letters CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the
old fort. White recalled the agreement made when he left four
years before. If the colonists should find it necessary to leave
Roanoke, they were to carve on a tree the name of the place to
which they were going. If they were in danger or distress when
they left, they were to carve a cross over the name of the place.
White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the name of a small
island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived who were
known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe among
the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search
for them because the captains of the ships which brought him over
refused to delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were
evidently more eager to attack the Spaniards than to find a few
luckless emigrants.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="253.gif" src=
"Pictures/253.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589<br>
After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history.
It is believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and
lived with them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted
the ways of their protectors.</p>
<p><b>Value of the Efforts of the English and the French</b>.
Raleigh had failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new
England in America, but he had awakened in his countrymen an
interest in America, and made known the advantages of its soil
and climate. The French had apparently made no greater headway.
Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken up, and the
Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The history
of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec,
Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's
at Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in
America which were not strongly supported by friends or by the
home government. These attempts to plant colonies in America were
not, however, as bad failures as they appeared. Both nations had
learned much about the country and about the preparations needed
for permanent settlements.</p>
<p><b>What the Spanish had accomplished</b>. In 1600 Spain seemed
to have achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of
that time shows Spain in possession of vast territories in North
and South America. The English had a small tract, Virginia, in
which they had some interest but no colonists. The French
regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by right of discovery,
but they could point to no settlements to clinch that claim.</p>
<p>The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two
hundred cities and towns which they had planted in their
territories. About two hundred thousand Spaniards, farmers,
miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had either migrated from
Spain to America or had been born there of emigrants since
Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come under their
rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and called
themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro
slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines
in Spanish America.</p>
<table align="center" summary="Picture">
<tr>
<td align="center"><img alt="255.gif" src=
"Pictures/255.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>Regions in the New World and the East
claimed by the Countries of Europe after a century of
exploration</b>.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like
the cities of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and
mason-work abounded. Churches, monasteries, a university, higher
schools for boys and girls, four hospitals, of which one was for
Indians, and public buildings, similar to those in the cities of
old Spain, already existed. Spanish life and Spanish culture had
spread over a large area in the New World, and the most
remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had been
bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into
Spain and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new
world.</p>
<p><b>The Prospects of the Spanish Colonies</b>. But the outlook
for Spain in America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her
Dutch subjects and the war with England, which grew out of that
quarrel, left her completely worn out. She no longer had the
people to spare for American settlements. These ceased to grow as
they once had. Negroes and Indians outnumbered the Spaniards in
most of them. The three races mingled together and intermarried
until a new people, the Spanish American, differing in color and
blood from either of the old races, was formed.</p>
<p><b>The later Story of Colonization</b>. Spain's rivals--the
Dutch, the English, and the French--were just reaching the height
of their power. They had settled their most serious religious
differences. Their merchants were eagerly looking about for
commercial opportunities. A considerable population in each of
them, but more especially in England, was discontented and ready
to try its fortunes in a new world. The Spaniards had passed by
the best parts of North America as worthless. The people and the
unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of colonies on
a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American
colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the
Dutch, the French, and the English colonization of North
America.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
<p>1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in
America before Drake's time? What finally, made the English
sea-captains turn to American adventure and exploration?</p>
<p>2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you
find for his failure?</p>
<p>3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of
planting English colonies in America? What part of North America
did his men select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable
place? What name was given to the country?</p>
<p>4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What
did White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search
of them?</p>
<p>5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in
their efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained
anything from all their efforts?</p>
<p>6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus?
Why were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been?
What rivals were ready to begin colonies in America?</p>
<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
<p>1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give
Gilbert for his plan in North America? Was there this much
(twelve hundred miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America
unclaimed by the French and the Spaniards?</p>
<p>2. Find Roanoke Island on the map, 251.gif.</p>
<p>3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by
the English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of
discovery and exploration (1492-1600). See the map, 255.gif. What
parts of North America were still unknown? With the use of some
map of the world to-day make a list of the colonies of the same
countries now.</p>
<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
<p>1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in
discovering the New World, and give for each the name of the
region he found.</p>
<p>2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which
they carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do,
the knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and
Britain? What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English
learned to do, the knowledge of which they either were already,
as in the case of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in
the case of England and France, were prepared to carry into North
America?</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4410"></a><a href="#1597">REFERENCES FOR
TEACHERS</a></h2>
<p>The following references are given in the hope that they will
be helpful to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive,
but enough are given so that one or more books for each subject
should be found in any fairly equipped school or public library.
Some of these books may be assigned to the brighter or more
ambitious members of the class for home readings. Extracts from
others may be read to the class directly. Still others will
furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller statements of
fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A Bibliography of
History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill and Tail
(Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further
information regarding those that are given here.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii,
iii, and iv.)<br>
<br>
(a) <i>Histories of the Greeks</i>.<br>
Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy
history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes;
Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the
Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of
the Greeks.<br>
<br>
(b) <i>Versions of some famous old Greek stories</i>, especially
the story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden
Fleece, the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses.<br>
A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths;
H. A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's
The Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece;
C. H. and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men;
Charles Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in
Tanglewood Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the
Golden Fleece in a specially interesting manner. Bryant's
translation of the Odyssey is one of the best known versions of
that story and may generally be found in public libraries.<br>
<br>
(c) <i>Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes</i>. Short
accounts of the lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles,
Socrates, Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives
of Greek Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece;
Jennie Hall, Men of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods,
Heroes and Men; E.M. Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and
Plutarch's Lives. There are several abridged editions of the
latter, but those by C.E. Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and
Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives, are best adapted to the use of
schools.<br>
<br>
(d) <i>Various features of Greek Life</i>, as the home, the
schools, food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government
have been described in the books on Greek Life.<br>
Among these are Blümner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks
(translated by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the
Ancient Greeks; Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker,
Life in Ancient Athens.<br>
<br>
(e) <i>Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria</i>. Descriptions
of these great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any
history of Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks,
ch. 2, or Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in
Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for
Alexandria, will serve the purpose.<br>
<br>
(f) <i>A description of the battle of Marathon</i>, abridged
from the History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M.
Fling's Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many
incidents in Greek History as the Greek writers told them.<br>
<br>
(g) <i>A description of the materials</i>, methods of building,
decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples,
theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek
Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art.<br>
<br>
(h) <i>Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's
History of the Greeks</i>, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth
about the Old Greek Legends, or the same author's account, Vol.
I, pp. 272-295, of Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden
Day.</p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v,
vi, vii, viii and ix.)<br>
<br>
(a) <i>Histories of the Romans</i>.<br>
Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman
History; How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History
of Rome; though the last two do not cover the entire period of
Roman history. Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive
in style and supplied with a great variety of pictures and other
illustrative matter.<br>
Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of
the Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of
the chief events in Roman history.<br>
<br>
(b) <i>Versions of famous old Roman stories</i>, especially the
wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the
Sabine Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus.<br>
A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths;
H.A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story
of the Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and
Harding, City of Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome,
gives the story of Horatius at the Bridge, together with several
other stories from early Roman history.<br>
<br>
(c) <i>Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor,
Freya, and Tyr (Tiw).</i> C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber,
Myths of Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the
Middle Ages; Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie,
Norse Stories; Eva March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice
Zimmern, Gods and Heroes of the North.<br>
<br>
(d) <i>The Story of Hermann</i> (or the struggle between the
Romans and Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta
Stories, pp. 139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of
Germany.<br>
<br>
(e) <i>Short Biographies of some famous Romans</i>. Short
accounts of the lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero,
and Constantine are given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of
Rome; Harding, The City of Seven Hills; and several of them in
Plutarch's Lives. A simple account of the Life of Hannibal, the
Carthaginian enemy of Rome, will also be found in these
books.<br>
<br>
(f) <i>Interesting phases of Roman Life</i>: for example, the
Roman boy, country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling,
amusements, etc. See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age
of Cicero; H.W. Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B.
Platner, Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker,
Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of
Roman life are described in F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma.<br>
<br>
(g) <i>For descriptions of incidents in Roman history</i> and
phases of Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them,
see Botsford, Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman
History.</p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and
xiii.)<br>
<br>
(a) <i>Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>.
G.B. Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of
Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the
Catholic; J.R. Green, Short History of the English People;
E.F. Henderson, A Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short
History of Italy.<br>
<br>
(b) <i>Collection of stories adapted to children of the
grades</i>: The Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of
the Round Table, the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland.
These stories have all been written many times, and any librarian
can give the reader copies of them as told by several writers.
The following is a partial list only:<br>
A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends
Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages;
Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan,
European Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland;
Frances N. Greene, Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence
Holbrook, Northland Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's
King Arthur; Stevens and Allen, King Arthur Stories from
Malory.<br>
<br>
(c) <i>Famous Men of the Middle Ages</i>; for example,
Charlemagne, King Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the
Conqueror, Frederick Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King
John, Saint Louis of France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg.<br>
See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise
Creighton, Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little
Stories of Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren
and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of
the Middle Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of
England; M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps
in the History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva
March Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from
English History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the
Poets. Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great
Traveler, is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story
of his travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has
been reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32.<br>
<br>
(d) <i>Viking Tales</i>. The interesting stories of the Northern
discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie
Hall, Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the
Lucky, and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland).<br>
<br>
(e) <i>The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals</i>.
Other kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be
obtained in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202;
Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16;
or in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton,
Introduction to the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent
explanation of mediaeval methods of trial.<br>
<br>
(f) <i>Famous accounts of how the People of England won the
Magna Charta</i>.<br>
Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181;
Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson,
Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source
Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303.<br>
<br>
(g) <i>Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life</i>. Maude B.
Dutton, Little Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on
How a Page became a Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding,
The Story of the Middle Ages, especially the chapters describing
life in castle, life in village, and life in monastery. Eva March
Tappan, European Hero Stories, especially the topic, Life in
Middle Ages, p. 118, the Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna
Charta, p. 111.</p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p><br>
D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America.
(For use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.)<br>
<br>
(a) <i>Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations</i>.
E.G. Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2
volumes; and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World.<br>
<br>
(b) <i>Short, easy biographies of famous explorers</i>. (Da
Gama, Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and
Raleigh.)<br>
Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F.
Gordy, Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance
of Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times;
Higginson, Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B.
Hodgdon, A First Course in American History, Book I; W.H.
Johnson, The World's Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of
Columbus and Magellan; Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L.
Pratt, America's Story for America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude
V.D. Southworth, Builders of our Country, Book I; Rosa V.
Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.<br>
<br>
(c) <i>Stories of explorations as told by the explorers
themselves</i>.<br>
Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart,
Source Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early
accounts of John Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart,
Source Readers, No. 1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of
De Soto as described by one of his followers, in Hart, Source
Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado;
Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31, the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35,
Cortés' Account of the City of Mexico; No. 36, The Death
of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages of the Cabots; No. 89,
The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The First Voyage to
Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No. 116, Sir Francis
Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118, Gilbert's Expedition;
No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke.<br>
<br>
(d) <i>The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,</i> of
Cortés, Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of
the Missions. (See Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the
Southwest.)</p>
</blockquote>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
<h2><a name="4994"></a><a href="#1510">INDEX</a></h2>
<br>
<p><br>
Acropolis,<br>
Africa, explored,<br>
Aldine Press,<br>
Alexander the Great,<br>
Alexandria,<br>
founded,<br>
end of trade route,<br>
Alfred, King,<br>
Alps,<br>
Hannibal crosses,<br>
Alva, in Netherlands,<br>
America,<br>
discovered by Columbus,<br>
origin of name,<br>
Amphitheater,<br>
at Rome,<br>
Arles,<br>
Anglo-Saxons,<br>
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,<br>
Apollo,<br>
Aqueducts,<br>
Roman,<br>
Aztec,<br>
Arabic numerals,<br>
Arabs,<br>
see Mohammedans,<br>
Arches,<br>
Roman,<br>
triumphal,<br>
Gothic,<br>
in Renaissance,<br>
Architecture,<br>
Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
early Church,<br>
Mediaeval,<br>
Renaissance,<br>
Aristocracy,<br>
origin of,<br>
Armada (ar-ma'da),<br>
expedition of,<br>
Arms, Athenian,<br>
Gallic,<br>
Mediaeval,<br>
Aztec,<br>
Arthur, King,<br>
Astrolabe,<br>
Athens,<br>
Augustus, Emperor,<br>
Azores,<br>
Aztecs,<br>
<br>
Bahama Islands,<br>
Balboa (balbo'a),<br>
Basilicas,<br>
Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu),<br>
Beggars of the Sea,<br>
Black Sea,<br>
Bologna (bo-lon'ya),<br>
University of,<br>
Boniface,<br>
Books,<br>
Greek,<br>
carried to Italy,<br>
see printing,<br>
Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o),<br>
Boxing, Greek,<br>
Britain,<br>
name changed to England,<br>
Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um),<br>
founded,<br>
named Constantinople,<br>
<br>
Cabot, John,<br>
Cabot, Sebastian,<br>
Caesar, Julius,<br>
Calvin, John,<br>
Cambridge, University of,<br>
Canary Islands,<br>
Cannae, battle of,<br>
Canterbury,<br>
Cape of Good Hope,<br>
Cape Horn,<br>
Caroline, Fort,<br>
settlement,<br>
destroyed,<br>
Carthaginians,<br>
Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya),<br>
Castles,<br>
Cathedrals,<br>
Caudine Forks,<br>
Caxton, William,<br>
Census, Roman,<br>
Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain),<br>
Charybdis (ka-rib'dis),<br>
China,<br>
Christianity,<br>
Cibola,<br>
see Seven Cities Cincinnatus,<br>
Clergy,<br>
Coligny (ko'len'ye),<br>
Colonies, Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
Spanish,<br>
French,<br>
English,<br>
Colorado, Canyon of,<br>
Colosseum,<br>
Columbus, Christopher.<br>
discoveries of,<br>
Compass, origin of,<br>
Constantine,<br>
Constantinople,<br>
founded,<br>
renamed,<br>
educated men of,<br>
taken by Turks,<br>
Consuls, at Rome,<br>
Corinth,<br>
Corinthian pillars,<br>
Coronado, Francisco,<br>
Cortes, Hernando,<br>
conquest of Mexico,<br>
Courts,<br>
Greek,<br>
English,<br>
Crusades,<br>
Cuba,<br>
Cumae,<br>
<br>
Danes,<br>
see Northmen,<br>
Normans,<br>
Dare, Virginia,<br>
Delphi,<br>
Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez),<br>
De Soto, Fernando,<br>
Diaz, Bartholomew,<br>
Discus thrower,<br>
Doric pillars,<br>
Drake, Sir Francis,<br>
adventures in America,<br>
voyage around world,<br>
attack on Spain,<br>
Duke, origin of word,<br>
Dutch, war for independence,<br>
<br>
East, The,<br>
defined,<br>
search for sea routes,<br>
Education,<br>
Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
Mediaeval,<br>
Egyptians,<br>
Elizabeth, Queen,<br>
England,<br>
first known,<br>
inhabited by Britons,<br>
conquered by Romans,<br>
name,<br>
christianized,<br>
Danes in,<br>
in Middle Ages,<br>
aids Dutch,<br>
navy,<br>
war with Spain,<br>
English explorations and colonies,<br>
English language, origin,<br>
Erasmus,<br>
Eric the Red,<br>
Españolà (es-pan-yo'la)<br>
Euclid,<br>
<br>
Fairs, Mediaeval,<br>
Ferdinand, King,<br>
Florida,<br>
origin of name,<br>
exploration,<br>
St. Augustine in,<br>
France,<br>
see Gauls,<br>
name,<br>
Danes in,<br>
in Middle Ages,<br>
sailors of,<br>
colonies in America,<br>
Francis I, King,<br>
French language,<br>
Friar Marcos,<br>
Friday, origin of name,<br>
Frieze,<br>
Frobisher, Martin,<br>
<br>
Gama, Vasco da,<br>
Games,<br>
Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
Gauls,<br>
Genoa,<br>
Germany,<br>
language,<br>
early,<br>
name,<br>
early emigrants from,<br>
missionaries to,<br>
Gilbert, Humphrey,<br>
Girgenti (jer-jen'te),<br>
temple at,<br>
Gladiators,<br>
Gothic architecture,<br>
Goths,<br>
Government,<br>
at Athens,<br>
at Rome,<br>
in England,<br>
Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius,<br>
Great Charter,<br>
Greece,<br>
language of,<br>
early history,<br>
manner of living in,<br>
colonies,<br>
rivals,<br>
conquered by Rome,<br>
and the Renaissance,<br>
Greenland,<br>
Gregory, Pope,<br>
Guam,<br>
Guilds,<br>
Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk),<br>
Gymnasium, Greek,<br>
<br>
Hannibal,<br>
Hawkins, John,<br>
Hayti, see Española,<br>
Henry, Prince, the Navigator,<br>
Henry II, of England,<br>
Henry VIII, of England,<br>
Hercules,<br>
Hermann,<br>
Hermes,<br>
Herodotus (herod'otus),<br>
Homer,<br>
Horatius,<br>
House of Commons,<br>
House of Lords,<br>
Houses,<br>
Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
Aztec,<br>
in Cibola,<br>
Huguenots (hu'ge-nots),<br>
origin of,<br>
in America,<br>
and Dutch,<br>
<br>
Iceland,<br>
Incas,<br>
India,<br>
Indians,<br>
origin of name,<br>
of Mexico,<br>
of Peru,<br>
as slaves,<br>
missions to,<br>
and De Soto,<br>
in Cibola,<br>
in Quivira,<br>
at Roanoke,<br>
Indies,<br>
Ionic pillars,<br>
Isabella, Queen of Spain,<br>
Isabella, town in Española,<br>
Italy,<br>
Greeks in,<br>
Romans masters of,<br>
farmers in,<br>
Goths invade,<br>
Mediaeval,<br>
Renaissance in,<br>
<br>
Japan,<br>
Jerusalem,<br>
Jews,<br>
John, King of England,<br>
Jury, origin of,<br>
Justice,<br>
Greek,<br>
English,<br>
Justinian,<br>
<br>
Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne)<br>
Knights,<br>
<br>
Las Casas (ca'sas),<br>
Latin,<br>
words,<br>
literature,<br>
learned by the Gauls,<br>
in Middle Ages,<br>
in Renaissance,<br>
Law,<br>
Roman,<br>
English,<br>
Leif Ericson,<br>
London,<br>
Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la)<br>
Luther, Martin,<br>
<br>
Madeira Islands (madei'ra),<br>
Magellan,<br>
Magellan, Strait of,<br>
Magna Charta,<br>
Marathon,<br>
Marco Polo,<br>
Marseilles (mar-salz),<br>
Mary, Queen of England,<br>
Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath)<br>
Mexico, conquest of,<br>
Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo),<br>
Middle Ages,<br>
defined,<br>
close,<br>
Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez)<br>
Missionaries,<br>
Missions, Spanish,<br>
Mississippi River, discovery of,<br>
Modern Times, defined,<br>
Mohammedans,<br>
Moluccas,<br>
Monasteries,<br>
Mongol Tartars,<br>
Montezuma, King of Aztecs,<br>
Montreal,<br>
Moors,<br>
Mosaics,<br>
<br>
Naples,<br>
Navy,<br>
English,<br>
in battle against the Armada,<br>
Netherlands, revolt of,<br>
New Testament,<br>
Greek,<br>
first printed,<br>
Nobles,<br>
Norman architecture,<br>
Norman Conquest,<br>
Normans,<br>
Northmen,<br>
Notre Dame (no'tr'dam)<br>
in Paris,<br>
<br>
Odin,<br>
Olympia,<br>
Olympic games,<br>
Ordeals,<br>
Oxford, University of,<br>
<br>
Pacific Ocean,<br>
Paestum (pes'tum),<br>
Paintings, Greek,<br>
Panama,<br>
Pantheon (Pan'theon),<br>
Papyrus (pa-pi'rus),<br>
Paris,<br>
Parliament, English, origin of,<br>
Parthenon (par'thenon),<br>
Patagonia,<br>
Patricians,<br>
Paul, the Apostle,<br>
Peasants,<br>
Pediment,<br>
Persia,<br>
Peru, conquest of,<br>
Petrarch (pe'trark),<br>
Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez),<br>
Philip II,<br>
Philippines,<br>
Phoenicia,<br>
Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro),<br>
conquest of Peru,<br>
Plataeans,<br>
Plato,<br>
Plebeians,<br>
Pompeii (pom-pa'ye),<br>
Pompey,<br>
Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on),<br>
Pope, the Bishop of Rome,<br>
Porticoes,<br>
Portugal,<br>
sailors of,<br>
and the New World,<br>
Potato, found by Magellan,<br>
Pottery,<br>
Greek,<br>
Aztec,<br>
Zuñi,<br>
Printing, invented,<br>
Ptolemy (tol'e-mi),<br>
Pyrrhus (pir'us),<br>
<br>
Quebec,<br>
Quivira,<br>
<br>
Raleigh, Sir Walter,<br>
Renaissance (ren'e-sans),<br>
Richard, the Lionhearted,<br>
Roads, Roman,<br>
Roanoke,<br>
Roman Empire,<br>
size,<br>
origin,<br>
Roman type,<br>
Romans,<br>
language,<br>
see Latin, early,<br>
contact with Greeks,<br>
wars in Italy,<br>
early manner of living,<br>
war with Carthage,<br>
conquer Gaul and Britain,<br>
Empire of,<br>
civilization of,<br>
Christianized,<br>
empire ruined,<br>
literature of,<br>
influence,<br>
Romanesque architecture,<br>
Romulus,<br>
<br>
Salamis,<br>
Samnites,<br>
San Salvador,<br>
St. Augustine,<br>
Sardinia,<br>
Saxons,<br>
Sculpture, Greek,<br>
Scylla (sil'a),<br>
Senators, at Rome,<br>
Seven Cities of Cibola,<br>
Shakespeare,<br>
Ships,<br>
Greek,<br>
early English,<br>
Venetian,<br>
of Columbus,<br>
of English navy,<br>
Sicily,<br>
Sidney, Sir Philip,<br>
Simon de Montfort,<br>
Slaves,<br>
Greek,<br>
Roman,<br>
Indians as,<br>
Negroes as,<br>
Slave-trade,<br>
Spanish,<br>
English,<br>
Socrates (sok'ra-tez),<br>
Spain, early settlements in,<br>
Romans capture,<br>
name,<br>
Arabs in,<br>
Columbus and,<br>
claim to New World,<br>
colonies of,<br>
war with Netherlands,<br>
war with England,<br>
Sparta,<br>
Spice Islands,<br>
Spice trade,<br>
Stadium,<br>
Statues, Greek,<br>
<br>
Temples, Greek,<br>
Theater,<br>
Greek,<br>
early Roman,<br>
later,<br>
Thebes,<br>
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez),<br>
Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le),<br>
Theseum (these'um),<br>
Thor,<br>
Thursday, origin of name,<br>
"Tin Islands,"<br>
Towns, in Middle Ages,<br>
Trade, Mediaeval,<br>
Trade-winds,<br>
Trebia, battle of,<br>
Trial by battle,<br>
Tribune, Roman,<br>
Trireme,<br>
Troy,<br>
Turks,<br>
"Twelve Tables," Tyre,<br>
<br>
Ulfilas,<br>
Ulysses,<br>
Universities,<br>
<br>
Venice,<br>
Venus of Melos,<br>
Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix),<br>
Vespucius, Americus,<br>
Veto, at Rome,<br>
Vikings,<br>
Vinland,<br>
Virginia,<br>
origin of name,<br>
colony in,<br>
<br>
Watling Island,<br>
Wednesday, origin of name,<br>
West Indies,<br>
White, John,<br>
William the Conqueror,<br>
William of Orange,<br>
Wodan,<br>
Women, Roman,<br>
Words,<br>
Writing, art of,<br>
<br>
Xerxes (zurk'zez),<br>
<br>
Zuñi,<br>
</p>
<br>
<br>
<hr class="c1">
<br>
<br>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<pre>
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