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diff --git a/old/7iahs10.txt b/old/7iahs10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34c6e8a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7iahs10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7283 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History +by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Introductory American History + +Author: Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9897] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 28, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY + + +BY + +HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE +AND +ELBERT JAY BENTON + +PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY + + + +1912 + + + +INTRODUCTION + +This volume is the introductory part of a course in American history +embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee of Eight of the +American Historical Association.[1] The plan calls for a continuous +course running through grades six, seven, and eight. The events which +have taken place within the limits of what is now the United States must +necessarily furnish the most of the content of the lessons. But the +Committee urge that enough other matter, of an introductory character, +be included to teach boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of +age that our civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of +the Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of our +country in its true historical setting. The Committee recommend that +about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to this preliminary +matter, and that the remainder of the year be given to the period of +discovery and exploration. + +The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four lines of +development in the world's history leading up to American +history proper. + +First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by which the +ancient civilized world, originally made up of communities like the +Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean Seas, +spread to southern Italy and adjacent lands. The Roman conquest of Italy +and of the barbarian tribes of western Europe expanded the civilized +world to the shores of the Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new +nations grew up. The migration of Europeans to the American continent +was the final step. + +Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in extent was a +growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of what we call +geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the herald of an +expanding world. + +A third process was the creation and transmission of all that we mean by +civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the effort should be to +"show, in a very simple way, the civilization which formed the heritage +of those who were to go to America, that is, to explain what America +started with." + +The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate the three +or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in American +colonization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the +child some feeling for the name 'England,' 'Spain,' 'Holland,' and +'France.'" + +No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of Greece, +Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an attempt would be +utterly destructive of the plan. Only those features of early +civilization and those incidents of history have been selected which +appear to have a vital relation to the subsequent fortunes of mankind in +America as well as in Europe. They are treated in all cases as +introductory. Opinions may differ upon the question of what topics best +illustrate the relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of +opportunity for the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a +textbook based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of +selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to +illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may prefer +Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler dramatic +development. In the same way teachers may desire to give more emphasis +to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval civilization or certain heroic +persons treated very briefly in this book. Exercises similar to those +inserted at the end of each chapter offer means of supplementing work +provided in the text. + +The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of the +Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a natural +culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same plan of +division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore, open with the +study of the first permanent English settlements. + +The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than most of +the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is treated, we hope, +with such simplicity and definiteness of statement that it will be +comprehensible and instructive to pupils of the sixth grade. + +At the close of the book will be found a list of references. From this +teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and descriptions to +illustrate any features of the subject which especially interest their +classes. In the index is given the pronunciation of difficult names. + +We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with wise advice +and criticism. + +[Footnote 1: The Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's, +1909.] + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + + I. THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE + + II. OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS + + III. HOW THE GREEKS LIVED + + IV. GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS + + V. NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS + + VI. THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE + + VII. THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC + + VIII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD + + IX. CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE + + X. EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO + + XI. HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES + + XII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES + + XIII. TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES + + XIV. THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD + + XV. OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD + + XVI. EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE MAINLAND + + XVII. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA + +XVIII. RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE + + XIX. FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA + + XX. THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN + + XXI. THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA + +REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS + +INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY + + + +INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE + + +THE EMIGRANT AND WHAT HE BRINGS TO AMERICA. The emigrant who lands + at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any other seaport, brings with + him something which we do not see. He may have in his hands only a + small bundle of clothing and enough money to pay his railroad fare to + his new home, but he is carrying another kind of baggage more valuable + than bundles or boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other + baggage is the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought + from the fatherland. + + He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which he hopes + to labor in America. In his native land he has been taught to obey the + laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This fits him to share in our + self-government. He also brings great memories, for he likes to think + of the brave and noble deeds done by men of his race. If he is a + religious man, he worships God just as his forefathers have for + hundreds of years. To understand how the emigrant happens to know what + he does and to be what he is, we must study the history of the country + from which he comes. + +ALL AMERICANS ARE EMIGRANTS. If this is true of the newcomer, it is + equally true of the rest of us, for we are all emigrants. The Indians + are the only native Americans, and when we find out more about them we + may learn that they, too, are emigrants. If we follow the history of + our families far enough back, we shall come upon the names of our + forefathers who sailed from Europe. They may have come to America in + the early days when there were only a few settlements scattered along + our Atlantic coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War + changed the English colonies into the United States. + + Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians, we are + simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the Europe in which + our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our story. In order to + understand our own history we must know something of the history of + England, France, Germany, Italy, and other European lands. + +WHAT THE EARLY EMIGRANTS BROUGHT. If we read the story of our + forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers to several + important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek for new lands or + for new ways to lands already known? How did the people of Europe live + at the time he discovered America? What did they know how to do? Were + they skilful in all sorts of work, or were they as rude and ignorant + as the Indians on the western shores of the Atlantic? + + The answers which history will give to these questions will say that + the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought with them much of + the same knowledge and many of the same customs and memories which + emigrants bring nowadays and which we also have. It is true that since + the time the first settlers came men have found out how to make many + new things. The most important of these are the steam-engine, the + electric motor, the telegraph, and the telephone. But it is surprising + how many important things, which we still use, were made before + Columbus saw America. + + [Illustration: A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING VESSEL + The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered great + hardships] + + For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been + discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men could + make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The ships in + which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large and wonderful + to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were steered with the help + of a compass, an instrument which the Indians had never seen. + + Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been known + hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest was the art + of writing. The way to write words or sounds was found out so long ago + that we shall never know the name of the man who first discovered it. + The historians tell us he lived in Egypt, which was in northern + Africa, exactly where Egypt is now. Some men were afraid that the new + art might do more harm than good. The king to whom the secret was told + thought that the children would be unwilling to work hard and try to + remember because everything could be written down and they would not + need to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to + put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made several + letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a mixture of little + pictures and queer marks. + + [Illustration: Cleopatra EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING] + +OLD AND NEW INVENTIONS. Those who first discover how to make things + are called inventors, and what they make are called inventions. Now if + we should write out a list of the most useful inventions, we could + place in one column the inventions which were made before the days of + Columbus and in another those which have been made since. With this + list before us we may ask which inventions we could live without and + which we could not spare unless we were willing to become like the + savages. We should find that a large number of the inventions which we + use every day belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is + another reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and + working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our + forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history. + + [Illustration: Phoenician Early Greek Early Latin English + GROWTH OF LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET] + +A PLAN OF STUDY. The discovery of America was made in 1492, at the + beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before Modern Times were the + Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand years. These began three or four + hundred years after the time of Christ or what we call the beginning + of the Christian Era. All the events that took place earlier we say + happened in Ancient Times. Much that we know was learned first by the + Greeks or Romans who lived in Ancient Times. + + It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called + Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards, and + many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent of + Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of what they + knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out how these things + were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages and what they added to + them. This will help us to find out what our forefathers started with + when they came to live in America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides his + baggage? + + 2. Why are all Americans emigrants? + + 3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America bring with + them? + + 4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone or + the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the map. + How did Egyptian writing look? + + 5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were + invented before he discovered America? + + 6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient Times? + By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the art of + writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented? In what + Times was the telephone invented? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising + folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of sailing + ships, ships used now and those used long ago. + + 2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country + stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from ports + like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now live. + + 3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the map the + European country from which his parents or his grandparents or his + forefathers came. + + 4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his + forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each + find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each tell + the most interesting hero story from among the stories of the mother + country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the tools used in + the old home were like the tools his parents use here. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS + +ANCIENT CITIES THAT STILL EXIST. In Ancient Times the most + important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean. The + northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The first is + Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean; + the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the third, the end of + which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece. Beyond Greece is Asia + Minor, the part of Asia which lies between the Mediterranean Sea and + the Black Sea. + + The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in Ancient + Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks, just as they + were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the cities that the + Greeks and Romans built are still standing. Alexandria was founded by + the great conqueror Alexander. Constantinople used to be the Greek + city of Byzantium. Another Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern + French city of Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times, + except that it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name + of Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum. + +RUINS WHICH SHOW HOW THE ANCIENTS LIVED. In many of these cities + are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of carving, vases, + mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we may see and from + which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans lived. Near Naples are + the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city suddenly destroyed during an + eruption of the volcano Vesuvius. + + For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or twenty feet + of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets and the walls of + the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and the walls in many + places were only partly standing, but things which in other ancient + cities had entirely disappeared were kept safe in Pompeii under the + volcanic ashes. + + The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see how its + inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit their public + buildings and their private houses, can handle their dishes and can + look at the paintings on their walls or the mosaics in the floors. But + interesting as Pompeii is, we must not think that its ruins teach us + more than the ruins of Rome or Athens or many other ancient cities. + Each has something important to tell us of the people who lived long + ago. + +ANCIENT WORDS STILL IN USE. The ancient Greeks and Romans have left + us some things more useful than the ruins of their buildings. These + are the words in our language which once were theirs, and which we use + with slight changes in spelling. Most of our words came in the + beginning from Germany, where our English forefathers lived before + they settled in England. To the words they took over from Germany they + added words borrowed from other peoples, just as we do now. We have + recently borrowed several words from the French, such as tonneau and + limousine, words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the + name automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek word. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII The houses of the + better sort were built with an open court in the center] + + In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming into our + language from other languages. Several thousand have come from Latin, + the language of the Romans; several hundred from Greek, either + directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the French. The word + school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was borrowed from the French, + who took it from the Greeks. Geography is another word which came, + through French and Latin, from the Greeks, to whom it meant that which + is written about the earth. The word grammar came in the same way. The + word alphabet is made by joining together the names of the first two + Greek letters, alpha and beta. + + Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and this is + not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek. Some of these + are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil, apostle, and martyr. + The Greeks have handed down to us many words about government, + including the word itself, which in the beginning meant "to steer." + Politics meant having to do with a _polis_ or city. Several of the + words most recently made up of Greek words are telegraph, telephone, + phonograph, and thermometer. + +MANY WORDS BORROWED FROM THE ROMANS. Nearly ten times as many of + our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the Greeks, and it is + not strange, because at one time the Romans ruled over all the country + now occupied by the Italians, the French, the Spaniards, a part of the + Germans, and the English, so that these peoples naturally learned the + words used by their conquerors and governors. + +INTERESTING ANCIENT STORIES. In the poems and tales which we learn + at home or at school are stories which Greek and Roman parents and + teachers taught their children many hundred years ago. We learn them + partly because they are interesting, and because they please or amuse + us, and partly because they appear so often in our books that it is + necessary to know them if we would understand our own books and + language. Who has not heard of Hercules and his Labors, of the Search + for the Golden Fleece, the Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of + Ulysses? We love modern fairy stories and tales of adventure, but they + are not more pleasing than these ancient stories. + + [Illustration: THE PLAIN OF MARATHON] + +THE STORY OF THE GREEKS. Our language and our books are full of + memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story of the Greeks + comes before the story of the Romans, for the Greeks were living in + beautiful cities, with temples and theaters, while the Romans were + still an almost unknown people dwelling on the hills that border the + river Tiber. + +MEMORIES OF GREEK COURAGE. The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took + place in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of + Persia about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was + no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe. + Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings, others + by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together when any + danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned traitor and helped + the enemy against the others. The most dangerous enemy the Greeks had, + until the Romans attacked them, was the kingdom of Persia, which + stretched from the Aegean Sea far into Asia. In the war with the + Persians the Greeks fought three famous battles, at Marathon, + Thermopylae, and Salamis, the stories of which men have always liked + to hear and remember. + +PREPARING FOR MARATHON, 490 B.C. To the Athenians belong the + glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city of Athens now + stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters still attract students + and travelers to Greece. The plain of Marathon lay more than twenty + miles to the northeast, and the roads to it led through mountain + passes. When the Athenians heard that the hosts of the Great King of + Persia were approaching, they sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to + ask aid of Sparta, a city one hundred and forty miles away, in the + peninsula now called the Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of + Greece. This runner reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans + said it would be against their religious custom to march before the + moon was full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy + alone--one small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten + thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by a + thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of Plataea. + + [Illustration: GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS From a Greek vase of + about the time of the battle of Marathon] + +HOW THE ATHENIANS WERE ARMED. Although the Persians had six times + as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so well armed for + hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was the bow and arrow, + while the Greeks used the lance and a short sword. The Greek soldier + was protected by his bronze helmet, solid across the forehead and over + the nose; by his breastplate, a leathern or linen tunic covered with + small metal scales, with flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves + or pieces of metal in front of his knees and shins. He was also + protected by a shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his + knees. According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten + generals, each commanding one day in turn. + +THE BATTLE-GROUND. Marathon was a plain about two miles wide, lying + between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads ran toward + Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost reached the sea, + the other up a narrow valley and over the mountains. The Athenians + were encamped in this valley, where they could attack the Persians if + they tried to follow the shore road. + + The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near the + shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they had so many + more soldiers than the Athenians and because they meant to use their + horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched the Persians, not + knowing what it was best to do. Half the generals did not wish to risk + a battle, but Miltiades was eager to fight, for he feared that delay + would lead timid citizens or traitors to yield to the Persians. He + finally gained his wish, and on his day of command the battle was + ordered. + +THE BATTLE. The Persians by this time had decided to sail around to + the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen on board their + ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew up their + foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their comrades--the + Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run. The Persians thought + this madness, because the Greeks had no archers or horsemen. But the + Greeks saw that if they moved forward slowly the Persians would have + time to shoot arrows at them again and again. + + When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the two ends + of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore. In the + center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks were not at + first successful, and were forced to retreat. But those who had been + victorious came to their rescue, attacked the Persians in the rear, + and finally drove them off. The Persians ran into the sea to reach the + ships, and the Athenians followed them. Some of the Greeks were so + eager in the fight that they seized the sides of the ships and tried + to keep them from being rowed away, but the Persians cut at their + hands and made them let go. + + [Illustration: THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS Where a great sea-fight + between Greeks and Persians took place] + +THE NEWS OF THE VICTORY. The Athenians had won a victory of which + they were so proud that they meant it never should be forgotten. Their + city had suddenly become great through the courage and self-sacrifice + of her citizens. One hundred and ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on + the battle-field their comrades raised over their bodies a mound of + earth which still marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner + Pheidippides to bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until + he reached the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on + his lips, he fell dead. + +OTHER VICTORIES OF THE GREEKS. Marathon was only the beginning of + Greek victories over the Persians, only the first struggle in the long + wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years after Marathon the Spartans + won everlasting glory by their heroic stand at the Pass of Thermopylae +--three hundred Greeks against the mighty army of the Persian king + Xerxes. The barbarian hordes passed over their bodies, took the road + to Athens, burned the city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight + which took place on the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian + territory and the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to + Athenian courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader, + Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other + Greeks wanted to sail away. + +WHY MARATHON IS REMEMBERED. The victories of Marathon and Salamis + were great not only because small armies of Greeks put to flight the + hosts of Persia, they were great because they saved the independence + of Greece. If the Greeks had become the subjects and slaves of Persia, + they would not have built the wonderful buildings, or carved the + beautiful statues, or written the books which we study and admire. + When we think of the Greeks as our first teachers we feel as proud of + their victories as if they were our own victories. + +THE WARS OF THE GREEK CITIES. The Athenians had done the most in + winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore Athens was for + many years the most powerful city in Greece. The Spartans were always + jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a century after the victory + of Marathon they conquered and humbled Athens. The worst faults of the + Greeks were such jealousies and the desire to lord it over one + another. Greek history is full of wars of city against city, Sparta + against Athens, Corinth against Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In + these wars many heroic deeds were done, of which we like to read, but + it is more important for us to understand how the Greeks lived. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the map. + (For each difficult name find the pronunciation in the index.) + + 2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which tell + us how the people lived? + + 3. From what country did most of our words come in the beginning? + Why are they now called English? What peoples used the word + geography before we did? About how many words do we get from the + Greeks, and how many from the Romans? + + 4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the Romans? + Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived. + + 5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the Greeks? + + 6. Find the city of Athens on the map. Find Sparta. Where + was Marathon? What city won glory at Marathon? + + 7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and Asia + Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising folders. + Collect postal cards giving such pictures. + + 2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned in Chapter II, + and tell it. + + 3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed from + the way the Greek soldiers were. + + 4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a "Marathon." + + + + +CHAPTER III + + +HOW THE GREEKS LIVED + +THE GREEK CITIES. The Greeks lived in cities so much of the time that + we do not often think of them as ever living in the country. The + reason for this was that their government and everything else + important was carried on in the city. The cities were usually + surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made them safe from + sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was often a lofty hill, + which we should call a fort or citadel, but which they called the + upper city or acropolis. There the people lived at first when they + were few in number, and thither they fled if the walls of their city + were broken down by enemies. + + In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain. Its top + was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one were steep + cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful temples. + +PRIVATE HOUSES. Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did not spend much + money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses would seem small, + badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But what their houses lacked + was more than made up by the beauty and splendor of the public + buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and especially the temples. + +TEMPLES. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds of worshipers + like the large churches of Europe and America to-day. Religious + ceremonies were most often carried on in the open air. The Parthenon, + the most famous temple of Ancient Times, was small. Its principal room + measured less than one hundred feet in length. Part of this room was + used for an altar and for the ivory and gold statue of the goddess + Athena. + + [Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY] + +THE PARTHENON. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a similar temple, + we notice the columns in front and along the sides. The Parthenon had + eight at each end and seventeen on each side. They were thirty-four + feet high. A few feet within the columns on the sides was the wall of + the temple. Before the vestibule and entrances at the front and at the + rear stood six more columns. The beauty of the marble from which + stones and columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders + carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the + pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon the + columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above the + columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a frieze) + ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The temple was + not left a glistening white, but parts of it were painted in blue, or + red, or gilt, or orange. + + [Illustration: THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO The + Parthenon is the large temple on the right] + +OTHER GREEK TEMPLES. This beautiful temple is now partly ruined. Ruins + of other temples are on the Acropolis, and one better preserved, + called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill. There are also similar + ruins in many places along the shores of the Mediterranean. The most + interesting are at Paestum in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily. Long + before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans how to + construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings, and this the + Romans later taught the peoples of western Europe. + +GREEK METHODS OF BUILDING STILL USED. If we look at our large + buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek buildings. + Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is imitated; sometimes + this form is changed as the Romans changed it, or as it was changed by + builders who lived after the time of the Romans. If the model of the + whole building is not used, there are similar pillars, or gables, or + the sculpture in the pediment and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks + had three kinds of pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The + Doric is simple and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top, + delicate and beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with + leaves springing gracefully from the top of the pillar. + + [Illustration: Doric Ionic Corinthian GREEK ORDERS OF + ARCHITECTURE] + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS] + +THEATERS. The first Greek theater was only a smooth open space near a + hillside, with a tent, called a _skene_, or scene, in which the + actors dressed. Later an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed + on the hillside, and across the open end was placed the _scene_, + which had been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a + house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are furnished + with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters thousands of people + gathered. Plays were generally given as a part of religious festivals, + and there were contests between writers to see which could produce the + best play. Sometimes the plays followed one another for three days + from morning until night. Many of them are so interesting that people + still read them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied + them, and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write + plays. + + [Illustration: THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS] + +THE STADIUM. A building which somewhat resembled the theater was the + stadium, where races were run. The difference was that it was oblong + instead of half round. The most famous stadium, at Olympia, was seven + hundred and two feet long, with raised seats on both sides and around + one end of the running track. The other end was open. About fifty + thousand persons used to gather there to watch the races. + +PORTICOES. There were other buildings, some for meeting places, some + for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes, where the judges + held court or the city officers carried on their business. The + porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over, with occasionally + a second story. As they stretched along the sides of a square or + market place they added much to the beauty of a city. + +GREEK SCULPTURE. We know that the Greeks were skilful sculptors + because from the ruins of their cities have been dug wonderful marble + and bronze statues which are now preserved in the great museums of the + world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and Rome, and here in America, in New + York and Boston. Museums which cannot have the original statues + usually contain copies or casts of them in plaster. The statues are + generally marred and broken, but enough remains to show us the + wonderful beauty of the artist's work. Among the most famous are the + Venus, of Melos (or "de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a + museum called the Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia + in Greece; and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in + London. + + [Illustration: THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS) An ancient + Greek statue now in the Vatican] + + Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the Greek + statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may learn how such + beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to excel the Greeks, + but are content to remain their pupils. + +PAINTING AND POTTERY. The Greeks were also painters, makers of + pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of their + workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in the ruins of + ancient buildings and tombs. + + [Illustration: A GREEK BOOK The upper picture, shows the book + open.] + +WHAT THE BOYS WERE TAUGHT. The Greek boys were not very good at + arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or their fingers + to help them in reckoning. In learning to write they smeared a thin + layer of wax over a board and marked on that. There was a kind of + paper called papyrus, made from a reed which grew mostly in Egypt, but + this was expensive. Rolls were made of sheets of it pasted together, + and these were their books. One of the books the boys studied much was + the poems of Homer--the Iliad and the Odyssey--which tell about the + siege of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these + long poems by heart. They also stored away in their memories the + sayings of other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know + what to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in + such excellent words. + +GAMES AND EXERCISES FOR BOYS. It is not surprising that Greek boys + knew how to play, but it is surprising that they played many of the + games which boys play now, such as hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks + and drakes, and blind man's buff. They even "pitched pennies." In + school the boys were taught not only to read and write, but to be + skilful athletes, and to play on the lyre, accompanying this with + singing. The gymnasium was often an open space near a stream into + which they could plunge after their exercises were over. They were + taught to box, to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear. + Military training was important for them, since all might be called to + fight for the safety of their city. + +THE OLYMPIC GAMES. Boys and young men were trained as runners, + wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because they enjoyed + these exercises and the Greeks thought them an important part of + education, but also that they might bring back honors and prizes to + their city from the great games which all the Greeks held every few + years. The most famous of these games were held at Olympia. There the + Greeks went from all parts of the country, carrying their tents and + cooking utensils with them, because there were not enough houses in + Olympia to hold so many people. Wars even were stopped for a time in + order that the games might not be postponed. + +THE REWARDS OF THE VICTORS. The principal contest was a dash for two + hundred yards, although there were longer races and many other kinds + of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to see the most brutal + sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands and arms were covered with + heavy strips of leather stiffened with pieces of iron or lead. For the + games men trained ten months, part of the time at Olympia. The prize + was a crown of wild olive, and the winner returned in triumph to his + city, where poets sang his praises, a special seat at public games was + reserved for him, and often artists were employed to make a bronze + statue of him to be set up in Olympia or in his own city. + + [Illustration: GREEK GAMES--RUNNING From an antique vase] + +THE GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. The citizen of Athens, and of other Greek + cities, had more to do with his government than do most Americans with + theirs. As nearly all work was done by slaves, he had plenty of time + to attend meetings. All the citizens could attend the great assembly, + or _ecclesia_, where six thousand at least must be present before + anything could be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be + admitted to citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized, + from Athens as hurtful to its welfare. + + There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less + important questions without laying them before the general assembly. + This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but members of the + council whose term had ended had a right to object to any new member + as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council ruled for a tenth of the + year, and they chose their president by lot every day, so that any + worthy man at Athens had a chance to be president for a day and a + night. + + [Illustration: A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.] + + Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six thousand + judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a thousand and one, + or even fifteen hundred and one, took part. Before such large courts + and assemblies it was necessary to be a good speaker to be able to win + a case or persuade the citizens. Some of the greatest orators of the + world were Athenians, the best known being Demosthenes. + +SOCRATES. The Athenians were not always just, although so many of them + acted as judges. One court, composed of five hundred and one judges, + condemned to death Socrates, the wisest man of the Greeks and one of + the wisest in the world. He did not make speeches, or write books, or + teach in school. He went about, in the market place, at the gymnasium, + and on the streets, asking men, young and old, questions about what + interested him most, that is, What is the true way to live? If people + did not give him an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions, + until sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he + asked questions about everything that he did not believe in anything, + not even in the religion of his city. + + [Illustration: SOCRATES After the marble bust in the Vatican] + +THE DEATH OF SOCRATES, 399 B.C. After a while the enemies of Socrates + accused him of being a wicked man who persuaded young men to be + wicked. He was tried by an Athenian court, which made the terrible + blunder of finding him guilty and condemning him to death. According + to the Athenian custom he was obliged to drink a cup of poisonous + hemlock. This he did, after talking to his friends cheerily about how + a good man should live. As he wrote no books we have learned about him + from his friends. The most famous of these was Plato, who is also + counted among the wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives + of these men is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to + live after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of + building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived? + + 2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens look? + + 3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment. Show + where the frieze was placed. Find on a map Paestum. + + 4. What did the Greeks first mean by a _scene_? Why do we still + study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters? + + 5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such + buildings? + + 6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues? + + 7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about the + great public games of the Greeks. + + 8. How were the Greek rolls or books made? + + 9. Tell the story of Socrates. + + EXERCISES + + 1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek + buildings? + + 2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns. + + 3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a papered + room. + + 4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and the + government of your town? + + 5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the + courts in your town? + + 6. Are Olympic games held now? Where? + + 7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners at + Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic games? + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS + +WHEN THE ATLANTIC WAS UNKNOWN. One of the most important things + done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore the coasts and lands of + Europe and to make settlements wherever they went. At first they knew + little of the western and northern parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek + whom we call the "Father of History," and who was a great traveler, + said, "Though I have taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an + assurance from any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side + of Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark + shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood that tin + and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called the "ends of the + earth." As tin came from England, it is plain that he had heard a little + of that island. + + [Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED BY THE GREEK + HISTORIAN HERODOTUS] + +GREEK EMIGRANTS. Long before Athens became a great and beautiful + city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on distant shores. Those + who lived on the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as those who lived + where the kingdom of Greece is now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The + Greek colonies were very important, because by them the ancient + civilized world was made larger, just as by the settlement of America + the modern world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from + home for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England and + Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a new land to + make a living and obtain property, or they did not like the way their + city was ruled, and being unable to change this, resolved to build + elsewhere a city which they could manage as they pleased. + +HOW THEY LOCATED A NEW CITY. There were several different lands to + which they could go, just as the European of to-day may sail for the + United States or South America or Australia. They could attempt to + settle on the shores of the Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa, + or try to reach Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France + and Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice of + the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These priests + knew more about good places for settlements than most other persons, + because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi and the priests were + wise enough to inquire about all parts of the world. + + [Illustration: _The territory occupied by the Greeks is + indicated by solid black_] + + The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to locate + their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They discovered that + these words meant that an earlier band of emigrants had passed by the + wonderful harbor of the present city of Constantinople and had settled + instead on the other shore of the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they + chose the better place and began to build the city of Byzantium, which + later became Constantinople. + +MOTHER AND DAUGHTER CITIES. Solemn ceremonies took place when + colonists departed. They carried with them fire from the hearth of the + mother city in order to light a similar fire on their new hearth, for + every city had its hearthstone and on it a fire that was never quenched. + The ties between the mother and the daughter city were close, and the + enemies of one were the enemies of the other. He who wished to visit the + colony usually went to the mother city to find a ship bound thither. + +WHERE THE SETTLEMENTS WERE MADE. When the Greek sailors first + entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean, and called it + the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until that time they had been + accustomed to sail only from island to island in the Aegean Sea. After a + while they made settlements all around the shores of the Black Sea, and + in later times Athens drew from this region her supply of grain. Still + more important settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for + it was through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks + knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes and to + the Romans. + +DANGERS OF THE VOYAGE. At first Greek sailors feared the dangers of the + western Mediterranean as much as those of the Black Sea. They imagined + that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful monsters Scylla and Charybdis + lurked in the Straits of Messina waiting to seize and swallow the + unlucky passer-by. On the slopes of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought, + hideous, one-eyed giants, the Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites + with the quivering flesh of many captives. + + [Illustration: GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN ITALY] + +GREEKS IN THE WEST. The earliest settlement of the Greeks in Italy + was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay of Naples. Later + these colonists entered the bay and founded the "new city," or Neapolis, + which we call Naples. Finally there were so many Greek cities in + southern Italy that it was named "Great Greece." The Greeks also made + settlements in what is now southern France and eastern Spain. The + principal one was Massilia, or Marseilles. Through the traders of this + city the ancient world obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country + which is now called England. + +GREEK COLONIES AS CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION. The Greeks in these + colonies traded with the natives whose villages were near by, and many + of the natives learned to live like the Greeks. In this way the Greeks + became teachers of civilization, and the Greek world, which at first was + made up of cities on the shores of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place + to place along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. + + [Illustration: A GREEK TRIREME] + +GREEK SHIPS. The ships of the Greeks were very different from + modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by steam, nor did they + rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships do. They had sails, but + were driven forward mostly by their oars. The trireme, or ordinary + war-ship, had its oars arranged in three banks, fifty men rowing at + once. After these had rowed several hours, or a "watch," another fifty + took their places, and finally a third fifty, so that the ships could be + rowed at high speed all the time. With the aid of its two sails a + trireme is said to have gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a + night. These boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and + fifteen feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not + high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak, which, + driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides. The Greek + grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more capable of enduring + rough weather. + + [Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT After the bust in the + Capitoline Museum, Rome] + +ALEXANDER THE GREAT, KING OF MACEDON FROM 336 TO 323 B.C. Greek + ways of living were also carried eastward as well as westward. The + enlargement of the Greek world in this direction was due to Alexander + the Great, the most skilful soldier and the ablest leader of men among + all the Greeks. Alexander was king of Macedon, and like the earlier + Greeks he regarded the Persians as his enemies, and made war upon them. + After conquering the Persians he marched across western Asia until he + had reached the Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well + as a conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were + named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is still the + chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language commonly spoken + throughout the lands near the eastern Mediterranean. This is the reason + why in later times the New Testament was written in Greek. + +ALEXANDRIA. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the center and + Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a great library which + contained over five hundred thousand volumes or rolls. There also was + the museum or university, in which many learned men were at work. The + best known of these men was Euclid, who perfected the mathematics which + we call geometry, and Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape + and size of the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on + his great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce. + From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships to be + admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking for many of the + beautiful things which the Greeks made. + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks + emigrate to the colonies? + + 2. Point out on the map, the lands to which they might go. + Name several cities which they built. + + 3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother city? + + 4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece? + + 5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed. + + 6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he reign? + How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning victories? + + 7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times? + + 8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do Americans go + to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it was for the + Greeks to reach their colonies? + + 2. What country now has the most colonies? + + 3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops. + + 4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden Horn?" + Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at Marseilles? + + 5. Collect pictures of these cities. + + REVIEW + + (Chapters II, III, and IV) + + _Ten things we owe to the Greeks_: + + 1. Many useful words. + + 2. Many interesting tales. + + 3. Many examples of heroism. + + 4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings. + + 5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes. + + 6. How to write great plays. + + 7. How to speak before large audiences. + + 8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato. + + 9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics. + + 10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live, and + think and act as they did. + + _Two important dates_: + + Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + +NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS + +THE GREEK COLONIES AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. The Greek colonies were + sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native tribes whose lands + they had seized or by the wilder tribes that dwelt further from the + coast. In Sicily their most dangerous neighbors were the Carthaginians + at the western end of the island. The chief town of these people was + Carthage, situated opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now + Tunis. The Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of + Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because of + their many ships held control of a large part of the western + Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very early + times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and silver. + +THE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS. In Italy the most dangerous neighbors of + the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived half-way up the western + side of the peninsula along the river Tiber. The history of the Romans, + like the history of the Greeks, is full of interesting and wonderful + tales. Some of them are legends, such as every people likes to tell + about its early history. They relate how the city was founded by two + brothers, Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the + Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the farmer + Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in sixteen days drove + off the neighboring tribes which were attacking the Romans and then went + back to his plough. + +THE GAULS BURN ROME, 390 B.C. The Romans told stories of their + defeats as well as of their victories. One of these tells how hosts of + Gauls, a people of the same race as the forefathers of the French, + streamed southward from the valley of the Po. The Romans were alarmed by + such tall men, with fierce eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords + crashed through the frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop + the invaders, but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from + Rome, this army was destroyed. + + The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline, the + steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of the older + senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge from the fury of + the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in ivory chairs in the + market place or Forum at the foot of the Capitoline hill. The Gauls at + first gazed in wonder at the strange sight of the motionless figures. + When one of them attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the + senator struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and + priests and slew them. + + [Illustration: CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL] + + The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long time the + Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At last they + discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point of scaling the + height when some geese, sacred to the goddess Juno, cackled and flapped + their wings until the garrison was aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong + down the precipice. The garrison was saved, but the city was burned. + This happened in Rome just one hundred years after the battle of + Marathon in Greece. + +THE CAUDINE FORKS. Another adventure did not have so happy an + ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a tribe living on the + slopes of the Apennines, who were continually attacking the Greek cities + on the coast. The war was caused by the attempt of the Romans to protect + one of the Greek cities. The Roman generals, with a large army, in + making their way into the Samnite country attempted to march through a + narrow gorge which broadened out into a plain and then was closed again + at the farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge + they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones. They + also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they hastened to + retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance closed in the same + way. After vain attempts to force a passage or to scale the surrounding + heights they were obliged to surrender. + + [Illustration: THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS] + + [Illustration: ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER] + + The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and soldiers, each + clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke" made of two spears + set upright with one laid across, while they stood by and jeered. If any + Roman looked angry or sullen at his disgrace, they struck or even killed + him. This was called the disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass + where the Romans were caught. + +THE ROMANS AND THE GREEK CITIES. Not many years after this the + Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern Italy. The Greeks of + Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now, called to their aid Pyrrhus, + who ruled a part of Alexander's old kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful + general, and he had with him, besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen, + many trained elephants. A charge of these elephants was too much for the + Romans, who were already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers + of Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in this + they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek soldiers that + Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and we are ruined." In a + third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he was defeated, and returned + to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of the Greek cities in Italy. + +THE ROMANS CONQUERORS OF ITALY. By this time there were few tribes + south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as their masters. All + Italy was united under their rule. This was the first step in the + conquest of the world that lay about the Mediterranean Sea and in the + extension of that ancient world to the shores of the Atlantic and to + England. Before we read the story of the other conquests we must inquire + who the Roman people were and how they lived. + +HOW THE ROMANS LIVED. In early times most of the Romans were + farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned according to the + number of cattle he owned. Their manner of living was simple and frugal. + Like the Greek, the Roman had his games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but + used slaves or freedmen as drivers. He also went to the theater, + although he thought it unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an + occupation was for foreigners or slaves. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA] + +ROMAN BOYS AT SCHOOL. The boys at school did not learn poems, as + did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws made by the + Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read, copied, and learned by + heart. Their interest in laws was the first sign that they were to + become the world's greatest lawmakers. + +ROMAN WOMEN. In their respect for women the Romans were superior to + the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the women's apartments of + the house, as she was expected to do at Athens, but was her husband's + companion, received his guests, directed her household, and went in and + out as she chose. + +PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. The men of the families which first ruled + Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest were plebeians or + common people. There were also many slaves, but they had no rights. At + first only the patricians knew exactly what the laws were, because the + laws were not written in a book. When disputes arose between patricians + and plebeians about property, the plebeians believed the patricians + changed the laws in order to gain an advantage over their poorer + neighbors. + + The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the city and + refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then they compelled + the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called the Twelve Tables. At + this time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the + Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all the + offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles themselves. + +GOVERNMENT AT ROME. The Romans had once been ruled by kings, but + now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls were chosen each year + because the Romans feared that a single consul might make himself a + king, or, at least, gain too much power. The real rulers of Rome, + however, were the senators, the men who had held the prominent offices. + There were assemblies of the people, but these generally did what the + senators or other officers told them to do. + + Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who drew up a + list or census of the citizens and of their property. Another officer + was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the plebeians to protect + them against the patricians. The tribune was not at first a member of + the senate, but he was given a seat outside the door, and if a law was + proposed that would injure the plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which + means "I forbid," and the law had to be dropped. This is the origin of + our word "veto." + +HOW THE ROMANS TREATED THE ITALIANS. The Romans were wise in their + dealings with the cities or tribes which they conquered. They not only + sent out colonies of their fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands + they had seized, but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in + their government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of + Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their wars + with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread over Italy. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in + Sicily? Find Carthage on the map. Where did the + Carthaginians come from originally? Find Phoenicia on the map. + + 2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy? Find the + Tiber and Rome on the map. + + 3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How long was + this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the death of + Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of Macedon? + + 4. Find the land of the Samnites on the map. Tell the story + of the Caudine Forks. + + 5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to help + them against the Romans? What did he say after his second battle + with the Romans? + + 6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the Romans as + masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians? + + 7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from the ways + of the Greeks. + + 8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern themselves? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome." + + 2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy. + + 3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over + Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians? + + 4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii. 3-25, + and tell what is said there about the riches of the Tyrians. Find + out who destroyed Tyre. + + [Illustration: AN EARLY ROMAN COIN] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE + +ROME IN PERIL. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took about two + hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples living in the + other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took nearly as long + again. Only twice in these four or five hundred years was Rome in + serious danger of destruction. Once it was by the Gauls, as we have + read, who captured all the city except the citadel. The second time it + was by the Carthaginians, who lived on the northern coast of Africa. + The Romans were finally victorious over all their enemies because they + were patient and courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that + they could be conquered. + +CAUSE OF WAR WITH CARTHAGE. The Carthaginians were angry at the way + the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm the steady growth of + the Roman power, and feared that the Romans, if masters of Italy, + would attack their trade with the cities of the western Mediterranean. + A quarrel broke out over a city in Sicily. At first the Carthaginians + seemed to have the best of it, because they had a strong war fleet + while the Romans had only a few small vessels. But the Romans + hurriedly built ships and placed upon each a kind of drawbridge, + fitted with great hooks called grappling-irons. These they let down + upon the enemy's decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and + over these drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the + Carthaginian ships. + + When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a great + sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would leave the + cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward the Romans took + advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to demand more money + and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder the Carthaginians were + angry. The result was a new and more terrible war. + +HANNIBAL. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by Hannibal, who + understood how to fight battles better than any of the generals whom + the Romans sent against him. The story is told that when he was a boy + his father made him promise, at the altar of his city's gods, undying + hatred to Rome. Even the Romans thought him a wonderful man. Their + historians said that toil did not wear out his body or exhaust his + energy. Cold or heat were alike to him. He never ate or drank more + than he needed. He slept when he had time, whether it was day or + night, wrapping himself in a military cloak and lying on the ground in + the midst of his soldiers. He did not dress better than the other + officers, but his weapons and his horses were the best in the army. + +WAR CARRIED INTO ITALY, 218 B.C. Hannibal decided that the war should + be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome. He started from + Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled, marched across southern + Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the Alps. To climb the Alps was + the most difficult part of his long journey. + +CROSSING THE ALPS. There were no roads across the mountains, only + rough paths used by the mountaineers, who constantly attacked + Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly upon them from behind a + turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks upon them from above. The + elephants, the horses, and the baggage animals of the army were + frightened, and in the tumult many of them slipped over the precipices + and were dashed on the rocks below. For five days the army toiled + upward, and then rested two days on the summit of the pass. + + [Illustration: THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS] + + Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and the + paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush by + thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a landslide, + and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a thousand feet. + In order to build a new road it was necessary to crack the rocks. This + the soldiers did by making huge fires and pouring wine over the heated + surface. At last, worn out, ragged, and half starved, the army reached + the plains of Italy, but with a loss of half its men. + +HOW HANNIBAL WON A VICTORY. The first great battle with the Romans was + fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and in it Hannibal + showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a Roman army. It was a + winter's day and the river was swollen by rains. The two camps lay on + opposite banks. In the early morning Hannibal sent across the river a + body of horsemen to attack the Roman camp and draw the Romans into a + battle. At the same time he ordered his other soldiers to eat + breakfast, to build fires before their tents to warm themselves, and + to rub their bodies with oil, so that they might be strong for the + coming fight. + + The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the Carthaginian + horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out of camp, chasing + the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy waters the Romans waded + breast-high, and when they came up on the opposite bank they were + benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal knew that the Romans had + crossed the river he attacked them fiercely with all his troops. Two + thousand men whom he had placed in ambush fell upon the rear of their + line. Their allies were frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing + that destruction was certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke + through the Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the + army was destroyed. + +ROMAN ENDURANCE. This was not the last of the Roman defeats. Two other + armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the next two years. In the + battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand Romans, including eighty + senators, were slain. The news filled the city with weeping women, but + the senate did not think of yielding. When their allies deserted them, + they besieged the faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers, + and sold the inhabitants into slavery. + + They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but tried to + wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his troops and by + making it difficult for him to get food for his army. They carried the + war into Spain and finally into Africa, and when, with a weakened + army, Hannibal faced them there, they defeated him. His defeat was the + ruin of Carthage, for the unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet + destroyed, to pay the Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain + to them. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN SOLDIER] + +OTHER ROMAN TRIUMPHS. The war with Carthage ended two hundred and two + years before the birth of Christ. In the wars that followed, Roman + armies fought not only in Spain and Africa, but also in Greece and + Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also Corinth, a Greek city. Roman + generals enriched themselves and sent great treasures back to Rome. + Roman merchants grew rich because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth + were ruined or because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade + with any city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but + in the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores of + the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the Romans + had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some things and + they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the arts of living. + The ancient world became a sort of partnership, and we call its + civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek and Roman. + +THE ROMANS AS RULERS. The Romans at first treated the lands in Sicily, + Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered territories, or + provinces, sending to rule over them officers who were to act both as + governors and judges. With these men went many tax-collectors or + "publicans." The Romans were obliged to leave in most provinces a + large body of soldiers to put down any attempt at rebellion. Often the + officers and the publicans robbed the country instead of ruling it + justly. + +EVIL RESULTS OF CONQUEST. During the wars the Romans had lost many of + their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich in the business of + providing for the armies and navies, and they were eager for new wars + in order to make still bigger fortunes. Hannibal's marches up and down + Italy had driven thousands of farmers from their homes, and they had + wandered to Rome for safety and food. When the war was over many of + them did not go back to their homes. Those who did found that they + could no longer get fair prices for their crops because great + quantities of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands. + Wealthy men bought the little farms and joined them, making great + estates where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and + olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for slaves + were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about eight cents + apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while the rich sent + everywhere for new luxuries. + + [Illustration: GLADIATORS After carvings on the tomb of + Scaurus] + +CRUEL SPORTS. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers and victorious + generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals were turned loose to + tear one another to pieces. What was worse, human prisoners were + compelled to fight, armed with swords or spears. These men were called + gladiators, and often were specially trained to fight with one another + or with wild beasts. + +SOME THINGS THE ROMANS LEARNED. But the successes of the Romans + brought them other things which were good. They took the buildings of + the Greeks as models and built similar temples and porticoes in Rome, + especially about the old market place or Forum. Their own houses, + which in earlier times were nothing but cabins, they enlarged, and if + they were rich enough, built palaces, adorned with paintings and with + statues. Unfortunately many of these came from the plunder of Greek + cities, for the Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer + Romans continued to live in wretched hovels. + +THE THEATER. The Romans learned more about the theaters of the Greeks. + Their plays were either translated into Latin from Greek or retold in + a different manner from the original Greek. The Romans did not succeed + in writing any plays of their own which were as good as the plays of + the Greeks. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE, FRANCE] + +THE NEW EDUCATION OF THE ROMANS. The Greeks also taught the Romans how + to write poems and histories. The first histories were written in + Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write in Latin prose and + poetry as good as much that had been written by the Greeks. Greek + became the second language of every educated Roman, and thus he could + enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as those written by Romans. The + education of the Roman boy now began with the poems of Homer, and the + young man's education was not thought to be finished until he had + traveled in Greece and the lands along the eastern Mediterranean. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long to + conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did all + this happen? + + 2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did Hannibal + promise his father? What sort of a leader was Hannibal? + + 3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of the + Trebia? + + 4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield? + + 5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this war + with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon, and + after the death of Alexander the Great? + + 6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule these + colonies? + + 7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What + became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get + their slaves? + + 8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was the + Graeco-Roman world? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean mark on + each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Egypt, + the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding these dates in + any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford, Myers, Morey, + West, Wolfson. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + +THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC + +NEW CONQUESTS OF THE ROMANS. The Romans had as yet conquered only + civilized peoples like themselves, with the exception of the tribes in + Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman armies were to push northward + over the plains and through the forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into + unknown Germany, and over the Channel into Britain, equally unknown. + They were to be explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were + to carry their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so + increase greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as + the Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient civilized + world was beginning to move from its older center, the Mediterranean, + toward the shore of the Atlantic. + +ANCESTORS OF THE FRENCH AND THE GERMANS. The tribes living in Gaul + were not at that time called French, but Gallic. The Gauls were like the + Britons who lived across the Channel in Britain. The German ancestors of + the English had not yet crossed the North Sea to that land. Beyond the + Rhine lived the Germans, who had but little to do with the Romans and + the Greeks and were still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away + from the Roman settlements were not much more civilized. + + The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was that the + Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the land or dug in + mines or traded along the rivers, while the Germans had no towns and + dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their wealth, like that of the early + Romans, was their cattle. The land they cultivated was divided between + them year after year, so that a German owned only his hut and the plot + of ground or garden about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed + on high hills and were protected by strong walls. + +THE TERRIBLE GERMANS. The Romans had at first been afraid of the + Gauls, because they had never forgotten how terribly these people had + once defeated them. But since that time they had fought the Gauls so + often that they were losing this fear. They now dreaded more to meet the + Germans, who seemed like giants because they were taller even than + the Gauls. + + [Illustration: GALLIC WARRIORS] + +GALLIC AND GERMAN WARRIORS. The leaders of the Germans were sometimes + kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called _duces_, from which + comes our word duke. The Gallic chieftains were adorned with gold + necklaces, bracelets, and rings. When they went out to battle, they wore + helmets shaped like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies + were protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their + principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic nobles + were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted followers, who + shared the joys of victory or died with them in case of defeat. It was a + disgrace to lose one's sword or to survive if the leader was killed. + +HOW THE GERMANS LIVED. When the Germans were not fighting they were + idle, for all work was done by women and slaves. They were great + drinkers and gamblers, and often in their games a man would stake his + freedom upon the result. If he lost, he became the slave of the winner. + The Germans respected their wives, even if they compelled them to do the + hard work. The women sometimes went with the men to battle, and their + cries encouraged the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce + reproaches of the women drove them back to the fight. + +RELIGION OF THE GERMANS. We remember the religion of the Germans + because four days of the week are named for their gods or the gods of + their neighbors across the Baltic. Their principal god was Wodan, or + Odin, god of the sun and the tempest. Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday + is named for Thor, the Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw, + gave a name to Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The + German, like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place + where brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days + in feasting. + +JULIUS CAESAR. Julius Caesar was the great Roman general who + conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions across the Rhine into + Germany and over the Channel into Britain. He was a wealthy noble who, + like other nobles, held one office after another until he became consul. + He was also a great political leader, and with two other men controlled + Rome. We should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them + "triumvirs." + + [Illustration: JULIUS CAESAR After the bust in the Museum at + Naples] + +CAESAR IN GAUL. As soon as Caesar became governor of the province + of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful general as well as a + successful politician. He interfered in the wars between the Gauls, + taking sides with the friends of the Romans. When a large army of + Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it and drove it back across the Rhine. + One war led to another until all the tribes from the country now called + Belgium to the Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman + people. His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three + times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and energy he + always succeeded in gaining the victory. + +VERCINGETORIX, GALLIC HERO. The great hero of the Gauls in their + struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a young noble who + lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His father had been killed in + an attempt to make himself king of his native city. Vercingetorix + believed that if the Gauls did not unite against the Romans they would + soon see their lands become Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no + match for the Romans in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to + starve the Romans out of the country. He planned to destroy all village + stores of grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which + wandered from the main army in search of food. + +CAESAR AND VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix found the work of + conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally driven to + take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul. Here the Romans + prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug miles of deep trenches + about the fortress so that the imprisoned Gauls could not break through. + They dug other trenches to protect themselves from the attacks of a + great army of Gauls which came to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches + were fifteen or twenty feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades + and ramparts, and filled with water where this was possible. Several + times the Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness + and stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day. + +DEATH OF VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix now proved that he was a real + hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if this would save the + town. But Caesar demanded the submission of all the chiefs. When they + had laid down their arms before the conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on + a gaily decorated horse. He rode around the throne where Caesar sat, + dismounted in front, took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His + fate was hard. He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the + triumphal procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death + in a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the + French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of + Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many years + afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman provinces. + + [Illustration: THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE + RHINE] + +CAESAR IN GERMANY. Caesar crossed the Rhine into Germany on a bridge + which his engineers built in ten days. He laid waste the fields of the + tribes near the river in order to make the name of Rome feared, and then + returned to Gaul and destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to + Britain, the last time marching a few miles north of where London now + stands. His purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls + to attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as far + as the hills of Scotland. + +THE GERMAN HERO HERMANN. The Romans were not fortunate in their + later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When Caesar's grandnephew + Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army under Varus into the + forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a leader of the Germans, gathered + the tribes together and utterly destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever + Augustus thought of this dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus, + give me back my legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern + boundaries of the Roman conquests. + +GAULS AND BRITONS BECOME ROMAN. Although the Gauls had fought + stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the Italians + themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and began to use + Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their schools were + sometimes regarded as better than the schools in Italy, and Roman youths + were sent to Gaul to learn how best to speak their own language. The + Britons also became very good Romans. Even the Germans frequently + crossed the Rhine and enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned + to their own country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them. + +THE INTEREST OF AMERICANS IN ROMAN SUCCESSES. For Americans the + influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul, Germany, and Britain is + more important than their work in the eastern Mediterranean, because + from those countries came the early settlers of America. The + civilization which the Romans taught the peoples of western Europe was + to become a valuable part of the civilization of our forefathers. + + [Illustration: THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395 + A.D.] + +SIZE OF THE ROMAN WORLD. We may realize how large the world of the + Romans was by observing on a modern map that within its limits lay + modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the southern part of + Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the Turkish Empire both in + Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. For a time + they also ruled north of the Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they + are descended from Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were + influenced by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not + try to bring them under their rule. + + No modern empire has included so many important countries. If we compare + this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of the Greeks, we shall + understand how useful it was that the Romans adopted much of the Greek + civilization, for they could carry it to places that the Greeks + never reached. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC, + IN BRITTANY, FRANCE] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the Mediterranean, + into what other countries did they march? + + 2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the Gauls + lived. + + 3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from that of + the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to the Gauls? + + 4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods? + + 5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What was + the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of + Vercingetorix. + + 6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did Caesar + go? + + [Illustration: A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS CAESAR] + + 7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time of + Augustus? + + 8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much like the + Romans? + + 9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest of + Gaul and Britain? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who ever + lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin his wars + in Gaul? What difference was there between what these two generals + did? Whose work is the more important for us? + + 2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each + country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This will + take a long time, but many pictures may be found in advertising + folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies. + + REVIEW + + (Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII) + + _How the Graeco-Roman world was built up_: + + 1. The Greeks drive back the Persians. + + 2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the + Mediterranean and Black Seas. + + 3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern Mediterranean. + + 4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their ways of + living. + + 5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their colonies. + + 6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the Mediterranean. + + 7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain. + + _Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman world_: + + Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C. + Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal, + 202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C. + + [Illustration: ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD + +STRIFE AT ROME. While the Romans were conquering the ancient world + they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain men resolved that + Rome should not be managed any longer by the noble senators for their + own benefit or for the benefit of rich contractors and merchants. They + wished to have the idle crowds of men who packed the shows and circuses + settled as free farmers on the unused lands of Italy. + + Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, + sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other nobles looked upon + them with hatred and killed them, first Tiberius and afterward Caius. + These murders did not end the trouble. The leaders on both sides armed + their followers, and bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals + led their armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an + army into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the + republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these generals put + to death hundreds of their enemies. + +CAESAR RULES ROME. The strife in the city had ceased for a time + when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared power with Caesar as + a "triumvir," joined the senators in planning his ruin. Caesar led his + army into Italy to the borders of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is + cast,'" he crossed the sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome. + Pompey and his party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into + those who followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was + everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He brought + back order into the government of the city and of the provinces, but in + the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the senate-house by several + senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had been his friend. + +ORIGIN OF THE TITLE "EMPEROR." Caesar had not been called + "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his titles was + "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from which our word + "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor of Rome. In later times + the very word Caesar became an imperial title, not only in the Roman + Empire, but also in modern Germany, for "Kaiser" is another form of the + word "Caesar." + +BEGINNINGS OF THE EMPIRE. Caesar's successor was his grandnephew + Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of his titles. Augustus + carried out many of Caesar's plans for improving the government in Rome + and in the provinces. The people in the provinces were no longer robbed + by Roman officers. Many of them became Roman citizens. After a time all + children born within the empire were considered Romans, just as if they + had been born in Rome. + +THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman Empire carried on the work which the + republic had begun. It did some things better than the republic had done + them. Within its frontiers there was peace for two or three hundred + years. Many people had an opportunity to share in all the best that the + Greeks and Romans had learned. Unfortunately the peoples imitated the + bad as well as the good. + +ROMAN ROADS. As builders the Romans taught much to those who lived + after them. Their great roads leading out from Rome have never been + excelled. In Gaul these roads served, centuries later, to mark out the + present French system of highroads and showed many a route to the + builders of railroads. They were made so solid that parts of them still + remain after two thousand years. + + [Illustration: Augustus Caesar After the statue in the Vatican] + +HOW THESE ROADS WERE BUILT. In planning their roads the Romans did + not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep valleys or marshy + lands. They often pierced the hills with tunnels and bridged the valleys + or swamps. In building a road they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide + and pounded the earth at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom + was placed a layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of + broken stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was + covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken tiles, + which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On the top were + laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that there need be no jar + when a wagon rolled over the road. + + Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and fro + throughout the empire, but especially for troops or government + messengers sent with all speed to regions where there was danger of + revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by the barbarians. + +[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD] + +AQUEDUCTS. Next to their roads the most remarkable Roman structures + were the aqueducts which brought water to the city from rivers or + springs, some of them many miles away. Had they known, as we do, how to + make heavy iron pipes, their aqueducts would have been laid underground, + except where they crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used + were not strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water, + and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which stretches + from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the streams of flowing + water were carried in stone channels resting upon arches which sometimes + reached the height of over ninety feet. + +THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT. The Claudian aqueduct, which is the most + magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for about seven miles + and a half. Although broken in many places, and though the water has not + flowed through its lofty channels for sixteen hundred years, it is one + of the grandest sights in the neighborhood of Rome. If we add together + the lengths of the aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which + provided Rome with her water supply, the total is over three hundred + miles. They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water + a day. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT Completed by the + Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D. The structure was nearly a hundred + feet high] + +PUBLIC BATHS. The Romans used great quantities of water for their + public baths, which were large buildings with rooms especially made for + bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges. They were also, like the + Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise, conversation, and reading. Many + were built as monuments by wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee + was charged for entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and + the wages of those who managed the baths. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM] + +TWO FAMOUS BUILDINGS. Many of the Roman temples, porticoes, and + theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the Romans used the arch + more than did the Greeks, and in this the builders of later times + imitated them. Among their greatest buildings were the amphitheaters, + from the benches of which crowds watched gladiators fighting one another + or struggling with wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was + the Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were one + hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six hundred + and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and twelve. There were + seats enough for forty-five thousand persons. The lowest seats were + raised fifteen feet above the arena or central space where men or wild + beasts fought. Through an arrangement of underground pipes the arena + could be flooded so that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a + real naval battle. + + Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold the crowds + that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having seats for two + hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the Romans became more and + more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some equally splendid buildings were + used for better things. + + [Illustration: The Pantheon] + +THE PANTHEON. One of these was the Pantheon, a temple which was + afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is now used as the + burial-place of the Italian kings. The most remarkable part of it is the + dome, which has a width of a little over one hundred and forty-two feet. + No other dome in the world is so wide. The Romans were very successful + in covering large spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later + builders of domes and arches are their pupils. + + [Illustration: THE ARCH OF TITUS] + +BASILICAS. The Romans had other large buildings called basilicas. + These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in the center covered + by a great roof. They were used as places for public meetings. One of + them had one hundred and eight pillars arranged in a double row around + the sides and ends of this central space. The name basilica is Greek and + means "royal." Some of these basilicas were used as Christian churches + when the Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was + then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the aisles. + +TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. The Romans built beautiful arches to celebrate + their victories. Several of these still remain, with sentences cut into + their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of their builders. Modern + people have taken them as models for similar memorial arches. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the Pont + du Gard, near Nimes, France] + +ROMAN LAW. The Romans did much for the world by their laws. They + showed little regard for the rights of men captured in war and were + cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they considered carefully the + rights of free men and women. Under the emperors the lawyers and judges + worked to make the laws clearer and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor + Justinian, who ruled at the time when the empire was already half ruined + by the attacks of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to + gather into a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws + lasted long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of + the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our laws + in America. + + [Illustration: PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND Unearthed + not many years ago at Aldborough. Such stones laid in the form of + designs or pictures are called Mosaics] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers Tiberius + and Caius Gracchus try to do? + + 2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to ruin + him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman leaders? + + 3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the origin of + the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die? + + 4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized the + Roman Empire? + + 5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were their + roads built? Do any traces of them still remain? + + 6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure water? + + 7. What was a Roman bath? + + 8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their buildings? Name + the largest buildings in Rome. What was a basilica? Of what use were + basilicas to the Christians later? + + 9. Do you remember the earliest form of the Roman law (Chapter + V)? What did Justinian do with the laws in his day? Are + these laws important to us? + + EXERCISES + + 1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and Augustus? + + 2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman roads + and if they are likely to last as long. What different kinds of + roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a small model of + a Roman road? + + 3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities provided + with great public baths like those of the Romans? + + 4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the revised + statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the code of + Justinian, only not so brief. + + [Illustration: TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + +CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE + +THE RELIGION OF THE JEWS. Among the cities captured by the Romans + was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories from the Old + Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived David, the shepherd + boy who, after wonderful adventures, became king of his people. There + his son Solomon built a temple of dazzling splendor. Among this people + had arisen great preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that + religion did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in + justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for religion, just + as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans a genius for + government. + +THE JEWS CONQUERED BY THE ROMANS. When the Jews first heard of the + Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who made and unmade + kings. In later years they learned that the Romans were hard masters and + they feared and hated them. The Jewish kingdom was one of the last + countries along the shores of the Mediterranean which the Romans + conquered, but like all the others it finally became a Roman province. + +JESUS OF NAZARETH. A few years before the Jewish kingdom became a + Roman province there was born in a village near Jerusalem a child named + Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in Nazareth he gathered about him + followers or disciples whom he taught to live and act as is told in the + books of the New Testament. + + [Illustration: A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of Olives + in the distance] + + This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first held by a + little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a city of Asia + whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman citizenship, believed + that the message of the new religion was meant for all nations. He + taught it in many cities of Asia Minor and Greece, and even went as far + west as Rome. Several of the epistles or letters in the New Testament + were written by Paul to churches which he had founded or where he had + taught. So it happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which + multitudes consider even more important than the art and literature of + the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the Romans. + +WHY THE CHRISTIANS WERE PERSECUTED. The Romans at first refused to + permit any one in their empire to call himself a Christian. They + disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that the Roman gods were real + gods, asserting that these gods were mere images in wood and stone. The + Christians did this also, but in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst + offense of the Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of + secret society and held meetings to which other persons were not + admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies. + + The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their refusal to join + in the public ceremonies which honored the emperor as if he were a god + who had given peace and order to the world and who was able to reward + the good and punish the evil. The Christians believed it to be wrong to + join in the worship of an emperor, whether he were alive or dead. + +CHRISTIANS PUT TO DEATH. The Romans were cruel in their manner of + punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered death in its most + horrible forms. Some were burned, others were tortured, others were torn + to pieces by wild animals in the great amphitheaters to satisfy the + fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst of the Roman emperors, who, many + thought, set Rome on fire in order that he might enjoy the sight of the + burning city, tried to turn suspicion from himself by accusing the + Christians of the crime. He punished them by tying them to poles, + smearing their bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches. + +THE CHRISTIANS ALLOWED TO WORSHIP. The new religion spread rapidly + from province to province in spite of these persecutions. At first the + Christians worshiped secretly, but later they ventured to build + churches. Finally, three centuries after the birth of Christ, the + emperors promised that the persecutions should cease and that the + Christians might worship undisturbed. + + [Illustration: A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE] + +THE ROMAN EMPIRE BECOMES CHRISTIAN ABOUT 325 A.D. Constantine was + the first emperor to become Christian. He was the one who made the Greek + city Byzantium the capital of the empire and for whom it was renamed + Constantinople. For a time both the old Roman religion and the Christian + religion were favored by the emperors, but before the fourth century + closed the old religion was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the + Roman gods were mostly country people, called in Latin _pagani_, and + therefore their religion was called "paganism." + +HOW THE CHURCH WAS RULED. One of the reasons why the Christians had + been successful in their struggle with the Roman emperors was that they + were united under wise and brave leaders. The Christians in each large + city were ruled by a bishop, and the bishops of several cities were + directed by an archbishop. In the western part of the empire the bishop + of Rome, who was called the pope, was honored as the chief of the + bishops and archbishops, and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the + eastern part the archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and + Alexandria and Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in + authority with him. + + There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks. The + priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks lived in groups + in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their purpose was to dwell + far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary life and give themselves to + prayer and fasting; sometimes they acted as a brotherhood of teachers in + barbarous communities, teaching the people better methods of farming, + and carrying the arts of civilized life beyond the borders of + the empire. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times? + + 2. Do you remember any of the stories of David? + + 3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David ruled? + + 4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth of + Jesus Christ? + + 5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How did the + Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ before the + emperors allowed the Christians to worship undisturbed? + + [Illustration: A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES Abbey of + Saint-Germain des Pres as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and + moat or ditch] + + 6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a + Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old + Roman gods? + + 7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named? What two + kinds of clergy were there? + + _Important date_: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became Christian. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + +EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO + +THE MIDDLE AGES. It was more than a thousand years from the time of + Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is called "Mediaeval," + or the "Middle Ages." During these long centuries the ancient civilized + world of the Roman Empire was much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on + the southern shores of the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or + Moors. The Moors conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands + of Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The Turks, + the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet" Mohammed, who + died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies of the Christians. + +WESTERN EUROPE. The other part of the European world was also + changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic were now more + important than those on the shores of the Mediterranean. The names of + the different countries were changed. Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there + was France; instead of Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for + Germania, Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire, + was finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa and + Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories ruled by + dukes, princes, or kings. + +FATE OF CIVILIZATION. The most important question to ask is, How + much of the manner of living or civilization of the Greeks and the + Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The answer is found in the + history of the Middle Ages. In this history is also found what men added + to that which they had learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The + emigrants to America were to carry with them knowledge which not even + the wisest men of the ancient world had possessed. + + [Illustration: WALL OF AURELIAN This wall enclosed the ancient + city of Rome. It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five + feet high, and had three hundred towers] + +MEDIAEVAL GERMAN EMIGRANTS. The first part of the history of the + Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from whom most of our + forefathers were descended began to move from the northern forests + towards the borders of the Roman Empire. Many thousand men had already + crossed the Rhine and the Danube to serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes + an unusually strong and skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans + had also crossed the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich + Gallic nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and + the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers. The + Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit of work and + were glad to hire these foreigners. + +STORY OF ULFILAS. Many of the Goths who lived north of the Danube + had forsaken their old gods and become Christians. They were taught by + Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them, afterward a missionary. He + translated the Bible into the Gothic language, and this translation is + the most ancient specimen of German that we possess. Many of the other + German tribes learned about Christianity from the Goths, and although + they might be enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of + the Church. + +THE GOTHS INVADE THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman emperors tried to + prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier in great numbers, + because, once across, if they did not find work and food, they became + plunderers. Not many years after Constantine's death, a million Goths + had passed the Danube and had plundered the country almost to the walls + of Constantinople. This was not like the invasion of a regular army, + which comes to fight battles and to arrange terms of peace. + + The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example, moved as a + whole people, with their wives and children, their cattle, and the few + household goods they owned. Wherever they wished to settle they demanded + of the Romans one third, sometimes two thirds, of the land. They soon + learned to be good neighbors of the older inhabitants, although at first + they were little better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the + Goths, led them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did + not injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the + churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about plundering + villages and attacking cities did far greater damage. The Roman + government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the provinces fell + into the hands of German kings. + +BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND GERMANY. Britain was attacked by + the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany across the North Sea. + They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves of + them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country was then + called Angle-land or England, and the people Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen. + + The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the Franks from + the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name France to the land. + + At about the same time the other German tribes that had remained in + Germany united under one king. + +THE RESULT OF BARBARIAN ATTACKS. The part of the ancient world + which lay about Constantinople was less changed than the rest during the + Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople were high and thick, and they + withstood attack after attack until 1453. Within their shelter men + continued to live much as they had lived in Ancient Times. A few + delighted to study the writings of the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the + other countries of western Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The + ancient baths, amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled + and fell. The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the + Colosseum as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This + was done in every country where Roman buildings existed. + + [Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES] + + The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still stranger + fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at another as a prison + and gradually became the home of hundreds of the criminals and the poor + of the city. "Every archway held its nest of human outcasts. From stone + to stone they cast their rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the + very entrails of the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the + pursuit of the officers of the law." + + Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France, and few + from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of Italy and France + and England did not know how to read Greek. Many of them also ceased to + read the writings of the ancient Romans. + + [Illustration: ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This + church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its walls + show some of the bricks of the original chapel] + +THE ENGLISH BECOME CHRISTIANS, 597 A.D. Christianity had spread + throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the religion of all the + tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon the ruins of the Empire. + The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded Britain, were still worshipers + of the gods Wodan and Thor. They had never learned from the Goths of + Ulfilas anything about Christianity. + + One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys were offered + for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a monk and was the + abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing and asked who they were. + He was told they were Angles. "Angels," he cried, "yes, they have faces + like angels, and should become companions of the angels in heaven." When + this good abbot became pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they + established themselves at Canterbury. + + [Illustration: GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES] + +MISSIONARIES TO THE GERMANS AND THE SLAVS. The conversion of the + English helped in the spread of Christianity on the Continent, for + Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest missionary to the Germans. + He won thousands from the worship of their ancient gods and founded many + churches. The Slavs, who lived east of the Germans, were taught by + missionaries from Constantinople instead of from Rome. + +THE EDUCATED MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The missionaries and teachers + of the Church had been educated like the older Romans. They read Roman + books, and tried to preserve the knowledge which both Greeks and Romans + had gathered. Influenced by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the + north also tried to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the + priests of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some + parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved, although + the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful cities were mere + heaps of ruins. + +THE VIKINGS. The emigration of whole peoples from one part of + Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was overrun. New + peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out the tribes which had + already settled within its boundaries and were learning the ways of + civilization. + + One of these peoples came from the regions now known as Norway, Sweden, + and Denmark. They were called Danes by the English, and Northmen or + Normans by other Europeans. They had another name, Vikings, which was + their word for sea-rovers. + + It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than march on the + land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked nothing better than + to fight and conquer and rob in other countries. There was not a land in + western Europe, even as far south as Sicily, that they did not visit. + Wherever they went they plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a + blackened trail. + +THE DANES IN ENGLAND. The Danes ravaged the eastern and southern + shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery, partly because + there was little left to take, they began to settle in the land. Alfred, + the greatest of the early English kings, was driven by them into the + swamps for a while, but in the year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of + them in battle and persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a + Christian. Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion + of England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes was + obeyed there. + + [Illustration: A VIKING SHIP AT SEA] + +THE DANES BECOME NORMANS. No more Danes or Northmen came to trouble + England for a time, but instead they crossed the Channel to France and + rowed up the Seine and tried to capture Paris. A few years later a + Frankish king gave them the city of Rouen, further down the Seine, and + the region about it which was called Normandy. These Normans also + accepted Christianity. + +THE VIKINGS BECOME DISCOVERERS. Before another hundred years had + passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult than sailing up + rivers and burning towns. They were the first to venture far out of + sight of land, though their ships were no larger than our fishing boats. + These bold sailors visited the Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of + Scotland, and finally reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle + flourished, and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up + with the old homeland and with the British islands. + + Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a colony to + Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further west. He called + it Greenland because, he said, men would be more easily persuaded to go + there if the land had a good name. This was probably in the year 985. + + [Illustration: LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston] + +DISCOVERY OF VINLAND. Eric had a son, called Leif Ericson, or Leif + the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well received at the court of King + Olaf. Not long before missionaries had persuaded Olaf and his people to + give up their old gods and accept Christianity, and Leif followed their + example. Leif set out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the + new religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and to + his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the summer, for on + the way his ship was driven out of its course and came upon strange + lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large trees grew. The milder + climate and stories of large trees useful for building ships aroused the + curiosity of the Greenlanders. + + They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North America at + places which they called Helluland, that is, the land of flat stones; + Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where the grape-vines grow. + Helluland was probably on the coast of Labrador, Markland somewhere on + the shores of Newfoundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia. + +THE SETTLEMENT IN VINLAND. Thornfinn Karlsefni, a successful trader + between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to plant a colony in the new + lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to the number of one hundred and sixty + men and several women, set out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded + with supplies and many cattle. They built huts and remained three or + four winters in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement + disappeared long ago. + + They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking Indians, with + coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with whom they traded red + cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between the Northmen and the Indians, + who outnumbered them. So many Northmen were killed that the survivors + became alarmed and returned to Greenland. + + [Illustration: DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN The American lands + they found are marked with diagonal lines] + +VINLAND FORGOTTEN. The voyages to Vinland soon ceased and the + discoveries of Leif and his followers were only remembered in the songs + or "sagas" of the people. They thought of Vinland mainly as a land of + flat stones, great trees, and fierce natives. Nor did the wise men of + Europe who heard the Northmen's story guess that a New World had been + discovered. It was probably fortunate that five hundred years were to go + by before Europeans settled in America, for within that time they were + to learn a great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had + left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the ruins of + the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses, where few knew + of them. The more Europeans possessed before they set out, the more + Americans would have to start with. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA MANUSCRIPT] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval" period? + + 2. Show on the map, what part of the Roman Empire was + conquered by the Mohammedans. + + 3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and Spain, + Why were they changed to what they are now? + + 4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from their + homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a living? + + 5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian religion? + When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they ask of the + inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years separated the + capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the Gauls? + + 6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes conquered + Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople was captured? + + 7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many cities? Who + tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had + done? Who used the language of the Romans? + + 8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians. Who + taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city did + the Slavs receive missionaries? + + 9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of Denmark, + Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas? Where did they + make settlements? + + 10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America. Why did + the Northmen leave Vinland? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. + + 2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned in the + chapter on the countries where they settled. + + 3. Ask children in school who know some other language than English + what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. + + _Important dates_: + + Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D. + + Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + +HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES + +HEROES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The Middle Ages, like Ancient Times, are + recalled by many interesting tales. Some of them, such as the stories of + King Arthur and his Knights, the story of Roland, and the Song of the + Niebelungs, are only tales and not history. Others tell us about great + kings, Charlemagne and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of + Germany, or St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was + Alfred, who fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally + conquered and persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule. + +KING ALFRED BEGAN TO REIGN IN 871. King Alfred was a skilful + warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of peace. When he + was a boy he had shown his love of books. His mother once offered a + beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize to the one of her sons who + should be the first to learn it. Alfred could not yet read, but he had a + ready memory, and with the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and + won the prize. + + At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few even of the + clergy could read. During the long wars with the Danes many books had + been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more useful than books and ceased + to care about reading. King Alfred feared that the Saxons would soon + become ignorant barbarians, and sent for priests and monks who were + learned and were able to teach his clergy. He sent even into France + for such men. + +EARLY ENGLISH BOOKS. As it would be easier for people to learn to + read books written in the language they spoke rather than in Latin, + Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin books into English. + Among these was a history written by a Roman before the Germans had + overthrown the Roman Empire. This history told about the world of the + Greeks and the Romans. + + Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year to year + of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was called the + Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history written in the English + language. It was carefully kept for many years after Alfred's death. + Another wise thing Alfred did was to collect the laws or "dooms" of the + earlier kings, so that every one might know what the law required. + + [Illustration: EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE From a copy in + the British Museum] + +THE BEGINNING OF A NAVY. Alfred has been called the creator of the + English navy. He thought that the only way to keep the Danes from + plundering his shores was to fight them on the sea. He built several + ships which were bigger than the Danish ships, but they were not always + victorious, for they could not follow the Danish ships into shallow + water. Nevertheless, the Danes could not plunder England as easily + as before. + +THE NEW ARMY. Alfred organized his fighting men in a better way. In + times past the men had been called upon to fight only when the Danes + were near, but now he kept a third of his men ready all the time, and + another third he placed in forts, so the rest were able to work in the + fields in safety. There are good reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred + as a hero. + +WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR BEGAN TO RULE ENGLAND IN 1066. About a + hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke of Normandy, + crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English king in battle, and + seized the throne. This was not altogether a misfortune to the English, + for they came under the same ruler as the Normans and they shared in all + that the men of the Continent were beginning to learn. For one thing, + builders from the Continent taught the English to construct the great + Norman churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees. + Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the chiefs + or lords that were inclined to oppress the common people. + +HENRY II. Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled over most of + western France as well as over England. His officers and nobles were + tired out by his endless traveling in his lands, which extended from the + banks of the river Loire in France to the borders of Scotland. All + Englishmen and Americans should remember him with gratitude because of + the improvements he made in the ways of discovering the truth when + disputes arose and were carried into courts. + + [Illustration: THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL From the + Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the Conqueror. The + figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred and thirty feet long, + and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight colors are used] + +ORDEALS AND TRIALS BY BATTLE. Before Henry's reign it was the + custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the truth by + arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals. The two most + common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the ordeal by water. In the + ordeal by fire an iron was heated red-hot, and after it had been blessed + by a priest it was put into the hand of the man the truth of whose word + was being tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His + hand was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that + time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for they + thought God would keep an innocent man from being punished. + + In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water which had + been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the people thought the + water would not receive him. If he sank at once, he was pulled out and + treated as if he had told the truth. + + [Illustration: TRIAL BY BATTLE After a drawing in an old + manuscript] + + A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose dispute was to + be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each was armed with a + hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who gave up lost his case. + +TRIAL BY JURY. King Henry introduced a better way of finding out + the truth. He called upon twelve men from a neighborhood to come before + the judges, to promise solemnly to tell what they knew about a matter, + and then to decide which person was in the right. They were supposed to + know about the facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with + one another before they made a decision. + + Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two groups, one + to tell what they knew and the other to listen and decide what was true. + Those who told what they knew were called the witnesses, and those who + listened and decided were called jurors. The name jurors came from a + Latin word meaning to take an oath. + +RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED. King Henry had two sons, Richard and John. + Richard was the boldest and most skilful fighter of his time. When the + news was brought to England that Jerusalem had been captured by the + Mohammedans, he led an army to Palestine to recapture it. He failed to + take the city, but he became famous throughout the East as a fearless + warrior and was ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death + his brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as Richard + was brave and generous. + +THE GREAT CHARTER. The leaders of the people, the nobles and the + clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In 1215 they raised an + army and threatened to take the kingdom from John and crown another + prince as king. John was soon ready to promise anything in order to + obtain power once more, and the nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede + on the river Thames, a few miles west of London, and compelled him to + sign a list of promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate + promises, it was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did + not keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on him, + and he even said that this would be their duty. + +PROMISES OF THE CHARTER. Many of the articles of the Great Charter + were important only to the men of King John's day, but others are as + important to us as to them. In these the king promised that every one + should be treated justly. He said he would not refuse to listen to the + complaints of those who thought they were wronged. The king also + promised that he would not decide in favor of a rich man just because + the rich man might offer him money. He would put no one in prison who + had not been tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important + promise the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of + the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people to have + something to say about how their money should be spent. This right is a + very important part of what we call self-government. + + [Illustration: A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER] + +PROMISES OF THE GREAT CHARTER RENEWED. In after times whenever the + English thought a king was doing them a wrong they reminded him of the + promises made by King John in the Great Charter and demanded that the + promises be solemnly renewed. + + In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns to send a + number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and clergy to talk + over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings, soon followed Simon's + example by asking the townsmen for advice about matters of government. + After a while this became the custom. Occasionally the king wanted the + advice of the clergy, the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and + called them together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an + assembly in which talking or discussion goes on. + + [Illustration: Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster + Abbey--WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY] + +THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT. Only the most important nobles or lords + could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the meeting would be too + large to do any business. The other lords chose certain ones from their + number to go in place of all the rest. We call such men representatives. + In this way, besides the men who represented the towns, there were + present these nobles who represented the landowners of the counties. + Gradually these nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own, + while the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in another + assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of Commons and the + House of Lords, and the two made up the parliament. + +AN ASSEMBLY OF REPRESENTATIVES. This parliament was a great + invention. The English had discovered a better way of governing + themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We call it the + representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived far from Rome wanted + to take part in the elections, he was obliged to leave his farm or his + business and travel to Rome, for only the citizens who were at Rome + could have a share in making the laws. It never occurred to the Romans + that the citizens outside of Rome could send some of their number as + representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament was an + important step towards what we mean in America by "government of the + people, for the people, and by the people." + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle Ages. + What stories have you learned about these heroes? + + 2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show his + love of books? What did he do to help his people to a knowledge + of books? + + 3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back the + Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English navy? + + 4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the English + and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help them? + + 5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an ordeal and + a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed and what did + they do? How were they afterwards divided? + + 6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a king + was his brother John? + + 7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called + "Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget + these promises? + + 8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to talk + over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this body + finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided? + + 9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention? What + did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome and + wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of the + story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne, Frederick + the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen. + + 2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and those of + to-day, and explain their differences. + + 3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is + guilty. + + 4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes the + laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the + whole country? + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES + +WHAT THE ENGLISH OWED TO THEIR EUROPEAN NEIGHBORS. If the English + succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how to govern + themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected them from attack, + and they could quarrel with their king without running much risk that + their enemies in other countries would take advantage of the quarrel to + seize their lands or attempt to conquer them. + + The French were not so well placed. France also was not united like + England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were almost + independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and dukes. In + France it would not have been wise for the people to quarrel with the + king, for he was their natural protector against cruel lords. Germany + and Italy were even more divided, with not only counties and duchies, + but also cities nearly as independent as the ancient cities of Greece. + + The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the English were + doing, and some of these were so well done that the English were ready + to accept these Europeans as their teachers. The memory of what the + Greeks and the Romans had done remained longer in southern France and + Italy because so many buildings were still standing which reminded + Frenchmen and Italians of the people who built them. + + [Illustration: A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS] + +CLASSES OF PEOPLE. The people of Europe, as well as of England, + were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The clergy seemed to + form another class because there were so many of them. Besides the + parish priests and the bishops there were thousands of monks, who were + persons who chose to dwell together in monasteries under the rule of an + abbot or a prior, rather than live among ordinary people where men were + so often tempted to do wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others. + The monks worked on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the + libraries, or prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to + read were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries or + the bishops' houses there were few books. + +THE NOBLES. The nobles were either knights, barons, counts, or + dukes. In England there were also earls. Many mediaeval nobles ruled + like kings, but over a smaller territory. They gained their power + because they were rich in land and could support many men who were ready + to follow them in battle, or because in the constant wars they proved + themselves able to keep anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or + a town. Timid and peaceable people were often glad to put themselves + under the protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed + by other fighting nobles. + + In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings, who were + at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring nobles as well + as peasants under their own rule and to compel every one to obey the + same laws. After this the nobles became what we call an aristocracy, + proud of their family history, generally living in better houses and + owning more land than their neighbors, but with little power + over others. + + [Illustration: PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE 1. The Donjon-keep. 2. + Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court. 5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7. + Mount, where justice was executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings] + + [Illustration: PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF FRANCE] + +CASTLES. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle Ages were + obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses called castles. + They were often placed on a hilltop or on an island or in a spot where + approach to the walls could be made difficult by a broad canal, or moat, + filled with water. At different places along the walls were towers, and + within the outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to + capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the enemy. + These castles were gloomy places to live in until, centuries later, + their inner walls were pierced with windows. Many are still standing, + others are interesting heaps of ruins. + +KNIGHTHOOD. The lords of the castles were occupied mostly in + hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords from interfering + with them or to win for themselves more lands and power. They hunted + that they might have meat for their tables. In later times, when it was + not so necessary to kill animals for food, they hunted as a sport. + Fighting also ceased to be the chief occupation, although the nobles + were expected to accompany the king in his wars. + + From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the Church as + priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A boy was sent to the + castle of another lord, where he served as a page, waiting on the lord + at table or running errands. He was trained to ride a horse boldly and + to be skilful with the sword and the lance. When his education was + finished he was usually made a knight, an event which took place with + many interesting ceremonies. + + The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons and arms + for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the altar of the + church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night. In the final + ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received a slight blow on + the neck from the sword of some knight, or perhaps of the king. His + armor covered him from head to foot in metal, and sometimes his horse + was also covered with metal plates. When he was fully armed, he was + expected to show his skill to the lords and ladies who were present. + +THE DUTIES OF A KNIGHT. The duties of the knight were to defend the + weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful to his lord and king, + and to be courteous even to an enemy. A knight true to these duties was + called "chivalrous," a word which means very much what we mean by the + word "gentlemanly." There were many wicked knights, but we must not + forget that the good knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping + promises, respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor. + + [Illustration: A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century] + +THE PEASANTS. Most of the people were peasants or townsmen. There + were few towns, because many had been burned by the barbarian tribes + which broke into the Roman Empire, or had been destroyed in the later + wars. The peasants were crowded in villages close to the walls of some + castle or monastery. They paid dearly for the protection which the lord + of the castle or the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were + obliged to work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring + him eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They also + gave him a part of their harvest. + +THE TOWNSMEN. At first the towns belonged to lords, or abbots, or + bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and ruled themselves or + received officers from the king. When they ruled themselves, their towns + were called communes. The citizens agreed that whenever the town bell + was rung they would gather together. Any one who was absent was fined. + For them "eternal vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the + belfries of these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the + citizens of to-day of the struggles of the early days. + + [Illustration: VIEW OF CARCASSONNE This is an ancient city in + France founded by the Romans] + + The men of each occupation or trade were organized into societies or + guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices. There were guilds of + goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers, that is, workers in gold and + iron and sellers of fish. The merchants also had their guilds. In many + towns no one was allowed to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was + not a member of a guild. + +OLD CITIES WHICH STILL EXIST. Many of the towns which grew up in + the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England and Europe. Their + citizens can look back a thousand years and more over the history of + their city, can point to churches, to town halls, and sometimes to + private houses, that have stood all this time. They can often show the + remains of mediaeval walls or broad streets where once these walls + stood, and the moats that surrounded them. The traveler in York or + London, in Paris, in Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches + for the relics about which so many interesting stories of the past + are told. + +VENICE AND GENOA. One of the most fascinating of these old cities + is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from the shore of + Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of the Adriatic. + Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a Roman city on the + mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in the fifth century after + Christ. In many places piles had to be driven into the loose sands to + furnish a foundation for houses. The Venetians did not try to keep out + the water but used it as streets, and instead of driving in wagons they + went about in boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks + had done in those same waters hundreds of years before. + + Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and Taranto, + the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the peninsula to the + west was another trading city called Genoa, which was the birthplace + of Columbus. + +MODERN LANGUAGES. While the people of mediaeval times were building + city walls and towers to protect themselves they were also doing other + things. Almost without knowing it they formed the languages which we now + speak and write--English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish. + + The English and German languages are closely related because the + forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany, taking + their language with them. This older language was gradually changed, but + it still remained like German. Dutch is another language like both + English and German. + + There are many words in these languages borrowed from other peoples. + Englishmen, because of their long union with western France, borrowed + many words from the French. The French did not invent these words, for + the French language grew out of the Latin language which the French + learned from the Romans. + +HOW MODERN LANGUAGES WERE FORMED. In English we have two sets of + words and phrases: one is used in writing books or speeches, the other + in conversation. When the Gauls learned Latin, the language of Rome, + most of them learned the words used in conversation and did not learn + the words of Roman books. Before long spoken words differed so much from + the older written words that only scholars understood that the two had + belonged to the same language. This new language was French. In the same + way Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in Italy + and Spain. + + When men began to write books in the new languages, the changes went on + more slowly because the use of words in books kept the spelling the + same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was still used in the religious + services of the Church and in the schools and universities. + + [Illustration: VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL] + +SCHOOLS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. In the Middle Ages most boys and girls + did not go to school. Education was principally for those who expected + to become priests or monks. The schools were in the monasteries or in + the houses or palaces of the bishops. The students were taught a little + Latin grammar, to write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned + arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the festivals + of the Church should come; and music, so much as was then known of it. + Printing had not been invented, so there were no text-books for them to + study, and written books or manuscripts were too costly. Students + listened to the teacher as he read from his manuscripts and copied the + words or tried to remember them. + +THE BEGINNING OF UNIVERSITIES. If students remained in the schools + after these things had been learned, they studied the laws of the + Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious questions which + are called theology. Some teachers talked in such an interesting way + about such questions that hundreds of students came to listen. Like + other kinds of workers, who were organized in societies or guilds, the + teachers and students formed a guild called a university. The teachers + were the master-workmen, and the students were the apprentices. + +WHERE THE STUDENTS LIVED. In the beginning the universities had no + buildings of their own, and the teachers taught in hired halls, the + students boarding wherever they could find lodgings. Partly to help + students who were too poor to pay for good lodgings, and partly to bring + the students under the direct rule of teachers, colleges were built. + These were not separate institutions like the American colleges, but + simply houses for residence, although later some teaching was done + in them. + +SOME FAMOUS UNIVERSITIES. The oldest university was in Bologna in + Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the Romans to its + students eight hundred years ago. The University of Paris was called the + greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its students numbered sometimes + between six and seven thousand. About the same time the English + universities of Oxford and Cambridge were formed, and there, many years + later, a large number of the men who settled in America were educated. + +THE WISDOM OF THE ARABS. Students in these universities obtained + several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs, the followers + of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long before Europeans + thought of founding universities the Arabs had flourishing schools and + universities in Spain. The capital of the Mohammedan Empire was first at + Bagdad on the Euphrates, where once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of + the tales of the Arabian Nights. + + [Illustration: VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the + fourteenth century] + +WHAT EUROPEANS BORROWED FROM THE ARABS. The Arabs had learned much + of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and they also found out + much for themselves. The numerals which we use are Arabic; and algebra, + one of our principal studies in mathematics, was thought out by the + Arabs. Their learned men were deeply interested in the books of + Aristotle, an ancient Greek, who had been a teacher of Alexander the + Great. They translated his books into Arabic, and Christian students in + Spain translated the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the + University of Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other + thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found in this + Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what Aristotle had + written in Greek. + + [Illustration: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors in the + twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the Moorish + architecture.] + +BUILDERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The Greeks and the Romans had been + great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded in building + churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which equaled in grandeur + and beauty the best that the ancient builders had made. The large + churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because their builders were able + to place masses of stone high in the air and to cover immense spaces + with beautiful vaulted roofs. Builders nowadays imitate, but not often, + if ever, equal them. Fortunately the original buildings are still + standing in many English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and + Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt, and + Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and Rome. + + [Illustration: NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear, + showing the arches and buttresses] + +CHURCH BUILDING. The Italians began by building churches like Roman + basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported by heavy walls, were also + used north of the Alps, and the method of building was named Romanesque, + or in England, Norman. The architects or builders of western France + discovered a way of roofing over just as large spaces without using such + heavy walls, so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows. + Instead of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls + between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called + buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was sometimes more + than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor. The glass of the + windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from the Bible or from lives + of sainted men and women. The outer walls, especially the western front, + the doorways and the towers, were richly carved and adorned with + statues, and often with the figures of strange birds and beasts which + lived only in the imagination of the builders. This method of building + was named Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town + halls and private houses. Architects use similar methods of + building nowadays. + + [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic + interior.] + +THE RENAISSANCE. Men who could build and adorn great churches and + town halls and who were eager to study in the new universities should be + called civilized. The barbarous days were gone, but men still had much + to learn from the ancient Greeks and Romans. Many of the ancient + buildings were in ruins, the statues half buried or broken, the + paintings destroyed, and the books lost. Men began to search for what + was left of these things and to study them carefully to learn what the + Graeco-Roman world had been like. After a while students could think of + nothing else, and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the + Romans and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first + interested in these things is called the Renaissance or "rebirth," + because men were so unlike what they had been that they seemed born + again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the Middle Ages came to + an end. + + [Illustration: ST. PETER'S AT ROME] + +PETRARCH. One of the earliest of these "new" men was Petrarch, an + Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a hundred years before + Columbus. He wished above all things to read, copy, and possess the + writings of the Romans, and especially of Cicero, an orator and writer + who lived in the days of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends + searched for the manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved, + hidden away in monastery libraries. + + The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent large sums + of money in collecting and copying ancient writings. At this time a + beginning of the great libraries of Europe was made, Petrarch tried to + learn Greek, but could find no one in Italy able to teach him. + +GREEK BOOKS BROUGHT AGAIN TO ITALY. Shortly after Petrarch died + some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the aid of the pope and the + kings of the West in an attempt to drive back the Turks, who had already + crossed into Europe and settled in the lands which they now occupy. + Unless help should be sent to Constantinople, the city would certainly + fall into their hands. With these Greeks was one of those men who still + loved to read the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to + remain a few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek + to the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a grammar + of the Greek language, in order that after he had returned to + Constantinople others might be able to continue his teaching. + + Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly as they + had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their agents to + Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar brought back to + Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land to which students from + Germany, France, and England went to learn Greek and to obtain copies of + Greek books. It was fortunate that so many books had been brought from + Constantinople, for at last, in 1453, the Turks captured that city and + no place in the East was left where the books of the Greeks were studied + as they had been at Constantinople. + + [Illustration: A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY] + +THE INVENTION OF PRINTING. After collectors of Greek and Roman + writings had made several good libraries, partly by purchase, partly by + copying manuscripts belonging to others, a great invention was made + which enabled these writings to be spread far and wide and placed in the + hands of every student. This invention was the method of printing with + movable types. It is not quite certain who made the invention, although + John Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the + inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the same + time, that is, about 1450. + +DIFFERENT KINDS OF TYPE. In forming their type the German printers + imitated the lettering made by copyists with a quill. Their type is + called Gothic, and it is still widely used in German books. The Italian + printers made their letters more round and simple in shape, imitating + the handwriting of the best Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in + which many European peoples, as also the English and the Americans, + print their books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which, + because they were the inventors, is named _italic_. + +THE ALDINE PRESS. One of the most famous printers of this early + time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci. He gathered about + him a number of Greeks and planned to print all the Greek manuscripts + that had been discovered. This he did in beautiful type, imitated from + the handwriting of one of his Greek friends. He sold the books for a + price per volume about equal to our fifty cents, so that few scholars + were too poor to buy. + +SOME EARLY PRINTED BOOKS. Another great printer was the Englishman + William Caxton, who learned the art in the Netherlands. Among the books + he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The first book printed by + Gutenberg was the Bible in Latin. Early in the sixteenth century, + through the labors of a Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the + German Froben, the New Testament in Greek was printed. + +ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. The artists and the architects of this + time began to imitate the buildings they found or that they unearthed. + They used round arches and domes more than the pointed arches and + vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders. Sculptors pictured in stone the + stories of the Greek and Roman gods and heroes. Statues long buried in + ancient ruins were dug up, and great artists like the Italian Michel + Angelo studied them and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut. + On every hand men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of + the founders of the civilized world. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF PART OF CAXTON'S AENEID (REDUCED) + With the same in modern type] + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer in + France and Italy than in Germany and England? + + 2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle Ages? + What was the difference between a parish priest and a monk? + + 3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what sorts + of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the "keep"? + + 4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How was a + young man made a knight? What were the duties of a knight? + + 5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the Middle + Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves? What was a + guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their cities? + + 6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember Genoa? + + 7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow? How + were the changes made in the old language? Where did the English get + their language? Was it just like the English we speak? + + 8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the word + "university" mean then? Name two or three universities founded then + which still exist. What did the Arabs teach Christian students? + + 9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages especially like + to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why do we admire these + great churches? + + 10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more Roman + and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living and + thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first of + these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek books? + + 11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new + knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where do + we get our Roman and _italic_ type? What books did the Venetian + printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous + German printer. + + 12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance like + to study and imitate? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different + European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why are + they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight? + + 2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of castles + still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls. + + 3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from advertising + folders. + + 4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do the + students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle Ages? + + 5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect pictures + of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain, or Africa, + or Asia. + + 6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find + pictures of churches in America which resemble them. + + REVIEW + + _How ancient civilization was preserved_ + + 1. What ruined so many ancient cities? + + 2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the + Romans had done? + + 3. What language did the churchmen continue to use? + + 4. How did the missionaries help? + + 5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the Romans + had known? + + 6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks had + known? + + 7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help in + preserving the ancient knowledge? + + 8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men of + Petrarch's time do? + + 9. What help came from the invention of printing? + + 10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance learn + about the Greeks and the Romans? + + [Illustration: HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH + CENTURY] + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + +TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES + +THE PERILS OF TRADERS. There was a time in the Middle Ages when + merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to another for fear of + being plundered by some robber lord or common thief. If they traveled by + sea they might also be attacked by robbers. Some of these robbers, like + the Northmen, came from afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put + out from near-by ports when there seemed nothing better to do. + + This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great lords + succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the merchants armed + vessels of their own to drive the pirates from the sea. As trade grew + greater the towns became richer and stronger and the robbers and pirates + fewer, so that the number of merchant ships increased rapidly and long + voyages were attempted. + +FAIRS. At first trade was carried on at great fairs, held in places + convenient for the merchants of England and western Europe. The fairs + lasted about six weeks, and one fair followed another. As soon as the + first was over the merchants packed their unsold wares and journeyed to + the next. At the fairs were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks + from the East, skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and + other products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain. + +THE TREASURES OF THE EAST. Men in the Middle Ages were dependent + for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly called the East. + By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India, China, or the Molucca + Islands, where the choicest spices still grow. Spices were a great + luxury, and were needed to flavor the food, because the manner of + cooking was poor and there was little variety in the kinds of food. Most + of the cotton cloth, the silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also + procured from the East. + + [Illustration: TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT] + +ROUTES TO THE EAST. No one knew that it was possible to reach Asia + by sailing around the southern point of Africa or through what is called + the Strait of Magellan. The products of the East were brought to Europe + by several routes, two reaching the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in + Egypt, a third at Antioch, in Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern + shore of the Black Sea. + + The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the deserts + from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern India. Ships + from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice struggled with one + another for the right to bring back these precious wares and sell them + to the merchants of Europe, who were ready to pay high prices. + + [Illustration: MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE AGES] + +VENETIAN TRADERS. Merchants from Germany came to Venice to trade + the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and silks, which they + carried back across the Alps. Once a year the Venetians sent a fleet of + vessels westward through the straits of Gibraltar and along the Atlantic + shore as far as Bruges and London. The voyage was long and dangerous, + and the Venetians traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for + two or three times what they cost in Venice. + +THE CRUSADES. One event that brought to the Venetians an + opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The Mohammedans had + long held a large part of Spain, and towards the end of the eleventh + century they threatened France and Italy. They also attacked what was + left of the Roman Empire in the East, and the emperors sent to the pope + and the western kings frantic appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen, + Germans, Englishmen, and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire + to go to Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy + City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries large + armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories, sometimes being + defeated in battle or overcome by disease. + +WHAT THE VENETIANS GAINED FROM THE CRUSADES. Most of the Crusaders + went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no ships of their own + they often took passage in Venetian ships. The Venetians asked large + sums for this, and also succeeded in obtaining all the rights of trade + in many of the seaports which were captured. Sometimes the Venetians + undertook to govern islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along + the coasts, but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than + to build up an empire. + + THE NEW VENETIAN SHIPS. The Crusaders who returned to Europe brought + back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and their tales made other + men eager for them. For this reason more ships were built to sail in the + Mediterranean. The shipowners attempted to make their ships larger and + stronger. They were larger than those built by the English or by other + peoples along the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There + is an account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells us + that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews of one + thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but had a mast, + sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they could use if the wind + was favorable. + + [Illustration: VENETIAN SHIPS] + +DANGERS OF THE SEA. One difficulty about sailing was the lack of + any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night, of telling the + direction in which they were going. The sailors did not like to venture + far from shore, although the open sea is safer during a storm than a + wind-swept and rocky coast. At the time when the sailors of the + Mediterranean were building up their trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and + the Black Sea, two instruments came into use which enabled them to tell + just where they were. + +THE COMPASS. One of these instruments was the compass, which the + Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs before the + Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle, rub its point with a + magnet, and lay the needle on a cork floating in water, he will have a + rough sort of compass. The point of the needle wherever it may be turned + will swing back towards the north, thus guiding the sailors. + + [Illustration: MARINER'S COMPASS] + + The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story that at + first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused to sail under + a captain who used it. But a century later it was in general use, and + had been so much improved that even in the severest storms the needle + remained level and pointed steadily towards the north. + + [Illustration: AN ASTROLABE] + +THE ASTROLABE. The other instrument, called the astrolabe, was a + brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To this circle were fastened + two movable bars, at the ends of which were sights, or projecting pieces + pierced by a hole. The astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that + one bar was horizontal and the other could be moved until through its + sights some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on + the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above the + horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the place where + they were. In a similar way their longitude could be found out. + + The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could be used + only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments it was possible + to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle of the fourteenth + century ships from Genoa and Portugal had visited the Madeira and the + Canary Islands, and even the Azores which are a thousand miles from + the mainland. + +WHAT MEN THOUGHT ABOUT A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Men learned more + about other strange lands through a Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, who + wrote an account of his wonderful journey to the court of the Grand + Khan, or Emperor of the Mongols, of his travels through China, and of + his return to Persia by sea. + + Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was a great + marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in sailing around + Africa it would be impossible to reach the region of the spices and + silks and jewels which they so much desired. They also thought that the + heat in the tropics was so intense that at a certain distance down the + coast of Africa they would find the water of the ocean boiling. These + things and the tales of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had + terrified them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling. + +THE MONGOLS. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the court of the + Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were great conquerors, and + they not only subdued the Chinese but marched westward, overrunning most + of Russia and stopping only when they were on the frontiers of Italy. + For a long time southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital + was just north of the Great Wall of China. + + The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to the pope for + missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's father and uncle while on + a trading expedition had found their way to his court, and on a second + journey, in 1271, they took with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years. + The emperor was much interested in his western visitors and took young + Marco into his service. + + [Illustration: THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After an + old Chinese manuscript] + +MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS. Marco Polo traveled over China on official + errands, while his father and uncle were gathering wealth by trade. + After many years they desired to return to Italy, but the emperor was + unwilling to lose such able servants. It happened, however, that the + emperor wished to send a princess as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of + Persia, also a Mongol sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to + be trustworthy seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal + husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went on + to Italy. + + They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that their + relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize them. It was + like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned to his native + Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by nobody. The Polos proved + the truth of what they said by showing the great treasures which they + had sewed into the dresses of coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which + they wore. They displayed jewels of the greatest value, diamonds, + emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. + + [Illustration: MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS + The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black, and that first + described by Marco Polo is dotted] + +WHAT MARCO POLO TOLD. In the account Marco Polo wrote of his + travels and of the countries he had visited he described a wonderful + palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered with gold and + silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people, and its ceiling was + inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco Polo so large, so rich, + and so beautiful that no man on earth could design anything to equal it. + The robes of the emperor and his twelve thousand nobles and knights were + of silk and beaten gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with + precious stones. + + Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in the costly + wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and cheap. He described + from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen hundred miles from the mainland. + Its people, he said, were white, civilized, and wondrously rich. The + palace of the emperor of Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and + floors were of solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick. + +REASONS FOR FINDING A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Tales of such great + wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach the East. Marco Polo + had shown that it was possible to sail past India, through the islands, + to the eastern coast of Asia. When printing was invented his account was + printed, and the copy of that book which Columbus owned is still + preserved. Upon its margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about + geography. + + Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales of the + East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the land was lost, + because the Mongol emperors were driven out of China and the new rulers + would not permit Europeans to enter the country. The ordinary caravan + routes to the East were also closed not long afterwards. In 1453 the + Turks captured Constantinople, drove away the Italian merchants, and + prevented European sailors from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years + later the Turks seized Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately + before this happened a better route had been discovered. + +THE PORTUGUESE SAILORS. During the Middle Ages the Portuguese princes + fought to recover Portugal from the Moors. When this was done they were + eager to cross the straits and attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry + of Portugal made an expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to + know more about the coast south of the point beyond which European + sailors dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea + of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics. + + [Illustration: DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old + picture] + + From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been called "The + Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely promontory in southern + Portugal, and gathered about him learned men of all peoples, Arabian and + Jewish mathematicians, and Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this + new school of seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to + sail farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had + gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed Cape + Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without suffering + the fate which men had once feared. But they were discouraged when they + found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the coast turned southward again, + for they had hoped to sail eastward to Asia. + + [Illustration: THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA + The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East. The solid line + shows the new Portuguese route] + +CAPE OF GOOD HOPE DISCOVERED. At last in 1487 the end of what + seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate captain who + accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a family of daring + seamen. He had been sailing southward along the coast for nearly eight + months, when a northerly gale drove him before it for thirteen days. The + weather cleared and Diaz turned eastward to find the coast. As he did + not see land he turned northward and soon discovered land to the west. + This showed that he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew + were unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the + western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of Storms, but + the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned, named it the Cape of + Good Hope, for now he knew that an expedition could be sent directly to + the Indies. + + Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was the most + wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about. + +THE SEA ROUTE TO INDIA. Eleven years later the Portuguese king sent + Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt to reach the coast of India + by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da + Gama was successful and landed at Calicut on the south-western coast of + India. He returned to Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty + times the cost of the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the + East which enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon. + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who traveled + by sea or land? What was a fair? + + 2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes? Point + these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in Italy? How did + the Venetians get their wares to London? + + 3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the Mohammedans? What + did the Venetian traders gain by these wars? Describe a large + Venetian ship of this time. + + 4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail great + seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe was made. + + 5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern Asia? + Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he return to + Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had visited? + + 6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to Asia? What + did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How was the Cape of + Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this voyage? + + 7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the + voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must have + been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the Moluccas, or + China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or London? + + 2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves? + + 3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China? Where + has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols. Collect + pictures of China and Japan. + + 4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo. + + 5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of Portugal. + Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United States. + + + + REVIEW + + _Steps Towards the Discovery of America_ + + Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain. + + Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. + + Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland. + + Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages to + London and Bruges. + + Marco Polo's travels in China and the East. + + Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape of + Good Hope. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + +THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD + +CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Six years before Vasco da Gama made his + famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new trade route for + the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had formed and carried out a + much bolder plan. This was Christopher Columbus, and his plan was to + sail directly west from Europe into the unknown ocean in search of new + islands and the coast of Asia. Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in + Italy, had followed his younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably + led there by the fame of Prince Henry's explorations. + + The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for the + Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their expeditions + along the coast of Africa. All the early associations of Columbus were + with men interested in voyages of discovery, and particularly with those + engaged in the daring search for a sea route to India. + +HOW COLUMBUS FORMED HIS PLAN. Columbus gathered all the information + on geography which he could from ancient writers and from modern + discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was shaped like a + ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned, why might not a ship + sail around it from east to west? Or, better, why not sail directly west + to India, and perhaps find many wonderful islands between Europe and + Asia? His imagination was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the + marvelous riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of + going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly + boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most men of + the fifteenth century to be madness. + + [Illustration: CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS The oldest known picture of + Columbus, in the National Library, Madrid] + +HIS NOTION OF THE DISTANCE TO ASIA. Columbus made two fortunate + errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He imagined that Asia + extended much farther eastward than it actually does, making it nearer + Europe, and estimated the earth to be smaller than it is. His figures + placed Japan less than 3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead + of the 12,000 miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought + Japan would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated. + +HOW HE SECURED HELP. Even so, many years passed before Columbus was + able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself, and needed the help + of some government to fit out such an expedition. He may have tried to + get his native city, Genoa, to help him. There is such a story. If he + did, it was without success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal, + where he lived a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in + the discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the + same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to + undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise. + + The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him waiting + many years for an answer. They thought that they had more important work + in hand. There was another king in Spain at the time, the king of the + Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the Christian king and queen, were trying + to conquer the Moors, and thus to end the struggle between Christians + and Mohammedans for the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly + eight centuries. This war required all the strength and revenue + of Spain. + + Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly discouraged, the + war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the seat of their former + power, was finally taken in January, 1492. Now was a good time to ask + favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and to plan large enterprises for the + future. Powerful friends aided Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen + Isabella was persuaded to promise him all the help that he needed. + +THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. Three ships, or caravels as they were + called, were fitted out. The _Santa Maria_ was the largest of the three, + but it was not much larger than the small sailing yachts which we see + to-day. It was about ninety feet long by twenty feet broad, and had a + single deck. This was Columbus's principal ship or flagship. The second + caravel, the _Pinta_, was much swifter, built high at the prow and + stern, and furnished with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the + officers, but without a deck in the center. The third and smallest + caravel, called the _Nina_, the Spanish word for baby, was built much + like the _Pinta_. Ninety persons made up the three crews. + + [Illustration: COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC The shaded portions + represent the land as Columbus expected to find it. The light outline + of the Americas shows the actual position of the land as he found it.] + + The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the shores + of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never gone far out + into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller vessels in a voyage of + discovery, because they would be able to run close to the shores and + into the smaller harbors and up the rivers. + +BEGINNING OF THE VOYAGE. The expedition set sail from Palos in + Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary Islands. These + were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus as the most + convenient starting-point. The little fleet was delayed three weeks at + the islands making repairs. On September 6 Columbus was off again. He + struck due west from the Canaries. + +THE TERRORS OF THE VOYAGE. While the little fleet was still in + sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly frightened the + sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an event an omen of evil. + But the expedition had fine weather day after day. Steady, gentle, + easterly winds, the trade winds of the tropics, wafted them slowly + westward. But the timid sailors began to wonder how they would ever be + able to return against winds which seemed never to change from the east. + + Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area than the + whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared they might be + driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in quicksands. They imagined, too, + that great sea-monsters were lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to + devour them. + + [Illustration: A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS After the reconstructed + model exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893] + +THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NEW LAND. In spite of fears and complaints, + and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward course for more than + four weeks. Then as he began to see so many birds flying to the + southwest, he concluded that land must be nearer in that direction. He + had heard that most of the islands held by the Portuguese were + discovered by following the flight of birds. So on October 7 the + westward course was changed to one slightly southwest. + + From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating branches, + occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits of cane, were + encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers became common sights. + The Queen had promised a small pension to the one who should first see + land. Columbus had offered to give a silken doublet in addition. With + what eagerness the sailors must have kept on the lookout! + +THE GREAT DISCOVERY. At last as the fleet was sailing onward in the + bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if carried by hand along + a shore. A few hours later, about two o'clock on the morning of October + 12, a sailor on the _Pinta_ saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a + few miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for + daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they approached + the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus named it San + Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know which one of the + Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it was the one now called + Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with the royal standard and banners + flying to take possession of the land in the name of King Ferdinand and + Queen Isabella. + +WHERE COLUMBUS THOUGHT HE WAS. The astonished inhabitants of the + island soon gathered to see the strange sight--the landing of white men + in the West Indies. They looked upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the + white men as gods. Nor was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The + people were a strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and + painted to suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of + self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that chattered in + the trees above them. Such savages bore little resemblance to the people + whom Marco Polo said inhabited the Spice Islands. + + Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not far from + Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas satisfied him that he + was in the ocean near the coast of Asia, for had not Marco Polo + described it as studded with thousands of spice-bearing islands? He had + not found any spices, but the air was full of fragrance and the trees + and herbs were strange in appearance. Of course if the islands were the + Indies, the people must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and + this name clung to the red men, although their islands were not the + true Indies. + + [Illustration: WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST LANDED] + +THE SEARCH FOR THE GOLDEN EAST. Columbus thought that the natives + meant to tell him in their sign language of a great land to the south + where gold abounded. He set off in search of this, and came upon a land + the natives called Cuba. Its large size convinced him that he had at + last found the Asiatic mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew + knowing many languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found + neither cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great + disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search for the + riches which he expected to find. + +THE MISFORTUNES OF COLUMBUS. While on the coast of Cuba, Pinzon, + the commander of the _Pinta_, deserted him. Pinzon, whose ship was + swifter than the others, probably wished to be the first to get home, in + order to tell a story which would gain him the credit of the discovery + of the Indies. A few days later Columbus discovered a large island which + the natives called Hayti, and which he called Espanola or "Spanish + Land." At every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco + Polo had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Espanola Columbus's + own ship, the _Santa Maria_, was totally wrecked. Such disasters + convinced him that it was high time to return to Spain with the news of + his discovery. + +PREPARATIONS FOR RETURN TO SPAIN. As there was not room for both + crews on the tiny _Nina_, his one remaining ship, it became necessary to + leave about forty sailors in Espanola. A fort was built, and supplies + were left for a year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to + Spain. Ten Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his + friends in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the + language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their people. + +THE SEARCH FOR CHINA RENEWED. There was rejoicing in Palos when the + voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon Columbus. It was now + easy to get men and money for another voyage. In September, 1493, + Columbus started to return to his islands, this time with seventeen + ships and fifteen hundred men, all confident that they would soon see + the marble palaces of China, and secure a share in the wealth of the + Spice Islands. No one yet realized that a new world--two great + continents--lay between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus + went directly to Espanola, where he found that his colony of the + previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new settlement was + quickly started. A little town called Isabella was built, with a fort, a + church, a market place, public granary, and dwelling-houses. Isabella + was the first real settlement in the New World. + + [Illustration: MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS] + +OTHER VOYAGES TO THE NEW WORLD. Columbus made two other voyages. He + continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he believed to be near. + He made a third voyage from Spain to the West Indies in 1498. He sailed + farther south, and came upon the mainland which later was called South + America. A fourth expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call + Central America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he + had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the coast + of Asia. + +THE SAD END OF COLUMBUS'S LIFE. The close of his life was a sad + one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches which he had + expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the islands had + rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely before the king + and queen of misgovernment in his territories. Once his opponents had + him carried to Spain chained like a common prisoner. He was given his + liberty on reaching Spain, but the people had become prejudiced + against him. + + Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his brother + Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to pass a crowd + of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them with hoots: "There go + the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who has discovered a + land of vanity and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships + and disappointments broke down the great discoverer, and he died + neglected and almost forgotten by the people of Spain. + + [Illustration: THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA] + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the plan Diaz + had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama carried out a few + years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz desire to find a sea + route to India? Had anybody before Columbus believed the + earth round? + + 2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of the + earth? Why was this a fortunate error? + + 3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why did he + find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain finally favored + his cause? Who were the Moors? + + 4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the West + Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised? + + 5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his first + voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands did he + find on his later voyages? What did he think he had found? + + 6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the Admiral of + Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity and deceit, + the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by this? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing ships of + other explorers of that day. How does the deck arrangement on those + differ from the ocean steamships of to-day? What advantage would + ships like those of Columbus have over present steamships in + exploring strange coasts? What disadvantages? + + 2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were afraid to + go on and wished to turn back to Spain. + + 3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where + Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and China. + What great mass of land was really very near the island he first + discovered? + + 4. Find from the maps mentioned in Chapter IV (Greek World), Chapter + VII (Roman World), Chapter VIII (The world after Polo's journey), + and Chapter XIV (The world as known after Columbus), how much more + the Romans knew of the world than the Greeks had known, the + Europeans after Marco Polo's journey than the Romans, and the + Europeans after Columbus's voyage than after Marco Polo's journey. + + _Important Date_--1492. The discovery of America by Columbus. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + +OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD + +THE RACE TO THE INDIES. The discovery of all the lands which make + what we call the New World came very slowly. It was the work of many + different explorers. Most of the expeditions sent out to the new islands + went in search of a passage to India. It was a fine race. Each nation + was eager to see its ships the first to reach India by the westward + route. All were disappointed at finding so much land between Europe and + Asia. It seemed to them to be of little value and to block the way to + the richer countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered + the great continents which we know as North and South America. Columbus + had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a turning-point + in history. + +JOHN CABOT. John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time in the + service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of discovery. This + was five years after Columbus discovered the West Indies. Cabot had + heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain had occupied unknown + islands. He planned to do the same for King Henry VII of England. For + his voyage he had a single vessel no larger than the _Nina_, the + smallest ship in the fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew. + He passed around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west + until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North America + somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the southern end of + Nova Scotia. + +CABOT'S DISCOVERY. John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but he found + notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making nets, which + showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human beings. Like + Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of China. + +THE CABOT VOYAGES FORGOTTEN. Before the end of 1497 John Cabot was + back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and his son, Sebastian + Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found lands in the following + year. The Cabot voyages, however, were soon almost forgotten by the + people of England. + + [Illustration: SEBASTIAN CABOT After the picture ascribed to + Holbein] + +THE NAMING OF THE NEW LANDS. Why was our country named America + rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and northern + continents which we call the Americas were named for Americus Vespucius + rather than for Christopher Columbus. This seems the more strange since + we know so little about the life of Americus. Americus Vespucius was + born in Florence, Italy, and like many other young Italians of that day + entered the service of neighboring countries. He went to Spain and + accompanied several Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new + continent which Columbus had discovered on his third voyage. + + Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the leader in any + expedition. But he seems to have written to his friends interesting + accounts of what he had seen. In one of these letters Americus seems to + have written boastfully of how he had found lands which might be called + a new world. He said that the new continent was more populous and more + full of animals than Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate + was even more temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was + clearly a new world. + +WHY AMERICUS WAS REGARDED AS THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA. The + statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the newly + invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so could be read + by the learned of all countries. They were impressed by the belief of + Americus that he had seen a new world and not simply the Indies. This + was especially true of men living outside of Spain who had heard little + of Columbus or his discovery. + + Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery was a way to + the Indies and the finding of islands on the way thither less important. + Besides, when he saw what we call South America he had no idea that it + was a new world. The people of Europe either never knew that he had + discovered the mainland or had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a + great deal about Americus and his doings. It is not strange that + Americus rather than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer + of America. + +TWO NAMES FOR THE NEW LANDS. Even then the new continent might not + have been called America but for the suggestion of a young scholar of + the time. Martin Waldseemueller, a professor of geography at the college + of St. Die, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography. In his + description of the parts of the world unknown to the ancients, he + suggested naming the continent stretching to the south for Americus. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE Of the passage in the _Cosmographia + Introductio_ (1507), by Martin Waldseemueller, in which the name of + America is proposed for the New World.] + + + The facsimile's transcription reads as follows: + + Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta + pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa + est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore + sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam + dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint + nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi + navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur. + + + Waldseemueller thought Americus had been the real discoverer of this + continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these regions are more widely + explored, and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus + Vespucius, I do not see why any one may justly forbid it to be named + Amerige--that is, Americ's Land, from Americus, the discoverer." + + Others adopted Waldseemueller's suggestion and the name America came into + general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards continued to call all + the new lands by the name which Columbus had given them--the Indies. + America was at first the name for South America only, but later was also + used by writers for the other continent which was soon found to the + north. It was natural to distinguish the two continents as South and + North America. + +BALBOA. The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless search for + the real Indies, but the more they explored the more they saw that a + great continental barrier was lying across the sea passage to Asia. A + few began to suspect that after all America was not a part of Asia. + Vasco Nunez Balboa was one of these. Balboa was a planter who had + settled in Espanola. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his + creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a vessel + bound for the northern coast of South America. From there he went to the + eastern border of Panama with a party of gold seekers. The Indians told + him of a great sea and of an abundance of gold on its shores to be found + a short distance across the isthmus. It is probable that the Indians + wished to get rid of the Spaniards as neighbors. + + [Illustration: VASCO NUNEZ BALBOA] + +BALBOA'S DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. Balboa resolved to make a name + for himself and to be the discoverer of the other sea. He set off in + 1513. The land is not more than forty-five miles wide at Panama, but it + is almost impassable even to this day. For twenty-two days the hardy + adventurers advanced through a forest, dense with thickets and tangled + swamps and interlacing vines--so thick that for days the sun could not + be seen--and over rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to + an open sea stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the + South Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given it + afterward. + + Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of land was + comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that North America, too, + was narrower than it proved to be, and the search for the passage to the + Indies was pushed with greater vigor. + +MAGELLAN. A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had really won the + race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and Columbus for India, the land + of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He had won in 1497 by going around the + Cape of Good Hope. Another explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally, + reached the Indies in a long westward voyage lasting two years, from + 1519 to 1521. + + [Illustration: FERDINAND MAGELLAN] + +THE BEGINNING OF MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE. Magellan, himself a Portuguese, + tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of Portugal to aid him + in his project. He succeeded better in Spain, and sailed from there in + 1519 with a small fleet given him by the young king Charles. The five + ships in his fleet were old and in bad repair, and the crews had been + brought together from every nation. They sailed directly to South + America, and spent the first year searching every inlet along the coast + for a passage. + + [Illustration: THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN] + + They found that the natives of South America used for food vegetables + that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts." The Indians called + them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of the great foods of + to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter was passed on the cold + and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan called the natives "Patagones," + the word in his language meaning big feet, from the large foot-prints + which they left on the sand. + +THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. Magellan finally found a strait, since + named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed his ships through it + amid the greatest dangers. The change from the rough waters of the + strait to the calm sea beyond made the word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem + the most suitable name for the vast body of water which they + had entered. + +THE FIRST VOYAGE ACROSS THE PACIFIC. From the western coast of + South America Magellan struck boldly out into the Pacific Ocean on his + way to Asia. The crews suffered untold hardships. The very rats which + overran the rotten ships became a luxurious article of food which only + the more fortunate members of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen + lived for days on the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These + were soaked in sea-water and roasted over the fire. + + Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam, where + plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of small islands, + of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his word for robbers, used + because the natives were such robbers. The expedition discovered a group + of islands afterwards called the Philippines. There Magellan fell in + with traders from the Indies and knew that the remainder of the voyage + would be through well-known seas and over a route frequently followed. + Poor Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was + killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the natives. + + [Illustration: AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523 After + Magellan's voyage, but before the exploration of North America had + gone far] + + Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice Islands, + across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and so back to + Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons of cloves, worth more + than enough to pay the whole cost of the expedition. Such was the value + of the trade Europe was so eagerly seeking. + +WHAT MAGELLAN HAD SHOWN THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE. Magellan's voyage + had, however, been a great event. Historians are agreed that it was the + greatest voyage in the history of mankind. It had shown in a practical + way that the earth is a globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had + long taught, for a ship had sailed completely around it. + + But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not dreamed. He + had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay between Europe and + Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which the Spanish explorers had + found, and which other people were beginning to call the Americas, were + really a new world entirely separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia + as Columbus had thought. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at finding two + continents between Europe and Asia? + + 2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this land + was? Why did the English people take little interest in this voyage? + + 3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that Americus + Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did the Spaniards + continue to call the new region? Why did the Spaniards have one name + and the other Europeans another name for a long time? + + 4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men search + for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more vigorously + after Balboa's expedition? + + 5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in + history? What three things had Magellan shown the European world? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter who + helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite the + name of each the name of the land he discovered. + + 2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map and make a list of the lands + or countries he passed. Look at the map of North America on this old + map, and at the one in mentioned Chapter XIX. How do you account for + the queer shape of North America on the old map? + + _Important date_--1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage + around the world. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + +EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MEXICAN INDIANS. Early Spanish explorers on + the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the mainland more highly + civilized than the natives of the West Indies. Some of these, especially + the Aztecs, lived in large villages or cities and were ruled by powerful + chiefs or kings. They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers + several stories in height. + + Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the Spanish had + seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and coated with hard white + plaster. Some of them were of immense size and could hold many families. + Doors had not been invented, but hangings of woven grass or matting of + cotton served instead. Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle + answered for door-bells. + + The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved with a sort + of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like the old Roman + aqueducts, although not so large, carried water from the neighboring + hills for fountains and rude public baths. + + The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their families. Workmen + made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils and dishes of pottery + for every-day use. The people cultivated the fields around the cities, + raising a great variety of foods, and even built ditches to carry water + for irrigating the fields. All this was in striking contrast with the + simple habits of the West Indians. + + [Illustration: AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE Now in the National + Museum in the City of Mexico] + +CRUEL CUSTOMS OF THE AZTECS. With all the good features of Mexican + life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over the other Indians, + there was much that was hideous and cruel. The Aztecs, the most powerful + tribes, were continually at war with their neighbors. They lived mainly + upon the plunder of their enemies and the tribute which they took from + those they had conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly + idols as gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives + taken in war as human sacrifices. + +SPANISH IDEAS OF MEXICO. The reports of the Aztec civilization and + of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited the interest and greed + of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the China which Marco Polo had + described, and might offer a chance of immense wealth for those who + should conquer it. In truth, Mexican civilization did resemble that of + Asia more than anything that the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a + powerful chief or king of the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol + Emperor of Persia or China. + + [Illustration: MONTEZUMA, THE LAST KING OF MEXICO After Montanus + and Ogilby] + +CORTES. In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent Hernando Cortes to + explore and conquer Mexico. The expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now + situated. The ships were then sunk in order to cut off all hope of + retreat for the soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cortes, "were + means of retreat necessary!" Cortes, with great skill, worked up the + zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All thought it + a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the practice of offering + human sacrifices, and to force the Christian religion upon the natives. + + The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of Mexico, which + was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom. Cortes and his men had learned + the Indian mode of fighting from ambush, and also how successfully to + match cunning and treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent + his invasion of their country. + +HOW THE SPANIARDS AND THE AZTECS FOUGHT. The Mexican warriors, + though they fought fiercely, were no match for the Spaniards. The + Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow, using arrows pointed with + a hard kind of stone. They carried for hand-to-hand fighting a narrow + club set with a double edge of razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind + of armor made from quilted cotton. But such things were useless against + Spanish bullets shot from afar. + + [Illustration: THE ARMOR OF CORTES After an engraving of the + original in the National Museum, Madrid] + + The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick armor and + shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the Spanish leaders were + mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly appearance to the + simple-minded Indians. The story is told that the Mexicans believed that + one of their gods had once floated out to sea, saying that, in the + fulness of time, he would return with fair-skinned companions to begin + again his rule over his people. Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of + the white men as the return of this god and thought that resistance + would be useless. Such natives sent presents, made their peace with + Cortes, and so weakened the opposition to the conquerors. + +CORTES IN PERIL. Cortes easily entered the City of Mexico, and + forced Montezuma to resign. But here the natives attacked his army in + such numbers that he had to retreat to escape capture. The Spaniards + fled from the city at night amid the onslaught of the inhabitants + fighting for their religion and their homes. + + [Illustration: CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORTES After Van Menken. + There are in the naval museum at Annapolis guns captured in the Mexican + War supposed to be those used by Cortes] + + The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cortes started in the + evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000 Indian allies, and 80 + horses. There were left in the morning 500 soldiers, 2,000 allies, and + 20 horses. Cortes is said to have buried his face in his hands and wept + for his lost followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking + Mexico. He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to + return to the attack on the capital city. + +CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. The siege which followed, lasting + nearly three months, has rarely been matched in history for the bravery + and suffering of the natives. The fighting was constant and terrible. + The fresh water supply was cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and + famine aided the invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and + Cortes entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the Aztecs. A + greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse and rebuild the + City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish civilization, and Mexico a + New Spain. By such work Cortes showed that he could be not only a great + conqueror, but also an able ruler in time of peace. + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS + From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus] + +PIZARRO. A few years after Cortes conquered Mexico a second army + conquered another famous Indian kingdom. Francisco Pizarro commanded + this expedition, which set out from Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been + with Balboa at the discovery of the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and, + like his master, had become interested in the stories the Indians told + of a rich kingdom far to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians + described was that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The + Spaniards called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by + softening the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a + native Indian chieftain. + + [Illustration: A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S + It is more than eight feet high and five feet across, and was dug up in + the central square of the City of Mexico more than one hundred + years ago] + +CONQUEST OF PERU. Pizarro found the Incas divided as usual by civil + wars and incapable of much resistance. One of their rival chiefs was + outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro by a trick, and was himself + made a prisoner instead. He offered to give Pizarro in return for his + freedom as much gold as would fill his prison room as high as he could + reach. The offer was accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases, + plates, images, and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian + idols, was gathered together. + + The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost $7,000,000 + worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As much more was taken + from the Indians by force. The whole was divided among the conquerors. + Pizarro's share was worth nearly a million dollars. But the poor chief + who had made them suddenly rich was suspected of plotting to have his + warriors ambush them as they left the country, was tried by his + conquerors, and put to death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over. + Peru, like Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement. + Emigrants, instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of + going on into the newer regions which Cortes and Pizarro had won. + +EMIGRANTS TO SPANISH AMERICA. It was much harder in the sixteenth + century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is today. The first + and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in getting permission to leave + Spain. No one could go who had not secured the king's consent. The + emigrant must show that neither he nor his father nor his grandfather + had ever been guilty of heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had + been steadfast Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give + her consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of Spain + could not secure permits to move to the New World. Foreigners of + whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and were usually kept + out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly for Spaniards. + +HARDSHIPS OF THE SEA VOYAGE. Those who did go to the colonies found + the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has related that it cost + him about one hundred and eighty dollars for the passage, and that he + provided his own chickens and bread. The danger to sailing ships from + storms was much greater than it is today for steamships. The voyage + required three or four weeks and not uncommonly as many months. + +THE NEED OF LABORERS. The hardships and dangers of the voyage and + the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept most people from + going to the New World. Emigration was slow, amounting to about a + thousand a year. There were always fewer capable white laborers than the + landowners in the colonies needed for their work, for there was much to + do in clearing the land and preparing it for use. The landowners were + usually well-to-do Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields + themselves. A great many of the laborers who migrated to America served + in the army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The + craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm + laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies, during the + early history of the colonies, made slaves of the Indians and compelled + them to take the place of the laborers they needed and could not obtain. + +INDIAN SLAVERY. The people of Europe thought that the whole world + belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians, whether Indian or + negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity or of being made slaves. + The choice of Christianity did not always save them from the fate of + slavery. In this the Spaniards were no more cruel than their neighbors + the English or the French. The Spanish planters from the beginning + forced the Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work + in their mines. + + The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the Indian + unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves did not do the + tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful quarters rapidly + broke down the natives. The white men also brought into the island + diseases which they, with their greater experience, could resist, but + from which, one writer says, the Indians died like sheep with a + distemper. + + [Illustration: A SPANISH GALLEON Ships like this carried the + Spanish emigrants to America] + +SLAVERY DESTROYS THE WEST INDIANS. When the number of the Indians + in Espanola and Cuba had decreased so much that there were not enough + left to meet the needs of the planters, slave-hunters searched the + neighboring islands for others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly + gone, and the planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves, + the king of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he + did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same purpose, + and the change merely meant that negroes took the place of Indians as + slaves. The story of the change is in great part the story of the life + of Bartholomew de Las Casas. + +LAS CASAS. The father of Las Casas was a companion of Columbus on + his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain, taking with him a young + Indian slave whom he gave to his son. This youth became greatly + interested in the race to which his young slave belonged. In 1502 he + went to Espanola to take possession of his father's estate. The + planter's life did not long satisfy him and finally he became a priest. + He moved from Espanola to Cuba, the newer colony. + + Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and gave his + own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the abuses of + slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves, and secured many + reforms which lessened the hardships of their lot. Since the planters + demanded more laborers and Las Casas thought the negro would be hardier + than the Indian, he advocated negro slavery in place of Indian slavery + as the less of two evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his + king, Charles V, to put an end to Indian slavery of every form. + + His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West Indies. + They had decreased until almost none were left. It is said that there + were two hundred thousand Indians in Espanola in 1492, and that in 1548 + there were barely five hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken + place in the other islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to + save the Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless + islanders. + +NEGRO SLAVERY. Las Casas later regretted that he had advised the + planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the Indians. Some + negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the coast of Africa + during their explorations and taken to Europe as slaves. Columbus + carried a few of these to the West Indies with him, and others had + followed his example, but negro slavery had grown very slowly until + after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery, when it increased rapidly in + Spanish America. + + [Illustration: LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in the + Academy, Mexico. Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to + shield the natives from Spanish cruelty] + +THE MISSIONS OF THE MAINLAND. Las Casas became at one time a + missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors located on the + southern border of Mexico, in a region called by the Spaniards the "Land + of War." Three times a Spanish army had invaded the country, and three + times it had been driven back by the native defenders. Las Casas wished + to show the Spaniards that more could be accomplished by treating the + Indians kindly than by bloody warfare and conquest. + + He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of the + Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as Christian + teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won the friendship + of the Indians in time and changed the land of constant warfare into one + of peace. They led the natives to destroy their idols and to give up + cannibalism. The mission established among them and kept up by the monks + who were attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up + on the mainland. + +THE WORK OF THE MISSIONS. Influenced by the work of Las Casas + against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the Spaniards bent their + efforts to preserve and Christianize the natives wherever they came upon + them in America. Catholic priests gathered the Indians into permanent + villages, which were called missions. Within about one hundred years + after the death of Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000 + Indians in such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to + build better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen + practices. + + Every mission became a little industrial school for children and parents + alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and trades and the customs + and language of their teachers. Each Indian cultivated his own plot of + land and worked two hours a day on the farm belonging to the village. + The produce of the village farm supported the church. The monks or + friars who had charge of the mission cared for the poor, taught in the + schools, preserved the peace and order of the village, and looked after + the religious welfare of all. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE] + + Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations, and + planters established farms around them, and they became Spanish villages + in every respect like those in the islands or in the Old World, except + that many inhabitants in the towns on the mainland were Indians. The + emigrants freely intermarried with the Indians and a mixed race took the + place of the old inhabitants. The customs, language, religion, and rule + of Spain prevailed in this New Spain, though in some ways the new + civilization was not so good as that of the Old World. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did they + differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly anxious to + conquer Mexico? + + 2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards? How + many soldiers and Indian allies did Cortes lose in one battle? How + long did it take Cortes to conquer Mexico? + + 3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later? By + whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors, Cortes + and Pizarro, in their expeditions? + + 4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the West + Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians and begin + making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in this change? + + 5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish Missions + accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian tribes + in Mexico? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and + occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United States, + or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or from some + neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the Aztecs in these + respects or the West Indians? + + 2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four hundred + years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find out who + may not come into the United States to-day. What did it cost one + traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century? Find out the + cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How long did it take + to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length of a voyage from + Europe to-day. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + +THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA + +PONCE DE LEON. While men like Cortes were exploring and conquering + the countries on the west shore of the Gulf of Mexico, others began to + search the vast regions to the north. One of these explorers was Ponce + de Leon, who had come to Espanola with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards + spent many years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood + from something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond the + Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if he + bathed in it. + + [Illustration: PONCE DE LEON] + + As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search of this + wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where flowers grew in + great abundance. It was the Easter season in 1513. Since the Spanish + call this season _Pascua Florida_ or Flowery Easter, Ponce called the + new flowery country Florida. He went ashore near the present site of St. + Augustine, and later, while trying to establish a settlement, lost his + life in a battle with the Indians. + +EXPLORATIONS OF NORTH AMERICAN COAST. Other Spanish explorers + between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast from Florida to Vera + Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to Labrador. They sought + continually for a passage to India. Every large inlet was entered, for + it might prove to be the long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of + North America took shape on the maps of that time. Two famous + expeditions into the interior of the country did much to enlarge this + knowledge. One was made by De Soto through the region which now forms + seven southern states of the United States, and the other was by + Coronado through the great southwest. + + [Illustration: HERNANDO DE SOTO] + +DE SOTO. Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in Spain, had won + fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of Spain, to reward his + bravery and skill in conquering Indians, made him Governor of Cuba. In + those days the Governor of Cuba controlled Florida. It was a larger + Florida than the present state of that name, for Spanish Florida + included the whole north coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into + the continent without any definite boundary. + +THE STORY OF THE GILDED MAN. De Soto had heard a fanciful story of + a country so rich in gold that its king was smeared every morning with + gum and then thickly sprinkled with powdered gold, which was washed off + at night. De Soto thought this country might be somewhere in Florida, + and prepared to search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language + _El Dorado._ + +THE COMRADES OF DE SOTO. More than six hundred men, some of them + from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain and Portugal, flocked + to De Soto's banner. They sold their possessions at home and ventured + all their wealth in the hope of obtaining great riches in Florida. + +DE SOTO'S ROUTE THROUGH THE SOUTH OF NORTH AMERICA. De Soto crossed + from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and advanced northward + by land to an Indian village near Apalachee Bay. Here he spent the first + winter. A white man, whom the Indians had taken captive twelve years + before and finally adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an + interpreter. + + [Illustration: SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY] + + In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a journey + into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed northeasterly through + the country now within Georgia and South Carolina, as far, perhaps, as + the border of North Carolina. From here it passed through the mountains, + and turned southwesterly through Tennessee and Alabama until a large + Indian village called Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of + Mobile Bay. Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The + Alabama Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by. + Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the + unknown interior. + +THE HARDSHIPS OF THE JOURNEY. His army was almost exhausted by the + difficulties of the journey. A road had to be cut and broken through + thickets and forest, paths had to be made through the many swamps, and + fords found across the rivers. It frequently became necessary to stop + for months at a time, to let the horses, worn out from travel and + starving because of the scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The + stores which the army brought with them soon gave out. The men were + forced to live like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots + of wild plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of + their scanty stores of corn and beans. + + [Illustration: INDIANS BROILING FISH] + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE INDIANS. De Soto was cruel in his treatment + of the conquered natives along his route. Many of his officers came with + him really for the purpose of obtaining Indian slaves for their + plantations in Cuba. Indian women were made to do the work of the camp. + Indian men were chained together and forced to carry the baggage. The + chiefs were held as hostages for the good behavior of the whole tribe. + The Indians who tried to shirk work or offered resistance were killed + without mercy. + + [Illustration: MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542] + + De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the white men, and + left him the enemy of any who should come to those regions in + after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped destruction at the + hands of the enraged savages. They attacked the Spaniards with all their + strength at Mauvilla, and again while they were in camp in northern + Mississippi for the winter of 1540-1541. These two battles with the + Indians cost the Spaniards their baggage, which was destroyed in the + burning villages. New clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of + wild animals. Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets, + shirts, stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked + much like a band of Robinson Crusoes. + +THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. De Soto marched on northwesterly + until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the site of the present + city of Memphis. There he came upon a great river. One of his officers + tells us that the river was so wide at this point that if a man on the + other side stood still, it could not be known whether he were a man or + not; that the river was of great depth, and of a strong current; and + that the water was always muddy. + + De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or Great River, + but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans have adopted the + Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had probably passed the mouth of + the Mississippi River before De Soto, and wondered at its mighty size, + but De Soto was the first white man to approach it from the land and to + appreciate the importance of his discovery. + +WANDERINGS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The Spaniards cut down trees, + made them into planks and built barges on which they crossed the + Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year through the endless + woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now within the state of + Arkansas. They probably went as far west as the open plains of Oklahoma + or Texas. In these border regions between the forests and the prairies + they met Indians who used the skins of the buffalo for clothing. + + [Illustration: BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI] + +DEATH AND BURIAL OF DE SOTO. The severe winter of 1541-1542 + discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent nearly three years in + a vain search. The natives whom they had found made clothing from the + fiber in the bark of mulberry trees and from the hides of buffaloes, and + stored beans and corn for food, but such things seemed of little value + to the seekers for the Gilded Man. + + De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish a colony + somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his purpose to send to + Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement as a base, make a farther + search in the plains of the great West. He did not live to carry out his + plan. Long exposure and anxiety had weakened him. The malaria of the + swamps attacked him, and he died within a few days. His body was wrapped + in mantles weighted with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered + in the midst of the great river he had discovered. + + His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the Indians. The + Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the Sun, and now he had + died like any other mortal. They were afraid if the Indians found his + body they would cease to believe that the strangers were immortal and + would massacre them all. The Indians were told that the great leader had + gone to Heaven, as he had often done before, and that he would return in + a few days. + +RESULTS OF DE SOTO'S JOURNEY. The weary survivors built boats, + floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed cautiously along + the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four years and three months, + and half of the army which set out had perished. However, the expedition + of De Soto will always remain one of the most remarkable journeys in the + history of North America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into + the interior. With it had begun the written history of the country now + composing at least eight states in the United States, Florida, Georgia, + South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and + Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the present Oklahoma and Texas, and had + certainly passed down the Mississippi River through Louisiana. + +THE STORY OF THE SEVEN CITIES. While De Soto was exploring the + southeastern part of North America a second expedition searched the + southwest. Both were looking for rich Indian kingdoms like Mexico and + Peru. The second expedition came about in this manner. Some of the + Indians from northern Mexico told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in + the distant past their ancestors came forth from seven caves. + + [Illustration: AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO] + + The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of their own + about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time Spain was overrun by + the Moors in the eighth century, seven bishops, flying from persecution, + had taken refuge, with a great company of followers, on an island or + group of islands far out in the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built + Seven Cities. Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of + their wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have actually + seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to tell them of these + Seven Cities instead of seven caves. + + The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much trouble in + understanding the Indian languages. They had long expected to find the + Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was rumor that white travelers had + seen them north of Mexico. + +THE JOURNEY OF FRIAR MARCOS. In 1539 the Viceroy of Mexico sent a + frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together with a negro, + Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for them. Friar Marcos + traveled far to the north. He inquired his way of the Indians, always + asking them about Seven Cities. He described them as large cities with + houses made of stone and mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him, + directed him to seven Zuni villages or pueblos. The first of these they + called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven Cities + of Cibola. + + The good friar himself never entered even the first of them. His negro, + Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the way, but this rough, + greedy fellow offended the Indians, who promptly murdered him. When the + friar approached he found the Indians so excited and hostile that he + dared not enter their village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill + at a distance, from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola. + The houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the + wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and gave him + the idea of a much larger and richer city than really existed. Friar + Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened, hurriedly retraced + his steps. + +CORONADO. There was great excitement in Mexico over the story Friar + Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew, as such stories + always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing else was thought of in + all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made ready a great army for the + conquest of the Seven Cities of Cibola. He gave the command to his + intimate friend, Francisco de Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany + him, but it was necessary to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of + nobles, eager to go, traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the + viceroy's permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors + to their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as a + title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great wealth when + the Seven Cities should be discovered! + + [Illustration: A ZUNI PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE] + +THE ARMY OF CORONADO. In the early part of 1540, Coronado set forth + from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf of California. He had an + army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly all the younger sons of nobles. + They were fitted out with polished coats of mail and gilded armor, + carried lances and swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from + the large stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few + footmen armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and + Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white masters. Some + led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage, or drove the oxen and + cows, the sheep and swine which would be needed on the journey. A small + fleet carried part of the baggage by way of the Gulf of California, + prepared also to help Coronado in other ways, and to explore the Gulf + to its head. + + [Illustration: THE ROUTE OF CORONADO] + +THE ROUTE OF CORONADO TO CIBOLA. The large army marched slowly + through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon became + impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small following of + picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous wilderness of + northern Mexico and across the desert plains of southeastern Arizona. + After a march lasting five months, over a distance equal to that from + New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon the Seven Cities of Cibola; but + the real Seven Cities of Cibola as Coronado found them bore little + resemblance to what he had expected. + + [Illustration: A ZUNI PUEBLO] + +THE REAL SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA. The first city of Cibola was an + Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed houses, built of stone + and sun-dried clay. The houses were entered by climbing ladders to the + top and then passing down into the rooms as we enter ships through + hatches. The people wore only such clothes as could be woven from the + coarse fiber of native plants, or patched together from the tanned skins + of the cat or the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but + only small and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some + skill in making small things for house and personal decoration, mainly + in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green stone. + + The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of poor villages + inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that Coronado had found + the Zuni pueblos in the western part of New Mexico. The conquest of + these was a wofully small thing for so grand and costly an expedition. + No gold or silver or precious jewels had been found. + + [Illustration: CANYON OF THE COLORADO] + +THE CANYON OF THE COLORADO. Yet the wonders of the natural world + about them astonished and interested the Spaniards. Some of their number + found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River and vividly described it to + their comrades. As they looked into its depths it seemed as if the water + was six feet across, although in reality it was many hundred feet wide. + Some tried without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream + below or to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who + staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the cliff were + about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far as they could + swore that when they reached these rocks they found them bigger than the + great tower of Seville, which is two hundred and seventy-five feet high. + + CORONADO IN NEW MEXICO. Coronado marched from the Cities of Cibola + eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River, and settled for the + winter in an Indian village a short distance south of the present city + of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The Spaniards drove the natives out, only + allowing them to take the clothes they wore. + +A WINTER IN AN INDIAN VILLAGE. The soldiers passed the severe + winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best houses of the + Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and beans had been left by + the unfortunate owners. The live stock brought from Mexico furnished an + abundance of fresh meat. Coronado required the Indians to furnish three + hundred pieces of cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the + place of their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians + time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to take + their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a soldier came upon + an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he compelled the unlucky + fellow to exchange with him without more ado. + + Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts of his men + made him much loved by them, but much hated by the Indians. It is no + wonder that such treatment drove the Indians into rebellion, and that + Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel war of reconquest and revenge. + +THE TALE OF QUIVIRA. An Indian slave in one of the villages cheered + Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale about a wonderful city, + many days' journey across the plains to the northeast, which he called + Quivira. The king of Quivira, he said, took his nap under a large tree, + on which were hung little gold bells, which put him to sleep as they + swung in the air. Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of + wrought gold. The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his + hearers to make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he + could in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless + plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown. + +THE SEARCH FOR QUIVIRA. The slave's story deceived the Spaniards. + Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of finding a rich country + and marched away in search of Quivira. He traveled to the northeast for + seventy-seven days. There were no guiding land marks. Soldiers measured + the distance traveled each day by counting the footsteps. The plains + were flat, save for an occasional channel cut by some river half buried + in the sand; they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small + rim of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses. + +QUIVIRA. The most marvelous sight of the long journey was the herds + of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians guided Coronado in the + end to a cluster of Indian villages which they called Quivira. This was + somewhere in what is now central Kansas near Junction City. The Indians + were in all probability the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met + with a bitter disappointment. + + [Illustration: INDIAN TEPEES] + + Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered Indian + villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening grass or straw + or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the poorest and most + barbarous which he had met. Coronado was, however, fortunate in securing + a supply of corn and buffalo meat in Quivira for his long + return journey. + +CORONADO'S OPINION OF THE WEST. A year later a crestfallen army of + half-starved men clad in the skins of animals stumbled back homeward + through Mexico in straggling groups. Great sadness prevailed in Mexico, + for many had lost their fortunes besides friends and relatives in the + enterprise. Coronado seemed to the people of the time to have led a + costly army on a wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions + he had crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away + from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country was + neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth keeping. + +RESULTS OF CORONADO'S EXPLORATIONS. We know better to-day the + value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved the age-long + mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the southwest of the United + States of our day. The rich region now included in the great states of + Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it + was soon after described for the European world. His men had explored + the Gulf of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its + source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower California was + not an island but a part of the mainland. Others soon explored the + entire coast of California to the limits of the present state of Oregon. + +HOW DE SOTO AND CORONADO CAME NEAR MEETING. De Soto and Coronado + together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to the center of + North America. A story which was told by De Soto's men shows how close + together the two great explorers were at one time. While Coronado was in + Quivira, De Soto was wandering along the borders of the plains west of + the Mississippi River, though neither knew of the nearness of the other. + An Indian woman who ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De + Soto's, nine days later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains + there would have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the + meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot refrain + from wondering how different would have been the ending with the two + great armies united and encouraged to continue their explorations. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What did + he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered + Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards + understood it? + + 2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did he + search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he planning + to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable? Through + what present states of the United States did he pass? + + 3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities? Why did + he expect to find them there? What was the story of the Seven + Cities? Of the Seven Caves? + + 4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of Cibola? + What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North America in + search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to Quivira? What did + he find Quivira to be? + + 5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he found + out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of the + present states of the United States did his route touch? + + REVIEW + + 1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus, + Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, on the knowledge of the new world. + + _Important date_--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE + +THE RIVALS OF SPAIN. When the early voyages to America and Asia were + ended, the French, the English, and the other northern peoples of + Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for new lands and for new + routes to old lands. The French had sent a few fishermen to the Banks + of Newfoundland, and that was all. The English had made one or two + voyages and appeared to be no longer interested. (See Chapter XIV, + Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers, + or keen traders, occupied much of the time in the struggle against the + North Sea, which threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and + cities. + + +THE TRADE-WINDS. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a great + advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for such voyages. + To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good Hope. To go to + America a southern route was taken, for in the North Atlantic the + prevailing winds are from the southwest, while south of Spain the + trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making it easy to sail to + America. To take the northern route, which was the natural one for + French and English sailors, would be to battle against head winds and + heavy seas. + +THE SPANIARDS AND THE PORTUGUESE DIVIDE THE WORLD. The Spaniards + and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave them the right + to all new lands which should be found and to all trade by sea with the + Golden East. Two years after the first voyage of Columbus the Spaniards + agreed with the Portuguese that a line running 370 leagues west of the + Cape Verde Islands should separate the regions claimed by each. The + Spaniards were to hold all lands discovered west of that line, and the + Portuguese all east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by + the Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the + Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that especially + interests us as students of American history. + + [Illustration: CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol, England, + in memory of the first sailor from England to visit America] + +THE MAIN QUESTION. Were the Spaniards to keep what they claimed and + continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The answer to this question + is found in the history of Europe during the sixteenth century. + Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were drawn into quarrels in Europe + which cost them many men and much money. The consequence was that they + were unable to make full use of their discoveries, even if they had + known how. Before the century was ended their rivals, the English and + the French, were stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects, + had rebelled against them. + +THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH DESIRE A SHARE. Men had such great ideas + of the immense wealth of the Indies that the successes of one nation + made the other nations eager for some part of the spoil. Englishmen and + Frenchmen were not likely to allow the Portuguese to take all they could + find by sailing eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards + to keep whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by + following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for new + routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they saw by the + way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels came from this + rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other causes. + +KING CHARLES AND KING FRANCIS. About the time Cortes conquered + Mexico, his master, King Charles of Spain, began a war against Francis, + the king of France. As long as these two kings lived they were either + fighting or preparing to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only, + there might have been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and + claimed others which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region + north of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a + district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As he was + the German emperor besides, the French king thought him too dangerous to + be left in peace. These wars have little to do with American history, + except that they helped to weaken the king of Spain and to prevent the + Spaniards from making the most of their early successes in colonizing. + +RELIGION A CAUSE OF STRIFE. Religion was the most serious cause of + quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king of Spain was the prince + most injured by the struggle. At the time of Prince Henry of Portugal + and of Columbus all peoples in western Europe worshiped in the same + manner, taught their children the same beliefs, and in religious matters + they all obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles + began in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over + Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who rebelled and + founded a republic of their own. The English finally became the + principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom were of the same + religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish methods of defending + religion, especially after the Spaniards had massacred a band of French + settlers in America. + + [Illustration: EMPEROR CHARLES V] + +THE "REFORMERS." Many men became discontented at the way the Church + was managed. At first all were agreed that the evils of which they + complained could be removed if priests, bishops, and pope worked + together to that end. After a while some teachers in different countries + not only complained of evils, but refused to believe as the Church had + taught and as most people still believed. They did not mean to divide + the Christian Church into several churches, but they thought they + understood the words of the Bible better than the teachers of + the Church. + +THE REFORMATION. At that time people who were not agreed in their + religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the same countries. The + princes and kings who were faithful to the Church ordered that the new + teachers and their followers should be punished. Other princes accepted + the views of the "reformers," and soon began to punish those of their + subjects who continued to believe as the Church taught. In Germany these + princes were called "Protestants," because they protested against the + efforts of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of + the new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused to + remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the pope. + +CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT LEADERS. The most famous leaders of the + Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, Reginald + Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an Italian. Loyola had been a + soldier in his youth, but while recovering from a serious wound, + resolved to be a missionary. With several other young men of the same + purpose he founded the Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the + Protestants the greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John + Calvin, a Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at + Wittenberg in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise. + Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis resolved + to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was obliged to leave the + country. He settled in the Swiss city of Geneva. + +THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. Luther's teachings were accepted by many + Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated the Bible into + German. After a while his followers formed a Church of their own which + was called Lutheran. It differed from the Roman Catholic Church in the + way it was governed as well as in what it taught. + +THE FRENCH HUGUENOTS. Calvin lived in Geneva, but most of those who + accepted his teachings continued to live in France. The nickname + Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They were not permitted + by the French king to worship as Calvin taught, but by 1562 so many + nobles had joined them that it was no longer possible to treat them as + criminals. They were permitted to hold their meetings outside the walled + towns. The leader whom they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. + Both he and they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the + Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which the king + of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects. + +THE KING OF SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. Philip II inherited from his + father Charles seventeen duchies, counties, and other districts north of + France in what is now Belgium and Holland. Charles had known how to + manage these people, because he was brought up among them. The task of + managing them was not easy. Each district or city had its own special + rights and its people demanded that these should be respected by the + ruling prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule + the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled the + people of Spain. + + [Illustration: THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE NETHERLANDS] + +PROTESTANTS IN THE NETHERLANDS. The trouble was made worse because + many of the Netherlanders became followers of Luther or Calvin, and + brought their books into the country. Now Philip, like his father + Charles, was faithful to the teachings of the Church, and thought it was + his duty to punish such persons. The result was that Philip soon had two + kinds of enemies in his Netherland provinces, those who did not like the + way he ruled and those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and + the two united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were + driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border + from France. + +THE NETHERLANDS. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are well + named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live, because much + of the land is below the level of the sea at high tide, and some of it + at low tide. For several hundred years the Dutch built dikes to keep + back the sea, or pumped it out where it flowed in and covered the lower + lands. Occasionally great storms broke through the dikes and caused the + Dutch months or years of labor. A people so brave and industrious were + not likely to submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they + would rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views, + which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the southern + Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became Calvinists + generally emigrated to the northern cities, like Amsterdam, where they + were safer. + + [Illustration: Map Of The Netherlands] + +WILLIAM OF ORANGE. William, Prince of Orange, was the leader of the + Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by Charles, Philip's + father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the great ceremony held in + Brussels when Charles gave up his throne to Philip. William was called + the "Silent," because he was careful not to tell his plans to any except + his nearest friends. When Philip returned to Spain, William was made + governor or _stadtholder_ of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland, + Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other great + nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with the heretics + and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the southern Netherlanders + and the northern Netherlanders were united, although the southern + Netherlanders remained faithful to the Roman Catholic religion. + +SPAIN AND ENGLAND. The English at first had no reason to quarrel + with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the Netherlanders, who + were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they sold great quantities of + wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges, Brussels, and Ghent, and bought + fine cloth woven in those towns. The friendship of the ruler of the + Netherlands seemed necessary, if this trade was to prosper. It was the + trouble about religion which finally made the English and the + Spaniards enemies. + +HENRY VIII. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of England, the + king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to refuse obedience to the + pope. The king called himself the head of the Church in England. + Lutheran views crept into the country as they had done into the + Netherlands, but King Henry at first disliked the Lutherans quite as + much as he grew to dislike the pope. + +THE ENGLISH CHURCH. So long as Henry lived not much change was made + in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the Church. During the short + reign of his son, the English Church became more like the Protestant + Churches on the Continent, except that in England there were still + archbishops and bishops, and the government of the Church went on much + as before. When Henry's daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop + these changes, and for a few years her subjects were again obedient to + the pope, but she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth, + became queen. + + [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH] + +THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND THE CATHOLICS. In religious matters Queen + Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother had done. All persons + were forced to attend the religious services carried on in the manner + ordered in the prayer-book. Roman Catholics could not hold any + government office. They were punished if they tried to persuade others + to remain faithful to the older Church. Philip did not like this, but + for a time he preferred to be on friendly terms with the English. + + [Illustration: COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH] + +QUEEN ELIZABETH. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for forty-five + years. The English regard her reign as the most glorious in their + history. Before it was over they proved themselves more than a match for + the Spaniards on the sea. They also began to seek for routes to the East + and to attempt settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The + Greek and Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and + Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to make the + English language the rival of the languages of Greece and Rome. This was + the time when Shakespeare wrote his first plays. + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or Portugal + than from England? + + 2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did they + draw the line of division? + + 3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what + countries did King Charles rule? + + 4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was chiefly + injured by such struggles? + + 5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they + called? + + 6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants? Who + were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name? + + 7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands quarrel? + + 8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived? Who was + the hero of the Dutch? + + 9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly? What + king of England refused to obey the pope? + + 10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How did + Elizabeth settle the question of religion? + + + + EXERCISE + + Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and towns. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA + +CARTIER. During the reign of Francis I, the French made the first + serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far East and to settle + the new lands that seemed to lie directly across the pathway. In 1534 + Jacques Cartier was sent with two ships in search of a strait beyond the + regions controlled by Spain or Portugal which would lead into the + Pacific Ocean. Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland + and into the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf + of St. Lawrence. + +CARTIER AT MONTREAL. Cartier made a second voyage in the following + year, exploring the great river which he called the St. Lawrence. He + went up the river until the heights of Mount Royal or Montreal, as he + called them, appeared on his right hand, and swift rapids in the river + blocked his way in front. The name Lachine rapids, or the China rapids, + which was afterwards given to these, remains to remind us that Cartier + was searching for a passage to China. + +THE FIRST WINTER IN CANADA. Cartier spent the severe winter which + followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the site of the modern + city of Quebec. The expedition returned to France with the coming + of spring. + +ATTEMPTS TO PLANT A COLONY AT QUEBEC. Several years later, in 1541, + Cartier and others attempted to establish a permanent settlement on the + St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get good colonists to settle in the cold + climate so far north, the leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons + for debtors and criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They + selected the neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in + 1535, where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their + colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a new + settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the hostility + of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all gladly returned + to France. + + [Illustration: MAP SHOWING JACQUES CARTIER's VOYAGES + Thus: 1st Voyage---- 2d Voyage.... 3d Voyage--> -->] + + The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement on the St. + Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St. Lawrence would prove + the long-sought passage to China had to be given up, but the river which + he had discovered and so thoroughly explored proved to be a great + highway into the center of North America. + +COLIGNY'S PLAN FOR A HUGUENOT COLONY. Nearly thirty years later the + French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the plan of establishing a + colony in America, which would be a refuge for the Huguenots if their + enemies got the upper hand in France. An expedition left France in 1564, + and selected a site for a settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns + river in Florida. It seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline, + was quickly built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They + were chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented + tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them. + +THE MISDEEDS OF THE COLONISTS. They spent their time visiting + distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and silver, or + plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West Indies. No one thought + of preparing the soil and planting seeds for a food supply. It seemed + easier to rob neighbors. The provisions which they had brought with them + gave out. Game and fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but + they were without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year + had passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to + digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge of + angry Indians confronted them. + +RELIEF SENT TO THE COLONY. In August, 1565, just as the + half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an + expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few young + nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three hundred in + all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of supplies and + other things needed by a colony in a new country. It looked then as + though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan and establish a + permanent colony in America. + + [Illustration: FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN FLORIDA + From De Bry's Voyages] + +FORT CAROLINE AND THE SPANIARDS. The French had, however, settled + in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult to settle in America at + any place along the Atlantic coast without doing so. The Spaniards + regarded all North America from Mexico to Labrador as lying within + Florida. The attempt of the French to settle on the lands claimed by the + king of Spain was sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct + of the French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the + West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest of + robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's followers + more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were Huguenots. + +MENENDEZ. At the time the news reached Spain of Coligny's + settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro Menendez, was + preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and thus after a long delay + carry out the task which De Soto had vainly attempted. Menendez was + naturally as eager as the king to drive out the French intruders. So an + expedition larger than was planned at first was hurried off. Menendez + was to do three things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize + the Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida. + +THE DEFEAT OF THE FRENCH FLEET. Menendez with a part of his fleet + arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the relief expedition + which Coligny had sent over came into harbor. His ships attacked and + scattered those of the French. The vessels of the French for the most + part sought refuge on the high seas. They were too swift to be + overtaken, but no match for the Spanish in battle. Menendez decided to + wait for the rest of his ships before making another attack on Fort + Caroline. Meanwhile he sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles + till he came to an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine. + +ST. AUGUSTINE FOUNDED. A friendly Indian chief readily gave his + dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like structure, made of + the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with palmetto leaves. Soldiers + quickly dug a ditch around it and threw up a breastwork of earth and + small sticks. The colonists who came with Menendez landed and set about + the usual work of founding a settlement. Such was the beginning of the + Spanish town of St. Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in + the United States. + + [Illustration: ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY MENENDEZ + Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby] + +FRENCH SAIL TO ATTACK ST. AUGUSTINE. Both sides prepared for a + terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and the Spaniards in + their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French struck the first blow. A + few of the weaker and the sick soldiers were left at Fort Caroline to + stand guard with the women and children. The main body aboard the ships + advanced by sea to attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered + and wrecked the French fleet before it arrived. + +MENENDEZ DESTROYS FORT CAROLINE. Menendez now took advantage of the + storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading through swamps and + fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale. His drenched and hungry + followers fell like wild beasts upon the few French left in the fort. + About fifty of the women and children were spared to become captives. As + many men escaped in the forests around the fort, but the greater part + were killed. + +CAPTURE OF THE SHIPWRECKED FRENCH. The French fleet had been + wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St. Augustine. A + few days later Menendez discovered some survivors wandering along the + coast, half starved, trying to live on the shell-fish they found on the + beach, and slowly and painfully working their way back toward Fort + Caroline. The Frenchmen begged Menendez to be allowed to remain in the + country till ships could be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling + to make any terms with them. + +MURDER OF THE CAPTIVES. The unhappy Frenchmen were taken prisoners, + and, a few hours later, put to death. Other shipwrecked refugees were + captured a few days later, and these suffered the same fate. Nearly + three hundred perished in this cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless + deed, and yet such was the character of all warfare at the time. + Menendez believed that he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain + think Menendez unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of + the Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say to + him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as to those + he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys." + + [Illustration: NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS OF + DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER] + + [Illustration: (map)] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore and + settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why France + had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of the + continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he specially + interested in St. Lawrence region? + + 2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine rapids, + given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence river? + + 3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French colony in + North America? How much had he and his friends accomplished for + France in North America? + + 4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in America? + Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on the map. + Give several reasons why they soon got into trouble with + the Spaniards. + + 5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do? What + things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St. + Augustine? Find it on the map. + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Examine the map of North America in 1541. What parts + of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can you see + why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great river? + + 2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French + explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from + Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in one + of your geographies. + + _Important Date_: 1565. The founding of St. Augustine. + + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE NETHERLANDERS. Two years after the cruel + massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II, the King of + Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the Netherlanders, and + sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke of Alva, who was as + pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing prominent nobles, and he + would have arrested the Prince of Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A + court was set up which condemned many persons to death, including the + greatest nobles of the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of + Blood. Alva also turned the merchants against him by compelling them to + pay the "tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods + every time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so + thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to Spain. + +THE BEGGARS OF THE SEA. Just then something happened which gave + Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance. The men who were + resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands had been nicknamed the + "Beggars." When they were driven from the cities they took to the sea. + The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes found a port of refuge in La + Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the western coast of France, and sometimes + they put into friendly English harbors. From these places they would + sail out and attack Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572 + ordered a fleet of these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their + own shores and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success + encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to rise and + expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns. + +THE FRENCH PROMISE AID. As soon as Coligny heard the news he urged + the French king to send an army into the Netherlands and take vengeance + not only for the massacre at Fort Caroline, but also for all the wrongs + that he and his father and his grandfather had ever received at the + hands of the Spaniards. The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the + Netherlanders promising aid. + + [Illustration: GASPARD DE COLIGNY After the portrait in the + Public Library, Geneva] + +MASSACRE OF HUGUENOTS IN PARIS. The plan was never carried out. + While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in Paris, his enemies + attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed these enemies, including + the king's mother, persuaded the king that Coligny and the Huguenots + were plotting against him, and goaded the king into ordering the murder + of all the Huguenots in Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands + of Huguenots perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen + Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny had + missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon to have + other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to help the Dutch. + These new enemies were the English. + +THE ENGLISH DRAWN INTO THE CONFLICT. The religious troubles in + England had been growing more serious. Two or three plots were made to + assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the throne Queen Mary of + Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip began to encourage these + plotters, especially after the pope in 1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth + and forbidden her subjects to obey her as queen. She was sure to be + dragged into the struggle in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have + seen that she had once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of + Coligny and his followers frightened the English and made many of them + anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the Continent, + the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were utterly destroyed. + +GROWTH OF ENGLISH TRADE. If England should be drawn into war, her + safety would depend mainly upon her ships. Englishmen had always taken + to the sea, as was natural for men whose shores were washed by the + Atlantic, the Channel and the North Sea, but they were slow in building + fleets of ships either for trade or for war. The trade of the country + with other peoples in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by + foreigners. Yet since the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a + change had taken place. English merchants found their way to all + markets. They also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the + religious troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill + to England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and silks. + +THE NEW ENGLISH NAVY. The English navy was growing. One of the new + ships, _The Triumph_, carried 450 seamen, 50 gunners, and 200 soldiers. + Besides harquebuses for the soldiers, there were many kinds of cannon + with strange names, such as culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines, + and rabinets. Four of the cannon were large enough to shoot a + cannon-ball eight inches in diameter. But it was on the skill and + courage of her men rather than upon the size of her ships that England + relied for victory. + + [Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE After the painting at Buckland + Abby, England] + +SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. One of these men was Francis Drake. He was son + of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the rigging of the + great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the streets. In time young + Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a small trading vessel. Fortune + smiled on the lad early in life. His master died, and out of love for + the apprentice who had served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis + Drake became thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most + popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains. + +SLAVE-TRADERS. He often went with his cousin, John Hawkins, on + voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from slave-traders along the + coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they found, and carried them to the + Spanish planters of the West Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout + and humane as other men of their time. They simply could not see any + wrong in enslaving the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they + enjoyed the wild life of the slave-trader with its dangers and + rich rewards. + +WHY DRAKE HATED THE SPANIARDS. The king of Spain tried to keep the + trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted to prevent the + trade of the English slavers with the West Indies. Spanish ships-of-war + ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins and Drake hoped for large + profits. The Spaniards won thereby the undying hatred of Drake. + +THE DRAGON OF THE SEAS. It was a time, too, when Drake's countrymen + at home shared his intense hatred of the Spaniard. While England and + Spain were not at war with one another, English and Spanish traders + fought whenever they met on the high seas. The English made the Spanish + settlements in America their special prey. At certain times of the year + Spanish ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and + silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like many + another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of their + precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his cunning and + courage. More than once he was forced to bury his treasures in the sand + to lighten his ships that they might sail the faster, and escape his + pursuers. The Spaniards came to know and to fear Drake as the Dragon + of the Seas. + + [Illustration: SPANISH TREASURE SHIP] + +DRAKE'S VENTURE. Drake once formed the plan to take a fleet into + the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure ships where they + would be less on their guard. A fleet of five ships was made ready. + Contributions from wealthy merchants and powerful nobles, perhaps a gift + from Queen Elizabeth herself, gave him the means for unusual luxuries in + the equipment of his fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were + taken on board Drake's own ship, the _Pelican_, or the _Golden Hind_ as + he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left Plymouth in + 1577. One after another of the ships turned back or was destroyed on the + long voyage of twelve months across the Atlantic and through the Strait + of Magellan. + +BEYOND THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. The _Golden Hind_ alone remained to + carry out the original project. As it entered the Pacific Ocean a furious + storm drove the little vessel southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions + where the oceans meet. No one before had sailed so far south. + +THE FIRST PRIZES. Drake regained control of his ship when the storm + had passed, and sailed northward along the coast, plundering and robbing + as he went. Once, as a land-party was searching along the shore for + fresh water, it came upon a Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver + beside him. His nap was disturbed long enough to take away his burden. + Further on they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train + of Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The + Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their boats. + A treasure ship, nicknamed the _Spitfire_, on the way to Panama, was + captured after a long chase of nearly eight hundred miles. Drake + obtained from it unknown quantities of gold and silver. With such a rich + load, his thoughts turned to the homeward voyage. + +DRAKE'S VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD. By this time a host of Spanish + war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture him on his + return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now confronted with real + danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He and many other Englishmen of + his day were sure a passage would be found somewhere through North + America between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Spanish, French, and + English explorers had all carried on the search for this passage. Drake + decided to return by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the + coast of California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington + as far as Vancouver + + [Illustration: MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE] + + When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he gave up the + search. + + After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles above the + modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the Pacific to return + home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by going around the world. + He touched at the Philippines, visited the Spice Islands, and slowly + worked his way around the Cape of Good Hope. The _Golden Hind_, long + since given up as lost, reached England in the fall of 1580, after + nearly three years' absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around + the world. Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor. + +DRAKE'S REWARD. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake told of + outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most gorgeous robes + she visited his ship, where a banquet had been prepared. While Drake + knelt at her feet she made him a knight. And so it was that the man whom + the Spaniards called with good reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the + English called by a new title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the + greatest sea-captain of the age. His ship, the _Golden Hind_, was + ordered to be preserved forever. + +THE DUTCH STRUGGLE AGAINST SPAIN. A few years after Drake returned + the English took a deeper interest in the struggle between Philip and + the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of help from the French + Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals more boldly than ever. The + Spanish soldiers treated the towns which surrendered so savagely that + the other towns decided it was better to die fighting than to yield. The + siege of Leyden became famous because, after food had given out and the + inhabitants were starving their friends cut the great dikes in order + that the boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might + be floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood also + drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of the city a + strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the dikes could again + be replaced. + + [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT] + +THE DEATH OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. King Philip had come to the + conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the Dutch could not + be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince William's head, offering a + large sum of money to any one who should kill him. The first attempts + failed, but finally in 1584 he was shot. + +SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. The murder of William alarmed the English for + Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already aided men who were + plotting against her. She sent an army into the Netherlands to aid the + Dutch, although she had not made up her mind to attack Philip directly. + The army did not give much help to the Dutch, but it is remembered + because a noble English poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in + one of the battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back, + tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men always do, + and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it was brought to him + he saw on the ground a common soldier more sorely wounded than he. He + immediately sent the water to the soldier saying, "Thy necessity is + greater than mine." + +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. The king of Spain now decided that he could + not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly punished the English. He + even planned to put himself upon the English throne, claiming that he + was the heir of one of the early kings of England. Months were spent in + preparing a great fleet, an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the + Channel, take on board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross + over to England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's + usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so much + shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had to be + postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of + Spain's beard." + +THE ARMADA IN THE CHANNEL. It was July, 1588, before the + "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English Channel. Many + of the Spanish ships were larger than the English ships, but they were + so clumsy that the English could outsail them and attack them from any + direction they chose. Moreover, the Spaniards needed to fight close at + hand in order that the soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in + the fray. The English kept out of range of these guns and used their + heavy cannon. + + [Illustration: THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL After + an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the + House of Lords] + +DESTRUCTION OF THE ARMADA. With the English ships clinging to the + flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards moved heavily up the + Channel. In the narrower waters between Dover and Calais the English + attacked more fiercely, and sank several Spanish vessels. Soon the + others were fleeing into the North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many + sought to reach Spain by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some + of these ships were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's + proud fleet returned to Spain. + +EFFECT OF THE DEFEAT OF THE ARMADA ON SPAIN. This was the last + attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain had been + exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies for the Invincible + Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and the English attacked and + plundered Spanish vessels wherever they found them. + +THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE DUTCH. The ruin of the Armada also meant + that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent of the Spanish + king. Seven of the northern provinces had already formed a union and had + begun to call themselves the United Netherlands. They were growing + richer while their neighboring provinces on the south, which had decided + to return to their allegiance to Spain, grew poorer. + +FIRST VOYAGE OF THE DUTCH TO THE EAST. Even while the fight was + going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had not permitted them + to trade while he could control them. One of these places was Lisbon, + the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch obtained spices which the + Portuguese brought from the East Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized + Portugal, and the Dutch could no longer go to Lisbon. This made them + anxious to find their way to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out. + This voyage was unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the + Dutch had almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of + Spain, from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across + the Atlantic to the shores of America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name was + given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the Netherlands? + Why were they given this name? + + 2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the Netherlands? + Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people were ready to + help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least why the English + were willing to help the Dutch against Spain? + + 3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to make a + navy? + + 4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the Spaniards? + What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he come to go + around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since Magellan made + his voyage? + + 5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards think + of him? Why did each people think as it did? + + 6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why did + this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder? + + 7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and make + himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out his plan? + Why were the English victorious in the great battle with the Armada? + Where was the battle fought? + + 8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the + Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of Spain? + + 9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war with + Spain ended? + + 10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French for + trade and settlements in America? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous voyage + around the world? + + 2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in Chapters 19 + and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and settling America? + + 3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and the + southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day. + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA + +ENGLISH INTEREST IN AMERICA AWAKENED. Voyages like those made by + Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout England to learn more + about the New World. Until this time even the great discoveries of + Columbus and the Cabots had failed to stir the English people to take + part in the exploration and settlement of the Americas. The principal + reason was because their attention was occupied by the struggle between + their monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should + govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth had been + on the throne some years. + + Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned their ships + toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as he had done, + mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on board the ships of Spain + bound homeward. Some of them explored the coast of North America, hoping + to find valuable regions that had not fallen into the possession of the + Spaniards. + +THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE. Martin Frobisher made three voyages, the + last in 1578, in search of a passage through North America to China. He + entered the bay which bears his name, and the strait which was later + called after Hudson, but failed to find a passage. Drake attempted to + find the western entrance to such a passage in 1579 as a short cut + homeward when he tried to avoid his Spanish pursuers. + +GILBERT. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey Gilbert. He + wished to build up another England across the sea, just as the people of + Spain were building up another Spain. He planned to do this by + establishing farms to which he and others might send laborers who could + not find work at home. Queen Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage + him, and to repay him for the expense of carrying the emigrants over, + she promised him the land for six hundred miles on each side of his + settlements. + + [Illustration: CHARLCOTE HALL An English Manor House of the time + of Queen Elizabeth] + +FAILURE OF GILBERT'S EXPEDITION. Gilbert tried twice to plant a + colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Sir Walter + Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in the expedition of + 1578. He would have been in the disastrous second attempt in 1583 had + not Queen Elizabeth, full of forebodings of danger to her favorite, + refused to let him go. As it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert + took a large supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please + the savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless + commander. + + The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583. The ship + that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted before they were out + of sight of England. One was left in Newfoundland. The wreck of the + largest ship, with most of the provisions, off Cape Breton, so + discouraged the crews that they prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the + plan to settle on such barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to + return on the _Squirrel_, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This + was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of the + little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran into a + fearful storm as it approached the Azores. + + Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he refused to + desert his companions, with whom he had passed through so many storms + and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by his reply, "Do not + fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land." One night the _Squirrel_ + suddenly sank. All on board were lost. Such was the sad ending of the + first efforts to establish an English colony in North America. + +RALEIGH Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan which his + kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the height of his + favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him wealthy, especially by the + gift of large estates which she had taken from others. She readily + promised him the same privileges in America which she had offered to + Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless thought that he might increase his fortune + and win glory for himself and for his country by planting English + colonies in the New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the + undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able + commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had fortune, + skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a friend of poets and + scholars and a student of books; like Drake, he was a natural leader + of men. + + [Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON] + +VIRGINIA. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an expedition to explore + the coast for a suitable site for a colony. His men sailed by way of the + Canaries, and came upon North America in the neighborhood of Pamlico + Sound, avoiding the stormy route directly across the Atlantic which + Gilbert had followed. They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore + of Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North + Carolina and Virginia. + + They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were particularly + pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by the Indians Roanoke + Island. They noted with wonder the overhanging grape-vines loaded with + fruit, the fine cedar trees which seemed to them the highest and reddest + in the world, the great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless + deer in the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth + was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed it to + be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and made Raleigh + a knight. + +THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONISTS. Raleigh made several attempts to plant + a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was led by John White in 1587. + White had visited Virginia on an earlier voyage, and painted more than + seventy pictures of Indian life, representing their dress and their + manner of living. These may still be seen in the British Museum in + London. His interest in the country and its Indian population made his + appointment as governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the + selection of colonists in order to secure farmers rather than + gold-seekers. Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony + of about one hundred and fifty persons. + +ROANOKE. White and his followers settled on Roanoke Island. They + found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers had built some + years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several huts were still + standing, but they were falling to pieces. The first task was to rebuild + the huts and move into them from their ships. A baby girl was born a few + days after the landing, the first child born of English parents in the + New World. Her father, Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her + mother, Eleanor Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was + given the name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be + her home. + + [Illustration: MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES] + +THE COLONISTS IN DANGER. The little colony must have foreseen the + hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for before Governor + White had been in America two months, he was sent back to England to + obtain more provisions, White, from his own account, did not wish to + leave his daughter and granddaughter. + +WHITE'S SEARCH FOR AID. White returned to England in the fall of + 1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England was alarmed by the + rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to land an invading army. The + friends of Virginia in England were too busy protecting their own homes + from the invader to give heed to the needs of the farmer colonists + across the sea. White traveled through England, seeking aid for his + friends and family, but was disappointed everywhere. + +WHY RALEIGH GAVE NO HELP. Raleigh had by no means forgotten his + colonists, but his queen and his country had the first claim on him + through the long war with Spain. Twice during this period, he found time + and means to prepare relief expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped + the first one just as it was ready to sail, because all the ships were + needed at that moment for service in the war. A second expedition was + attacked by the Spaniards and forced to return. + +THE LOST COLONY. White finally secured passage for himself on a + fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and relief supplies of + his own, but as a passenger on another man's ship. It was the summer of + 1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four years after his departure. The + colonists were not to be found. Their houses were torn down. The chests + which they had evidently buried in order to hide them from the Indians + had been dug up and ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers + which he had left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were + torn and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through + with rust. + + One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large letters + CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the old fort. White + recalled the agreement made when he left four years before. If the + colonists should find it necessary to leave Roanoke, they were to carve + on a tree the name of the place to which they were going. If they were + in danger or distress when they left, they were to carve a cross over + the name of the place. White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the + name of a small island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived + who were known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe + among the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search for + them because the captains of the ships which brought him over refused to + delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were evidently more eager to + attack the Spaniards than to find a few luckless emigrants. + + [Illustration: AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589 + After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum] + + The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history. It is + believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and lived with + them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted the ways of their + protectors. + +VALUE OF THE EFFORTS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH. Raleigh had + failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new England in America, + but he had awakened in his countrymen an interest in America, and made + known the advantages of its soil and climate. The French had apparently + made no greater headway. Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken + up, and the Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The + history of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec, + Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's at + Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in America which + were not strongly supported by friends or by the home government. These + attempts to plant colonies in America were not, however, as bad failures + as they appeared. Both nations had learned much about the country and + about the preparations needed for permanent settlements. + +WHAT THE SPANISH HAD ACCOMPLISHED. In 1600 Spain seemed to have + achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of that time shows + Spain in possession of vast territories in North and South America. The + English had a small tract, Virginia, in which they had some interest but + no colonists. The French regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by + right of discovery, but they could point to no settlements to clinch + that claim. + + The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two hundred cities + and towns which they had planted in their territories. About two hundred + thousand Spaniards, farmers, miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had + either migrated from Spain to America or had been born there of + emigrants since Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come + under their rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and + called themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro + slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines in + Spanish America. + + [Illustration: Regions in the New World and the East claimed by + the Countries of Europe after a century of exploration.] + + The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like the cities + of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and mason-work abounded. + Churches, monasteries, a university, higher schools for boys and girls, + four hospitals, of which one was for Indians, and public buildings, + similar to those in the cities of old Spain, already existed. Spanish + life and Spanish culture had spread over a large area in the New World, + and the most remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had + been bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into Spain + and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new world. + +THE PROSPECTS OF THE SPANISH COLONIES. But the outlook for Spain in + America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her Dutch subjects and + the war with England, which grew out of that quarrel, left her + completely worn out. She no longer had the people to spare for American + settlements. These ceased to grow as they once had. Negroes and Indians + outnumbered the Spaniards in most of them. The three races mingled + together and intermarried until a new people, the Spanish American, + differing in color and blood from either of the old races, was formed. + +THE LATER STORY OF COLONIZATION. Spain's rivals--the Dutch, the + English, and the French--were just reaching the height of their power. + They had settled their most serious religious differences. Their + merchants were eagerly looking about for commercial opportunities. A + considerable population in each of them, but more especially in England, + was discontented and ready to try its fortunes in a new world. The + Spaniards had passed by the best parts of North America as worthless. + The people and the unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of + colonies on a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American + colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the Dutch, + the French, and the English colonization of North America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in America + before Drake's time? What finally, made the English sea-captains + turn to American adventure and exploration? + + 2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you find for + his failure? + + 3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of planting + English colonies in America? What part of North America did his men + select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable place? What name + was given to the country? + + 4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What did + White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search + of them? + + 5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in their + efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained anything + from all their efforts? + + 6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus? Why + were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been? What + rivals were ready to begin colonies in America? + + + EXERCISES + + 1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give Gilbert + for his plan in North America? Was there this much (twelve hundred + miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America unclaimed by the + French and the Spaniards? + + 2. Find Roanoke Island on the map. + + 3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by the + English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of + discovery and exploration (1492-1600). What parts of North America + were still unknown? With the use of some map of the world to-day + make a list of the colonies of the same countries now. + + + REVIEW + + 1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in discovering + the New World, and give for each the name of the region he found. + + 2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which they + carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do, the + knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and Britain? + What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English learned to + do, the knowledge of which they either were already, as in the case + of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in the case of England + and France, were prepared to carry into North America? + + + +REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS + +The following references are given in the hope that they will be helpful +to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive, but enough are given +so that one or more books for each subject should be found in any fairly +equipped school or public library. Some of these books may be assigned +to the brighter or more ambitious members of the class for home +readings. Extracts from others may be read to the class directly. Still +others will furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller +statements of fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A +Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill +and Tail (Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further +information regarding those that are given here. + + + A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii, iii, + and iv.) + + _(a) Histories of the Greeks_. + + Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy + history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes; + Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the + Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in + Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of + the Greeks. + + _(b) Versions of some famous old Greek stories_, especially the + story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden Fleece, + the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses. + + A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H. + A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's The + Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; C. H. + and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; Charles + Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in Tanglewood + Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the Golden Fleece in a + specially interesting manner. Bryant's translation of the Odyssey is + one of the best known versions of that story and may generally be + found in public libraries. + + _(c) Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes_. Short accounts of the + lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles, Socrates, + Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives of Greek + Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; Jennie Hall, Men + of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; E.M. + Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and Plutarch's Lives. There + are several abridged editions of the latter, but those by C.E. + Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives, + are best adapted to the use of schools. + + _(d) Various features of Greek Life_, as the home, the schools, + food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government have been + described in the books on Greek Life. + + Among these are Bluemner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (translated + by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks; + Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker, Life in + Ancient Athens. + + _(e) Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria_. Descriptions of these + great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any history of + Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, ch. 2, or + Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in Draper, + Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for Alexandria, + will serve the purpose. + + _(f)_ A description of the battle of Marathon, abridged from the + History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M. Fling's + Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many incidents + in Greek History as the Greek writers told them. + + _(g)_ A description of the materials, methods of building, + decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples, + theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek + Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art. + + _(h)_ Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's History + of the Greeks, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth about the Old Greek + Legends, or the same author's account, Vol. I, pp. 272-295, of + Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden Day. + + B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v, vi, + vii, viii and ix.) + + _(a) Histories of the Romans_. + + Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History; + How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History of Rome; + though the last two do not cover the entire period of Roman history. + Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive in style and + supplied with a great variety of pictures and other + illustrative matter. + + Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the + Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in + Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of the + chief events in Roman history. + + _(b) Versions of famous old Roman stories_, especially the + wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the Sabine + Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus. + + A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H.A. + Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story of the + Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and Harding, City of + Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome, gives the story of + Horatius at the Bridge, together with several other stories from + early Roman history. + + _(c) Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor, Freya, + and Tyr (Tiw)._ C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber, Myths of + Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; + Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie, Norse Stories; Eva + March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice Zimmern, Gods and Heroes + of the North. + + _(d) The Story of Hermann_ (or the struggle between the Romans and + Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta Stories, pp. + 139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of Germany. + + _(e) Short Biographies of some famous Romans_. Short accounts of the + lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero, and Constantine are + given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; Harding, The City of + Seven Hills; and several of them in Plutarch's Lives. A simple + account of the Life of Hannibal, the Carthaginian enemy of Rome, + will also be found in these books. + + _(f) Interesting phases of Roman Life_: for example, the Roman boy, + country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling, amusements, etc. + See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero; H.W. + Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B. Platner, Topography + and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World + of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of Roman life are described in + F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma. + + _(g)_ For descriptions of incidents in Roman history and phases of + Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them, see Botsford, + Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman History. + + C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and xiii.) + + _(a) Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages_. G.B. + Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of Spain + from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic; + J.R. Green, Short History of the English People; E.F. Henderson, A + Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short History of Italy. + + _(b) Collection of stories adapted to children of the grades_: The + Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, + the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland. These stories have + all been written many times, and any librarian can give the reader + copies of them as told by several writers. The following is a + partial list only: + + A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends + Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages; + Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan, European + Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland; Frances N. Greene, + Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence Holbrook, Northland + Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's King Arthur; Stevens and + Allen, King Arthur Stories from Malory. + + _(c) Famous Men of the Middle Ages_; for example, Charlemagne, King + Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the Conqueror, Frederick + Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King John, Saint Louis of + France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg. + + See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise Creighton, + Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of + Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren and Poland, + Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of the Middle + Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of England; + M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps in the + History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva March + Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from English + History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the Poets. + Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great Traveler, + is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story of his + travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has been + reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32. + + _(d) Viking Tales_. The interesting stories of the Northern + discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie Hall, + Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the Lucky, + and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland). + + _(e) The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals_. Other + kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be obtained + in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202; Pennsylvania + Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16; or in Thatcher + and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton, Introduction to + the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent explanation of mediaeval + methods of trial. + + _(f) Famous accounts of how the People of England won the Magna + Charta_. + + Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181; + Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson, + Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source + Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303. + + _(g) Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life_. Maude B. Dutton, Little + Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on How a Page became a + Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding, The Story of the Middle + Ages, especially the chapters describing life in castle, life in + village, and life in monastery. Eva March Tappan, European Hero + Stories, especially the topic, Life in Middle Ages, p. 118, the + Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna Charta, p. 111. + + D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America. (For + use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.) + + _(a) Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations_. E.G. + Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2 volumes; + and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. + + _(b) Short, easy biographies of famous explorers_. (Da Gama, + Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and Raleigh.) + + Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F. Gordy, + Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance of + Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times; Higginson, + Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B. Hodgdon, A + First Course in American History, Book I; W.H. Johnson, The World's + Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of Columbus and Magellan; + Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L. Pratt, America's Story for + America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude V.D. Southworth, Builders of + our Country, Book I; Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the + Southwest. + + _(c) Stories of explorations as told by the explorers themselves_. + + Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart, Source + Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early accounts of John + Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart, Source Readers, No. + 1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of De Soto as described by + one of his followers, in Hart, Source Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old + South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado; Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31, + the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35, Cortes' Account of the City of + Mexico; No. 36, The Death of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages + of the Cabots; No. 89, The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The + First Voyage to Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No. + 116, Sir Francis Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118, + Gilbert's Expedition; No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke. + + _(d) The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,_ of Cortes, + Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of the Missions. (See + Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.) + + + + +INDEX + + +Acropolis, +Africa, explored, +Aldine Press, +Alexander the Great, +Alexandria, + founded, + end of trade route, +Alfred, King, +Alps, + Hannibal crosses, +Alva, in Netherlands, +America, + discovered by Columbus, + origin of name, +Amphitheater, + at Rome, + Arles, +Anglo-Saxons, +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, +Apollo, +Aqueducts, + Roman, + Aztec, +Arabic numerals, +Arabs, + see Mohammedans, +Arches, + Roman, + triumphal, + Gothic, + in Renaissance, +Architecture, + Greek, + Roman, + early Church, + Mediaeval, + Renaissance, +Aristocracy, + origin of, +Armada (ar-ma'da), + expedition of, +Arms, Athenian, + Gallic, + Mediaeval, + Aztec, +Arthur, King, +Astrolabe, +Athens, +Augustus, Emperor, +Azores, +Aztecs, + +Bahama Islands, +Balboa (balbo'a), +Basilicas, +Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu), +Beggars of the Sea, +Black Sea, +Bologna (bo-lon'ya), + University of, +Boniface, +Books, + Greek, + carried to Italy, + see printing, +Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o), +Boxing, Greek, +Britain, + name changed to England, +Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um), + founded, + named Constantinople, + +Cabot, John, +Cabot, Sebastian, +Caesar, Julius, +Calvin, John, +Cambridge, University of, +Canary Islands, +Cannae, battle of, +Canterbury, +Cape of Good Hope, +Cape Horn, +Caroline, Fort, + settlement, + destroyed, +Carthaginians, +Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya), +Castles, +Cathedrals, +Caudine Forks, +Caxton, William, +Census, Roman, +Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain), +Charybdis (ka-rib'dis), +China, +Christianity, +Cibola, + see Seven Cities +Cincinnatus, +Clergy, +Coligny (ko'len'ye), +Colonies, Greek, + Roman, + Spanish, + French, + English, +Colorado, Canyon of, +Colosseum, +Columbus, Christopher. + discoveries of, +Compass, origin of, +Constantine, +Constantinople, + founded, + renamed, + educated men of, + taken by Turks, +Consuls, at Rome, +Corinth, +Corinthian pillars, +Coronado, Francisco, +Cortes, Hernando, + conquest of Mexico, +Courts, + Greek, + English, +Crusades, +Cuba, +Cumae, + +Danes, + see Northmen, + Normans, +Dare, Virginia, +Delphi, +Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez), +De Soto, Fernando, +Diaz, Bartholomew, +Discus thrower, +Doric pillars, +Drake, Sir Francis, + adventures in America, + voyage around world, + attack on Spain, +Duke, origin of word, +Dutch, war for independence, + +East, The, + defined, + search for sea routes, +Education, + Greek, + Roman, + Mediaeval, +Egyptians, +Elizabeth, Queen, +England, + first known, + inhabited by Britons, + conquered by Romans, + name, + christianized, + Danes in, + in Middle Ages, + aids Dutch, + navy, + war with Spain, +English explorations and colonies, +English language, origin, +Erasmus, +Eric the Red, +Espanola (es-pan-yo'la) +Euclid, + +Fairs, Mediaeval, +Ferdinand, King, +Florida, + origin of name, + exploration, + St. Augustine in, +France, + see Gauls, + name, + Danes in, + in Middle Ages, + sailors of, + colonies in America, +Francis I, King, +French language, +Friar Marcos, +Friday, origin of name, +Frieze, +Frobisher, Martin, + +Gama, Vasco da, +Games, + Greek, + Roman, +Gauls, +Genoa, +Germany, + language, + early, + name, + early emigrants from, + missionaries to, +Gilbert, Humphrey, +Girgenti (jer-jen'te), + temple at, +Gladiators, +Gothic architecture, +Goths, +Government, + at Athens, + at Rome, + in England, +Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius, +Great Charter, +Greece, + language of, + early history, + manner of living in, + colonies, + rivals, + conquered by Rome, + and the Renaissance, +Greenland, +Gregory, Pope, +Guam, +Guilds, +Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk), +Gymnasium, Greek, + +Hannibal, +Hawkins, John, +Hayti, see Espanola, +Henry, Prince, the Navigator, +Henry II, of England, +Henry VIII, of England, +Hercules, +Hermann, +Hermes, +Herodotus (herod'otus), +Homer, +Horatius, +House of Commons, +House of Lords, +Houses, + Greek, + Roman, + Aztec, + in Cibola, +Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), + origin of, + in America, + and Dutch, + +Iceland, +Incas, +India, +Indians, + origin of name, + of Mexico, + of Peru, + as slaves, + missions to, + and De Soto, + in Cibola, + in Quivira, + at Roanoke, +Indies, +Ionic pillars, +Isabella, Queen of Spain, +Isabella, town in Espanola, +Italy, + Greeks in, + Romans masters of, + farmers in, + Goths invade, + Mediaeval, + Renaissance in, + +Japan, +Jerusalem, +Jews, +John, King of England, +Jury, origin of, +Justice, + Greek, + English, +Justinian, + +Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne) +Knights, + +Las Casas (ca'sas), +Latin, + words, + literature, + learned by the Gauls, + in Middle Ages, + in Renaissance, +Law, + Roman, + English, +Leif Ericson, +London, +Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la) +Luther, Martin, + +Madeira Islands (madei'ra), +Magellan, +Magellan, Strait of, +Magna Charta, +Marathon, +Marco Polo, +Marseilles (mar-salz), +Mary, Queen of England, +Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath) +Mexico, conquest of, +Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo), +Middle Ages, + defined, + close, +Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez) +Missionaries, +Missions, Spanish, +Mississippi River, discovery of, +Modern Times, defined, +Mohammedans, +Moluccas, +Monasteries, +Mongol Tartars, +Montezuma, King of Aztecs, +Montreal, +Moors, +Mosaics, + +Naples, +Navy, + English, + in battle against the Armada, +Netherlands, revolt of, +New Testament, + Greek, + first printed, +Nobles, +Norman architecture, +Norman Conquest, +Normans, +Northmen, +Notre Dame (no'tr'dam) + in Paris, + +Odin, +Olympia, +Olympic games, +Ordeals, +Oxford, University of, + +Pacific Ocean, +Paestum (pes'tum), +Paintings, Greek, +Panama, +Pantheon (Pan'theon), +Papyrus (pa-pi'rus), +Paris, +Parliament, English, origin of, +Parthenon (par'thenon), +Patagonia, +Patricians, +Paul, the Apostle, +Peasants, +Pediment, +Persia, +Peru, conquest of, +Petrarch (pe'trark), +Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez), +Philip II, +Philippines, +Phoenicia, +Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro), + conquest of Peru, +Plataeans, +Plato, +Plebeians, +Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), +Pompey, +Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on), +Pope, the Bishop of Rome, +Porticoes, +Portugal, + sailors of, + and the New World, +Potato, found by Magellan, +Pottery, + Greek, + Aztec, + Zuni, +Printing, invented, +Ptolemy (tol'e-mi), +Pyrrhus (pir'us), + +Quebec, +Quivira, + +Raleigh, Sir Walter, +Renaissance (ren'e-sans), +Richard, the Lionhearted, +Roads, Roman, +Roanoke, +Roman Empire, + size, + origin, +Roman type, +Romans, + language, + see Latin, early, + contact with Greeks, + wars in Italy, + early manner of living, + war with Carthage, + conquer Gaul and Britain, + Empire of, + civilization of, + Christianized, + empire ruined, + literature of, + influence, +Romanesque architecture, +Romulus, + +Salamis, +Samnites, +San Salvador, +St. Augustine, +Sardinia, +Saxons, +Sculpture, Greek, +Scylla (sil'a), +Senators, at Rome, +Seven Cities of Cibola, +Shakespeare, +Ships, + Greek, + early English, + Venetian, + of Columbus, + of English navy, +Sicily, +Sidney, Sir Philip, +Simon de Montfort, +Slaves, + Greek, + Roman, + Indians as, + Negroes as, +Slave-trade, + Spanish, + English, +Socrates (sok'ra-tez), +Spain, early settlements in, + Romans capture, + name, + Arabs in, + Columbus and, + claim to New World, + colonies of, + war with Netherlands, + war with England, +Sparta, +Spice Islands, +Spice trade, +Stadium, +Statues, Greek, + +Temples, Greek, +Theater, + Greek, + early Roman, + later, +Thebes, +Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), +Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le), +Theseum (these'um), +Thor, +Thursday, origin of name, +"Tin Islands," +Towns, in Middle Ages, +Trade, Mediaeval, +Trade-winds, +Trebia, battle of, +Trial by battle, +Tribune, Roman, +Trireme, +Troy, +Turks, +"Twelve Tables," +Tyre, + +Ulfilas, +Ulysses, +Universities, + +Venice, +Venus of Melos, +Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix), +Vespucius, Americus, +Veto, at Rome, +Vikings, +Vinland, +Virginia, + origin of name, + colony in, + +Watling Island, +Wednesday, origin of name, +West Indies, +White, John, +William the Conqueror, +William of Orange, +Wodan, +Women, Roman, +Words, +Writing, art of, + +Xerxes (zurk'zez), + +Zuni, + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History +by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + +This file should be named 7iahs10.txt or 7iahs10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7iahs11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7iahs10a.txt + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Introductory American History + +Author: Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9897] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 28, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY + + +BY + +HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE +AND +ELBERT JAY BENTON + +PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY + + + +1912 + + + +INTRODUCTION + +This volume is the introductory part of a course in American history +embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee of Eight of the +American Historical Association.[1] The plan calls for a continuous +course running through grades six, seven, and eight. The events which +have taken place within the limits of what is now the United States must +necessarily furnish the most of the content of the lessons. But the +Committee urge that enough other matter, of an introductory character, +be included to teach boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of +age that our civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of +the Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of our +country in its true historical setting. The Committee recommend that +about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to this preliminary +matter, and that the remainder of the year be given to the period of +discovery and exploration. + +The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four lines of +development in the world's history leading up to American +history proper. + +First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by which the +ancient civilized world, originally made up of communities like the +Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean Seas, +spread to southern Italy and adjacent lands. The Roman conquest of Italy +and of the barbarian tribes of western Europe expanded the civilized +world to the shores of the Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new +nations grew up. The migration of Europeans to the American continent +was the final step. + +Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in extent was a +growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of what we call +geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the herald of an +expanding world. + +A third process was the creation and transmission of all that we mean by +civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the effort should be to +"show, in a very simple way, the civilization which formed the heritage +of those who were to go to America, that is, to explain what America +started with." + +The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate the three +or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in American +colonization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the +child some feeling for the name 'England,' 'Spain,' 'Holland,' and +'France.'" + +No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of Greece, +Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an attempt would be +utterly destructive of the plan. Only those features of early +civilization and those incidents of history have been selected which +appear to have a vital relation to the subsequent fortunes of mankind in +America as well as in Europe. They are treated in all cases as +introductory. Opinions may differ upon the question of what topics best +illustrate the relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of +opportunity for the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a +textbook based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of +selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to +illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may prefer +Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler dramatic +development. In the same way teachers may desire to give more emphasis +to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval civilization or certain heroic +persons treated very briefly in this book. Exercises similar to those +inserted at the end of each chapter offer means of supplementing work +provided in the text. + +The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of the +Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a natural +culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same plan of +division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore, open with the +study of the first permanent English settlements. + +The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than most of +the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is treated, we hope, +with such simplicity and definiteness of statement that it will be +comprehensible and instructive to pupils of the sixth grade. + +At the close of the book will be found a list of references. From this +teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and descriptions to +illustrate any features of the subject which especially interest their +classes. In the index is given the pronunciation of difficult names. + +We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with wise advice +and criticism. + +[Footnote 1: The Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's, +1909.] + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + + I. THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE + + II. OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS + + III. HOW THE GREEKS LIVED + + IV. GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS + + V. NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS + + VI. THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE + + VII. THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC + + VIII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD + + IX. CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE + + X. EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO + + XI. HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES + + XII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES + + XIII. TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES + + XIV. THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD + + XV. OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD + + XVI. EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE MAINLAND + + XVII. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA + +XVIII. RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE + + XIX. FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA + + XX. THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN + + XXI. THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA + +REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS + +INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY + + + +INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE + + +THE EMIGRANT AND WHAT HE BRINGS TO AMERICA. The emigrant who lands + at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any other seaport, brings with + him something which we do not see. He may have in his hands only a + small bundle of clothing and enough money to pay his railroad fare to + his new home, but he is carrying another kind of baggage more valuable + than bundles or boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other + baggage is the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought + from the fatherland. + + He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which he hopes + to labor in America. In his native land he has been taught to obey the + laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This fits him to share in our + self-government. He also brings great memories, for he likes to think + of the brave and noble deeds done by men of his race. If he is a + religious man, he worships God just as his forefathers have for + hundreds of years. To understand how the emigrant happens to know what + he does and to be what he is, we must study the history of the country + from which he comes. + +ALL AMERICANS ARE EMIGRANTS. If this is true of the newcomer, it is + equally true of the rest of us, for we are all emigrants. The Indians + are the only native Americans, and when we find out more about them we + may learn that they, too, are emigrants. If we follow the history of + our families far enough back, we shall come upon the names of our + forefathers who sailed from Europe. They may have come to America in + the early days when there were only a few settlements scattered along + our Atlantic coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War + changed the English colonies into the United States. + + Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians, we are + simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the Europe in which + our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our story. In order to + understand our own history we must know something of the history of + England, France, Germany, Italy, and other European lands. + +WHAT THE EARLY EMIGRANTS BROUGHT. If we read the story of our + forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers to several + important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek for new lands or + for new ways to lands already known? How did the people of Europe live + at the time he discovered America? What did they know how to do? Were + they skilful in all sorts of work, or were they as rude and ignorant + as the Indians on the western shores of the Atlantic? + + The answers which history will give to these questions will say that + the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought with them much of + the same knowledge and many of the same customs and memories which + emigrants bring nowadays and which we also have. It is true that since + the time the first settlers came men have found out how to make many + new things. The most important of these are the steam-engine, the + electric motor, the telegraph, and the telephone. But it is surprising + how many important things, which we still use, were made before + Columbus saw America. + + [Illustration: A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING VESSEL + The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered great + hardships] + + For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been + discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men could + make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The ships in + which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large and wonderful + to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were steered with the help + of a compass, an instrument which the Indians had never seen. + + Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been known + hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest was the art + of writing. The way to write words or sounds was found out so long ago + that we shall never know the name of the man who first discovered it. + The historians tell us he lived in Egypt, which was in northern + Africa, exactly where Egypt is now. Some men were afraid that the new + art might do more harm than good. The king to whom the secret was told + thought that the children would be unwilling to work hard and try to + remember because everything could be written down and they would not + need to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to + put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made several + letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a mixture of little + pictures and queer marks. + + [Illustration: Cleopatra EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING] + +OLD AND NEW INVENTIONS. Those who first discover how to make things + are called inventors, and what they make are called inventions. Now if + we should write out a list of the most useful inventions, we could + place in one column the inventions which were made before the days of + Columbus and in another those which have been made since. With this + list before us we may ask which inventions we could live without and + which we could not spare unless we were willing to become like the + savages. We should find that a large number of the inventions which we + use every day belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is + another reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and + working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our + forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history. + + [Illustration: Phoenician Early Greek Early Latin English + GROWTH OF LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET] + +A PLAN OF STUDY. The discovery of America was made in 1492, at the + beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before Modern Times were the + Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand years. These began three or four + hundred years after the time of Christ or what we call the beginning + of the Christian Era. All the events that took place earlier we say + happened in Ancient Times. Much that we know was learned first by the + Greeks or Romans who lived in Ancient Times. + + It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called + Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards, and + many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent of + Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of what they + knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out how these things + were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages and what they added to + them. This will help us to find out what our forefathers started with + when they came to live in America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides his + baggage? + + 2. Why are all Americans emigrants? + + 3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America bring with + them? + + 4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone or + the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the map. + How did Egyptian writing look? + + 5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were + invented before he discovered America? + + 6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient Times? + By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the art of + writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented? In what + Times was the telephone invented? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising + folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of sailing + ships, ships used now and those used long ago. + + 2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country + stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from ports + like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now live. + + 3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the map the + European country from which his parents or his grandparents or his + forefathers came. + + 4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his + forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each + find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each tell + the most interesting hero story from among the stories of the mother + country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the tools used in + the old home were like the tools his parents use here. + + + + +CHAPTER II + + +OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS + +ANCIENT CITIES THAT STILL EXIST. In Ancient Times the most + important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean. The + northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The first is + Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean; + the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the third, the end of + which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece. Beyond Greece is Asia + Minor, the part of Asia which lies between the Mediterranean Sea and + the Black Sea. + + The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in Ancient + Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks, just as they + were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the cities that the + Greeks and Romans built are still standing. Alexandria was founded by + the great conqueror Alexander. Constantinople used to be the Greek + city of Byzantium. Another Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern + French city of Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times, + except that it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name + of Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum. + +RUINS WHICH SHOW HOW THE ANCIENTS LIVED. In many of these cities + are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of carving, vases, + mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we may see and from + which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans lived. Near Naples are + the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city suddenly destroyed during an + eruption of the volcano Vesuvius. + + For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or twenty feet + of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets and the walls of + the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and the walls in many + places were only partly standing, but things which in other ancient + cities had entirely disappeared were kept safe in Pompeii under the + volcanic ashes. + + The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see how its + inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit their public + buildings and their private houses, can handle their dishes and can + look at the paintings on their walls or the mosaics in the floors. But + interesting as Pompeii is, we must not think that its ruins teach us + more than the ruins of Rome or Athens or many other ancient cities. + Each has something important to tell us of the people who lived long + ago. + +ANCIENT WORDS STILL IN USE. The ancient Greeks and Romans have left + us some things more useful than the ruins of their buildings. These + are the words in our language which once were theirs, and which we use + with slight changes in spelling. Most of our words came in the + beginning from Germany, where our English forefathers lived before + they settled in England. To the words they took over from Germany they + added words borrowed from other peoples, just as we do now. We have + recently borrowed several words from the French, such as tonneau and + limousine, words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the + name automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek word. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII The houses of the + better sort were built with an open court in the center] + + In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming into our + language from other languages. Several thousand have come from Latin, + the language of the Romans; several hundred from Greek, either + directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the French. The word + school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was borrowed from the French, + who took it from the Greeks. Geography is another word which came, + through French and Latin, from the Greeks, to whom it meant that which + is written about the earth. The word grammar came in the same way. The + word alphabet is made by joining together the names of the first two + Greek letters, alpha and beta. + + Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and this is + not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek. Some of these + are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil, apostle, and martyr. + The Greeks have handed down to us many words about government, + including the word itself, which in the beginning meant "to steer." + Politics meant having to do with a _polis_ or city. Several of the + words most recently made up of Greek words are telegraph, telephone, + phonograph, and thermometer. + +MANY WORDS BORROWED FROM THE ROMANS. Nearly ten times as many of + our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the Greeks, and it is + not strange, because at one time the Romans ruled over all the country + now occupied by the Italians, the French, the Spaniards, a part of the + Germans, and the English, so that these peoples naturally learned the + words used by their conquerors and governors. + +INTERESTING ANCIENT STORIES. In the poems and tales which we learn + at home or at school are stories which Greek and Roman parents and + teachers taught their children many hundred years ago. We learn them + partly because they are interesting, and because they please or amuse + us, and partly because they appear so often in our books that it is + necessary to know them if we would understand our own books and + language. Who has not heard of Hercules and his Labors, of the Search + for the Golden Fleece, the Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of + Ulysses? We love modern fairy stories and tales of adventure, but they + are not more pleasing than these ancient stories. + + [Illustration: THE PLAIN OF MARATHON] + +THE STORY OF THE GREEKS. Our language and our books are full of + memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story of the Greeks + comes before the story of the Romans, for the Greeks were living in + beautiful cities, with temples and theaters, while the Romans were + still an almost unknown people dwelling on the hills that border the + river Tiber. + +MEMORIES OF GREEK COURAGE. The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took + place in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of + Persia about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was + no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe. + Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings, others + by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together when any + danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned traitor and helped + the enemy against the others. The most dangerous enemy the Greeks had, + until the Romans attacked them, was the kingdom of Persia, which + stretched from the Aegean Sea far into Asia. In the war with the + Persians the Greeks fought three famous battles, at Marathon, + Thermopylae, and Salamis, the stories of which men have always liked + to hear and remember. + +PREPARING FOR MARATHON, 490 B.C. To the Athenians belong the + glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city of Athens now + stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters still attract students + and travelers to Greece. The plain of Marathon lay more than twenty + miles to the northeast, and the roads to it led through mountain + passes. When the Athenians heard that the hosts of the Great King of + Persia were approaching, they sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to + ask aid of Sparta, a city one hundred and forty miles away, in the + peninsula now called the Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of + Greece. This runner reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans + said it would be against their religious custom to march before the + moon was full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy + alone--one small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten + thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by a + thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of Plataea. + + [Illustration: GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS From a Greek vase of + about the time of the battle of Marathon] + +HOW THE ATHENIANS WERE ARMED. Although the Persians had six times + as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so well armed for + hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was the bow and arrow, + while the Greeks used the lance and a short sword. The Greek soldier + was protected by his bronze helmet, solid across the forehead and over + the nose; by his breastplate, a leathern or linen tunic covered with + small metal scales, with flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves + or pieces of metal in front of his knees and shins. He was also + protected by a shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his + knees. According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten + generals, each commanding one day in turn. + +THE BATTLE-GROUND. Marathon was a plain about two miles wide, lying + between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads ran toward + Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost reached the sea, + the other up a narrow valley and over the mountains. The Athenians + were encamped in this valley, where they could attack the Persians if + they tried to follow the shore road. + + The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near the + shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they had so many + more soldiers than the Athenians and because they meant to use their + horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched the Persians, not + knowing what it was best to do. Half the generals did not wish to risk + a battle, but Miltiades was eager to fight, for he feared that delay + would lead timid citizens or traitors to yield to the Persians. He + finally gained his wish, and on his day of command the battle was + ordered. + +THE BATTLE. The Persians by this time had decided to sail around to + the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen on board their + ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew up their + foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their comrades--the + Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run. The Persians thought + this madness, because the Greeks had no archers or horsemen. But the + Greeks saw that if they moved forward slowly the Persians would have + time to shoot arrows at them again and again. + + When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the two ends + of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore. In the + center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks were not at + first successful, and were forced to retreat. But those who had been + victorious came to their rescue, attacked the Persians in the rear, + and finally drove them off. The Persians ran into the sea to reach the + ships, and the Athenians followed them. Some of the Greeks were so + eager in the fight that they seized the sides of the ships and tried + to keep them from being rowed away, but the Persians cut at their + hands and made them let go. + + [Illustration: THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS Where a great sea-fight + between Greeks and Persians took place] + +THE NEWS OF THE VICTORY. The Athenians had won a victory of which + they were so proud that they meant it never should be forgotten. Their + city had suddenly become great through the courage and self-sacrifice + of her citizens. One hundred and ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on + the battle-field their comrades raised over their bodies a mound of + earth which still marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner + Pheidippides to bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until + he reached the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on + his lips, he fell dead. + +OTHER VICTORIES OF THE GREEKS. Marathon was only the beginning of + Greek victories over the Persians, only the first struggle in the long + wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years after Marathon the Spartans + won everlasting glory by their heroic stand at the Pass of Thermopylae +--three hundred Greeks against the mighty army of the Persian king + Xerxes. The barbarian hordes passed over their bodies, took the road + to Athens, burned the city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight + which took place on the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian + territory and the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to + Athenian courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader, + Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other + Greeks wanted to sail away. + +WHY MARATHON IS REMEMBERED. The victories of Marathon and Salamis + were great not only because small armies of Greeks put to flight the + hosts of Persia, they were great because they saved the independence + of Greece. If the Greeks had become the subjects and slaves of Persia, + they would not have built the wonderful buildings, or carved the + beautiful statues, or written the books which we study and admire. + When we think of the Greeks as our first teachers we feel as proud of + their victories as if they were our own victories. + +THE WARS OF THE GREEK CITIES. The Athenians had done the most in + winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore Athens was for + many years the most powerful city in Greece. The Spartans were always + jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a century after the victory + of Marathon they conquered and humbled Athens. The worst faults of the + Greeks were such jealousies and the desire to lord it over one + another. Greek history is full of wars of city against city, Sparta + against Athens, Corinth against Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In + these wars many heroic deeds were done, of which we like to read, but + it is more important for us to understand how the Greeks lived. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the map. + (For each difficult name find the pronunciation in the index.) + + 2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which tell + us how the people lived? + + 3. From what country did most of our words come in the beginning? + Why are they now called English? What peoples used the word + geography before we did? About how many words do we get from the + Greeks, and how many from the Romans? + + 4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the Romans? + Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived. + + 5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the Greeks? + + 6. Find the city of Athens on the map. Find Sparta. Where + was Marathon? What city won glory at Marathon? + + 7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and Asia + Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising folders. + Collect postal cards giving such pictures. + + 2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned in Chapter II, + and tell it. + + 3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed from + the way the Greek soldiers were. + + 4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a "Marathon." + + + + +CHAPTER III + + +HOW THE GREEKS LIVED + +THE GREEK CITIES. The Greeks lived in cities so much of the time that + we do not often think of them as ever living in the country. The + reason for this was that their government and everything else + important was carried on in the city. The cities were usually + surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made them safe from + sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was often a lofty hill, + which we should call a fort or citadel, but which they called the + upper city or acropolis. There the people lived at first when they + were few in number, and thither they fled if the walls of their city + were broken down by enemies. + + In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain. Its top + was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one were steep + cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful temples. + +PRIVATE HOUSES. Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did not spend much + money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses would seem small, + badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But what their houses lacked + was more than made up by the beauty and splendor of the public + buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and especially the temples. + +TEMPLES. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds of worshipers + like the large churches of Europe and America to-day. Religious + ceremonies were most often carried on in the open air. The Parthenon, + the most famous temple of Ancient Times, was small. Its principal room + measured less than one hundred feet in length. Part of this room was + used for an altar and for the ivory and gold statue of the goddess + Athena. + + [Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY] + +THE PARTHENON. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a similar temple, + we notice the columns in front and along the sides. The Parthenon had + eight at each end and seventeen on each side. They were thirty-four + feet high. A few feet within the columns on the sides was the wall of + the temple. Before the vestibule and entrances at the front and at the + rear stood six more columns. The beauty of the marble from which + stones and columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders + carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the + pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon the + columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above the + columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a frieze) + ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The temple was + not left a glistening white, but parts of it were painted in blue, or + red, or gilt, or orange. + + [Illustration: THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO The + Parthenon is the large temple on the right] + +OTHER GREEK TEMPLES. This beautiful temple is now partly ruined. Ruins + of other temples are on the Acropolis, and one better preserved, + called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill. There are also similar + ruins in many places along the shores of the Mediterranean. The most + interesting are at Paestum in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily. Long + before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans how to + construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings, and this the + Romans later taught the peoples of western Europe. + +GREEK METHODS OF BUILDING STILL USED. If we look at our large + buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek buildings. + Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is imitated; sometimes + this form is changed as the Romans changed it, or as it was changed by + builders who lived after the time of the Romans. If the model of the + whole building is not used, there are similar pillars, or gables, or + the sculpture in the pediment and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks + had three kinds of pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The + Doric is simple and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top, + delicate and beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with + leaves springing gracefully from the top of the pillar. + + [Illustration: Doric Ionic Corinthian GREEK ORDERS OF + ARCHITECTURE] + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS] + +THEATERS. The first Greek theater was only a smooth open space near a + hillside, with a tent, called a _skené_, or scene, in which the + actors dressed. Later an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed + on the hillside, and across the open end was placed the _scene_, + which had been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a + house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are furnished + with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters thousands of people + gathered. Plays were generally given as a part of religious festivals, + and there were contests between writers to see which could produce the + best play. Sometimes the plays followed one another for three days + from morning until night. Many of them are so interesting that people + still read them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied + them, and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write + plays. + + [Illustration: THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS] + +THE STADIUM. A building which somewhat resembled the theater was the + stadium, where races were run. The difference was that it was oblong + instead of half round. The most famous stadium, at Olympia, was seven + hundred and two feet long, with raised seats on both sides and around + one end of the running track. The other end was open. About fifty + thousand persons used to gather there to watch the races. + +PORTICOES. There were other buildings, some for meeting places, some + for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes, where the judges + held court or the city officers carried on their business. The + porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over, with occasionally + a second story. As they stretched along the sides of a square or + market place they added much to the beauty of a city. + +GREEK SCULPTURE. We know that the Greeks were skilful sculptors + because from the ruins of their cities have been dug wonderful marble + and bronze statues which are now preserved in the great museums of the + world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and Rome, and here in America, in New + York and Boston. Museums which cannot have the original statues + usually contain copies or casts of them in plaster. The statues are + generally marred and broken, but enough remains to show us the + wonderful beauty of the artist's work. Among the most famous are the + Venus, of Melos (or "de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a + museum called the Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia + in Greece; and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in + London. + + [Illustration: THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS) An ancient + Greek statue now in the Vatican] + + Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the Greek + statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may learn how such + beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to excel the Greeks, + but are content to remain their pupils. + +PAINTING AND POTTERY. The Greeks were also painters, makers of + pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of their + workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in the ruins of + ancient buildings and tombs. + + [Illustration: A GREEK BOOK The upper picture, shows the book + open.] + +WHAT THE BOYS WERE TAUGHT. The Greek boys were not very good at + arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or their fingers + to help them in reckoning. In learning to write they smeared a thin + layer of wax over a board and marked on that. There was a kind of + paper called papyrus, made from a reed which grew mostly in Egypt, but + this was expensive. Rolls were made of sheets of it pasted together, + and these were their books. One of the books the boys studied much was + the poems of Homer--the Iliad and the Odyssey--which tell about the + siege of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these + long poems by heart. They also stored away in their memories the + sayings of other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know + what to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in + such excellent words. + +GAMES AND EXERCISES FOR BOYS. It is not surprising that Greek boys + knew how to play, but it is surprising that they played many of the + games which boys play now, such as hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks + and drakes, and blind man's buff. They even "pitched pennies." In + school the boys were taught not only to read and write, but to be + skilful athletes, and to play on the lyre, accompanying this with + singing. The gymnasium was often an open space near a stream into + which they could plunge after their exercises were over. They were + taught to box, to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear. + Military training was important for them, since all might be called to + fight for the safety of their city. + +THE OLYMPIC GAMES. Boys and young men were trained as runners, + wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because they enjoyed + these exercises and the Greeks thought them an important part of + education, but also that they might bring back honors and prizes to + their city from the great games which all the Greeks held every few + years. The most famous of these games were held at Olympia. There the + Greeks went from all parts of the country, carrying their tents and + cooking utensils with them, because there were not enough houses in + Olympia to hold so many people. Wars even were stopped for a time in + order that the games might not be postponed. + +THE REWARDS OF THE VICTORS. The principal contest was a dash for two + hundred yards, although there were longer races and many other kinds + of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to see the most brutal + sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands and arms were covered with + heavy strips of leather stiffened with pieces of iron or lead. For the + games men trained ten months, part of the time at Olympia. The prize + was a crown of wild olive, and the winner returned in triumph to his + city, where poets sang his praises, a special seat at public games was + reserved for him, and often artists were employed to make a bronze + statue of him to be set up in Olympia or in his own city. + + [Illustration: GREEK GAMES--RUNNING From an antique vase] + +THE GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. The citizen of Athens, and of other Greek + cities, had more to do with his government than do most Americans with + theirs. As nearly all work was done by slaves, he had plenty of time + to attend meetings. All the citizens could attend the great assembly, + or _ecclesia_, where six thousand at least must be present before + anything could be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be + admitted to citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized, + from Athens as hurtful to its welfare. + + There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less + important questions without laying them before the general assembly. + This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but members of the + council whose term had ended had a right to object to any new member + as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council ruled for a tenth of the + year, and they chose their president by lot every day, so that any + worthy man at Athens had a chance to be president for a day and a + night. + + [Illustration: A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.] + + Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six thousand + judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a thousand and one, + or even fifteen hundred and one, took part. Before such large courts + and assemblies it was necessary to be a good speaker to be able to win + a case or persuade the citizens. Some of the greatest orators of the + world were Athenians, the best known being Demosthenes. + +SOCRATES. The Athenians were not always just, although so many of them + acted as judges. One court, composed of five hundred and one judges, + condemned to death Socrates, the wisest man of the Greeks and one of + the wisest in the world. He did not make speeches, or write books, or + teach in school. He went about, in the market place, at the gymnasium, + and on the streets, asking men, young and old, questions about what + interested him most, that is, What is the true way to live? If people + did not give him an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions, + until sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he + asked questions about everything that he did not believe in anything, + not even in the religion of his city. + + [Illustration: SOCRATES After the marble bust in the Vatican] + +THE DEATH OF SOCRATES, 399 B.C. After a while the enemies of Socrates + accused him of being a wicked man who persuaded young men to be + wicked. He was tried by an Athenian court, which made the terrible + blunder of finding him guilty and condemning him to death. According + to the Athenian custom he was obliged to drink a cup of poisonous + hemlock. This he did, after talking to his friends cheerily about how + a good man should live. As he wrote no books we have learned about him + from his friends. The most famous of these was Plato, who is also + counted among the wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives + of these men is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to + live after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of + building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived? + + 2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens look? + + 3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment. Show + where the frieze was placed. Find on a map Paestum. + + 4. What did the Greeks first mean by a _scene_? Why do we still + study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters? + + 5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such + buildings? + + 6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues? + + 7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about the + great public games of the Greeks. + + 8. How were the Greek rolls or books made? + + 9. Tell the story of Socrates. + + EXERCISES + + 1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek + buildings? + + 2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns. + + 3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a papered + room. + + 4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and the + government of your town? + + 5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the + courts in your town? + + 6. Are Olympic games held now? Where? + + 7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners at + Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic games? + + + + +CHAPTER IV + + +GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS + +WHEN THE ATLANTIC WAS UNKNOWN. One of the most important things + done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore the coasts and lands of + Europe and to make settlements wherever they went. At first they knew + little of the western and northern parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek + whom we call the "Father of History," and who was a great traveler, + said, "Though I have taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an + assurance from any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side + of Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark + shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood that tin + and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called the "ends of the + earth." As tin came from England, it is plain that he had heard a little + of that island. + + [Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED BY THE GREEK + HISTORIAN HERODOTUS] + +GREEK EMIGRANTS. Long before Athens became a great and beautiful + city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on distant shores. Those + who lived on the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as those who lived + where the kingdom of Greece is now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The + Greek colonies were very important, because by them the ancient + civilized world was made larger, just as by the settlement of America + the modern world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from + home for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England and + Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a new land to + make a living and obtain property, or they did not like the way their + city was ruled, and being unable to change this, resolved to build + elsewhere a city which they could manage as they pleased. + +HOW THEY LOCATED A NEW CITY. There were several different lands to + which they could go, just as the European of to-day may sail for the + United States or South America or Australia. They could attempt to + settle on the shores of the Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa, + or try to reach Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France + and Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice of + the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These priests + knew more about good places for settlements than most other persons, + because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi and the priests were + wise enough to inquire about all parts of the world. + + [Illustration: _The territory occupied by the Greeks is + indicated by solid black_] + + The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to locate + their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They discovered that + these words meant that an earlier band of emigrants had passed by the + wonderful harbor of the present city of Constantinople and had settled + instead on the other shore of the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they + chose the better place and began to build the city of Byzantium, which + later became Constantinople. + +MOTHER AND DAUGHTER CITIES. Solemn ceremonies took place when + colonists departed. They carried with them fire from the hearth of the + mother city in order to light a similar fire on their new hearth, for + every city had its hearthstone and on it a fire that was never quenched. + The ties between the mother and the daughter city were close, and the + enemies of one were the enemies of the other. He who wished to visit the + colony usually went to the mother city to find a ship bound thither. + +WHERE THE SETTLEMENTS WERE MADE. When the Greek sailors first + entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean, and called it + the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until that time they had been + accustomed to sail only from island to island in the Aegean Sea. After a + while they made settlements all around the shores of the Black Sea, and + in later times Athens drew from this region her supply of grain. Still + more important settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for + it was through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks + knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes and to + the Romans. + +DANGERS OF THE VOYAGE. At first Greek sailors feared the dangers of the + western Mediterranean as much as those of the Black Sea. They imagined + that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful monsters Scylla and Charybdis + lurked in the Straits of Messina waiting to seize and swallow the + unlucky passer-by. On the slopes of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought, + hideous, one-eyed giants, the Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites + with the quivering flesh of many captives. + + [Illustration: GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN ITALY] + +GREEKS IN THE WEST. The earliest settlement of the Greeks in Italy + was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay of Naples. Later + these colonists entered the bay and founded the "new city," or Neapolis, + which we call Naples. Finally there were so many Greek cities in + southern Italy that it was named "Great Greece." The Greeks also made + settlements in what is now southern France and eastern Spain. The + principal one was Massilia, or Marseilles. Through the traders of this + city the ancient world obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country + which is now called England. + +GREEK COLONIES AS CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION. The Greeks in these + colonies traded with the natives whose villages were near by, and many + of the natives learned to live like the Greeks. In this way the Greeks + became teachers of civilization, and the Greek world, which at first was + made up of cities on the shores of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place + to place along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. + + [Illustration: A GREEK TRIREME] + +GREEK SHIPS. The ships of the Greeks were very different from + modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by steam, nor did they + rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships do. They had sails, but + were driven forward mostly by their oars. The trireme, or ordinary + war-ship, had its oars arranged in three banks, fifty men rowing at + once. After these had rowed several hours, or a "watch," another fifty + took their places, and finally a third fifty, so that the ships could be + rowed at high speed all the time. With the aid of its two sails a + trireme is said to have gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a + night. These boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and + fifteen feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not + high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak, which, + driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides. The Greek + grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more capable of enduring + rough weather. + + [Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT After the bust in the + Capitoline Museum, Rome] + +ALEXANDER THE GREAT, KING OF MACEDON FROM 336 TO 323 B.C. Greek + ways of living were also carried eastward as well as westward. The + enlargement of the Greek world in this direction was due to Alexander + the Great, the most skilful soldier and the ablest leader of men among + all the Greeks. Alexander was king of Macedon, and like the earlier + Greeks he regarded the Persians as his enemies, and made war upon them. + After conquering the Persians he marched across western Asia until he + had reached the Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well + as a conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were + named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is still the + chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language commonly spoken + throughout the lands near the eastern Mediterranean. This is the reason + why in later times the New Testament was written in Greek. + +ALEXANDRIA. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the center and + Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a great library which + contained over five hundred thousand volumes or rolls. There also was + the museum or university, in which many learned men were at work. The + best known of these men was Euclid, who perfected the mathematics which + we call geometry, and Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape + and size of the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on + his great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce. + From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships to be + admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking for many of the + beautiful things which the Greeks made. + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks + emigrate to the colonies? + + 2. Point out on the map, the lands to which they might go. + Name several cities which they built. + + 3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother city? + + 4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece? + + 5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed. + + 6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he reign? + How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning victories? + + 7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times? + + 8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do Americans go + to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it was for the + Greeks to reach their colonies? + + 2. What country now has the most colonies? + + 3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops. + + 4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden Horn?" + Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at Marseilles? + + 5. Collect pictures of these cities. + + REVIEW + + (Chapters II, III, and IV) + + _Ten things we owe to the Greeks_: + + 1. Many useful words. + + 2. Many interesting tales. + + 3. Many examples of heroism. + + 4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings. + + 5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes. + + 6. How to write great plays. + + 7. How to speak before large audiences. + + 8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato. + + 9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics. + + 10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live, and + think and act as they did. + + _Two important dates_: + + Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C. + + + + +CHAPTER V + + +NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS + +THE GREEK COLONIES AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. The Greek colonies were + sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native tribes whose lands + they had seized or by the wilder tribes that dwelt further from the + coast. In Sicily their most dangerous neighbors were the Carthaginians + at the western end of the island. The chief town of these people was + Carthage, situated opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now + Tunis. The Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of + Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because of + their many ships held control of a large part of the western + Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very early + times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and silver. + +THE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS. In Italy the most dangerous neighbors of + the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived half-way up the western + side of the peninsula along the river Tiber. The history of the Romans, + like the history of the Greeks, is full of interesting and wonderful + tales. Some of them are legends, such as every people likes to tell + about its early history. They relate how the city was founded by two + brothers, Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the + Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the farmer + Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in sixteen days drove + off the neighboring tribes which were attacking the Romans and then went + back to his plough. + +THE GAULS BURN ROME, 390 B.C. The Romans told stories of their + defeats as well as of their victories. One of these tells how hosts of + Gauls, a people of the same race as the forefathers of the French, + streamed southward from the valley of the Po. The Romans were alarmed by + such tall men, with fierce eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords + crashed through the frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop + the invaders, but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from + Rome, this army was destroyed. + + The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline, the + steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of the older + senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge from the fury of + the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in ivory chairs in the + market place or Forum at the foot of the Capitoline hill. The Gauls at + first gazed in wonder at the strange sight of the motionless figures. + When one of them attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the + senator struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and + priests and slew them. + + [Illustration: CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL] + + The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long time the + Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At last they + discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point of scaling the + height when some geese, sacred to the goddess Juno, cackled and flapped + their wings until the garrison was aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong + down the precipice. The garrison was saved, but the city was burned. + This happened in Rome just one hundred years after the battle of + Marathon in Greece. + +THE CAUDINE FORKS. Another adventure did not have so happy an + ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a tribe living on the + slopes of the Apennines, who were continually attacking the Greek cities + on the coast. The war was caused by the attempt of the Romans to protect + one of the Greek cities. The Roman generals, with a large army, in + making their way into the Samnite country attempted to march through a + narrow gorge which broadened out into a plain and then was closed again + at the farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge + they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones. They + also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they hastened to + retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance closed in the same + way. After vain attempts to force a passage or to scale the surrounding + heights they were obliged to surrender. + + [Illustration: THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS] + + [Illustration: ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER] + + The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and soldiers, each + clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke" made of two spears + set upright with one laid across, while they stood by and jeered. If any + Roman looked angry or sullen at his disgrace, they struck or even killed + him. This was called the disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass + where the Romans were caught. + +THE ROMANS AND THE GREEK CITIES. Not many years after this the + Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern Italy. The Greeks of + Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now, called to their aid Pyrrhus, + who ruled a part of Alexander's old kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful + general, and he had with him, besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen, + many trained elephants. A charge of these elephants was too much for the + Romans, who were already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers + of Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in this + they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek soldiers that + Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and we are ruined." In a + third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he was defeated, and returned + to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of the Greek cities in Italy. + +THE ROMANS CONQUERORS OF ITALY. By this time there were few tribes + south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as their masters. All + Italy was united under their rule. This was the first step in the + conquest of the world that lay about the Mediterranean Sea and in the + extension of that ancient world to the shores of the Atlantic and to + England. Before we read the story of the other conquests we must inquire + who the Roman people were and how they lived. + +HOW THE ROMANS LIVED. In early times most of the Romans were + farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned according to the + number of cattle he owned. Their manner of living was simple and frugal. + Like the Greek, the Roman had his games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but + used slaves or freedmen as drivers. He also went to the theater, + although he thought it unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an + occupation was for foreigners or slaves. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA] + +ROMAN BOYS AT SCHOOL. The boys at school did not learn poems, as + did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws made by the + Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read, copied, and learned by + heart. Their interest in laws was the first sign that they were to + become the world's greatest lawmakers. + +ROMAN WOMEN. In their respect for women the Romans were superior to + the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the women's apartments of + the house, as she was expected to do at Athens, but was her husband's + companion, received his guests, directed her household, and went in and + out as she chose. + +PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. The men of the families which first ruled + Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest were plebeians or + common people. There were also many slaves, but they had no rights. At + first only the patricians knew exactly what the laws were, because the + laws were not written in a book. When disputes arose between patricians + and plebeians about property, the plebeians believed the patricians + changed the laws in order to gain an advantage over their poorer + neighbors. + + The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the city and + refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then they compelled + the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called the Twelve Tables. At + this time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the + Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all the + offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles themselves. + +GOVERNMENT AT ROME. The Romans had once been ruled by kings, but + now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls were chosen each year + because the Romans feared that a single consul might make himself a + king, or, at least, gain too much power. The real rulers of Rome, + however, were the senators, the men who had held the prominent offices. + There were assemblies of the people, but these generally did what the + senators or other officers told them to do. + + Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who drew up a + list or census of the citizens and of their property. Another officer + was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the plebeians to protect + them against the patricians. The tribune was not at first a member of + the senate, but he was given a seat outside the door, and if a law was + proposed that would injure the plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which + means "I forbid," and the law had to be dropped. This is the origin of + our word "veto." + +HOW THE ROMANS TREATED THE ITALIANS. The Romans were wise in their + dealings with the cities or tribes which they conquered. They not only + sent out colonies of their fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands + they had seized, but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in + their government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of + Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their wars + with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread over Italy. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in + Sicily? Find Carthage on the map. Where did the + Carthaginians come from originally? Find Phoenicia on the map. + + 2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy? Find the + Tiber and Rome on the map. + + 3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How long was + this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the death of + Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of Macedon? + + 4. Find the land of the Samnites on the map. Tell the story + of the Caudine Forks. + + 5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to help + them against the Romans? What did he say after his second battle + with the Romans? + + 6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the Romans as + masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians? + + 7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from the ways + of the Greeks. + + 8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern themselves? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome." + + 2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy. + + 3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over + Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians? + + 4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii. 3-25, + and tell what is said there about the riches of the Tyrians. Find + out who destroyed Tyre. + + [Illustration: AN EARLY ROMAN COIN] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + + +THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE + +ROME IN PERIL. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took about two + hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples living in the + other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took nearly as long + again. Only twice in these four or five hundred years was Rome in + serious danger of destruction. Once it was by the Gauls, as we have + read, who captured all the city except the citadel. The second time it + was by the Carthaginians, who lived on the northern coast of Africa. + The Romans were finally victorious over all their enemies because they + were patient and courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that + they could be conquered. + +CAUSE OF WAR WITH CARTHAGE. The Carthaginians were angry at the way + the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm the steady growth of + the Roman power, and feared that the Romans, if masters of Italy, + would attack their trade with the cities of the western Mediterranean. + A quarrel broke out over a city in Sicily. At first the Carthaginians + seemed to have the best of it, because they had a strong war fleet + while the Romans had only a few small vessels. But the Romans + hurriedly built ships and placed upon each a kind of drawbridge, + fitted with great hooks called grappling-irons. These they let down + upon the enemy's decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and + over these drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the + Carthaginian ships. + + When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a great + sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would leave the + cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward the Romans took + advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to demand more money + and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder the Carthaginians were + angry. The result was a new and more terrible war. + +HANNIBAL. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by Hannibal, who + understood how to fight battles better than any of the generals whom + the Romans sent against him. The story is told that when he was a boy + his father made him promise, at the altar of his city's gods, undying + hatred to Rome. Even the Romans thought him a wonderful man. Their + historians said that toil did not wear out his body or exhaust his + energy. Cold or heat were alike to him. He never ate or drank more + than he needed. He slept when he had time, whether it was day or + night, wrapping himself in a military cloak and lying on the ground in + the midst of his soldiers. He did not dress better than the other + officers, but his weapons and his horses were the best in the army. + +WAR CARRIED INTO ITALY, 218 B.C. Hannibal decided that the war should + be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome. He started from + Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled, marched across southern + Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the Alps. To climb the Alps was + the most difficult part of his long journey. + +CROSSING THE ALPS. There were no roads across the mountains, only + rough paths used by the mountaineers, who constantly attacked + Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly upon them from behind a + turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks upon them from above. The + elephants, the horses, and the baggage animals of the army were + frightened, and in the tumult many of them slipped over the precipices + and were dashed on the rocks below. For five days the army toiled + upward, and then rested two days on the summit of the pass. + + [Illustration: THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS] + + Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and the + paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush by + thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a landslide, + and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a thousand feet. + In order to build a new road it was necessary to crack the rocks. This + the soldiers did by making huge fires and pouring wine over the heated + surface. At last, worn out, ragged, and half starved, the army reached + the plains of Italy, but with a loss of half its men. + +HOW HANNIBAL WON A VICTORY. The first great battle with the Romans was + fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and in it Hannibal + showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a Roman army. It was a + winter's day and the river was swollen by rains. The two camps lay on + opposite banks. In the early morning Hannibal sent across the river a + body of horsemen to attack the Roman camp and draw the Romans into a + battle. At the same time he ordered his other soldiers to eat + breakfast, to build fires before their tents to warm themselves, and + to rub their bodies with oil, so that they might be strong for the + coming fight. + + The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the Carthaginian + horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out of camp, chasing + the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy waters the Romans waded + breast-high, and when they came up on the opposite bank they were + benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal knew that the Romans had + crossed the river he attacked them fiercely with all his troops. Two + thousand men whom he had placed in ambush fell upon the rear of their + line. Their allies were frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing + that destruction was certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke + through the Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the + army was destroyed. + +ROMAN ENDURANCE. This was not the last of the Roman defeats. Two other + armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the next two years. In the + battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand Romans, including eighty + senators, were slain. The news filled the city with weeping women, but + the senate did not think of yielding. When their allies deserted them, + they besieged the faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers, + and sold the inhabitants into slavery. + + They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but tried to + wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his troops and by + making it difficult for him to get food for his army. They carried the + war into Spain and finally into Africa, and when, with a weakened + army, Hannibal faced them there, they defeated him. His defeat was the + ruin of Carthage, for the unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet + destroyed, to pay the Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain + to them. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN SOLDIER] + +OTHER ROMAN TRIUMPHS. The war with Carthage ended two hundred and two + years before the birth of Christ. In the wars that followed, Roman + armies fought not only in Spain and Africa, but also in Greece and + Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also Corinth, a Greek city. Roman + generals enriched themselves and sent great treasures back to Rome. + Roman merchants grew rich because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth + were ruined or because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade + with any city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but + in the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores of + the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the Romans + had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some things and + they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the arts of living. + The ancient world became a sort of partnership, and we call its + civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek and Roman. + +THE ROMANS AS RULERS. The Romans at first treated the lands in Sicily, + Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered territories, or + provinces, sending to rule over them officers who were to act both as + governors and judges. With these men went many tax-collectors or + "publicans." The Romans were obliged to leave in most provinces a + large body of soldiers to put down any attempt at rebellion. Often the + officers and the publicans robbed the country instead of ruling it + justly. + +EVIL RESULTS OF CONQUEST. During the wars the Romans had lost many of + their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich in the business of + providing for the armies and navies, and they were eager for new wars + in order to make still bigger fortunes. Hannibal's marches up and down + Italy had driven thousands of farmers from their homes, and they had + wandered to Rome for safety and food. When the war was over many of + them did not go back to their homes. Those who did found that they + could no longer get fair prices for their crops because great + quantities of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands. + Wealthy men bought the little farms and joined them, making great + estates where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and + olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for slaves + were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about eight cents + apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while the rich sent + everywhere for new luxuries. + + [Illustration: GLADIATORS After carvings on the tomb of + Scaurus] + +CRUEL SPORTS. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers and victorious + generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals were turned loose to + tear one another to pieces. What was worse, human prisoners were + compelled to fight, armed with swords or spears. These men were called + gladiators, and often were specially trained to fight with one another + or with wild beasts. + +SOME THINGS THE ROMANS LEARNED. But the successes of the Romans + brought them other things which were good. They took the buildings of + the Greeks as models and built similar temples and porticoes in Rome, + especially about the old market place or Forum. Their own houses, + which in earlier times were nothing but cabins, they enlarged, and if + they were rich enough, built palaces, adorned with paintings and with + statues. Unfortunately many of these came from the plunder of Greek + cities, for the Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer + Romans continued to live in wretched hovels. + +THE THEATER. The Romans learned more about the theaters of the Greeks. + Their plays were either translated into Latin from Greek or retold in + a different manner from the original Greek. The Romans did not succeed + in writing any plays of their own which were as good as the plays of + the Greeks. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE, FRANCE] + +THE NEW EDUCATION OF THE ROMANS. The Greeks also taught the Romans how + to write poems and histories. The first histories were written in + Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write in Latin prose and + poetry as good as much that had been written by the Greeks. Greek + became the second language of every educated Roman, and thus he could + enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as those written by Romans. The + education of the Roman boy now began with the poems of Homer, and the + young man's education was not thought to be finished until he had + traveled in Greece and the lands along the eastern Mediterranean. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long to + conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did all + this happen? + + 2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did Hannibal + promise his father? What sort of a leader was Hannibal? + + 3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of the + Trebia? + + 4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield? + + 5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this war + with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon, and + after the death of Alexander the Great? + + 6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule these + colonies? + + 7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What + became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get + their slaves? + + 8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was the + Graeco-Roman world? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean mark on + each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Egypt, + the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding these dates in + any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford, Myers, Morey, + West, Wolfson. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + + +THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC + +NEW CONQUESTS OF THE ROMANS. The Romans had as yet conquered only + civilized peoples like themselves, with the exception of the tribes in + Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman armies were to push northward + over the plains and through the forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into + unknown Germany, and over the Channel into Britain, equally unknown. + They were to be explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were + to carry their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so + increase greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as + the Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient civilized + world was beginning to move from its older center, the Mediterranean, + toward the shore of the Atlantic. + +ANCESTORS OF THE FRENCH AND THE GERMANS. The tribes living in Gaul + were not at that time called French, but Gallic. The Gauls were like the + Britons who lived across the Channel in Britain. The German ancestors of + the English had not yet crossed the North Sea to that land. Beyond the + Rhine lived the Germans, who had but little to do with the Romans and + the Greeks and were still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away + from the Roman settlements were not much more civilized. + + The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was that the + Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the land or dug in + mines or traded along the rivers, while the Germans had no towns and + dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their wealth, like that of the early + Romans, was their cattle. The land they cultivated was divided between + them year after year, so that a German owned only his hut and the plot + of ground or garden about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed + on high hills and were protected by strong walls. + +THE TERRIBLE GERMANS. The Romans had at first been afraid of the + Gauls, because they had never forgotten how terribly these people had + once defeated them. But since that time they had fought the Gauls so + often that they were losing this fear. They now dreaded more to meet the + Germans, who seemed like giants because they were taller even than + the Gauls. + + [Illustration: GALLIC WARRIORS] + +GALLIC AND GERMAN WARRIORS. The leaders of the Germans were sometimes + kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called _duces_, from which + comes our word duke. The Gallic chieftains were adorned with gold + necklaces, bracelets, and rings. When they went out to battle, they wore + helmets shaped like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies + were protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their + principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic nobles + were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted followers, who + shared the joys of victory or died with them in case of defeat. It was a + disgrace to lose one's sword or to survive if the leader was killed. + +HOW THE GERMANS LIVED. When the Germans were not fighting they were + idle, for all work was done by women and slaves. They were great + drinkers and gamblers, and often in their games a man would stake his + freedom upon the result. If he lost, he became the slave of the winner. + The Germans respected their wives, even if they compelled them to do the + hard work. The women sometimes went with the men to battle, and their + cries encouraged the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce + reproaches of the women drove them back to the fight. + +RELIGION OF THE GERMANS. We remember the religion of the Germans + because four days of the week are named for their gods or the gods of + their neighbors across the Baltic. Their principal god was Wodan, or + Odin, god of the sun and the tempest. Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday + is named for Thor, the Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw, + gave a name to Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The + German, like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place + where brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days + in feasting. + +JULIUS CAESAR. Julius Caesar was the great Roman general who + conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions across the Rhine into + Germany and over the Channel into Britain. He was a wealthy noble who, + like other nobles, held one office after another until he became consul. + He was also a great political leader, and with two other men controlled + Rome. We should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them + "triumvirs." + + [Illustration: JULIUS CAESAR After the bust in the Museum at + Naples] + +CAESAR IN GAUL. As soon as Caesar became governor of the province + of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful general as well as a + successful politician. He interfered in the wars between the Gauls, + taking sides with the friends of the Romans. When a large army of + Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it and drove it back across the Rhine. + One war led to another until all the tribes from the country now called + Belgium to the Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman + people. His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three + times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and energy he + always succeeded in gaining the victory. + +VERCINGETORIX, GALLIC HERO. The great hero of the Gauls in their + struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a young noble who + lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His father had been killed in + an attempt to make himself king of his native city. Vercingetorix + believed that if the Gauls did not unite against the Romans they would + soon see their lands become Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no + match for the Romans in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to + starve the Romans out of the country. He planned to destroy all village + stores of grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which + wandered from the main army in search of food. + +CAESAR AND VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix found the work of + conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally driven to + take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul. Here the Romans + prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug miles of deep trenches + about the fortress so that the imprisoned Gauls could not break through. + They dug other trenches to protect themselves from the attacks of a + great army of Gauls which came to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches + were fifteen or twenty feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades + and ramparts, and filled with water where this was possible. Several + times the Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness + and stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day. + +DEATH OF VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix now proved that he was a real + hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if this would save the + town. But Caesar demanded the submission of all the chiefs. When they + had laid down their arms before the conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on + a gaily decorated horse. He rode around the throne where Caesar sat, + dismounted in front, took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His + fate was hard. He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the + triumphal procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death + in a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the + French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of + Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many years + afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman provinces. + + [Illustration: THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE + RHINE] + +CAESAR IN GERMANY. Caesar crossed the Rhine into Germany on a bridge + which his engineers built in ten days. He laid waste the fields of the + tribes near the river in order to make the name of Rome feared, and then + returned to Gaul and destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to + Britain, the last time marching a few miles north of where London now + stands. His purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls + to attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as far + as the hills of Scotland. + +THE GERMAN HERO HERMANN. The Romans were not fortunate in their + later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When Caesar's grandnephew + Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army under Varus into the + forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a leader of the Germans, gathered + the tribes together and utterly destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever + Augustus thought of this dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus, + give me back my legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern + boundaries of the Roman conquests. + +GAULS AND BRITONS BECOME ROMAN. Although the Gauls had fought + stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the Italians + themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and began to use + Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their schools were + sometimes regarded as better than the schools in Italy, and Roman youths + were sent to Gaul to learn how best to speak their own language. The + Britons also became very good Romans. Even the Germans frequently + crossed the Rhine and enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned + to their own country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them. + +THE INTEREST OF AMERICANS IN ROMAN SUCCESSES. For Americans the + influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul, Germany, and Britain is + more important than their work in the eastern Mediterranean, because + from those countries came the early settlers of America. The + civilization which the Romans taught the peoples of western Europe was + to become a valuable part of the civilization of our forefathers. + + [Illustration: THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395 + A.D.] + +SIZE OF THE ROMAN WORLD. We may realize how large the world of the + Romans was by observing on a modern map that within its limits lay + modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the southern part of + Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the Turkish Empire both in + Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. For a time + they also ruled north of the Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they + are descended from Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were + influenced by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not + try to bring them under their rule. + + No modern empire has included so many important countries. If we compare + this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of the Greeks, we shall + understand how useful it was that the Romans adopted much of the Greek + civilization, for they could carry it to places that the Greeks + never reached. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC, + IN BRITTANY, FRANCE] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the Mediterranean, + into what other countries did they march? + + 2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the Gauls + lived. + + 3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from that of + the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to the Gauls? + + 4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods? + + 5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What was + the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of + Vercingetorix. + + 6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did Caesar + go? + + [Illustration: A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS CAESAR] + + 7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time of + Augustus? + + 8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much like the + Romans? + + 9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest of + Gaul and Britain? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who ever + lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin his wars + in Gaul? What difference was there between what these two generals + did? Whose work is the more important for us? + + 2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each + country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This will + take a long time, but many pictures may be found in advertising + folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies. + + REVIEW + + (Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII) + + _How the Graeco-Roman world was built up_: + + 1. The Greeks drive back the Persians. + + 2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the + Mediterranean and Black Seas. + + 3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern Mediterranean. + + 4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their ways of + living. + + 5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their colonies. + + 6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the Mediterranean. + + 7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain. + + _Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman world_: + + Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C. + Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal, + 202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C. + + [Illustration: ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD + +STRIFE AT ROME. While the Romans were conquering the ancient world + they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain men resolved that + Rome should not be managed any longer by the noble senators for their + own benefit or for the benefit of rich contractors and merchants. They + wished to have the idle crowds of men who packed the shows and circuses + settled as free farmers on the unused lands of Italy. + + Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, + sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other nobles looked upon + them with hatred and killed them, first Tiberius and afterward Caius. + These murders did not end the trouble. The leaders on both sides armed + their followers, and bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals + led their armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an + army into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the + republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these generals put + to death hundreds of their enemies. + +CAESAR RULES ROME. The strife in the city had ceased for a time + when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared power with Caesar as + a "triumvir," joined the senators in planning his ruin. Caesar led his + army into Italy to the borders of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is + cast,'" he crossed the sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome. + Pompey and his party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into + those who followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was + everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He brought + back order into the government of the city and of the provinces, but in + the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the senate-house by several + senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had been his friend. + +ORIGIN OF THE TITLE "EMPEROR." Caesar had not been called + "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his titles was + "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from which our word + "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor of Rome. In later times + the very word Caesar became an imperial title, not only in the Roman + Empire, but also in modern Germany, for "Kaiser" is another form of the + word "Caesar." + +BEGINNINGS OF THE EMPIRE. Caesar's successor was his grandnephew + Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of his titles. Augustus + carried out many of Caesar's plans for improving the government in Rome + and in the provinces. The people in the provinces were no longer robbed + by Roman officers. Many of them became Roman citizens. After a time all + children born within the empire were considered Romans, just as if they + had been born in Rome. + +THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman Empire carried on the work which the + republic had begun. It did some things better than the republic had done + them. Within its frontiers there was peace for two or three hundred + years. Many people had an opportunity to share in all the best that the + Greeks and Romans had learned. Unfortunately the peoples imitated the + bad as well as the good. + +ROMAN ROADS. As builders the Romans taught much to those who lived + after them. Their great roads leading out from Rome have never been + excelled. In Gaul these roads served, centuries later, to mark out the + present French system of highroads and showed many a route to the + builders of railroads. They were made so solid that parts of them still + remain after two thousand years. + + [Illustration: Augustus Caesar After the statue in the Vatican] + +HOW THESE ROADS WERE BUILT. In planning their roads the Romans did + not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep valleys or marshy + lands. They often pierced the hills with tunnels and bridged the valleys + or swamps. In building a road they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide + and pounded the earth at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom + was placed a layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of + broken stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was + covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken tiles, + which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On the top were + laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that there need be no jar + when a wagon rolled over the road. + + Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and fro + throughout the empire, but especially for troops or government + messengers sent with all speed to regions where there was danger of + revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by the barbarians. + +[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD] + +AQUEDUCTS. Next to their roads the most remarkable Roman structures + were the aqueducts which brought water to the city from rivers or + springs, some of them many miles away. Had they known, as we do, how to + make heavy iron pipes, their aqueducts would have been laid underground, + except where they crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used + were not strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water, + and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which stretches + from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the streams of flowing + water were carried in stone channels resting upon arches which sometimes + reached the height of over ninety feet. + +THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT. The Claudian aqueduct, which is the most + magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for about seven miles + and a half. Although broken in many places, and though the water has not + flowed through its lofty channels for sixteen hundred years, it is one + of the grandest sights in the neighborhood of Rome. If we add together + the lengths of the aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which + provided Rome with her water supply, the total is over three hundred + miles. They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water + a day. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT Completed by the + Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D. The structure was nearly a hundred + feet high] + +PUBLIC BATHS. The Romans used great quantities of water for their + public baths, which were large buildings with rooms especially made for + bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges. They were also, like the + Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise, conversation, and reading. Many + were built as monuments by wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee + was charged for entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and + the wages of those who managed the baths. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM] + +TWO FAMOUS BUILDINGS. Many of the Roman temples, porticoes, and + theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the Romans used the arch + more than did the Greeks, and in this the builders of later times + imitated them. Among their greatest buildings were the amphitheaters, + from the benches of which crowds watched gladiators fighting one another + or struggling with wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was + the Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were one + hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six hundred + and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and twelve. There were + seats enough for forty-five thousand persons. The lowest seats were + raised fifteen feet above the arena or central space where men or wild + beasts fought. Through an arrangement of underground pipes the arena + could be flooded so that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a + real naval battle. + + Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold the crowds + that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having seats for two + hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the Romans became more and + more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some equally splendid buildings were + used for better things. + + [Illustration: The Pantheon] + +THE PANTHEON. One of these was the Pantheon, a temple which was + afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is now used as the + burial-place of the Italian kings. The most remarkable part of it is the + dome, which has a width of a little over one hundred and forty-two feet. + No other dome in the world is so wide. The Romans were very successful + in covering large spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later + builders of domes and arches are their pupils. + + [Illustration: THE ARCH OF TITUS] + +BASILICAS. The Romans had other large buildings called basilicas. + These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in the center covered + by a great roof. They were used as places for public meetings. One of + them had one hundred and eight pillars arranged in a double row around + the sides and ends of this central space. The name basilica is Greek and + means "royal." Some of these basilicas were used as Christian churches + when the Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was + then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the aisles. + +TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. The Romans built beautiful arches to celebrate + their victories. Several of these still remain, with sentences cut into + their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of their builders. Modern + people have taken them as models for similar memorial arches. + + [Illustration: A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the Pont + du Gard, near Nîmes, France] + +ROMAN LAW. The Romans did much for the world by their laws. They + showed little regard for the rights of men captured in war and were + cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they considered carefully the + rights of free men and women. Under the emperors the lawyers and judges + worked to make the laws clearer and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor + Justinian, who ruled at the time when the empire was already half ruined + by the attacks of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to + gather into a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws + lasted long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of + the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our laws + in America. + + [Illustration: PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND Unearthed + not many years ago at Aldborough. Such stones laid in the form of + designs or pictures are called Mosaics] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers Tiberius + and Caius Gracchus try to do? + + 2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to ruin + him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman leaders? + + 3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the origin of + the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die? + + 4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized the + Roman Empire? + + 5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were their + roads built? Do any traces of them still remain? + + 6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure water? + + 7. What was a Roman bath? + + 8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their buildings? Name + the largest buildings in Rome. What was a basilica? Of what use were + basilicas to the Christians later? + + 9. Do you remember the earliest form of the Roman law (Chapter + V)? What did Justinian do with the laws in his day? Are + these laws important to us? + + EXERCISES + + 1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and Augustus? + + 2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman roads + and if they are likely to last as long. What different kinds of + roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a small model of + a Roman road? + + 3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities provided + with great public baths like those of the Romans? + + 4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the revised + statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the code of + Justinian, only not so brief. + + [Illustration: TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + + +CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE + +THE RELIGION OF THE JEWS. Among the cities captured by the Romans + was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories from the Old + Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived David, the shepherd + boy who, after wonderful adventures, became king of his people. There + his son Solomon built a temple of dazzling splendor. Among this people + had arisen great preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that + religion did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in + justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for religion, just + as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans a genius for + government. + +THE JEWS CONQUERED BY THE ROMANS. When the Jews first heard of the + Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who made and unmade + kings. In later years they learned that the Romans were hard masters and + they feared and hated them. The Jewish kingdom was one of the last + countries along the shores of the Mediterranean which the Romans + conquered, but like all the others it finally became a Roman province. + +JESUS OF NAZARETH. A few years before the Jewish kingdom became a + Roman province there was born in a village near Jerusalem a child named + Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in Nazareth he gathered about him + followers or disciples whom he taught to live and act as is told in the + books of the New Testament. + + [Illustration: A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of Olives + in the distance] + + This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first held by a + little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a city of Asia + whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman citizenship, believed + that the message of the new religion was meant for all nations. He + taught it in many cities of Asia Minor and Greece, and even went as far + west as Rome. Several of the epistles or letters in the New Testament + were written by Paul to churches which he had founded or where he had + taught. So it happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which + multitudes consider even more important than the art and literature of + the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the Romans. + +WHY THE CHRISTIANS WERE PERSECUTED. The Romans at first refused to + permit any one in their empire to call himself a Christian. They + disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that the Roman gods were real + gods, asserting that these gods were mere images in wood and stone. The + Christians did this also, but in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst + offense of the Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of + secret society and held meetings to which other persons were not + admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies. + + The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their refusal to join + in the public ceremonies which honored the emperor as if he were a god + who had given peace and order to the world and who was able to reward + the good and punish the evil. The Christians believed it to be wrong to + join in the worship of an emperor, whether he were alive or dead. + +CHRISTIANS PUT TO DEATH. The Romans were cruel in their manner of + punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered death in its most + horrible forms. Some were burned, others were tortured, others were torn + to pieces by wild animals in the great amphitheaters to satisfy the + fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst of the Roman emperors, who, many + thought, set Rome on fire in order that he might enjoy the sight of the + burning city, tried to turn suspicion from himself by accusing the + Christians of the crime. He punished them by tying them to poles, + smearing their bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches. + +THE CHRISTIANS ALLOWED TO WORSHIP. The new religion spread rapidly + from province to province in spite of these persecutions. At first the + Christians worshiped secretly, but later they ventured to build + churches. Finally, three centuries after the birth of Christ, the + emperors promised that the persecutions should cease and that the + Christians might worship undisturbed. + + [Illustration: A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE] + +THE ROMAN EMPIRE BECOMES CHRISTIAN ABOUT 325 A.D. Constantine was + the first emperor to become Christian. He was the one who made the Greek + city Byzantium the capital of the empire and for whom it was renamed + Constantinople. For a time both the old Roman religion and the Christian + religion were favored by the emperors, but before the fourth century + closed the old religion was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the + Roman gods were mostly country people, called in Latin _pagani_, and + therefore their religion was called "paganism." + +HOW THE CHURCH WAS RULED. One of the reasons why the Christians had + been successful in their struggle with the Roman emperors was that they + were united under wise and brave leaders. The Christians in each large + city were ruled by a bishop, and the bishops of several cities were + directed by an archbishop. In the western part of the empire the bishop + of Rome, who was called the pope, was honored as the chief of the + bishops and archbishops, and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the + eastern part the archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and + Alexandria and Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in + authority with him. + + There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks. The + priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks lived in groups + in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their purpose was to dwell + far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary life and give themselves to + prayer and fasting; sometimes they acted as a brotherhood of teachers in + barbarous communities, teaching the people better methods of farming, + and carrying the arts of civilized life beyond the borders of + the empire. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times? + + 2. Do you remember any of the stories of David? + + 3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David ruled? + + 4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth of + Jesus Christ? + + 5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How did the + Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ before the + emperors allowed the Christians to worship undisturbed? + + [Illustration: A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES Abbey of + Saint-Germain des Prés as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and + moat or ditch] + + 6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a + Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old + Roman gods? + + 7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named? What two + kinds of clergy were there? + + _Important date_: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became Christian. + + + + +CHAPTER X + + +EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO + +THE MIDDLE AGES. It was more than a thousand years from the time of + Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is called "Mediaeval," + or the "Middle Ages." During these long centuries the ancient civilized + world of the Roman Empire was much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on + the southern shores of the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or + Moors. The Moors conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands + of Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The Turks, + the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet" Mohammed, who + died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies of the Christians. + +WESTERN EUROPE. The other part of the European world was also + changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic were now more + important than those on the shores of the Mediterranean. The names of + the different countries were changed. Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there + was France; instead of Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for + Germania, Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire, + was finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa and + Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories ruled by + dukes, princes, or kings. + +FATE OF CIVILIZATION. The most important question to ask is, How + much of the manner of living or civilization of the Greeks and the + Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The answer is found in the + history of the Middle Ages. In this history is also found what men added + to that which they had learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The + emigrants to America were to carry with them knowledge which not even + the wisest men of the ancient world had possessed. + + [Illustration: WALL OF AURELIAN This wall enclosed the ancient + city of Rome. It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five + feet high, and had three hundred towers] + +MEDIAEVAL GERMAN EMIGRANTS. The first part of the history of the + Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from whom most of our + forefathers were descended began to move from the northern forests + towards the borders of the Roman Empire. Many thousand men had already + crossed the Rhine and the Danube to serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes + an unusually strong and skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans + had also crossed the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich + Gallic nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and + the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers. The + Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit of work and + were glad to hire these foreigners. + +STORY OF ULFILAS. Many of the Goths who lived north of the Danube + had forsaken their old gods and become Christians. They were taught by + Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them, afterward a missionary. He + translated the Bible into the Gothic language, and this translation is + the most ancient specimen of German that we possess. Many of the other + German tribes learned about Christianity from the Goths, and although + they might be enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of + the Church. + +THE GOTHS INVADE THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman emperors tried to + prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier in great numbers, + because, once across, if they did not find work and food, they became + plunderers. Not many years after Constantine's death, a million Goths + had passed the Danube and had plundered the country almost to the walls + of Constantinople. This was not like the invasion of a regular army, + which comes to fight battles and to arrange terms of peace. + + The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example, moved as a + whole people, with their wives and children, their cattle, and the few + household goods they owned. Wherever they wished to settle they demanded + of the Romans one third, sometimes two thirds, of the land. They soon + learned to be good neighbors of the older inhabitants, although at first + they were little better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the + Goths, led them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did + not injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the + churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about plundering + villages and attacking cities did far greater damage. The Roman + government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the provinces fell + into the hands of German kings. + +BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND GERMANY. Britain was attacked by + the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany across the North Sea. + They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves of + them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country was then + called Angle-land or England, and the people Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen. + + The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the Franks from + the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name France to the land. + + At about the same time the other German tribes that had remained in + Germany united under one king. + +THE RESULT OF BARBARIAN ATTACKS. The part of the ancient world + which lay about Constantinople was less changed than the rest during the + Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople were high and thick, and they + withstood attack after attack until 1453. Within their shelter men + continued to live much as they had lived in Ancient Times. A few + delighted to study the writings of the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the + other countries of western Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The + ancient baths, amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled + and fell. The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the + Colosseum as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This + was done in every country where Roman buildings existed. + + [Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES] + + The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still stranger + fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at another as a prison + and gradually became the home of hundreds of the criminals and the poor + of the city. "Every archway held its nest of human outcasts. From stone + to stone they cast their rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the + very entrails of the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the + pursuit of the officers of the law." + + Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France, and few + from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of Italy and France + and England did not know how to read Greek. Many of them also ceased to + read the writings of the ancient Romans. + + [Illustration: ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This + church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its walls + show some of the bricks of the original chapel] + +THE ENGLISH BECOME CHRISTIANS, 597 A.D. Christianity had spread + throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the religion of all the + tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon the ruins of the Empire. + The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded Britain, were still worshipers + of the gods Wodan and Thor. They had never learned from the Goths of + Ulfilas anything about Christianity. + + One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys were offered + for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a monk and was the + abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing and asked who they were. + He was told they were Angles. "Angels," he cried, "yes, they have faces + like angels, and should become companions of the angels in heaven." When + this good abbot became pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they + established themselves at Canterbury. + + [Illustration: GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES] + +MISSIONARIES TO THE GERMANS AND THE SLAVS. The conversion of the + English helped in the spread of Christianity on the Continent, for + Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest missionary to the Germans. + He won thousands from the worship of their ancient gods and founded many + churches. The Slavs, who lived east of the Germans, were taught by + missionaries from Constantinople instead of from Rome. + +THE EDUCATED MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The missionaries and teachers + of the Church had been educated like the older Romans. They read Roman + books, and tried to preserve the knowledge which both Greeks and Romans + had gathered. Influenced by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the + north also tried to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the + priests of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some + parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved, although + the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful cities were mere + heaps of ruins. + +THE VIKINGS. The emigration of whole peoples from one part of + Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was overrun. New + peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out the tribes which had + already settled within its boundaries and were learning the ways of + civilization. + + One of these peoples came from the regions now known as Norway, Sweden, + and Denmark. They were called Danes by the English, and Northmen or + Normans by other Europeans. They had another name, Vikings, which was + their word for sea-rovers. + + It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than march on the + land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked nothing better than + to fight and conquer and rob in other countries. There was not a land in + western Europe, even as far south as Sicily, that they did not visit. + Wherever they went they plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a + blackened trail. + +THE DANES IN ENGLAND. The Danes ravaged the eastern and southern + shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery, partly because + there was little left to take, they began to settle in the land. Alfred, + the greatest of the early English kings, was driven by them into the + swamps for a while, but in the year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of + them in battle and persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a + Christian. Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion + of England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes was + obeyed there. + + [Illustration: A VIKING SHIP AT SEA] + +THE DANES BECOME NORMANS. No more Danes or Northmen came to trouble + England for a time, but instead they crossed the Channel to France and + rowed up the Seine and tried to capture Paris. A few years later a + Frankish king gave them the city of Rouen, further down the Seine, and + the region about it which was called Normandy. These Normans also + accepted Christianity. + +THE VIKINGS BECOME DISCOVERERS. Before another hundred years had + passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult than sailing up + rivers and burning towns. They were the first to venture far out of + sight of land, though their ships were no larger than our fishing boats. + These bold sailors visited the Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of + Scotland, and finally reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle + flourished, and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up + with the old homeland and with the British islands. + + Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a colony to + Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further west. He called + it Greenland because, he said, men would be more easily persuaded to go + there if the land had a good name. This was probably in the year 985. + + [Illustration: LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston] + +DISCOVERY OF VINLAND. Eric had a son, called Leif Ericson, or Leif + the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well received at the court of King + Olaf. Not long before missionaries had persuaded Olaf and his people to + give up their old gods and accept Christianity, and Leif followed their + example. Leif set out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the + new religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and to + his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the summer, for on + the way his ship was driven out of its course and came upon strange + lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large trees grew. The milder + climate and stories of large trees useful for building ships aroused the + curiosity of the Greenlanders. + + They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North America at + places which they called Helluland, that is, the land of flat stones; + Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where the grape-vines grow. + Helluland was probably on the coast of Labrador, Markland somewhere on + the shores of Newfoundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia. + +THE SETTLEMENT IN VINLAND. Thornfinn Karlsefni, a successful trader + between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to plant a colony in the new + lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to the number of one hundred and sixty + men and several women, set out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded + with supplies and many cattle. They built huts and remained three or + four winters in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement + disappeared long ago. + + They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking Indians, with + coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with whom they traded red + cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between the Northmen and the Indians, + who outnumbered them. So many Northmen were killed that the survivors + became alarmed and returned to Greenland. + + [Illustration: DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN The American lands + they found are marked with diagonal lines] + +VINLAND FORGOTTEN. The voyages to Vinland soon ceased and the + discoveries of Leif and his followers were only remembered in the songs + or "sagas" of the people. They thought of Vinland mainly as a land of + flat stones, great trees, and fierce natives. Nor did the wise men of + Europe who heard the Northmen's story guess that a New World had been + discovered. It was probably fortunate that five hundred years were to go + by before Europeans settled in America, for within that time they were + to learn a great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had + left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the ruins of + the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses, where few knew + of them. The more Europeans possessed before they set out, the more + Americans would have to start with. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA MANUSCRIPT] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval" period? + + 2. Show on the map, what part of the Roman Empire was + conquered by the Mohammedans. + + 3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and Spain, + Why were they changed to what they are now? + + 4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from their + homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a living? + + 5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian religion? + When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they ask of the + inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years separated the + capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the Gauls? + + 6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes conquered + Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople was captured? + + 7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many cities? Who + tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had + done? Who used the language of the Romans? + + 8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians. Who + taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city did + the Slavs receive missionaries? + + 9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of Denmark, + Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas? Where did they + make settlements? + + 10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America. Why did + the Northmen leave Vinland? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter. + + 2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned in the + chapter on the countries where they settled. + + 3. Ask children in school who know some other language than English + what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. + + _Important dates_: + + Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D. + + Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + +HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES + +HEROES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The Middle Ages, like Ancient Times, are + recalled by many interesting tales. Some of them, such as the stories of + King Arthur and his Knights, the story of Roland, and the Song of the + Niebelungs, are only tales and not history. Others tell us about great + kings, Charlemagne and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of + Germany, or St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was + Alfred, who fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally + conquered and persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule. + +KING ALFRED BEGAN TO REIGN IN 871. King Alfred was a skilful + warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of peace. When he + was a boy he had shown his love of books. His mother once offered a + beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize to the one of her sons who + should be the first to learn it. Alfred could not yet read, but he had a + ready memory, and with the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and + won the prize. + + At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few even of the + clergy could read. During the long wars with the Danes many books had + been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more useful than books and ceased + to care about reading. King Alfred feared that the Saxons would soon + become ignorant barbarians, and sent for priests and monks who were + learned and were able to teach his clergy. He sent even into France + for such men. + +EARLY ENGLISH BOOKS. As it would be easier for people to learn to + read books written in the language they spoke rather than in Latin, + Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin books into English. + Among these was a history written by a Roman before the Germans had + overthrown the Roman Empire. This history told about the world of the + Greeks and the Romans. + + Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year to year + of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was called the + Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history written in the English + language. It was carefully kept for many years after Alfred's death. + Another wise thing Alfred did was to collect the laws or "dooms" of the + earlier kings, so that every one might know what the law required. + + [Illustration: EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE From a copy in + the British Museum] + +THE BEGINNING OF A NAVY. Alfred has been called the creator of the + English navy. He thought that the only way to keep the Danes from + plundering his shores was to fight them on the sea. He built several + ships which were bigger than the Danish ships, but they were not always + victorious, for they could not follow the Danish ships into shallow + water. Nevertheless, the Danes could not plunder England as easily + as before. + +THE NEW ARMY. Alfred organized his fighting men in a better way. In + times past the men had been called upon to fight only when the Danes + were near, but now he kept a third of his men ready all the time, and + another third he placed in forts, so the rest were able to work in the + fields in safety. There are good reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred + as a hero. + +WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR BEGAN TO RULE ENGLAND IN 1066. About a + hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke of Normandy, + crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English king in battle, and + seized the throne. This was not altogether a misfortune to the English, + for they came under the same ruler as the Normans and they shared in all + that the men of the Continent were beginning to learn. For one thing, + builders from the Continent taught the English to construct the great + Norman churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees. + Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the chiefs + or lords that were inclined to oppress the common people. + +HENRY II. Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled over most of + western France as well as over England. His officers and nobles were + tired out by his endless traveling in his lands, which extended from the + banks of the river Loire in France to the borders of Scotland. All + Englishmen and Americans should remember him with gratitude because of + the improvements he made in the ways of discovering the truth when + disputes arose and were carried into courts. + + [Illustration: THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL From the + Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the Conqueror. The + figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred and thirty feet long, + and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight colors are used] + +ORDEALS AND TRIALS BY BATTLE. Before Henry's reign it was the + custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the truth by + arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals. The two most + common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the ordeal by water. In the + ordeal by fire an iron was heated red-hot, and after it had been blessed + by a priest it was put into the hand of the man the truth of whose word + was being tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His + hand was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that + time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for they + thought God would keep an innocent man from being punished. + + In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water which had + been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the people thought the + water would not receive him. If he sank at once, he was pulled out and + treated as if he had told the truth. + + [Illustration: TRIAL BY BATTLE After a drawing in an old + manuscript] + + A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose dispute was to + be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each was armed with a + hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who gave up lost his case. + +TRIAL BY JURY. King Henry introduced a better way of finding out + the truth. He called upon twelve men from a neighborhood to come before + the judges, to promise solemnly to tell what they knew about a matter, + and then to decide which person was in the right. They were supposed to + know about the facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with + one another before they made a decision. + + Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two groups, one + to tell what they knew and the other to listen and decide what was true. + Those who told what they knew were called the witnesses, and those who + listened and decided were called jurors. The name jurors came from a + Latin word meaning to take an oath. + +RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED. King Henry had two sons, Richard and John. + Richard was the boldest and most skilful fighter of his time. When the + news was brought to England that Jerusalem had been captured by the + Mohammedans, he led an army to Palestine to recapture it. He failed to + take the city, but he became famous throughout the East as a fearless + warrior and was ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death + his brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as Richard + was brave and generous. + +THE GREAT CHARTER. The leaders of the people, the nobles and the + clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In 1215 they raised an + army and threatened to take the kingdom from John and crown another + prince as king. John was soon ready to promise anything in order to + obtain power once more, and the nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede + on the river Thames, a few miles west of London, and compelled him to + sign a list of promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate + promises, it was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did + not keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on him, + and he even said that this would be their duty. + +PROMISES OF THE CHARTER. Many of the articles of the Great Charter + were important only to the men of King John's day, but others are as + important to us as to them. In these the king promised that every one + should be treated justly. He said he would not refuse to listen to the + complaints of those who thought they were wronged. The king also + promised that he would not decide in favor of a rich man just because + the rich man might offer him money. He would put no one in prison who + had not been tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important + promise the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of + the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people to have + something to say about how their money should be spent. This right is a + very important part of what we call self-government. + + [Illustration: A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER] + +PROMISES OF THE GREAT CHARTER RENEWED. In after times whenever the + English thought a king was doing them a wrong they reminded him of the + promises made by King John in the Great Charter and demanded that the + promises be solemnly renewed. + + In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns to send a + number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and clergy to talk + over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings, soon followed Simon's + example by asking the townsmen for advice about matters of government. + After a while this became the custom. Occasionally the king wanted the + advice of the clergy, the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and + called them together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an + assembly in which talking or discussion goes on. + + [Illustration: Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster + Abbey--WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY] + +THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT. Only the most important nobles or lords + could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the meeting would be too + large to do any business. The other lords chose certain ones from their + number to go in place of all the rest. We call such men representatives. + In this way, besides the men who represented the towns, there were + present these nobles who represented the landowners of the counties. + Gradually these nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own, + while the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in another + assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of Commons and the + House of Lords, and the two made up the parliament. + +AN ASSEMBLY OF REPRESENTATIVES. This parliament was a great + invention. The English had discovered a better way of governing + themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We call it the + representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived far from Rome wanted + to take part in the elections, he was obliged to leave his farm or his + business and travel to Rome, for only the citizens who were at Rome + could have a share in making the laws. It never occurred to the Romans + that the citizens outside of Rome could send some of their number as + representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament was an + important step towards what we mean in America by "government of the + people, for the people, and by the people." + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle Ages. + What stories have you learned about these heroes? + + 2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show his + love of books? What did he do to help his people to a knowledge + of books? + + 3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back the + Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English navy? + + 4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the English + and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help them? + + 5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an ordeal and + a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed and what did + they do? How were they afterwards divided? + + 6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a king + was his brother John? + + 7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called + "Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget + these promises? + + 8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to talk + over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this body + finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided? + + 9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention? What + did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome and + wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of the + story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne, Frederick + the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen. + + 2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and those of + to-day, and explain their differences. + + 3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is + guilty. + + 4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes the + laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the + whole country? + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES + +WHAT THE ENGLISH OWED TO THEIR EUROPEAN NEIGHBORS. If the English + succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how to govern + themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected them from attack, + and they could quarrel with their king without running much risk that + their enemies in other countries would take advantage of the quarrel to + seize their lands or attempt to conquer them. + + The French were not so well placed. France also was not united like + England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were almost + independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and dukes. In + France it would not have been wise for the people to quarrel with the + king, for he was their natural protector against cruel lords. Germany + and Italy were even more divided, with not only counties and duchies, + but also cities nearly as independent as the ancient cities of Greece. + + The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the English were + doing, and some of these were so well done that the English were ready + to accept these Europeans as their teachers. The memory of what the + Greeks and the Romans had done remained longer in southern France and + Italy because so many buildings were still standing which reminded + Frenchmen and Italians of the people who built them. + + [Illustration: A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS] + +CLASSES OF PEOPLE. The people of Europe, as well as of England, + were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The clergy seemed to + form another class because there were so many of them. Besides the + parish priests and the bishops there were thousands of monks, who were + persons who chose to dwell together in monasteries under the rule of an + abbot or a prior, rather than live among ordinary people where men were + so often tempted to do wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others. + The monks worked on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the + libraries, or prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to + read were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries or + the bishops' houses there were few books. + +THE NOBLES. The nobles were either knights, barons, counts, or + dukes. In England there were also earls. Many mediaeval nobles ruled + like kings, but over a smaller territory. They gained their power + because they were rich in land and could support many men who were ready + to follow them in battle, or because in the constant wars they proved + themselves able to keep anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or + a town. Timid and peaceable people were often glad to put themselves + under the protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed + by other fighting nobles. + + In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings, who were + at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring nobles as well + as peasants under their own rule and to compel every one to obey the + same laws. After this the nobles became what we call an aristocracy, + proud of their family history, generally living in better houses and + owning more land than their neighbors, but with little power + over others. + + [Illustration: PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE 1. The Donjon-keep. 2. + Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court. 5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7. + Mount, where justice was executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings] + + [Illustration: PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF FRANCE] + +CASTLES. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle Ages were + obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses called castles. + They were often placed on a hilltop or on an island or in a spot where + approach to the walls could be made difficult by a broad canal, or moat, + filled with water. At different places along the walls were towers, and + within the outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to + capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the enemy. + These castles were gloomy places to live in until, centuries later, + their inner walls were pierced with windows. Many are still standing, + others are interesting heaps of ruins. + +KNIGHTHOOD. The lords of the castles were occupied mostly in + hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords from interfering + with them or to win for themselves more lands and power. They hunted + that they might have meat for their tables. In later times, when it was + not so necessary to kill animals for food, they hunted as a sport. + Fighting also ceased to be the chief occupation, although the nobles + were expected to accompany the king in his wars. + + From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the Church as + priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A boy was sent to the + castle of another lord, where he served as a page, waiting on the lord + at table or running errands. He was trained to ride a horse boldly and + to be skilful with the sword and the lance. When his education was + finished he was usually made a knight, an event which took place with + many interesting ceremonies. + + The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons and arms + for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the altar of the + church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night. In the final + ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received a slight blow on + the neck from the sword of some knight, or perhaps of the king. His + armor covered him from head to foot in metal, and sometimes his horse + was also covered with metal plates. When he was fully armed, he was + expected to show his skill to the lords and ladies who were present. + +THE DUTIES OF A KNIGHT. The duties of the knight were to defend the + weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful to his lord and king, + and to be courteous even to an enemy. A knight true to these duties was + called "chivalrous," a word which means very much what we mean by the + word "gentlemanly." There were many wicked knights, but we must not + forget that the good knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping + promises, respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor. + + [Illustration: A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century] + +THE PEASANTS. Most of the people were peasants or townsmen. There + were few towns, because many had been burned by the barbarian tribes + which broke into the Roman Empire, or had been destroyed in the later + wars. The peasants were crowded in villages close to the walls of some + castle or monastery. They paid dearly for the protection which the lord + of the castle or the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were + obliged to work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring + him eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They also + gave him a part of their harvest. + +THE TOWNSMEN. At first the towns belonged to lords, or abbots, or + bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and ruled themselves or + received officers from the king. When they ruled themselves, their towns + were called communes. The citizens agreed that whenever the town bell + was rung they would gather together. Any one who was absent was fined. + For them "eternal vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the + belfries of these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the + citizens of to-day of the struggles of the early days. + + [Illustration: VIEW OF CARCASSONNE This is an ancient city in + France founded by the Romans] + + The men of each occupation or trade were organized into societies or + guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices. There were guilds of + goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers, that is, workers in gold and + iron and sellers of fish. The merchants also had their guilds. In many + towns no one was allowed to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was + not a member of a guild. + +OLD CITIES WHICH STILL EXIST. Many of the towns which grew up in + the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England and Europe. Their + citizens can look back a thousand years and more over the history of + their city, can point to churches, to town halls, and sometimes to + private houses, that have stood all this time. They can often show the + remains of mediaeval walls or broad streets where once these walls + stood, and the moats that surrounded them. The traveler in York or + London, in Paris, in Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches + for the relics about which so many interesting stories of the past + are told. + +VENICE AND GENOA. One of the most fascinating of these old cities + is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from the shore of + Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of the Adriatic. + Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a Roman city on the + mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in the fifth century after + Christ. In many places piles had to be driven into the loose sands to + furnish a foundation for houses. The Venetians did not try to keep out + the water but used it as streets, and instead of driving in wagons they + went about in boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks + had done in those same waters hundreds of years before. + + Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and Taranto, + the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the peninsula to the + west was another trading city called Genoa, which was the birthplace + of Columbus. + +MODERN LANGUAGES. While the people of mediaeval times were building + city walls and towers to protect themselves they were also doing other + things. Almost without knowing it they formed the languages which we now + speak and write--English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish. + + The English and German languages are closely related because the + forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany, taking + their language with them. This older language was gradually changed, but + it still remained like German. Dutch is another language like both + English and German. + + There are many words in these languages borrowed from other peoples. + Englishmen, because of their long union with western France, borrowed + many words from the French. The French did not invent these words, for + the French language grew out of the Latin language which the French + learned from the Romans. + +HOW MODERN LANGUAGES WERE FORMED. In English we have two sets of + words and phrases: one is used in writing books or speeches, the other + in conversation. When the Gauls learned Latin, the language of Rome, + most of them learned the words used in conversation and did not learn + the words of Roman books. Before long spoken words differed so much from + the older written words that only scholars understood that the two had + belonged to the same language. This new language was French. In the same + way Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in Italy + and Spain. + + When men began to write books in the new languages, the changes went on + more slowly because the use of words in books kept the spelling the + same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was still used in the religious + services of the Church and in the schools and universities. + + [Illustration: VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL] + +SCHOOLS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. In the Middle Ages most boys and girls + did not go to school. Education was principally for those who expected + to become priests or monks. The schools were in the monasteries or in + the houses or palaces of the bishops. The students were taught a little + Latin grammar, to write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned + arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the festivals + of the Church should come; and music, so much as was then known of it. + Printing had not been invented, so there were no text-books for them to + study, and written books or manuscripts were too costly. Students + listened to the teacher as he read from his manuscripts and copied the + words or tried to remember them. + +THE BEGINNING OF UNIVERSITIES. If students remained in the schools + after these things had been learned, they studied the laws of the + Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious questions which + are called theology. Some teachers talked in such an interesting way + about such questions that hundreds of students came to listen. Like + other kinds of workers, who were organized in societies or guilds, the + teachers and students formed a guild called a university. The teachers + were the master-workmen, and the students were the apprentices. + +WHERE THE STUDENTS LIVED. In the beginning the universities had no + buildings of their own, and the teachers taught in hired halls, the + students boarding wherever they could find lodgings. Partly to help + students who were too poor to pay for good lodgings, and partly to bring + the students under the direct rule of teachers, colleges were built. + These were not separate institutions like the American colleges, but + simply houses for residence, although later some teaching was done + in them. + +SOME FAMOUS UNIVERSITIES. The oldest university was in Bologna in + Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the Romans to its + students eight hundred years ago. The University of Paris was called the + greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its students numbered sometimes + between six and seven thousand. About the same time the English + universities of Oxford and Cambridge were formed, and there, many years + later, a large number of the men who settled in America were educated. + +THE WISDOM OF THE ARABS. Students in these universities obtained + several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs, the followers + of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long before Europeans + thought of founding universities the Arabs had flourishing schools and + universities in Spain. The capital of the Mohammedan Empire was first at + Bagdad on the Euphrates, where once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of + the tales of the Arabian Nights. + + [Illustration: VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the + fourteenth century] + +WHAT EUROPEANS BORROWED FROM THE ARABS. The Arabs had learned much + of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and they also found out + much for themselves. The numerals which we use are Arabic; and algebra, + one of our principal studies in mathematics, was thought out by the + Arabs. Their learned men were deeply interested in the books of + Aristotle, an ancient Greek, who had been a teacher of Alexander the + Great. They translated his books into Arabic, and Christian students in + Spain translated the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the + University of Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other + thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found in this + Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what Aristotle had + written in Greek. + + [Illustration: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors in the + twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the Moorish + architecture.] + +BUILDERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The Greeks and the Romans had been + great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded in building + churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which equaled in grandeur + and beauty the best that the ancient builders had made. The large + churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because their builders were able + to place masses of stone high in the air and to cover immense spaces + with beautiful vaulted roofs. Builders nowadays imitate, but not often, + if ever, equal them. Fortunately the original buildings are still + standing in many English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and + Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt, and + Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and Rome. + + [Illustration: NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear, + showing the arches and buttresses] + +CHURCH BUILDING. The Italians began by building churches like Roman + basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported by heavy walls, were also + used north of the Alps, and the method of building was named Romanesque, + or in England, Norman. The architects or builders of western France + discovered a way of roofing over just as large spaces without using such + heavy walls, so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows. + Instead of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls + between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called + buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was sometimes more + than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor. The glass of the + windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from the Bible or from lives + of sainted men and women. The outer walls, especially the western front, + the doorways and the towers, were richly carved and adorned with + statues, and often with the figures of strange birds and beasts which + lived only in the imagination of the builders. This method of building + was named Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town + halls and private houses. Architects use similar methods of + building nowadays. + + [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic + interior.] + +THE RENAISSANCE. Men who could build and adorn great churches and + town halls and who were eager to study in the new universities should be + called civilized. The barbarous days were gone, but men still had much + to learn from the ancient Greeks and Romans. Many of the ancient + buildings were in ruins, the statues half buried or broken, the + paintings destroyed, and the books lost. Men began to search for what + was left of these things and to study them carefully to learn what the + Graeco-Roman world had been like. After a while students could think of + nothing else, and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the + Romans and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first + interested in these things is called the Renaissance or "rebirth," + because men were so unlike what they had been that they seemed born + again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the Middle Ages came to + an end. + + [Illustration: ST. PETER'S AT ROME] + +PETRARCH. One of the earliest of these "new" men was Petrarch, an + Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a hundred years before + Columbus. He wished above all things to read, copy, and possess the + writings of the Romans, and especially of Cicero, an orator and writer + who lived in the days of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends + searched for the manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved, + hidden away in monastery libraries. + + The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent large sums + of money in collecting and copying ancient writings. At this time a + beginning of the great libraries of Europe was made, Petrarch tried to + learn Greek, but could find no one in Italy able to teach him. + +GREEK BOOKS BROUGHT AGAIN TO ITALY. Shortly after Petrarch died + some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the aid of the pope and the + kings of the West in an attempt to drive back the Turks, who had already + crossed into Europe and settled in the lands which they now occupy. + Unless help should be sent to Constantinople, the city would certainly + fall into their hands. With these Greeks was one of those men who still + loved to read the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to + remain a few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek + to the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a grammar + of the Greek language, in order that after he had returned to + Constantinople others might be able to continue his teaching. + + Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly as they + had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their agents to + Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar brought back to + Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land to which students from + Germany, France, and England went to learn Greek and to obtain copies of + Greek books. It was fortunate that so many books had been brought from + Constantinople, for at last, in 1453, the Turks captured that city and + no place in the East was left where the books of the Greeks were studied + as they had been at Constantinople. + + [Illustration: A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY] + +THE INVENTION OF PRINTING. After collectors of Greek and Roman + writings had made several good libraries, partly by purchase, partly by + copying manuscripts belonging to others, a great invention was made + which enabled these writings to be spread far and wide and placed in the + hands of every student. This invention was the method of printing with + movable types. It is not quite certain who made the invention, although + John Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the + inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the same + time, that is, about 1450. + +DIFFERENT KINDS OF TYPE. In forming their type the German printers + imitated the lettering made by copyists with a quill. Their type is + called Gothic, and it is still widely used in German books. The Italian + printers made their letters more round and simple in shape, imitating + the handwriting of the best Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in + which many European peoples, as also the English and the Americans, + print their books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which, + because they were the inventors, is named _italic_. + +THE ALDINE PRESS. One of the most famous printers of this early + time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci. He gathered about + him a number of Greeks and planned to print all the Greek manuscripts + that had been discovered. This he did in beautiful type, imitated from + the handwriting of one of his Greek friends. He sold the books for a + price per volume about equal to our fifty cents, so that few scholars + were too poor to buy. + +SOME EARLY PRINTED BOOKS. Another great printer was the Englishman + William Caxton, who learned the art in the Netherlands. Among the books + he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The first book printed by + Gutenberg was the Bible in Latin. Early in the sixteenth century, + through the labors of a Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the + German Froben, the New Testament in Greek was printed. + +ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. The artists and the architects of this + time began to imitate the buildings they found or that they unearthed. + They used round arches and domes more than the pointed arches and + vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders. Sculptors pictured in stone the + stories of the Greek and Roman gods and heroes. Statues long buried in + ancient ruins were dug up, and great artists like the Italian Michel + Angelo studied them and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut. + On every hand men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of + the founders of the civilized world. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF PART OF CAXTON'S AENEID (REDUCED) + With the same in modern type] + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer in + France and Italy than in Germany and England? + + 2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle Ages? + What was the difference between a parish priest and a monk? + + 3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what sorts + of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the "keep"? + + 4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How was a + young man made a knight? What were the duties of a knight? + + 5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the Middle + Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves? What was a + guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their cities? + + 6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember Genoa? + + 7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow? How + were the changes made in the old language? Where did the English get + their language? Was it just like the English we speak? + + 8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the word + "university" mean then? Name two or three universities founded then + which still exist. What did the Arabs teach Christian students? + + 9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages especially like + to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why do we admire these + great churches? + + 10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more Roman + and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living and + thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first of + these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek books? + + 11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new + knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where do + we get our Roman and _italic_ type? What books did the Venetian + printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous + German printer. + + 12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance like + to study and imitate? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different + European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why are + they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight? + + 2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of castles + still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls. + + 3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from advertising + folders. + + 4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do the + students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle Ages? + + 5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect pictures + of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain, or Africa, + or Asia. + + 6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find + pictures of churches in America which resemble them. + + REVIEW + + _How ancient civilization was preserved_ + + 1. What ruined so many ancient cities? + + 2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the + Romans had done? + + 3. What language did the churchmen continue to use? + + 4. How did the missionaries help? + + 5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the Romans + had known? + + 6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks had + known? + + 7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help in + preserving the ancient knowledge? + + 8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men of + Petrarch's time do? + + 9. What help came from the invention of printing? + + 10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance learn + about the Greeks and the Romans? + + [Illustration: HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH + CENTURY] + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + +TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES + +THE PERILS OF TRADERS. There was a time in the Middle Ages when + merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to another for fear of + being plundered by some robber lord or common thief. If they traveled by + sea they might also be attacked by robbers. Some of these robbers, like + the Northmen, came from afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put + out from near-by ports when there seemed nothing better to do. + + This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great lords + succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the merchants armed + vessels of their own to drive the pirates from the sea. As trade grew + greater the towns became richer and stronger and the robbers and pirates + fewer, so that the number of merchant ships increased rapidly and long + voyages were attempted. + +FAIRS. At first trade was carried on at great fairs, held in places + convenient for the merchants of England and western Europe. The fairs + lasted about six weeks, and one fair followed another. As soon as the + first was over the merchants packed their unsold wares and journeyed to + the next. At the fairs were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks + from the East, skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and + other products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain. + +THE TREASURES OF THE EAST. Men in the Middle Ages were dependent + for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly called the East. + By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India, China, or the Molucca + Islands, where the choicest spices still grow. Spices were a great + luxury, and were needed to flavor the food, because the manner of + cooking was poor and there was little variety in the kinds of food. Most + of the cotton cloth, the silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also + procured from the East. + + [Illustration: TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT] + +ROUTES TO THE EAST. No one knew that it was possible to reach Asia + by sailing around the southern point of Africa or through what is called + the Strait of Magellan. The products of the East were brought to Europe + by several routes, two reaching the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in + Egypt, a third at Antioch, in Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern + shore of the Black Sea. + + The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the deserts + from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern India. Ships + from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice struggled with one + another for the right to bring back these precious wares and sell them + to the merchants of Europe, who were ready to pay high prices. + + [Illustration: MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE AGES] + +VENETIAN TRADERS. Merchants from Germany came to Venice to trade + the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and silks, which they + carried back across the Alps. Once a year the Venetians sent a fleet of + vessels westward through the straits of Gibraltar and along the Atlantic + shore as far as Bruges and London. The voyage was long and dangerous, + and the Venetians traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for + two or three times what they cost in Venice. + +THE CRUSADES. One event that brought to the Venetians an + opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The Mohammedans had + long held a large part of Spain, and towards the end of the eleventh + century they threatened France and Italy. They also attacked what was + left of the Roman Empire in the East, and the emperors sent to the pope + and the western kings frantic appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen, + Germans, Englishmen, and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire + to go to Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy + City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries large + armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories, sometimes being + defeated in battle or overcome by disease. + +WHAT THE VENETIANS GAINED FROM THE CRUSADES. Most of the Crusaders + went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no ships of their own + they often took passage in Venetian ships. The Venetians asked large + sums for this, and also succeeded in obtaining all the rights of trade + in many of the seaports which were captured. Sometimes the Venetians + undertook to govern islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along + the coasts, but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than + to build up an empire. + + THE NEW VENETIAN SHIPS. The Crusaders who returned to Europe brought + back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and their tales made other + men eager for them. For this reason more ships were built to sail in the + Mediterranean. The shipowners attempted to make their ships larger and + stronger. They were larger than those built by the English or by other + peoples along the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There + is an account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells us + that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews of one + thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but had a mast, + sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they could use if the wind + was favorable. + + [Illustration: VENETIAN SHIPS] + +DANGERS OF THE SEA. One difficulty about sailing was the lack of + any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night, of telling the + direction in which they were going. The sailors did not like to venture + far from shore, although the open sea is safer during a storm than a + wind-swept and rocky coast. At the time when the sailors of the + Mediterranean were building up their trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and + the Black Sea, two instruments came into use which enabled them to tell + just where they were. + +THE COMPASS. One of these instruments was the compass, which the + Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs before the + Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle, rub its point with a + magnet, and lay the needle on a cork floating in water, he will have a + rough sort of compass. The point of the needle wherever it may be turned + will swing back towards the north, thus guiding the sailors. + + [Illustration: MARINER'S COMPASS] + + The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story that at + first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused to sail under + a captain who used it. But a century later it was in general use, and + had been so much improved that even in the severest storms the needle + remained level and pointed steadily towards the north. + + [Illustration: AN ASTROLABE] + +THE ASTROLABE. The other instrument, called the astrolabe, was a + brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To this circle were fastened + two movable bars, at the ends of which were sights, or projecting pieces + pierced by a hole. The astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that + one bar was horizontal and the other could be moved until through its + sights some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on + the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above the + horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the place where + they were. In a similar way their longitude could be found out. + + The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could be used + only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments it was possible + to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle of the fourteenth + century ships from Genoa and Portugal had visited the Madeira and the + Canary Islands, and even the Azores which are a thousand miles from + the mainland. + +WHAT MEN THOUGHT ABOUT A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Men learned more + about other strange lands through a Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, who + wrote an account of his wonderful journey to the court of the Grand + Khan, or Emperor of the Mongols, of his travels through China, and of + his return to Persia by sea. + + Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was a great + marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in sailing around + Africa it would be impossible to reach the region of the spices and + silks and jewels which they so much desired. They also thought that the + heat in the tropics was so intense that at a certain distance down the + coast of Africa they would find the water of the ocean boiling. These + things and the tales of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had + terrified them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling. + +THE MONGOLS. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the court of the + Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were great conquerors, and + they not only subdued the Chinese but marched westward, overrunning most + of Russia and stopping only when they were on the frontiers of Italy. + For a long time southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital + was just north of the Great Wall of China. + + The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to the pope for + missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's father and uncle while on + a trading expedition had found their way to his court, and on a second + journey, in 1271, they took with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years. + The emperor was much interested in his western visitors and took young + Marco into his service. + + [Illustration: THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After an + old Chinese manuscript] + +MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS. Marco Polo traveled over China on official + errands, while his father and uncle were gathering wealth by trade. + After many years they desired to return to Italy, but the emperor was + unwilling to lose such able servants. It happened, however, that the + emperor wished to send a princess as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of + Persia, also a Mongol sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to + be trustworthy seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal + husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went on + to Italy. + + They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that their + relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize them. It was + like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned to his native + Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by nobody. The Polos proved + the truth of what they said by showing the great treasures which they + had sewed into the dresses of coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which + they wore. They displayed jewels of the greatest value, diamonds, + emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. + + [Illustration: MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS + The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black, and that first + described by Marco Polo is dotted] + +WHAT MARCO POLO TOLD. In the account Marco Polo wrote of his + travels and of the countries he had visited he described a wonderful + palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered with gold and + silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people, and its ceiling was + inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco Polo so large, so rich, + and so beautiful that no man on earth could design anything to equal it. + The robes of the emperor and his twelve thousand nobles and knights were + of silk and beaten gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with + precious stones. + + Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in the costly + wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and cheap. He described + from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen hundred miles from the mainland. + Its people, he said, were white, civilized, and wondrously rich. The + palace of the emperor of Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and + floors were of solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick. + +REASONS FOR FINDING A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Tales of such great + wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach the East. Marco Polo + had shown that it was possible to sail past India, through the islands, + to the eastern coast of Asia. When printing was invented his account was + printed, and the copy of that book which Columbus owned is still + preserved. Upon its margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about + geography. + + Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales of the + East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the land was lost, + because the Mongol emperors were driven out of China and the new rulers + would not permit Europeans to enter the country. The ordinary caravan + routes to the East were also closed not long afterwards. In 1453 the + Turks captured Constantinople, drove away the Italian merchants, and + prevented European sailors from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years + later the Turks seized Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately + before this happened a better route had been discovered. + +THE PORTUGUESE SAILORS. During the Middle Ages the Portuguese princes + fought to recover Portugal from the Moors. When this was done they were + eager to cross the straits and attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry + of Portugal made an expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to + know more about the coast south of the point beyond which European + sailors dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea + of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics. + + [Illustration: DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old + picture] + + From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been called "The + Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely promontory in southern + Portugal, and gathered about him learned men of all peoples, Arabian and + Jewish mathematicians, and Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this + new school of seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to + sail farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had + gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed Cape + Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without suffering + the fate which men had once feared. But they were discouraged when they + found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the coast turned southward again, + for they had hoped to sail eastward to Asia. + + [Illustration: THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA + The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East. The solid line + shows the new Portuguese route] + +CAPE OF GOOD HOPE DISCOVERED. At last in 1487 the end of what + seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate captain who + accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a family of daring + seamen. He had been sailing southward along the coast for nearly eight + months, when a northerly gale drove him before it for thirteen days. The + weather cleared and Diaz turned eastward to find the coast. As he did + not see land he turned northward and soon discovered land to the west. + This showed that he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew + were unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the + western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of Storms, but + the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned, named it the Cape of + Good Hope, for now he knew that an expedition could be sent directly to + the Indies. + + Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was the most + wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about. + +THE SEA ROUTE TO INDIA. Eleven years later the Portuguese king sent + Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt to reach the coast of India + by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da + Gama was successful and landed at Calicut on the south-western coast of + India. He returned to Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty + times the cost of the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the + East which enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon. + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who traveled + by sea or land? What was a fair? + + 2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes? Point + these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in Italy? How did + the Venetians get their wares to London? + + 3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the Mohammedans? What + did the Venetian traders gain by these wars? Describe a large + Venetian ship of this time. + + 4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail great + seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe was made. + + 5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern Asia? + Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he return to + Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had visited? + + 6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to Asia? What + did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How was the Cape of + Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this voyage? + + 7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the + voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must have + been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the Moluccas, or + China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or London? + + 2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves? + + 3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China? Where + has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols. Collect + pictures of China and Japan. + + 4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo. + + 5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of Portugal. + Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United States. + + + + REVIEW + + _Steps Towards the Discovery of America_ + + Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain. + + Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. + + Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland. + + Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages to + London and Bruges. + + Marco Polo's travels in China and the East. + + Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape of + Good Hope. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + +THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD + +CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Six years before Vasco da Gama made his + famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new trade route for + the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had formed and carried out a + much bolder plan. This was Christopher Columbus, and his plan was to + sail directly west from Europe into the unknown ocean in search of new + islands and the coast of Asia. Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in + Italy, had followed his younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably + led there by the fame of Prince Henry's explorations. + + The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for the + Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their expeditions + along the coast of Africa. All the early associations of Columbus were + with men interested in voyages of discovery, and particularly with those + engaged in the daring search for a sea route to India. + +HOW COLUMBUS FORMED HIS PLAN. Columbus gathered all the information + on geography which he could from ancient writers and from modern + discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was shaped like a + ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned, why might not a ship + sail around it from east to west? Or, better, why not sail directly west + to India, and perhaps find many wonderful islands between Europe and + Asia? His imagination was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the + marvelous riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of + going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly + boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most men of + the fifteenth century to be madness. + + [Illustration: CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS The oldest known picture of + Columbus, in the National Library, Madrid] + +HIS NOTION OF THE DISTANCE TO ASIA. Columbus made two fortunate + errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He imagined that Asia + extended much farther eastward than it actually does, making it nearer + Europe, and estimated the earth to be smaller than it is. His figures + placed Japan less than 3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead + of the 12,000 miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought + Japan would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated. + +HOW HE SECURED HELP. Even so, many years passed before Columbus was + able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself, and needed the help + of some government to fit out such an expedition. He may have tried to + get his native city, Genoa, to help him. There is such a story. If he + did, it was without success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal, + where he lived a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in + the discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the + same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to + undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise. + + The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him waiting + many years for an answer. They thought that they had more important work + in hand. There was another king in Spain at the time, the king of the + Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the Christian king and queen, were trying + to conquer the Moors, and thus to end the struggle between Christians + and Mohammedans for the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly + eight centuries. This war required all the strength and revenue + of Spain. + + Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly discouraged, the + war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the seat of their former + power, was finally taken in January, 1492. Now was a good time to ask + favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and to plan large enterprises for the + future. Powerful friends aided Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen + Isabella was persuaded to promise him all the help that he needed. + +THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. Three ships, or caravels as they were + called, were fitted out. The _Santa Maria_ was the largest of the three, + but it was not much larger than the small sailing yachts which we see + to-day. It was about ninety feet long by twenty feet broad, and had a + single deck. This was Columbus's principal ship or flagship. The second + caravel, the _Pinta_, was much swifter, built high at the prow and + stern, and furnished with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the + officers, but without a deck in the center. The third and smallest + caravel, called the _Niña_, the Spanish word for baby, was built much + like the _Pinta_. Ninety persons made up the three crews. + + [Illustration: COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC The shaded portions + represent the land as Columbus expected to find it. The light outline + of the Americas shows the actual position of the land as he found it.] + + The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the shores + of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never gone far out + into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller vessels in a voyage of + discovery, because they would be able to run close to the shores and + into the smaller harbors and up the rivers. + +BEGINNING OF THE VOYAGE. The expedition set sail from Palos in + Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary Islands. These + were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus as the most + convenient starting-point. The little fleet was delayed three weeks at + the islands making repairs. On September 6 Columbus was off again. He + struck due west from the Canaries. + +THE TERRORS OF THE VOYAGE. While the little fleet was still in + sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly frightened the + sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an event an omen of evil. + But the expedition had fine weather day after day. Steady, gentle, + easterly winds, the trade winds of the tropics, wafted them slowly + westward. But the timid sailors began to wonder how they would ever be + able to return against winds which seemed never to change from the east. + + Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area than the + whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared they might be + driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in quicksands. They imagined, too, + that great sea-monsters were lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to + devour them. + + [Illustration: A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS After the reconstructed + model exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893] + +THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NEW LAND. In spite of fears and complaints, + and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward course for more than + four weeks. Then as he began to see so many birds flying to the + southwest, he concluded that land must be nearer in that direction. He + had heard that most of the islands held by the Portuguese were + discovered by following the flight of birds. So on October 7 the + westward course was changed to one slightly southwest. + + From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating branches, + occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits of cane, were + encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers became common sights. + The Queen had promised a small pension to the one who should first see + land. Columbus had offered to give a silken doublet in addition. With + what eagerness the sailors must have kept on the lookout! + +THE GREAT DISCOVERY. At last as the fleet was sailing onward in the + bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if carried by hand along + a shore. A few hours later, about two o'clock on the morning of October + 12, a sailor on the _Pinta_ saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a + few miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for + daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they approached + the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus named it San + Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know which one of the + Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it was the one now called + Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with the royal standard and banners + flying to take possession of the land in the name of King Ferdinand and + Queen Isabella. + +WHERE COLUMBUS THOUGHT HE WAS. The astonished inhabitants of the + island soon gathered to see the strange sight--the landing of white men + in the West Indies. They looked upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the + white men as gods. Nor was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The + people were a strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and + painted to suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of + self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that chattered in + the trees above them. Such savages bore little resemblance to the people + whom Marco Polo said inhabited the Spice Islands. + + Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not far from + Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas satisfied him that he + was in the ocean near the coast of Asia, for had not Marco Polo + described it as studded with thousands of spice-bearing islands? He had + not found any spices, but the air was full of fragrance and the trees + and herbs were strange in appearance. Of course if the islands were the + Indies, the people must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and + this name clung to the red men, although their islands were not the + true Indies. + + [Illustration: WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST LANDED] + +THE SEARCH FOR THE GOLDEN EAST. Columbus thought that the natives + meant to tell him in their sign language of a great land to the south + where gold abounded. He set off in search of this, and came upon a land + the natives called Cuba. Its large size convinced him that he had at + last found the Asiatic mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew + knowing many languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found + neither cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great + disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search for the + riches which he expected to find. + +THE MISFORTUNES OF COLUMBUS. While on the coast of Cuba, Pinzon, + the commander of the _Pinta_, deserted him. Pinzon, whose ship was + swifter than the others, probably wished to be the first to get home, in + order to tell a story which would gain him the credit of the discovery + of the Indies. A few days later Columbus discovered a large island which + the natives called Hayti, and which he called Española or "Spanish + Land." At every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco + Polo had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Española Columbus's + own ship, the _Santa Maria_, was totally wrecked. Such disasters + convinced him that it was high time to return to Spain with the news of + his discovery. + +PREPARATIONS FOR RETURN TO SPAIN. As there was not room for both + crews on the tiny _Niña_, his one remaining ship, it became necessary to + leave about forty sailors in Española. A fort was built, and supplies + were left for a year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to + Spain. Ten Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his + friends in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the + language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their people. + +THE SEARCH FOR CHINA RENEWED. There was rejoicing in Palos when the + voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon Columbus. It was now + easy to get men and money for another voyage. In September, 1493, + Columbus started to return to his islands, this time with seventeen + ships and fifteen hundred men, all confident that they would soon see + the marble palaces of China, and secure a share in the wealth of the + Spice Islands. No one yet realized that a new world--two great + continents--lay between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus + went directly to Española, where he found that his colony of the + previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new settlement was + quickly started. A little town called Isabella was built, with a fort, a + church, a market place, public granary, and dwelling-houses. Isabella + was the first real settlement in the New World. + + [Illustration: MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS] + +OTHER VOYAGES TO THE NEW WORLD. Columbus made two other voyages. He + continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he believed to be near. + He made a third voyage from Spain to the West Indies in 1498. He sailed + farther south, and came upon the mainland which later was called South + America. A fourth expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call + Central America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he + had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the coast + of Asia. + +THE SAD END OF COLUMBUS'S LIFE. The close of his life was a sad + one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches which he had + expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the islands had + rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely before the king + and queen of misgovernment in his territories. Once his opponents had + him carried to Spain chained like a common prisoner. He was given his + liberty on reaching Spain, but the people had become prejudiced + against him. + + Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his brother + Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to pass a crowd + of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them with hoots: "There go + the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who has discovered a + land of vanity and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships + and disappointments broke down the great discoverer, and he died + neglected and almost forgotten by the people of Spain. + + [Illustration: THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA] + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the plan Diaz + had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama carried out a few + years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz desire to find a sea + route to India? Had anybody before Columbus believed the + earth round? + + 2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of the + earth? Why was this a fortunate error? + + 3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why did he + find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain finally favored + his cause? Who were the Moors? + + 4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the West + Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised? + + 5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his first + voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands did he + find on his later voyages? What did he think he had found? + + 6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the Admiral of + Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity and deceit, + the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by this? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing ships of + other explorers of that day. How does the deck arrangement on those + differ from the ocean steamships of to-day? What advantage would + ships like those of Columbus have over present steamships in + exploring strange coasts? What disadvantages? + + 2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were afraid to + go on and wished to turn back to Spain. + + 3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where + Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and China. + What great mass of land was really very near the island he first + discovered? + + 4. Find from the maps mentioned in Chapter IV (Greek World), Chapter + VII (Roman World), Chapter VIII (The world after Polo's journey), + and Chapter XIV (The world as known after Columbus), how much more + the Romans knew of the world than the Greeks had known, the + Europeans after Marco Polo's journey than the Romans, and the + Europeans after Columbus's voyage than after Marco Polo's journey. + + _Important Date_--1492. The discovery of America by Columbus. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + +OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD + +THE RACE TO THE INDIES. The discovery of all the lands which make + what we call the New World came very slowly. It was the work of many + different explorers. Most of the expeditions sent out to the new islands + went in search of a passage to India. It was a fine race. Each nation + was eager to see its ships the first to reach India by the westward + route. All were disappointed at finding so much land between Europe and + Asia. It seemed to them to be of little value and to block the way to + the richer countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered + the great continents which we know as North and South America. Columbus + had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a turning-point + in history. + +JOHN CABOT. John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time in the + service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of discovery. This + was five years after Columbus discovered the West Indies. Cabot had + heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain had occupied unknown + islands. He planned to do the same for King Henry VII of England. For + his voyage he had a single vessel no larger than the _Niña_, the + smallest ship in the fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew. + He passed around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west + until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North America + somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the southern end of + Nova Scotia. + +CABOT'S DISCOVERY. John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but he found + notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making nets, which + showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human beings. Like + Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of China. + +THE CABOT VOYAGES FORGOTTEN. Before the end of 1497 John Cabot was + back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and his son, Sebastian + Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found lands in the following + year. The Cabot voyages, however, were soon almost forgotten by the + people of England. + + [Illustration: SEBASTIAN CABOT After the picture ascribed to + Holbein] + +THE NAMING OF THE NEW LANDS. Why was our country named America + rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and northern + continents which we call the Americas were named for Americus Vespucius + rather than for Christopher Columbus. This seems the more strange since + we know so little about the life of Americus. Americus Vespucius was + born in Florence, Italy, and like many other young Italians of that day + entered the service of neighboring countries. He went to Spain and + accompanied several Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new + continent which Columbus had discovered on his third voyage. + + Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the leader in any + expedition. But he seems to have written to his friends interesting + accounts of what he had seen. In one of these letters Americus seems to + have written boastfully of how he had found lands which might be called + a new world. He said that the new continent was more populous and more + full of animals than Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate + was even more temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was + clearly a new world. + +WHY AMERICUS WAS REGARDED AS THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA. The + statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the newly + invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so could be read + by the learned of all countries. They were impressed by the belief of + Americus that he had seen a new world and not simply the Indies. This + was especially true of men living outside of Spain who had heard little + of Columbus or his discovery. + + Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery was a way to + the Indies and the finding of islands on the way thither less important. + Besides, when he saw what we call South America he had no idea that it + was a new world. The people of Europe either never knew that he had + discovered the mainland or had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a + great deal about Americus and his doings. It is not strange that + Americus rather than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer + of America. + +TWO NAMES FOR THE NEW LANDS. Even then the new continent might not + have been called America but for the suggestion of a young scholar of + the time. Martin Waldseemüller, a professor of geography at the college + of St. Dié, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography. In his + description of the parts of the world unknown to the ancients, he + suggested naming the continent stretching to the south for Americus. + + [Illustration: FACSIMILE Of the passage in the _Cosmographia + Introductio_ (1507), by Martin Waldseemüller, in which the name of + America is proposed for the New World.] + + + The facsimile's transcription reads as follows: + + Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta + pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa + est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore + sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam + dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint + nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi + navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur. + + + Waldseemüller thought Americus had been the real discoverer of this + continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these regions are more widely + explored, and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus + Vespucius, I do not see why any one may justly forbid it to be named + Amerige--that is, Americ's Land, from Americus, the discoverer." + + Others adopted Waldseemüller's suggestion and the name America came into + general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards continued to call all + the new lands by the name which Columbus had given them--the Indies. + America was at first the name for South America only, but later was also + used by writers for the other continent which was soon found to the + north. It was natural to distinguish the two continents as South and + North America. + +BALBOA. The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless search for + the real Indies, but the more they explored the more they saw that a + great continental barrier was lying across the sea passage to Asia. A + few began to suspect that after all America was not a part of Asia. + Vasco Nuñez Balboa was one of these. Balboa was a planter who had + settled in Española. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his + creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a vessel + bound for the northern coast of South America. From there he went to the + eastern border of Panama with a party of gold seekers. The Indians told + him of a great sea and of an abundance of gold on its shores to be found + a short distance across the isthmus. It is probable that the Indians + wished to get rid of the Spaniards as neighbors. + + [Illustration: VASCO NUÑEZ BALBOA] + +BALBOA'S DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. Balboa resolved to make a name + for himself and to be the discoverer of the other sea. He set off in + 1513. The land is not more than forty-five miles wide at Panama, but it + is almost impassable even to this day. For twenty-two days the hardy + adventurers advanced through a forest, dense with thickets and tangled + swamps and interlacing vines--so thick that for days the sun could not + be seen--and over rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to + an open sea stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the + South Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given it + afterward. + + Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of land was + comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that North America, too, + was narrower than it proved to be, and the search for the passage to the + Indies was pushed with greater vigor. + +MAGELLAN. A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had really won the + race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and Columbus for India, the land + of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He had won in 1497 by going around the + Cape of Good Hope. Another explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally, + reached the Indies in a long westward voyage lasting two years, from + 1519 to 1521. + + [Illustration: FERDINAND MAGELLAN] + +THE BEGINNING OF MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE. Magellan, himself a Portuguese, + tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of Portugal to aid him + in his project. He succeeded better in Spain, and sailed from there in + 1519 with a small fleet given him by the young king Charles. The five + ships in his fleet were old and in bad repair, and the crews had been + brought together from every nation. They sailed directly to South + America, and spent the first year searching every inlet along the coast + for a passage. + + [Illustration: THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN] + + They found that the natives of South America used for food vegetables + that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts." The Indians called + them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of the great foods of + to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter was passed on the cold + and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan called the natives "Patagones," + the word in his language meaning big feet, from the large foot-prints + which they left on the sand. + +THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. Magellan finally found a strait, since + named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed his ships through it + amid the greatest dangers. The change from the rough waters of the + strait to the calm sea beyond made the word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem + the most suitable name for the vast body of water which they + had entered. + +THE FIRST VOYAGE ACROSS THE PACIFIC. From the western coast of + South America Magellan struck boldly out into the Pacific Ocean on his + way to Asia. The crews suffered untold hardships. The very rats which + overran the rotten ships became a luxurious article of food which only + the more fortunate members of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen + lived for days on the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These + were soaked in sea-water and roasted over the fire. + + Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam, where + plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of small islands, + of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his word for robbers, used + because the natives were such robbers. The expedition discovered a group + of islands afterwards called the Philippines. There Magellan fell in + with traders from the Indies and knew that the remainder of the voyage + would be through well-known seas and over a route frequently followed. + Poor Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was + killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the natives. + + [Illustration: AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523 After + Magellan's voyage, but before the exploration of North America had + gone far] + + Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice Islands, + across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and so back to + Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons of cloves, worth more + than enough to pay the whole cost of the expedition. Such was the value + of the trade Europe was so eagerly seeking. + +WHAT MAGELLAN HAD SHOWN THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE. Magellan's voyage + had, however, been a great event. Historians are agreed that it was the + greatest voyage in the history of mankind. It had shown in a practical + way that the earth is a globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had + long taught, for a ship had sailed completely around it. + + But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not dreamed. He + had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay between Europe and + Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which the Spanish explorers had + found, and which other people were beginning to call the Americas, were + really a new world entirely separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia + as Columbus had thought. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at finding two + continents between Europe and Asia? + + 2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this land + was? Why did the English people take little interest in this voyage? + + 3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that Americus + Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did the Spaniards + continue to call the new region? Why did the Spaniards have one name + and the other Europeans another name for a long time? + + 4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men search + for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more vigorously + after Balboa's expedition? + + 5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in + history? What three things had Magellan shown the European world? + + EXERCISES + + 1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter who + helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite the + name of each the name of the land he discovered. + + 2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map and make a list of the lands + or countries he passed. Look at the map of North America on this old + map, and at the one in mentioned Chapter XIX. How do you account for + the queer shape of North America on the old map? + + _Important date_--1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage + around the world. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + +EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND + +THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MEXICAN INDIANS. Early Spanish explorers on + the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the mainland more highly + civilized than the natives of the West Indies. Some of these, especially + the Aztecs, lived in large villages or cities and were ruled by powerful + chiefs or kings. They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers + several stories in height. + + Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the Spanish had + seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and coated with hard white + plaster. Some of them were of immense size and could hold many families. + Doors had not been invented, but hangings of woven grass or matting of + cotton served instead. Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle + answered for door-bells. + + The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved with a sort + of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like the old Roman + aqueducts, although not so large, carried water from the neighboring + hills for fountains and rude public baths. + + The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their families. Workmen + made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils and dishes of pottery + for every-day use. The people cultivated the fields around the cities, + raising a great variety of foods, and even built ditches to carry water + for irrigating the fields. All this was in striking contrast with the + simple habits of the West Indians. + + [Illustration: AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE Now in the National + Museum in the City of Mexico] + +CRUEL CUSTOMS OF THE AZTECS. With all the good features of Mexican + life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over the other Indians, + there was much that was hideous and cruel. The Aztecs, the most powerful + tribes, were continually at war with their neighbors. They lived mainly + upon the plunder of their enemies and the tribute which they took from + those they had conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly + idols as gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives + taken in war as human sacrifices. + +SPANISH IDEAS OF MEXICO. The reports of the Aztec civilization and + of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited the interest and greed + of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the China which Marco Polo had + described, and might offer a chance of immense wealth for those who + should conquer it. In truth, Mexican civilization did resemble that of + Asia more than anything that the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a + powerful chief or king of the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol + Emperor of Persia or China. + + [Illustration: MONTEZUMA, THE LAST KING OF MEXICO After Montanus + and Ogilby] + +CORTÉS. In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent Hernando Cortés to + explore and conquer Mexico. The expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now + situated. The ships were then sunk in order to cut off all hope of + retreat for the soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cortés, "were + means of retreat necessary!" Cortés, with great skill, worked up the + zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All thought it + a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the practice of offering + human sacrifices, and to force the Christian religion upon the natives. + + The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of Mexico, which + was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom. Cortés and his men had learned + the Indian mode of fighting from ambush, and also how successfully to + match cunning and treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent + his invasion of their country. + +HOW THE SPANIARDS AND THE AZTECS FOUGHT. The Mexican warriors, + though they fought fiercely, were no match for the Spaniards. The + Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow, using arrows pointed with + a hard kind of stone. They carried for hand-to-hand fighting a narrow + club set with a double edge of razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind + of armor made from quilted cotton. But such things were useless against + Spanish bullets shot from afar. + + [Illustration: THE ARMOR OF CORTÉS After an engraving of the + original in the National Museum, Madrid] + + The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick armor and + shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the Spanish leaders were + mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly appearance to the + simple-minded Indians. The story is told that the Mexicans believed that + one of their gods had once floated out to sea, saying that, in the + fulness of time, he would return with fair-skinned companions to begin + again his rule over his people. Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of + the white men as the return of this god and thought that resistance + would be useless. Such natives sent presents, made their peace with + Cortés, and so weakened the opposition to the conquerors. + +CORTÉS IN PERIL. Cortés easily entered the City of Mexico, and + forced Montezuma to resign. But here the natives attacked his army in + such numbers that he had to retreat to escape capture. The Spaniards + fled from the city at night amid the onslaught of the inhabitants + fighting for their religion and their homes. + + [Illustration: CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS After Van Menken. + There are in the naval museum at Annapolis guns captured in the Mexican + War supposed to be those used by Cortés] + + The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cortés started in the + evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000 Indian allies, and 80 + horses. There were left in the morning 500 soldiers, 2,000 allies, and + 20 horses. Cortés is said to have buried his face in his hands and wept + for his lost followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking + Mexico. He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to + return to the attack on the capital city. + +CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. The siege which followed, lasting + nearly three months, has rarely been matched in history for the bravery + and suffering of the natives. The fighting was constant and terrible. + The fresh water supply was cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and + famine aided the invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and + Cortés entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the Aztecs. A + greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse and rebuild the + City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish civilization, and Mexico a + New Spain. By such work Cortés showed that he could be not only a great + conqueror, but also an able ruler in time of peace. + + [Illustration: THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS + From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus] + +PIZARRO. A few years after Cortés conquered Mexico a second army + conquered another famous Indian kingdom. Francisco Pizarro commanded + this expedition, which set out from Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been + with Balboa at the discovery of the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and, + like his master, had become interested in the stories the Indians told + of a rich kingdom far to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians + described was that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The + Spaniards called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by + softening the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a + native Indian chieftain. + + [Illustration: A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S + It is more than eight feet high and five feet across, and was dug up in + the central square of the City of Mexico more than one hundred + years ago] + +CONQUEST OF PERU. Pizarro found the Incas divided as usual by civil + wars and incapable of much resistance. One of their rival chiefs was + outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro by a trick, and was himself + made a prisoner instead. He offered to give Pizarro in return for his + freedom as much gold as would fill his prison room as high as he could + reach. The offer was accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases, + plates, images, and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian + idols, was gathered together. + + The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost $7,000,000 + worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As much more was taken + from the Indians by force. The whole was divided among the conquerors. + Pizarro's share was worth nearly a million dollars. But the poor chief + who had made them suddenly rich was suspected of plotting to have his + warriors ambush them as they left the country, was tried by his + conquerors, and put to death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over. + Peru, like Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement. + Emigrants, instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of + going on into the newer regions which Cortés and Pizarro had won. + +EMIGRANTS TO SPANISH AMERICA. It was much harder in the sixteenth + century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is today. The first + and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in getting permission to leave + Spain. No one could go who had not secured the king's consent. The + emigrant must show that neither he nor his father nor his grandfather + had ever been guilty of heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had + been steadfast Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give + her consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of Spain + could not secure permits to move to the New World. Foreigners of + whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and were usually kept + out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly for Spaniards. + +HARDSHIPS OF THE SEA VOYAGE. Those who did go to the colonies found + the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has related that it cost + him about one hundred and eighty dollars for the passage, and that he + provided his own chickens and bread. The danger to sailing ships from + storms was much greater than it is today for steamships. The voyage + required three or four weeks and not uncommonly as many months. + +THE NEED OF LABORERS. The hardships and dangers of the voyage and + the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept most people from + going to the New World. Emigration was slow, amounting to about a + thousand a year. There were always fewer capable white laborers than the + landowners in the colonies needed for their work, for there was much to + do in clearing the land and preparing it for use. The landowners were + usually well-to-do Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields + themselves. A great many of the laborers who migrated to America served + in the army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The + craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm + laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies, during the + early history of the colonies, made slaves of the Indians and compelled + them to take the place of the laborers they needed and could not obtain. + +INDIAN SLAVERY. The people of Europe thought that the whole world + belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians, whether Indian or + negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity or of being made slaves. + The choice of Christianity did not always save them from the fate of + slavery. In this the Spaniards were no more cruel than their neighbors + the English or the French. The Spanish planters from the beginning + forced the Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work + in their mines. + + The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the Indian + unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves did not do the + tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful quarters rapidly + broke down the natives. The white men also brought into the island + diseases which they, with their greater experience, could resist, but + from which, one writer says, the Indians died like sheep with a + distemper. + + [Illustration: A SPANISH GALLEON Ships like this carried the + Spanish emigrants to America] + +SLAVERY DESTROYS THE WEST INDIANS. When the number of the Indians + in Española and Cuba had decreased so much that there were not enough + left to meet the needs of the planters, slave-hunters searched the + neighboring islands for others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly + gone, and the planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves, + the king of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he + did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same purpose, + and the change merely meant that negroes took the place of Indians as + slaves. The story of the change is in great part the story of the life + of Bartholomew de Las Casas. + +LAS CASAS. The father of Las Casas was a companion of Columbus on + his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain, taking with him a young + Indian slave whom he gave to his son. This youth became greatly + interested in the race to which his young slave belonged. In 1502 he + went to Española to take possession of his father's estate. The + planter's life did not long satisfy him and finally he became a priest. + He moved from Española to Cuba, the newer colony. + + Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and gave his + own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the abuses of + slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves, and secured many + reforms which lessened the hardships of their lot. Since the planters + demanded more laborers and Las Casas thought the negro would be hardier + than the Indian, he advocated negro slavery in place of Indian slavery + as the less of two evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his + king, Charles V, to put an end to Indian slavery of every form. + + His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West Indies. + They had decreased until almost none were left. It is said that there + were two hundred thousand Indians in Española in 1492, and that in 1548 + there were barely five hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken + place in the other islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to + save the Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless + islanders. + +NEGRO SLAVERY. Las Casas later regretted that he had advised the + planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the Indians. Some + negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the coast of Africa + during their explorations and taken to Europe as slaves. Columbus + carried a few of these to the West Indies with him, and others had + followed his example, but negro slavery had grown very slowly until + after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery, when it increased rapidly in + Spanish America. + + [Illustration: LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in the + Academy, Mexico. Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to + shield the natives from Spanish cruelty] + +THE MISSIONS OF THE MAINLAND. Las Casas became at one time a + missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors located on the + southern border of Mexico, in a region called by the Spaniards the "Land + of War." Three times a Spanish army had invaded the country, and three + times it had been driven back by the native defenders. Las Casas wished + to show the Spaniards that more could be accomplished by treating the + Indians kindly than by bloody warfare and conquest. + + He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of the + Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as Christian + teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won the friendship + of the Indians in time and changed the land of constant warfare into one + of peace. They led the natives to destroy their idols and to give up + cannibalism. The mission established among them and kept up by the monks + who were attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up + on the mainland. + +THE WORK OF THE MISSIONS. Influenced by the work of Las Casas + against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the Spaniards bent their + efforts to preserve and Christianize the natives wherever they came upon + them in America. Catholic priests gathered the Indians into permanent + villages, which were called missions. Within about one hundred years + after the death of Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000 + Indians in such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to + build better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen + practices. + + Every mission became a little industrial school for children and parents + alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and trades and the customs + and language of their teachers. Each Indian cultivated his own plot of + land and worked two hours a day on the farm belonging to the village. + The produce of the village farm supported the church. The monks or + friars who had charge of the mission cared for the poor, taught in the + schools, preserved the peace and order of the village, and looked after + the religious welfare of all. + + [Illustration: RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE] + + Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations, and + planters established farms around them, and they became Spanish villages + in every respect like those in the islands or in the Old World, except + that many inhabitants in the towns on the mainland were Indians. The + emigrants freely intermarried with the Indians and a mixed race took the + place of the old inhabitants. The customs, language, religion, and rule + of Spain prevailed in this New Spain, though in some ways the new + civilization was not so good as that of the Old World. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did they + differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly anxious to + conquer Mexico? + + 2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards? How + many soldiers and Indian allies did Cortés lose in one battle? How + long did it take Cortés to conquer Mexico? + + 3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later? By + whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors, Cortés + and Pizarro, in their expeditions? + + 4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the West + Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians and begin + making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in this change? + + 5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish Missions + accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian tribes + in Mexico? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and + occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United States, + or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or from some + neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the Aztecs in these + respects or the West Indians? + + 2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four hundred + years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find out who + may not come into the United States to-day. What did it cost one + traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century? Find out the + cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How long did it take + to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length of a voyage from + Europe to-day. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + +THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA + +PONCE DE LEON. While men like Cortés were exploring and conquering + the countries on the west shore of the Gulf of Mexico, others began to + search the vast regions to the north. One of these explorers was Ponce + de Leon, who had come to Española with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards + spent many years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood + from something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond the + Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if he + bathed in it. + + [Illustration: PONCE DE LEON] + + As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search of this + wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where flowers grew in + great abundance. It was the Easter season in 1513. Since the Spanish + call this season _Pascua Florida_ or Flowery Easter, Ponce called the + new flowery country Florida. He went ashore near the present site of St. + Augustine, and later, while trying to establish a settlement, lost his + life in a battle with the Indians. + +EXPLORATIONS OF NORTH AMERICAN COAST. Other Spanish explorers + between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast from Florida to Vera + Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to Labrador. They sought + continually for a passage to India. Every large inlet was entered, for + it might prove to be the long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of + North America took shape on the maps of that time. Two famous + expeditions into the interior of the country did much to enlarge this + knowledge. One was made by De Soto through the region which now forms + seven southern states of the United States, and the other was by + Coronado through the great southwest. + + [Illustration: HERNANDO DE SOTO] + +DE SOTO. Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in Spain, had won + fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of Spain, to reward his + bravery and skill in conquering Indians, made him Governor of Cuba. In + those days the Governor of Cuba controlled Florida. It was a larger + Florida than the present state of that name, for Spanish Florida + included the whole north coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into + the continent without any definite boundary. + +THE STORY OF THE GILDED MAN. De Soto had heard a fanciful story of + a country so rich in gold that its king was smeared every morning with + gum and then thickly sprinkled with powdered gold, which was washed off + at night. De Soto thought this country might be somewhere in Florida, + and prepared to search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language + _El Dorado._ + +THE COMRADES OF DE SOTO. More than six hundred men, some of them + from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain and Portugal, flocked + to De Soto's banner. They sold their possessions at home and ventured + all their wealth in the hope of obtaining great riches in Florida. + +DE SOTO'S ROUTE THROUGH THE SOUTH OF NORTH AMERICA. De Soto crossed + from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and advanced northward + by land to an Indian village near Apalachee Bay. Here he spent the first + winter. A white man, whom the Indians had taken captive twelve years + before and finally adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an + interpreter. + + [Illustration: SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY] + + In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a journey + into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed northeasterly through + the country now within Georgia and South Carolina, as far, perhaps, as + the border of North Carolina. From here it passed through the mountains, + and turned southwesterly through Tennessee and Alabama until a large + Indian village called Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of + Mobile Bay. Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The + Alabama Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by. + Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the + unknown interior. + +THE HARDSHIPS OF THE JOURNEY. His army was almost exhausted by the + difficulties of the journey. A road had to be cut and broken through + thickets and forest, paths had to be made through the many swamps, and + fords found across the rivers. It frequently became necessary to stop + for months at a time, to let the horses, worn out from travel and + starving because of the scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The + stores which the army brought with them soon gave out. The men were + forced to live like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots + of wild plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of + their scanty stores of corn and beans. + + [Illustration: INDIANS BROILING FISH] + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE INDIANS. De Soto was cruel in his treatment + of the conquered natives along his route. Many of his officers came with + him really for the purpose of obtaining Indian slaves for their + plantations in Cuba. Indian women were made to do the work of the camp. + Indian men were chained together and forced to carry the baggage. The + chiefs were held as hostages for the good behavior of the whole tribe. + The Indians who tried to shirk work or offered resistance were killed + without mercy. + + [Illustration: MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542] + + De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the white men, and + left him the enemy of any who should come to those regions in + after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped destruction at the + hands of the enraged savages. They attacked the Spaniards with all their + strength at Mauvilla, and again while they were in camp in northern + Mississippi for the winter of 1540-1541. These two battles with the + Indians cost the Spaniards their baggage, which was destroyed in the + burning villages. New clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of + wild animals. Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets, + shirts, stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked + much like a band of Robinson Crusoes. + +THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. De Soto marched on northwesterly + until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the site of the present + city of Memphis. There he came upon a great river. One of his officers + tells us that the river was so wide at this point that if a man on the + other side stood still, it could not be known whether he were a man or + not; that the river was of great depth, and of a strong current; and + that the water was always muddy. + + De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or Great River, + but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans have adopted the + Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had probably passed the mouth of + the Mississippi River before De Soto, and wondered at its mighty size, + but De Soto was the first white man to approach it from the land and to + appreciate the importance of his discovery. + +WANDERINGS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The Spaniards cut down trees, + made them into planks and built barges on which they crossed the + Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year through the endless + woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now within the state of + Arkansas. They probably went as far west as the open plains of Oklahoma + or Texas. In these border regions between the forests and the prairies + they met Indians who used the skins of the buffalo for clothing. + + [Illustration: BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI] + +DEATH AND BURIAL OF DE SOTO. The severe winter of 1541-1542 + discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent nearly three years in + a vain search. The natives whom they had found made clothing from the + fiber in the bark of mulberry trees and from the hides of buffaloes, and + stored beans and corn for food, but such things seemed of little value + to the seekers for the Gilded Man. + + De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish a colony + somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his purpose to send to + Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement as a base, make a farther + search in the plains of the great West. He did not live to carry out his + plan. Long exposure and anxiety had weakened him. The malaria of the + swamps attacked him, and he died within a few days. His body was wrapped + in mantles weighted with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered + in the midst of the great river he had discovered. + + His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the Indians. The + Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the Sun, and now he had + died like any other mortal. They were afraid if the Indians found his + body they would cease to believe that the strangers were immortal and + would massacre them all. The Indians were told that the great leader had + gone to Heaven, as he had often done before, and that he would return in + a few days. + +RESULTS OF DE SOTO'S JOURNEY. The weary survivors built boats, + floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed cautiously along + the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four years and three months, + and half of the army which set out had perished. However, the expedition + of De Soto will always remain one of the most remarkable journeys in the + history of North America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into + the interior. With it had begun the written history of the country now + composing at least eight states in the United States, Florida, Georgia, + South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and + Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the present Oklahoma and Texas, and had + certainly passed down the Mississippi River through Louisiana. + +THE STORY OF THE SEVEN CITIES. While De Soto was exploring the + southeastern part of North America a second expedition searched the + southwest. Both were looking for rich Indian kingdoms like Mexico and + Peru. The second expedition came about in this manner. Some of the + Indians from northern Mexico told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in + the distant past their ancestors came forth from seven caves. + + [Illustration: AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO] + + The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of their own + about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time Spain was overrun by + the Moors in the eighth century, seven bishops, flying from persecution, + had taken refuge, with a great company of followers, on an island or + group of islands far out in the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built + Seven Cities. Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of + their wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have actually + seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to tell them of these + Seven Cities instead of seven caves. + + The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much trouble in + understanding the Indian languages. They had long expected to find the + Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was rumor that white travelers had + seen them north of Mexico. + +THE JOURNEY OF FRIAR MARCOS. In 1539 the Viceroy of Mexico sent a + frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together with a negro, + Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for them. Friar Marcos + traveled far to the north. He inquired his way of the Indians, always + asking them about Seven Cities. He described them as large cities with + houses made of stone and mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him, + directed him to seven Zuñi villages or pueblos. The first of these they + called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven Cities + of Cibola. + + The good friar himself never entered even the first of them. His negro, + Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the way, but this rough, + greedy fellow offended the Indians, who promptly murdered him. When the + friar approached he found the Indians so excited and hostile that he + dared not enter their village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill + at a distance, from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola. + The houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the + wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and gave him + the idea of a much larger and richer city than really existed. Friar + Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened, hurriedly retraced + his steps. + +CORONADO. There was great excitement in Mexico over the story Friar + Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew, as such stories + always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing else was thought of in + all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made ready a great army for the + conquest of the Seven Cities of Cibola. He gave the command to his + intimate friend, Francisco de Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany + him, but it was necessary to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of + nobles, eager to go, traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the + viceroy's permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors + to their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as a + title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great wealth when + the Seven Cities should be discovered! + + [Illustration: A ZUÑI PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE] + +THE ARMY OF CORONADO. In the early part of 1540, Coronado set forth + from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf of California. He had an + army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly all the younger sons of nobles. + They were fitted out with polished coats of mail and gilded armor, + carried lances and swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from + the large stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few + footmen armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and + Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white masters. Some + led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage, or drove the oxen and + cows, the sheep and swine which would be needed on the journey. A small + fleet carried part of the baggage by way of the Gulf of California, + prepared also to help Coronado in other ways, and to explore the Gulf + to its head. + + [Illustration: THE ROUTE OF CORONADO] + +THE ROUTE OF CORONADO TO CIBOLA. The large army marched slowly + through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon became + impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small following of + picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous wilderness of + northern Mexico and across the desert plains of southeastern Arizona. + After a march lasting five months, over a distance equal to that from + New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon the Seven Cities of Cibola; but + the real Seven Cities of Cibola as Coronado found them bore little + resemblance to what he had expected. + + [Illustration: A ZUÑI PUEBLO] + +THE REAL SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA. The first city of Cibola was an + Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed houses, built of stone + and sun-dried clay. The houses were entered by climbing ladders to the + top and then passing down into the rooms as we enter ships through + hatches. The people wore only such clothes as could be woven from the + coarse fiber of native plants, or patched together from the tanned skins + of the cat or the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but + only small and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some + skill in making small things for house and personal decoration, mainly + in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green stone. + + The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of poor villages + inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that Coronado had found + the Zuñi pueblos in the western part of New Mexico. The conquest of + these was a wofully small thing for so grand and costly an expedition. + No gold or silver or precious jewels had been found. + + [Illustration: CANYON OF THE COLORADO] + +THE CANYON OF THE COLORADO. Yet the wonders of the natural world + about them astonished and interested the Spaniards. Some of their number + found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River and vividly described it to + their comrades. As they looked into its depths it seemed as if the water + was six feet across, although in reality it was many hundred feet wide. + Some tried without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream + below or to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who + staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the cliff were + about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far as they could + swore that when they reached these rocks they found them bigger than the + great tower of Seville, which is two hundred and seventy-five feet high. + + CORONADO IN NEW MEXICO. Coronado marched from the Cities of Cibola + eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River, and settled for the + winter in an Indian village a short distance south of the present city + of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The Spaniards drove the natives out, only + allowing them to take the clothes they wore. + +A WINTER IN AN INDIAN VILLAGE. The soldiers passed the severe + winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best houses of the + Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and beans had been left by + the unfortunate owners. The live stock brought from Mexico furnished an + abundance of fresh meat. Coronado required the Indians to furnish three + hundred pieces of cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the + place of their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians + time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to take + their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a soldier came upon + an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he compelled the unlucky + fellow to exchange with him without more ado. + + Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts of his men + made him much loved by them, but much hated by the Indians. It is no + wonder that such treatment drove the Indians into rebellion, and that + Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel war of reconquest and revenge. + +THE TALE OF QUIVIRA. An Indian slave in one of the villages cheered + Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale about a wonderful city, + many days' journey across the plains to the northeast, which he called + Quivira. The king of Quivira, he said, took his nap under a large tree, + on which were hung little gold bells, which put him to sleep as they + swung in the air. Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of + wrought gold. The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his + hearers to make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he + could in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless + plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown. + +THE SEARCH FOR QUIVIRA. The slave's story deceived the Spaniards. + Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of finding a rich country + and marched away in search of Quivira. He traveled to the northeast for + seventy-seven days. There were no guiding land marks. Soldiers measured + the distance traveled each day by counting the footsteps. The plains + were flat, save for an occasional channel cut by some river half buried + in the sand; they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small + rim of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses. + +QUIVIRA. The most marvelous sight of the long journey was the herds + of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians guided Coronado in the + end to a cluster of Indian villages which they called Quivira. This was + somewhere in what is now central Kansas near Junction City. The Indians + were in all probability the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met + with a bitter disappointment. + + [Illustration: INDIAN TEPEES] + + Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered Indian + villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening grass or straw + or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the poorest and most + barbarous which he had met. Coronado was, however, fortunate in securing + a supply of corn and buffalo meat in Quivira for his long + return journey. + +CORONADO'S OPINION OF THE WEST. A year later a crestfallen army of + half-starved men clad in the skins of animals stumbled back homeward + through Mexico in straggling groups. Great sadness prevailed in Mexico, + for many had lost their fortunes besides friends and relatives in the + enterprise. Coronado seemed to the people of the time to have led a + costly army on a wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions + he had crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away + from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country was + neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth keeping. + +RESULTS OF CORONADO'S EXPLORATIONS. We know better to-day the + value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved the age-long + mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the southwest of the United + States of our day. The rich region now included in the great states of + Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it + was soon after described for the European world. His men had explored + the Gulf of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its + source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower California was + not an island but a part of the mainland. Others soon explored the + entire coast of California to the limits of the present state of Oregon. + +HOW DE SOTO AND CORONADO CAME NEAR MEETING. De Soto and Coronado + together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to the center of + North America. A story which was told by De Soto's men shows how close + together the two great explorers were at one time. While Coronado was in + Quivira, De Soto was wandering along the borders of the plains west of + the Mississippi River, though neither knew of the nearness of the other. + An Indian woman who ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De + Soto's, nine days later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains + there would have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the + meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot refrain + from wondering how different would have been the ending with the two + great armies united and encouraged to continue their explorations. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What did + he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered + Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards + understood it? + + 2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did he + search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he planning + to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable? Through + what present states of the United States did he pass? + + 3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities? Why did + he expect to find them there? What was the story of the Seven + Cities? Of the Seven Caves? + + 4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of Cibola? + What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North America in + search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to Quivira? What did + he find Quivira to be? + + 5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he found + out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of the + present states of the United States did his route touch? + + REVIEW + + 1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus, + Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, on the knowledge of the new world. + + _Important date_--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE + +THE RIVALS OF SPAIN. When the early voyages to America and Asia were + ended, the French, the English, and the other northern peoples of + Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for new lands and for new + routes to old lands. The French had sent a few fishermen to the Banks + of Newfoundland, and that was all. The English had made one or two + voyages and appeared to be no longer interested. (See Chapter XIV, + Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers, + or keen traders, occupied much of the time in the struggle against the + North Sea, which threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and + cities. + + +THE TRADE-WINDS. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a great + advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for such voyages. + To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good Hope. To go to + America a southern route was taken, for in the North Atlantic the + prevailing winds are from the southwest, while south of Spain the + trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making it easy to sail to + America. To take the northern route, which was the natural one for + French and English sailors, would be to battle against head winds and + heavy seas. + +THE SPANIARDS AND THE PORTUGUESE DIVIDE THE WORLD. The Spaniards + and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave them the right + to all new lands which should be found and to all trade by sea with the + Golden East. Two years after the first voyage of Columbus the Spaniards + agreed with the Portuguese that a line running 370 leagues west of the + Cape Verde Islands should separate the regions claimed by each. The + Spaniards were to hold all lands discovered west of that line, and the + Portuguese all east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by + the Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the + Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that especially + interests us as students of American history. + + [Illustration: CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol, England, + in memory of the first sailor from England to visit America] + +THE MAIN QUESTION. Were the Spaniards to keep what they claimed and + continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The answer to this question + is found in the history of Europe during the sixteenth century. + Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were drawn into quarrels in Europe + which cost them many men and much money. The consequence was that they + were unable to make full use of their discoveries, even if they had + known how. Before the century was ended their rivals, the English and + the French, were stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects, + had rebelled against them. + +THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH DESIRE A SHARE. Men had such great ideas + of the immense wealth of the Indies that the successes of one nation + made the other nations eager for some part of the spoil. Englishmen and + Frenchmen were not likely to allow the Portuguese to take all they could + find by sailing eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards + to keep whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by + following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for new + routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they saw by the + way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels came from this + rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other causes. + +KING CHARLES AND KING FRANCIS. About the time Cortés conquered + Mexico, his master, King Charles of Spain, began a war against Francis, + the king of France. As long as these two kings lived they were either + fighting or preparing to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only, + there might have been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and + claimed others which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region + north of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a + district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As he was + the German emperor besides, the French king thought him too dangerous to + be left in peace. These wars have little to do with American history, + except that they helped to weaken the king of Spain and to prevent the + Spaniards from making the most of their early successes in colonizing. + +RELIGION A CAUSE OF STRIFE. Religion was the most serious cause of + quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king of Spain was the prince + most injured by the struggle. At the time of Prince Henry of Portugal + and of Columbus all peoples in western Europe worshiped in the same + manner, taught their children the same beliefs, and in religious matters + they all obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles + began in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over + Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who rebelled and + founded a republic of their own. The English finally became the + principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom were of the same + religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish methods of defending + religion, especially after the Spaniards had massacred a band of French + settlers in America. + + [Illustration: EMPEROR CHARLES V] + +THE "REFORMERS." Many men became discontented at the way the Church + was managed. At first all were agreed that the evils of which they + complained could be removed if priests, bishops, and pope worked + together to that end. After a while some teachers in different countries + not only complained of evils, but refused to believe as the Church had + taught and as most people still believed. They did not mean to divide + the Christian Church into several churches, but they thought they + understood the words of the Bible better than the teachers of + the Church. + +THE REFORMATION. At that time people who were not agreed in their + religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the same countries. The + princes and kings who were faithful to the Church ordered that the new + teachers and their followers should be punished. Other princes accepted + the views of the "reformers," and soon began to punish those of their + subjects who continued to believe as the Church taught. In Germany these + princes were called "Protestants," because they protested against the + efforts of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of + the new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused to + remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the pope. + +CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT LEADERS. The most famous leaders of the + Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, Reginald + Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an Italian. Loyola had been a + soldier in his youth, but while recovering from a serious wound, + resolved to be a missionary. With several other young men of the same + purpose he founded the Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the + Protestants the greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John + Calvin, a Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at + Wittenberg in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise. + Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis resolved + to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was obliged to leave the + country. He settled in the Swiss city of Geneva. + +THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. Luther's teachings were accepted by many + Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated the Bible into + German. After a while his followers formed a Church of their own which + was called Lutheran. It differed from the Roman Catholic Church in the + way it was governed as well as in what it taught. + +THE FRENCH HUGUENOTS. Calvin lived in Geneva, but most of those who + accepted his teachings continued to live in France. The nickname + Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They were not permitted + by the French king to worship as Calvin taught, but by 1562 so many + nobles had joined them that it was no longer possible to treat them as + criminals. They were permitted to hold their meetings outside the walled + towns. The leader whom they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. + Both he and they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the + Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which the king + of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects. + +THE KING OF SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. Philip II inherited from his + father Charles seventeen duchies, counties, and other districts north of + France in what is now Belgium and Holland. Charles had known how to + manage these people, because he was brought up among them. The task of + managing them was not easy. Each district or city had its own special + rights and its people demanded that these should be respected by the + ruling prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule + the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled the + people of Spain. + + [Illustration: THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE NETHERLANDS] + +PROTESTANTS IN THE NETHERLANDS. The trouble was made worse because + many of the Netherlanders became followers of Luther or Calvin, and + brought their books into the country. Now Philip, like his father + Charles, was faithful to the teachings of the Church, and thought it was + his duty to punish such persons. The result was that Philip soon had two + kinds of enemies in his Netherland provinces, those who did not like the + way he ruled and those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and + the two united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were + driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border + from France. + +THE NETHERLANDS. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are well + named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live, because much + of the land is below the level of the sea at high tide, and some of it + at low tide. For several hundred years the Dutch built dikes to keep + back the sea, or pumped it out where it flowed in and covered the lower + lands. Occasionally great storms broke through the dikes and caused the + Dutch months or years of labor. A people so brave and industrious were + not likely to submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they + would rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views, + which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the southern + Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became Calvinists + generally emigrated to the northern cities, like Amsterdam, where they + were safer. + + [Illustration: Map Of The Netherlands] + +WILLIAM OF ORANGE. William, Prince of Orange, was the leader of the + Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by Charles, Philip's + father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the great ceremony held in + Brussels when Charles gave up his throne to Philip. William was called + the "Silent," because he was careful not to tell his plans to any except + his nearest friends. When Philip returned to Spain, William was made + governor or _stadtholder_ of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland, + Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other great + nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with the heretics + and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the southern Netherlanders + and the northern Netherlanders were united, although the southern + Netherlanders remained faithful to the Roman Catholic religion. + +SPAIN AND ENGLAND. The English at first had no reason to quarrel + with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the Netherlanders, who + were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they sold great quantities of + wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges, Brussels, and Ghent, and bought + fine cloth woven in those towns. The friendship of the ruler of the + Netherlands seemed necessary, if this trade was to prosper. It was the + trouble about religion which finally made the English and the + Spaniards enemies. + +HENRY VIII. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of England, the + king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to refuse obedience to the + pope. The king called himself the head of the Church in England. + Lutheran views crept into the country as they had done into the + Netherlands, but King Henry at first disliked the Lutherans quite as + much as he grew to dislike the pope. + +THE ENGLISH CHURCH. So long as Henry lived not much change was made + in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the Church. During the short + reign of his son, the English Church became more like the Protestant + Churches on the Continent, except that in England there were still + archbishops and bishops, and the government of the Church went on much + as before. When Henry's daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop + these changes, and for a few years her subjects were again obedient to + the pope, but she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth, + became queen. + + [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH] + +THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND THE CATHOLICS. In religious matters Queen + Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother had done. All persons + were forced to attend the religious services carried on in the manner + ordered in the prayer-book. Roman Catholics could not hold any + government office. They were punished if they tried to persuade others + to remain faithful to the older Church. Philip did not like this, but + for a time he preferred to be on friendly terms with the English. + + [Illustration: COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH] + +QUEEN ELIZABETH. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for forty-five + years. The English regard her reign as the most glorious in their + history. Before it was over they proved themselves more than a match for + the Spaniards on the sea. They also began to seek for routes to the East + and to attempt settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The + Greek and Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and + Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to make the + English language the rival of the languages of Greece and Rome. This was + the time when Shakespeare wrote his first plays. + + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or Portugal + than from England? + + 2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did they + draw the line of division? + + 3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what + countries did King Charles rule? + + 4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was chiefly + injured by such struggles? + + 5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they + called? + + 6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants? Who + were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name? + + 7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands quarrel? + + 8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived? Who was + the hero of the Dutch? + + 9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly? What + king of England refused to obey the pope? + + 10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How did + Elizabeth settle the question of religion? + + + + EXERCISE + + Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and towns. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA + +CARTIER. During the reign of Francis I, the French made the first + serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far East and to settle + the new lands that seemed to lie directly across the pathway. In 1534 + Jacques Cartier was sent with two ships in search of a strait beyond the + regions controlled by Spain or Portugal which would lead into the + Pacific Ocean. Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland + and into the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf + of St. Lawrence. + +CARTIER AT MONTREAL. Cartier made a second voyage in the following + year, exploring the great river which he called the St. Lawrence. He + went up the river until the heights of Mount Royal or Montreal, as he + called them, appeared on his right hand, and swift rapids in the river + blocked his way in front. The name Lachine rapids, or the China rapids, + which was afterwards given to these, remains to remind us that Cartier + was searching for a passage to China. + +THE FIRST WINTER IN CANADA. Cartier spent the severe winter which + followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the site of the modern + city of Quebec. The expedition returned to France with the coming + of spring. + +ATTEMPTS TO PLANT A COLONY AT QUEBEC. Several years later, in 1541, + Cartier and others attempted to establish a permanent settlement on the + St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get good colonists to settle in the cold + climate so far north, the leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons + for debtors and criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They + selected the neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in + 1535, where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their + colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a new + settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the hostility + of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all gladly returned + to France. + + [Illustration: MAP SHOWING JACQUES CARTIER's VOYAGES + Thus: 1st Voyage---- 2d Voyage.... 3d Voyage--> -->] + + The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement on the St. + Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St. Lawrence would prove + the long-sought passage to China had to be given up, but the river which + he had discovered and so thoroughly explored proved to be a great + highway into the center of North America. + +COLIGNY'S PLAN FOR A HUGUENOT COLONY. Nearly thirty years later the + French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the plan of establishing a + colony in America, which would be a refuge for the Huguenots if their + enemies got the upper hand in France. An expedition left France in 1564, + and selected a site for a settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns + river in Florida. It seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline, + was quickly built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They + were chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented + tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them. + +THE MISDEEDS OF THE COLONISTS. They spent their time visiting + distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and silver, or + plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West Indies. No one thought + of preparing the soil and planting seeds for a food supply. It seemed + easier to rob neighbors. The provisions which they had brought with them + gave out. Game and fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but + they were without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year + had passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to + digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge of + angry Indians confronted them. + +RELIEF SENT TO THE COLONY. In August, 1565, just as the + half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an + expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few young + nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three hundred in + all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of supplies and + other things needed by a colony in a new country. It looked then as + though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan and establish a + permanent colony in America. + + [Illustration: FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN FLORIDA + From De Bry's Voyages] + +FORT CAROLINE AND THE SPANIARDS. The French had, however, settled + in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult to settle in America at + any place along the Atlantic coast without doing so. The Spaniards + regarded all North America from Mexico to Labrador as lying within + Florida. The attempt of the French to settle on the lands claimed by the + king of Spain was sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct + of the French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the + West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest of + robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's followers + more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were Huguenots. + +MENENDEZ. At the time the news reached Spain of Coligny's + settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro Menendez, was + preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and thus after a long delay + carry out the task which De Soto had vainly attempted. Menendez was + naturally as eager as the king to drive out the French intruders. So an + expedition larger than was planned at first was hurried off. Menendez + was to do three things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize + the Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida. + +THE DEFEAT OF THE FRENCH FLEET. Menendez with a part of his fleet + arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the relief expedition + which Coligny had sent over came into harbor. His ships attacked and + scattered those of the French. The vessels of the French for the most + part sought refuge on the high seas. They were too swift to be + overtaken, but no match for the Spanish in battle. Menendez decided to + wait for the rest of his ships before making another attack on Fort + Caroline. Meanwhile he sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles + till he came to an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine. + +ST. AUGUSTINE FOUNDED. A friendly Indian chief readily gave his + dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like structure, made of + the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with palmetto leaves. Soldiers + quickly dug a ditch around it and threw up a breastwork of earth and + small sticks. The colonists who came with Menendez landed and set about + the usual work of founding a settlement. Such was the beginning of the + Spanish town of St. Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in + the United States. + + [Illustration: ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY MENENDEZ + Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby] + +FRENCH SAIL TO ATTACK ST. AUGUSTINE. Both sides prepared for a + terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and the Spaniards in + their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French struck the first blow. A + few of the weaker and the sick soldiers were left at Fort Caroline to + stand guard with the women and children. The main body aboard the ships + advanced by sea to attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered + and wrecked the French fleet before it arrived. + +MENENDEZ DESTROYS FORT CAROLINE. Menendez now took advantage of the + storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading through swamps and + fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale. His drenched and hungry + followers fell like wild beasts upon the few French left in the fort. + About fifty of the women and children were spared to become captives. As + many men escaped in the forests around the fort, but the greater part + were killed. + +CAPTURE OF THE SHIPWRECKED FRENCH. The French fleet had been + wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St. Augustine. A + few days later Menendez discovered some survivors wandering along the + coast, half starved, trying to live on the shell-fish they found on the + beach, and slowly and painfully working their way back toward Fort + Caroline. The Frenchmen begged Menendez to be allowed to remain in the + country till ships could be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling + to make any terms with them. + +MURDER OF THE CAPTIVES. The unhappy Frenchmen were taken prisoners, + and, a few hours later, put to death. Other shipwrecked refugees were + captured a few days later, and these suffered the same fate. Nearly + three hundred perished in this cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless + deed, and yet such was the character of all warfare at the time. + Menendez believed that he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain + think Menendez unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of + the Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say to + him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as to those + he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys." + + [Illustration: NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS OF + DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER] + + [Illustration: (map)] + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore and + settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why France + had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of the + continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he specially + interested in St. Lawrence region? + + 2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine rapids, + given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence river? + + 3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French colony in + North America? How much had he and his friends accomplished for + France in North America? + + 4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in America? + Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on the map. + Give several reasons why they soon got into trouble with + the Spaniards. + + 5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do? What + things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St. + Augustine? Find it on the map. + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. Examine the map of North America in 1541. What parts + of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can you see + why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great river? + + 2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French + explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from + Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in one + of your geographies. + + _Important Date_: 1565. The founding of St. Augustine. + + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE NETHERLANDERS. Two years after the cruel + massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II, the King of + Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the Netherlanders, and + sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke of Alva, who was as + pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing prominent nobles, and he + would have arrested the Prince of Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A + court was set up which condemned many persons to death, including the + greatest nobles of the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of + Blood. Alva also turned the merchants against him by compelling them to + pay the "tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods + every time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so + thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to Spain. + +THE BEGGARS OF THE SEA. Just then something happened which gave + Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance. The men who were + resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands had been nicknamed the + "Beggars." When they were driven from the cities they took to the sea. + The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes found a port of refuge in La + Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the western coast of France, and sometimes + they put into friendly English harbors. From these places they would + sail out and attack Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572 + ordered a fleet of these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their + own shores and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success + encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to rise and + expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns. + +THE FRENCH PROMISE AID. As soon as Coligny heard the news he urged + the French king to send an army into the Netherlands and take vengeance + not only for the massacre at Fort Caroline, but also for all the wrongs + that he and his father and his grandfather had ever received at the + hands of the Spaniards. The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the + Netherlanders promising aid. + + [Illustration: GASPARD DE COLIGNY After the portrait in the + Public Library, Geneva] + +MASSACRE OF HUGUENOTS IN PARIS. The plan was never carried out. + While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in Paris, his enemies + attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed these enemies, including + the king's mother, persuaded the king that Coligny and the Huguenots + were plotting against him, and goaded the king into ordering the murder + of all the Huguenots in Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands + of Huguenots perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen + Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny had + missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon to have + other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to help the Dutch. + These new enemies were the English. + +THE ENGLISH DRAWN INTO THE CONFLICT. The religious troubles in + England had been growing more serious. Two or three plots were made to + assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the throne Queen Mary of + Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip began to encourage these + plotters, especially after the pope in 1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth + and forbidden her subjects to obey her as queen. She was sure to be + dragged into the struggle in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have + seen that she had once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of + Coligny and his followers frightened the English and made many of them + anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the Continent, + the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were utterly destroyed. + +GROWTH OF ENGLISH TRADE. If England should be drawn into war, her + safety would depend mainly upon her ships. Englishmen had always taken + to the sea, as was natural for men whose shores were washed by the + Atlantic, the Channel and the North Sea, but they were slow in building + fleets of ships either for trade or for war. The trade of the country + with other peoples in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by + foreigners. Yet since the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a + change had taken place. English merchants found their way to all + markets. They also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the + religious troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill + to England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and silks. + +THE NEW ENGLISH NAVY. The English navy was growing. One of the new + ships, _The Triumph_, carried 450 seamen, 50 gunners, and 200 soldiers. + Besides harquebuses for the soldiers, there were many kinds of cannon + with strange names, such as culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines, + and rabinets. Four of the cannon were large enough to shoot a + cannon-ball eight inches in diameter. But it was on the skill and + courage of her men rather than upon the size of her ships that England + relied for victory. + + [Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE After the painting at Buckland + Abby, England] + +SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. One of these men was Francis Drake. He was son + of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the rigging of the + great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the streets. In time young + Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a small trading vessel. Fortune + smiled on the lad early in life. His master died, and out of love for + the apprentice who had served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis + Drake became thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most + popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains. + +SLAVE-TRADERS. He often went with his cousin, John Hawkins, on + voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from slave-traders along the + coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they found, and carried them to the + Spanish planters of the West Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout + and humane as other men of their time. They simply could not see any + wrong in enslaving the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they + enjoyed the wild life of the slave-trader with its dangers and + rich rewards. + +WHY DRAKE HATED THE SPANIARDS. The king of Spain tried to keep the + trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted to prevent the + trade of the English slavers with the West Indies. Spanish ships-of-war + ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins and Drake hoped for large + profits. The Spaniards won thereby the undying hatred of Drake. + +THE DRAGON OF THE SEAS. It was a time, too, when Drake's countrymen + at home shared his intense hatred of the Spaniard. While England and + Spain were not at war with one another, English and Spanish traders + fought whenever they met on the high seas. The English made the Spanish + settlements in America their special prey. At certain times of the year + Spanish ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and + silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like many + another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of their + precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his cunning and + courage. More than once he was forced to bury his treasures in the sand + to lighten his ships that they might sail the faster, and escape his + pursuers. The Spaniards came to know and to fear Drake as the Dragon + of the Seas. + + [Illustration: SPANISH TREASURE SHIP] + +DRAKE'S VENTURE. Drake once formed the plan to take a fleet into + the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure ships where they + would be less on their guard. A fleet of five ships was made ready. + Contributions from wealthy merchants and powerful nobles, perhaps a gift + from Queen Elizabeth herself, gave him the means for unusual luxuries in + the equipment of his fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were + taken on board Drake's own ship, the _Pelican_, or the _Golden Hind_ as + he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left Plymouth in + 1577. One after another of the ships turned back or was destroyed on the + long voyage of twelve months across the Atlantic and through the Strait + of Magellan. + +BEYOND THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. The _Golden Hind_ alone remained to + carry out the original project. As it entered the Pacific Ocean a furious + storm drove the little vessel southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions + where the oceans meet. No one before had sailed so far south. + +THE FIRST PRIZES. Drake regained control of his ship when the storm + had passed, and sailed northward along the coast, plundering and robbing + as he went. Once, as a land-party was searching along the shore for + fresh water, it came upon a Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver + beside him. His nap was disturbed long enough to take away his burden. + Further on they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train + of Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The + Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their boats. + A treasure ship, nicknamed the _Spitfire_, on the way to Panama, was + captured after a long chase of nearly eight hundred miles. Drake + obtained from it unknown quantities of gold and silver. With such a rich + load, his thoughts turned to the homeward voyage. + +DRAKE'S VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD. By this time a host of Spanish + war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture him on his + return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now confronted with real + danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He and many other Englishmen of + his day were sure a passage would be found somewhere through North + America between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Spanish, French, and + English explorers had all carried on the search for this passage. Drake + decided to return by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the + coast of California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington + as far as Vancouver + + [Illustration: MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE] + + When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he gave up the + search. + + After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles above the + modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the Pacific to return + home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by going around the world. + He touched at the Philippines, visited the Spice Islands, and slowly + worked his way around the Cape of Good Hope. The _Golden Hind_, long + since given up as lost, reached England in the fall of 1580, after + nearly three years' absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around + the world. Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor. + +DRAKE'S REWARD. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake told of + outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most gorgeous robes + she visited his ship, where a banquet had been prepared. While Drake + knelt at her feet she made him a knight. And so it was that the man whom + the Spaniards called with good reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the + English called by a new title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the + greatest sea-captain of the age. His ship, the _Golden Hind_, was + ordered to be preserved forever. + +THE DUTCH STRUGGLE AGAINST SPAIN. A few years after Drake returned + the English took a deeper interest in the struggle between Philip and + the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of help from the French + Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals more boldly than ever. The + Spanish soldiers treated the towns which surrendered so savagely that + the other towns decided it was better to die fighting than to yield. The + siege of Leyden became famous because, after food had given out and the + inhabitants were starving their friends cut the great dikes in order + that the boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might + be floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood also + drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of the city a + strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the dikes could again + be replaced. + + [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT] + +THE DEATH OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. King Philip had come to the + conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the Dutch could not + be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince William's head, offering a + large sum of money to any one who should kill him. The first attempts + failed, but finally in 1584 he was shot. + +SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. The murder of William alarmed the English for + Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already aided men who were + plotting against her. She sent an army into the Netherlands to aid the + Dutch, although she had not made up her mind to attack Philip directly. + The army did not give much help to the Dutch, but it is remembered + because a noble English poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in + one of the battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back, + tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men always do, + and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it was brought to him + he saw on the ground a common soldier more sorely wounded than he. He + immediately sent the water to the soldier saying, "Thy necessity is + greater than mine." + +THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. The king of Spain now decided that he could + not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly punished the English. He + even planned to put himself upon the English throne, claiming that he + was the heir of one of the early kings of England. Months were spent in + preparing a great fleet, an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the + Channel, take on board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross + over to England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's + usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so much + shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had to be + postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of + Spain's beard." + +THE ARMADA IN THE CHANNEL. It was July, 1588, before the + "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English Channel. Many + of the Spanish ships were larger than the English ships, but they were + so clumsy that the English could outsail them and attack them from any + direction they chose. Moreover, the Spaniards needed to fight close at + hand in order that the soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in + the fray. The English kept out of range of these guns and used their + heavy cannon. + + [Illustration: THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL After + an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the + House of Lords] + +DESTRUCTION OF THE ARMADA. With the English ships clinging to the + flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards moved heavily up the + Channel. In the narrower waters between Dover and Calais the English + attacked more fiercely, and sank several Spanish vessels. Soon the + others were fleeing into the North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many + sought to reach Spain by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some + of these ships were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's + proud fleet returned to Spain. + +EFFECT OF THE DEFEAT OF THE ARMADA ON SPAIN. This was the last + attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain had been + exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies for the Invincible + Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and the English attacked and + plundered Spanish vessels wherever they found them. + +THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE DUTCH. The ruin of the Armada also meant + that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent of the Spanish + king. Seven of the northern provinces had already formed a union and had + begun to call themselves the United Netherlands. They were growing + richer while their neighboring provinces on the south, which had decided + to return to their allegiance to Spain, grew poorer. + +FIRST VOYAGE OF THE DUTCH TO THE EAST. Even while the fight was + going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had not permitted them + to trade while he could control them. One of these places was Lisbon, + the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch obtained spices which the + Portuguese brought from the East Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized + Portugal, and the Dutch could no longer go to Lisbon. This made them + anxious to find their way to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out. + This voyage was unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the + Dutch had almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of + Spain, from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across + the Atlantic to the shores of America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name was + given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the Netherlands? + Why were they given this name? + + 2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the Netherlands? + Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people were ready to + help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least why the English + were willing to help the Dutch against Spain? + + 3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to make a + navy? + + 4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the Spaniards? + What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he come to go + around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since Magellan made + his voyage? + + 5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards think + of him? Why did each people think as it did? + + 6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why did + this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder? + + 7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and make + himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out his plan? + Why were the English victorious in the great battle with the Armada? + Where was the battle fought? + + 8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the + Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of Spain? + + 9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war with + Spain ended? + + 10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French for + trade and settlements in America? + + + + EXERCISES + + 1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous voyage + around the world? + + 2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in Chapters 19 + and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and settling America? + + 3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and the + southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day. + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA + +ENGLISH INTEREST IN AMERICA AWAKENED. Voyages like those made by + Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout England to learn more + about the New World. Until this time even the great discoveries of + Columbus and the Cabots had failed to stir the English people to take + part in the exploration and settlement of the Americas. The principal + reason was because their attention was occupied by the struggle between + their monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should + govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth had been + on the throne some years. + + Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned their ships + toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as he had done, + mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on board the ships of Spain + bound homeward. Some of them explored the coast of North America, hoping + to find valuable regions that had not fallen into the possession of the + Spaniards. + +THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE. Martin Frobisher made three voyages, the + last in 1578, in search of a passage through North America to China. He + entered the bay which bears his name, and the strait which was later + called after Hudson, but failed to find a passage. Drake attempted to + find the western entrance to such a passage in 1579 as a short cut + homeward when he tried to avoid his Spanish pursuers. + +GILBERT. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey Gilbert. He + wished to build up another England across the sea, just as the people of + Spain were building up another Spain. He planned to do this by + establishing farms to which he and others might send laborers who could + not find work at home. Queen Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage + him, and to repay him for the expense of carrying the emigrants over, + she promised him the land for six hundred miles on each side of his + settlements. + + [Illustration: CHARLCOTE HALL An English Manor House of the time + of Queen Elizabeth] + +FAILURE OF GILBERT'S EXPEDITION. Gilbert tried twice to plant a + colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Sir Walter + Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in the expedition of + 1578. He would have been in the disastrous second attempt in 1583 had + not Queen Elizabeth, full of forebodings of danger to her favorite, + refused to let him go. As it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert + took a large supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please + the savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless + commander. + + The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583. The ship + that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted before they were out + of sight of England. One was left in Newfoundland. The wreck of the + largest ship, with most of the provisions, off Cape Breton, so + discouraged the crews that they prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the + plan to settle on such barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to + return on the _Squirrel_, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This + was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of the + little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran into a + fearful storm as it approached the Azores. + + Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he refused to + desert his companions, with whom he had passed through so many storms + and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by his reply, "Do not + fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land." One night the _Squirrel_ + suddenly sank. All on board were lost. Such was the sad ending of the + first efforts to establish an English colony in North America. + +RALEIGH Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan which his + kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the height of his + favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him wealthy, especially by the + gift of large estates which she had taken from others. She readily + promised him the same privileges in America which she had offered to + Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless thought that he might increase his fortune + and win glory for himself and for his country by planting English + colonies in the New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the + undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able + commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had fortune, + skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a friend of poets and + scholars and a student of books; like Drake, he was a natural leader + of men. + + [Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON] + +VIRGINIA. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an expedition to explore + the coast for a suitable site for a colony. His men sailed by way of the + Canaries, and came upon North America in the neighborhood of Pamlico + Sound, avoiding the stormy route directly across the Atlantic which + Gilbert had followed. They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore + of Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North + Carolina and Virginia. + + They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were particularly + pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by the Indians Roanoke + Island. They noted with wonder the overhanging grape-vines loaded with + fruit, the fine cedar trees which seemed to them the highest and reddest + in the world, the great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless + deer in the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth + was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed it to + be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and made Raleigh + a knight. + +THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONISTS. Raleigh made several attempts to plant + a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was led by John White in 1587. + White had visited Virginia on an earlier voyage, and painted more than + seventy pictures of Indian life, representing their dress and their + manner of living. These may still be seen in the British Museum in + London. His interest in the country and its Indian population made his + appointment as governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the + selection of colonists in order to secure farmers rather than + gold-seekers. Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony + of about one hundred and fifty persons. + +ROANOKE. White and his followers settled on Roanoke Island. They + found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers had built some + years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several huts were still + standing, but they were falling to pieces. The first task was to rebuild + the huts and move into them from their ships. A baby girl was born a few + days after the landing, the first child born of English parents in the + New World. Her father, Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her + mother, Eleanor Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was + given the name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be + her home. + + [Illustration: MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES] + +THE COLONISTS IN DANGER. The little colony must have foreseen the + hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for before Governor + White had been in America two months, he was sent back to England to + obtain more provisions, White, from his own account, did not wish to + leave his daughter and granddaughter. + +WHITE'S SEARCH FOR AID. White returned to England in the fall of + 1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England was alarmed by the + rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to land an invading army. The + friends of Virginia in England were too busy protecting their own homes + from the invader to give heed to the needs of the farmer colonists + across the sea. White traveled through England, seeking aid for his + friends and family, but was disappointed everywhere. + +WHY RALEIGH GAVE NO HELP. Raleigh had by no means forgotten his + colonists, but his queen and his country had the first claim on him + through the long war with Spain. Twice during this period, he found time + and means to prepare relief expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped + the first one just as it was ready to sail, because all the ships were + needed at that moment for service in the war. A second expedition was + attacked by the Spaniards and forced to return. + +THE LOST COLONY. White finally secured passage for himself on a + fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and relief supplies of + his own, but as a passenger on another man's ship. It was the summer of + 1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four years after his departure. The + colonists were not to be found. Their houses were torn down. The chests + which they had evidently buried in order to hide them from the Indians + had been dug up and ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers + which he had left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were + torn and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through + with rust. + + One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large letters + CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the old fort. White + recalled the agreement made when he left four years before. If the + colonists should find it necessary to leave Roanoke, they were to carve + on a tree the name of the place to which they were going. If they were + in danger or distress when they left, they were to carve a cross over + the name of the place. White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the + name of a small island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived + who were known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe + among the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search for + them because the captains of the ships which brought him over refused to + delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were evidently more eager to + attack the Spaniards than to find a few luckless emigrants. + + [Illustration: AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589 + After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum] + + The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history. It is + believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and lived with + them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted the ways of their + protectors. + +VALUE OF THE EFFORTS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH. Raleigh had + failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new England in America, + but he had awakened in his countrymen an interest in America, and made + known the advantages of its soil and climate. The French had apparently + made no greater headway. Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken + up, and the Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The + history of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec, + Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's at + Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in America which + were not strongly supported by friends or by the home government. These + attempts to plant colonies in America were not, however, as bad failures + as they appeared. Both nations had learned much about the country and + about the preparations needed for permanent settlements. + +WHAT THE SPANISH HAD ACCOMPLISHED. In 1600 Spain seemed to have + achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of that time shows + Spain in possession of vast territories in North and South America. The + English had a small tract, Virginia, in which they had some interest but + no colonists. The French regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by + right of discovery, but they could point to no settlements to clinch + that claim. + + The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two hundred cities + and towns which they had planted in their territories. About two hundred + thousand Spaniards, farmers, miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had + either migrated from Spain to America or had been born there of + emigrants since Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come + under their rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and + called themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro + slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines in + Spanish America. + + [Illustration: Regions in the New World and the East claimed by + the Countries of Europe after a century of exploration.] + + The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like the cities + of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and mason-work abounded. + Churches, monasteries, a university, higher schools for boys and girls, + four hospitals, of which one was for Indians, and public buildings, + similar to those in the cities of old Spain, already existed. Spanish + life and Spanish culture had spread over a large area in the New World, + and the most remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had + been bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into Spain + and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new world. + +THE PROSPECTS OF THE SPANISH COLONIES. But the outlook for Spain in + America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her Dutch subjects and + the war with England, which grew out of that quarrel, left her + completely worn out. She no longer had the people to spare for American + settlements. These ceased to grow as they once had. Negroes and Indians + outnumbered the Spaniards in most of them. The three races mingled + together and intermarried until a new people, the Spanish American, + differing in color and blood from either of the old races, was formed. + +THE LATER STORY OF COLONIZATION. Spain's rivals--the Dutch, the + English, and the French--were just reaching the height of their power. + They had settled their most serious religious differences. Their + merchants were eagerly looking about for commercial opportunities. A + considerable population in each of them, but more especially in England, + was discontented and ready to try its fortunes in a new world. The + Spaniards had passed by the best parts of North America as worthless. + The people and the unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of + colonies on a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American + colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the Dutch, + the French, and the English colonization of North America. + + + QUESTIONS + + 1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in America + before Drake's time? What finally, made the English sea-captains + turn to American adventure and exploration? + + 2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you find for + his failure? + + 3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of planting + English colonies in America? What part of North America did his men + select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable place? What name + was given to the country? + + 4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What did + White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search + of them? + + 5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in their + efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained anything + from all their efforts? + + 6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus? Why + were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been? What + rivals were ready to begin colonies in America? + + + EXERCISES + + 1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give Gilbert + for his plan in North America? Was there this much (twelve hundred + miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America unclaimed by the + French and the Spaniards? + + 2. Find Roanoke Island on the map. + + 3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by the + English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of + discovery and exploration (1492-1600). What parts of North America + were still unknown? With the use of some map of the world to-day + make a list of the colonies of the same countries now. + + + REVIEW + + 1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in discovering + the New World, and give for each the name of the region he found. + + 2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which they + carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do, the + knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and Britain? + What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English learned to + do, the knowledge of which they either were already, as in the case + of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in the case of England + and France, were prepared to carry into North America? + + + +REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS + +The following references are given in the hope that they will be helpful +to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive, but enough are given +so that one or more books for each subject should be found in any fairly +equipped school or public library. Some of these books may be assigned +to the brighter or more ambitious members of the class for home +readings. Extracts from others may be read to the class directly. Still +others will furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller +statements of fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A +Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill +and Tail (Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further +information regarding those that are given here. + + + A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii, iii, + and iv.) + + _(a) Histories of the Greeks_. + + Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy + history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes; + Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the + Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in + Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of + the Greeks. + + _(b) Versions of some famous old Greek stories_, especially the + story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden Fleece, + the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses. + + A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H. + A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's The + Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; C. H. + and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; Charles + Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in Tanglewood + Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the Golden Fleece in a + specially interesting manner. Bryant's translation of the Odyssey is + one of the best known versions of that story and may generally be + found in public libraries. + + _(c) Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes_. Short accounts of the + lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles, Socrates, + Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives of Greek + Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; Jennie Hall, Men + of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; E.M. + Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and Plutarch's Lives. There + are several abridged editions of the latter, but those by C.E. + Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives, + are best adapted to the use of schools. + + _(d) Various features of Greek Life_, as the home, the schools, + food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government have been + described in the books on Greek Life. + + Among these are Blümner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (translated + by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks; + Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker, Life in + Ancient Athens. + + _(e) Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria_. Descriptions of these + great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any history of + Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, ch. 2, or + Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in Draper, + Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for Alexandria, + will serve the purpose. + + _(f)_ A description of the battle of Marathon, abridged from the + History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M. Fling's + Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many incidents + in Greek History as the Greek writers told them. + + _(g)_ A description of the materials, methods of building, + decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples, + theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek + Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art. + + _(h)_ Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's History + of the Greeks, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth about the Old Greek + Legends, or the same author's account, Vol. I, pp. 272-295, of + Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden Day. + + B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v, vi, + vii, viii and ix.) + + _(a) Histories of the Romans_. + + Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History; + How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History of Rome; + though the last two do not cover the entire period of Roman history. + Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive in style and + supplied with a great variety of pictures and other + illustrative matter. + + Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the + Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in + Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of the + chief events in Roman history. + + _(b) Versions of famous old Roman stories_, especially the + wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the Sabine + Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus. + + A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H.A. + Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story of the + Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and Harding, City of + Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome, gives the story of + Horatius at the Bridge, together with several other stories from + early Roman history. + + _(c) Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor, Freya, + and Tyr (Tiw)._ C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber, Myths of + Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; + Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie, Norse Stories; Eva + March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice Zimmern, Gods and Heroes + of the North. + + _(d) The Story of Hermann_ (or the struggle between the Romans and + Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta Stories, pp. + 139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of Germany. + + _(e) Short Biographies of some famous Romans_. Short accounts of the + lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero, and Constantine are + given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; Harding, The City of + Seven Hills; and several of them in Plutarch's Lives. A simple + account of the Life of Hannibal, the Carthaginian enemy of Rome, + will also be found in these books. + + _(f) Interesting phases of Roman Life_: for example, the Roman boy, + country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling, amusements, etc. + See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero; H.W. + Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B. Platner, Topography + and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World + of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of Roman life are described in + F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma. + + _(g)_ For descriptions of incidents in Roman history and phases of + Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them, see Botsford, + Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman History. + + C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and xiii.) + + _(a) Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages_. G.B. + Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of Spain + from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic; + J.R. Green, Short History of the English People; E.F. Henderson, A + Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short History of Italy. + + _(b) Collection of stories adapted to children of the grades_: The + Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, + the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland. These stories have + all been written many times, and any librarian can give the reader + copies of them as told by several writers. The following is a + partial list only: + + A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends + Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages; + Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan, European + Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland; Frances N. Greene, + Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence Holbrook, Northland + Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's King Arthur; Stevens and + Allen, King Arthur Stories from Malory. + + _(c) Famous Men of the Middle Ages_; for example, Charlemagne, King + Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the Conqueror, Frederick + Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King John, Saint Louis of + France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg. + + See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise Creighton, + Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of + Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren and Poland, + Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of the Middle + Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of England; + M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps in the + History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva March + Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from English + History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the Poets. + Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great Traveler, + is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story of his + travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has been + reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32. + + _(d) Viking Tales_. The interesting stories of the Northern + discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie Hall, + Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the Lucky, + and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland). + + _(e) The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals_. Other + kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be obtained + in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202; Pennsylvania + Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16; or in Thatcher + and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton, Introduction to + the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent explanation of mediaeval + methods of trial. + + _(f) Famous accounts of how the People of England won the Magna + Charta_. + + Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181; + Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson, + Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source + Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303. + + _(g) Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life_. Maude B. Dutton, Little + Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on How a Page became a + Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding, The Story of the Middle + Ages, especially the chapters describing life in castle, life in + village, and life in monastery. Eva March Tappan, European Hero + Stories, especially the topic, Life in Middle Ages, p. 118, the + Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna Charta, p. 111. + + D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America. (For + use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.) + + _(a) Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations_. E.G. + Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2 volumes; + and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. + + _(b) Short, easy biographies of famous explorers_. (Da Gama, + Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and Raleigh.) + + Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F. Gordy, + Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance of + Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times; Higginson, + Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B. Hodgdon, A + First Course in American History, Book I; W.H. Johnson, The World's + Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of Columbus and Magellan; + Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L. Pratt, America's Story for + America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude V.D. Southworth, Builders of + our Country, Book I; Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the + Southwest. + + _(c) Stories of explorations as told by the explorers themselves_. + + Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart, Source + Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early accounts of John + Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart, Source Readers, No. + 1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of De Soto as described by + one of his followers, in Hart, Source Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old + South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado; Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31, + the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35, Cortés' Account of the City of + Mexico; No. 36, The Death of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages + of the Cabots; No. 89, The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The + First Voyage to Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No. + 116, Sir Francis Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118, + Gilbert's Expedition; No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke. + + _(d) The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,_ of Cortés, + Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of the Missions. (See + Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.) + + + + +INDEX + + +Acropolis, +Africa, explored, +Aldine Press, +Alexander the Great, +Alexandria, + founded, + end of trade route, +Alfred, King, +Alps, + Hannibal crosses, +Alva, in Netherlands, +America, + discovered by Columbus, + origin of name, +Amphitheater, + at Rome, + Arles, +Anglo-Saxons, +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, +Apollo, +Aqueducts, + Roman, + Aztec, +Arabic numerals, +Arabs, + see Mohammedans, +Arches, + Roman, + triumphal, + Gothic, + in Renaissance, +Architecture, + Greek, + Roman, + early Church, + Mediaeval, + Renaissance, +Aristocracy, + origin of, +Armada (ar-ma'da), + expedition of, +Arms, Athenian, + Gallic, + Mediaeval, + Aztec, +Arthur, King, +Astrolabe, +Athens, +Augustus, Emperor, +Azores, +Aztecs, + +Bahama Islands, +Balboa (balbo'a), +Basilicas, +Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu), +Beggars of the Sea, +Black Sea, +Bologna (bo-lon'ya), + University of, +Boniface, +Books, + Greek, + carried to Italy, + see printing, +Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o), +Boxing, Greek, +Britain, + name changed to England, +Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um), + founded, + named Constantinople, + +Cabot, John, +Cabot, Sebastian, +Caesar, Julius, +Calvin, John, +Cambridge, University of, +Canary Islands, +Cannae, battle of, +Canterbury, +Cape of Good Hope, +Cape Horn, +Caroline, Fort, + settlement, + destroyed, +Carthaginians, +Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya), +Castles, +Cathedrals, +Caudine Forks, +Caxton, William, +Census, Roman, +Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain), +Charybdis (ka-rib'dis), +China, +Christianity, +Cibola, + see Seven Cities +Cincinnatus, +Clergy, +Coligny (ko'len'ye), +Colonies, Greek, + Roman, + Spanish, + French, + English, +Colorado, Canyon of, +Colosseum, +Columbus, Christopher. + discoveries of, +Compass, origin of, +Constantine, +Constantinople, + founded, + renamed, + educated men of, + taken by Turks, +Consuls, at Rome, +Corinth, +Corinthian pillars, +Coronado, Francisco, +Cortes, Hernando, + conquest of Mexico, +Courts, + Greek, + English, +Crusades, +Cuba, +Cumae, + +Danes, + see Northmen, + Normans, +Dare, Virginia, +Delphi, +Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez), +De Soto, Fernando, +Diaz, Bartholomew, +Discus thrower, +Doric pillars, +Drake, Sir Francis, + adventures in America, + voyage around world, + attack on Spain, +Duke, origin of word, +Dutch, war for independence, + +East, The, + defined, + search for sea routes, +Education, + Greek, + Roman, + Mediaeval, +Egyptians, +Elizabeth, Queen, +England, + first known, + inhabited by Britons, + conquered by Romans, + name, + christianized, + Danes in, + in Middle Ages, + aids Dutch, + navy, + war with Spain, +English explorations and colonies, +English language, origin, +Erasmus, +Eric the Red, +Españolà (es-pan-yo'la) +Euclid, + +Fairs, Mediaeval, +Ferdinand, King, +Florida, + origin of name, + exploration, + St. Augustine in, +France, + see Gauls, + name, + Danes in, + in Middle Ages, + sailors of, + colonies in America, +Francis I, King, +French language, +Friar Marcos, +Friday, origin of name, +Frieze, +Frobisher, Martin, + +Gama, Vasco da, +Games, + Greek, + Roman, +Gauls, +Genoa, +Germany, + language, + early, + name, + early emigrants from, + missionaries to, +Gilbert, Humphrey, +Girgenti (jer-jen'te), + temple at, +Gladiators, +Gothic architecture, +Goths, +Government, + at Athens, + at Rome, + in England, +Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius, +Great Charter, +Greece, + language of, + early history, + manner of living in, + colonies, + rivals, + conquered by Rome, + and the Renaissance, +Greenland, +Gregory, Pope, +Guam, +Guilds, +Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk), +Gymnasium, Greek, + +Hannibal, +Hawkins, John, +Hayti, see Española, +Henry, Prince, the Navigator, +Henry II, of England, +Henry VIII, of England, +Hercules, +Hermann, +Hermes, +Herodotus (herod'otus), +Homer, +Horatius, +House of Commons, +House of Lords, +Houses, + Greek, + Roman, + Aztec, + in Cibola, +Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), + origin of, + in America, + and Dutch, + +Iceland, +Incas, +India, +Indians, + origin of name, + of Mexico, + of Peru, + as slaves, + missions to, + and De Soto, + in Cibola, + in Quivira, + at Roanoke, +Indies, +Ionic pillars, +Isabella, Queen of Spain, +Isabella, town in Española, +Italy, + Greeks in, + Romans masters of, + farmers in, + Goths invade, + Mediaeval, + Renaissance in, + +Japan, +Jerusalem, +Jews, +John, King of England, +Jury, origin of, +Justice, + Greek, + English, +Justinian, + +Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne) +Knights, + +Las Casas (ca'sas), +Latin, + words, + literature, + learned by the Gauls, + in Middle Ages, + in Renaissance, +Law, + Roman, + English, +Leif Ericson, +London, +Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la) +Luther, Martin, + +Madeira Islands (madei'ra), +Magellan, +Magellan, Strait of, +Magna Charta, +Marathon, +Marco Polo, +Marseilles (mar-salz), +Mary, Queen of England, +Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath) +Mexico, conquest of, +Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo), +Middle Ages, + defined, + close, +Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez) +Missionaries, +Missions, Spanish, +Mississippi River, discovery of, +Modern Times, defined, +Mohammedans, +Moluccas, +Monasteries, +Mongol Tartars, +Montezuma, King of Aztecs, +Montreal, +Moors, +Mosaics, + +Naples, +Navy, + English, + in battle against the Armada, +Netherlands, revolt of, +New Testament, + Greek, + first printed, +Nobles, +Norman architecture, +Norman Conquest, +Normans, +Northmen, +Notre Dame (no'tr'dam) + in Paris, + +Odin, +Olympia, +Olympic games, +Ordeals, +Oxford, University of, + +Pacific Ocean, +Paestum (pes'tum), +Paintings, Greek, +Panama, +Pantheon (Pan'theon), +Papyrus (pa-pi'rus), +Paris, +Parliament, English, origin of, +Parthenon (par'thenon), +Patagonia, +Patricians, +Paul, the Apostle, +Peasants, +Pediment, +Persia, +Peru, conquest of, +Petrarch (pe'trark), +Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez), +Philip II, +Philippines, +Phoenicia, +Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro), + conquest of Peru, +Plataeans, +Plato, +Plebeians, +Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), +Pompey, +Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on), +Pope, the Bishop of Rome, +Porticoes, +Portugal, + sailors of, + and the New World, +Potato, found by Magellan, +Pottery, + Greek, + Aztec, + Zuñi, +Printing, invented, +Ptolemy (tol'e-mi), +Pyrrhus (pir'us), + +Quebec, +Quivira, + +Raleigh, Sir Walter, +Renaissance (ren'e-sans), +Richard, the Lionhearted, +Roads, Roman, +Roanoke, +Roman Empire, + size, + origin, +Roman type, +Romans, + language, + see Latin, early, + contact with Greeks, + wars in Italy, + early manner of living, + war with Carthage, + conquer Gaul and Britain, + Empire of, + civilization of, + Christianized, + empire ruined, + literature of, + influence, +Romanesque architecture, +Romulus, + +Salamis, +Samnites, +San Salvador, +St. Augustine, +Sardinia, +Saxons, +Sculpture, Greek, +Scylla (sil'a), +Senators, at Rome, +Seven Cities of Cibola, +Shakespeare, +Ships, + Greek, + early English, + Venetian, + of Columbus, + of English navy, +Sicily, +Sidney, Sir Philip, +Simon de Montfort, +Slaves, + Greek, + Roman, + Indians as, + Negroes as, +Slave-trade, + Spanish, + English, +Socrates (sok'ra-tez), +Spain, early settlements in, + Romans capture, + name, + Arabs in, + Columbus and, + claim to New World, + colonies of, + war with Netherlands, + war with England, +Sparta, +Spice Islands, +Spice trade, +Stadium, +Statues, Greek, + +Temples, Greek, +Theater, + Greek, + early Roman, + later, +Thebes, +Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), +Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le), +Theseum (these'um), +Thor, +Thursday, origin of name, +"Tin Islands," +Towns, in Middle Ages, +Trade, Mediaeval, +Trade-winds, +Trebia, battle of, +Trial by battle, +Tribune, Roman, +Trireme, +Troy, +Turks, +"Twelve Tables," +Tyre, + +Ulfilas, +Ulysses, +Universities, + +Venice, +Venus of Melos, +Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix), +Vespucius, Americus, +Veto, at Rome, +Vikings, +Vinland, +Virginia, + origin of name, + colony in, + +Watling Island, +Wednesday, origin of name, +West Indies, +White, John, +William the Conqueror, +William of Orange, +Wodan, +Women, Roman, +Words, +Writing, art of, + +Xerxes (zurk'zez), + +Zuñi, + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History +by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + +This file should be named 8iahs10.txt or 8iahs10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8iahs11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8iahs10a.txt + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + diff --git a/old/8iahs10.zip b/old/8iahs10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..009ebba --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8iahs10.zip diff --git a/old/8iahs10h.htm b/old/8iahs10h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4580ed6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8iahs10h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,8407 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN +HISTORY, by HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON.</title> +<style type="text/css"> + <!-- + * { font-family: Times;} + P { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 14pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + HR { width: 33%; } + // --> + </style> +<style type="text/css"> + body { + background-color: #ffffff; + } + p.c4 {font-style: italic} + p.c3 {font-weight: bold} + h2.c2 {font-weight: bold} + hr.c1 {width: 35%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History +by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Introductory American History + +Author: Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9897] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 28, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + +</pre> + +<table align="center" width="90%" border="0" cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0" summary="bookspace"> +<tr> +<td><br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2 class="c2">INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2> +<p>BY</p> +<p>HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON</p> +<p>PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY</p> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2>1912</h2> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> +<br> + +<p>This volume is the introductory part of a course in American +history embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee +of Eight of the American Historical Association.<a href= +"#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> <a name="FNanchor1">The plan</a> +calls for a continuous course running through grades six, seven, +and eight. The events which have taken place within the limits of +what is now the United States must necessarily furnish the most +of the content of the lessons. But the Committee urge that enough +other matter, of an introductory character, be included to teach +boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of age that our +civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of the +Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of +our country in its true historical setting. The Committee +recommend that about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to +this preliminary matter, and that the remainder of the year be +given to the period of discovery and exploration.</p> +<p>The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four +lines of development in the world's history leading up to +American history proper.</p> +<p>First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by +which the ancient civilized world, originally made up of +communities like the Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and +eastern Mediterranean Seas, spread to southern Italy and adjacent +lands. The Roman conquest of Italy and of the barbarian tribes of +western Europe expanded the civilized world to the shores of the +Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new nations grew up. +The migration of Europeans to the American continent was the +final step.</p> +<p>Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in +extent was a growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of +what we call geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the +herald of an expanding world.</p> +<p>A third process was the creation and transmission of all that +we mean by civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the +effort should be to "show, in a very simple way, the civilization +which formed the heritage of those who were to go to America, +that is, to explain what America started with."</p> +<p>The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate +the three or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in +American colonization with enough of their characteristic +incidents to give the child some feeling for the name 'England,' +'Spain,' 'Holland,' and 'France.'"</p> +<p>No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of +Greece, Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an +attempt would be utterly destructive of the plan. Only those +features of early civilization and those incidents of history +have been selected which appear to have a vital relation to the +subsequent fortunes of mankind in America as well as in Europe. +They are treated in all cases as introductory. Opinions may +differ upon the question of what topics best illustrate the +relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of opportunity for +the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a textbook +based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of +selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to +illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may +prefer Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler +dramatic development. In the same way teachers may desire to give +more emphasis to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval +civilization or certain heroic persons treated very briefly in +this book. Exercises similar to those inserted at the end of each +chapter offer means of supplementing work provided in the +text.</p> +<p>The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of +the Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a +natural culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same +plan of division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore, +open with the study of the first permanent English +settlements.</p> +<p>The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than +most of the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is +treated, we hope, with such simplicity and definiteness of +statement that it will be comprehensible and instructive to +pupils of the sixth grade.</p> +<p>At the close of the book will be found a list of references. +From this teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and +descriptions to illustrate any features of the subject which +especially interest their classes. In the index is given the +pronunciation of difficult names.</p> +<p>We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with +wise advice and criticism.</p> +<blockquote><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a><a name="Footnote_1">The +Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's, +1909.</a></blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<table border="0" summary="Contents" cellspacing="2" cellpadding= +"0"> +<tr> +<td width="75" align="center"> </td> +<td width="516"> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> </td> +<td width="516"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3892"></a>CHAPTER</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="4451"></a>I.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#2260">THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2589"></a>II.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1086">OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="4974"></a>III.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#2718">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="1808"></a>IV.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#3618">GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="4930"></a>V.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1080">NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3582"></a>VI.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#3538">THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3165"></a>VII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4038">THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF +THE ATLANTIC</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="1050"></a>VIII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1461">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3639"></a>IX.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4119">CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2725"></a>X.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#3638">EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3319"></a>XI.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1175">HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN +THEMSELVES</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3039"></a>XII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4072">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3986"></a>XIII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4657">TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE +LATER MIDDLE AGES</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2963"></a>XIV.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#2209">THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2434"></a>XV.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4968">OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW +WORLD</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3614"></a>XVI.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#2556">EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE +MAINLAND</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2459"></a>XVII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4514">THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH +AMERICA</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="3853"></a>XVIII.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4361">RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2317"></a>XIX.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1511">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE +AMERICA</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="1276"></a>XX.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#4788">THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER +SPAIN</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4><a name="2767"></a>XXI.</h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a href="#1568">THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE +AMERICA</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4> </h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a name="1597"></a><a href="#4410">REFERENCES FOR +TEACHERS</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> +<h4> </h4> +</td> +<td width="516"> +<h4><a name="1510"></a><a href="#4994">INDEX AND PRONOUNCING +VOCABULARY</a></h4> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2>INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="2260"></a><a href="#4451">CHAPTER I</a></h2> +<p>THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</p> +<br> + +<p><b>The Emigrant and what he brings to America</b>. The +emigrant who lands at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any +other seaport, brings with him something which we do not see. He +may have in his hands only a small bundle of clothing and enough +money to pay his railroad fare to his new home, but he is +carrying another kind of baggage more valuable than bundles or +boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other baggage is +the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought from +the fatherland.</p> +<p>He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which +he hopes to labor in America. In his native land he has been +taught to obey the laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This +fits him to share in our self-government. He also brings great +memories, for he likes to think of the brave and noble deeds done +by men of his race. If he is a religious man, he worships God +just as his forefathers have for hundreds of years. To understand +how the emigrant happens to know what he does and to be what he +is, we must study the history of the country from which he +comes.</p> +<p><b>All Americans are Emigrants</b>. If this is true of the +newcomer, it is equally true of the rest of us, for we are all +emigrants. The Indians are the only native Americans, and when we +find out more about them we may learn that they, too, are +emigrants. If we follow the history of our families far enough +back, we shall come upon the names of our forefathers who sailed +from Europe. They may have come to America in the early days when +there were only a few settlements scattered along our Atlantic +coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War changed +the English colonies into the United States.</p> +<p>Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians, +we are simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the +Europe in which our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our +story. In order to understand our own history we must know +something of the history of England, France, Germany, Italy, and +other European lands.</p> +<p><b>What the early Emigrants brought</b>. If we read the story +of our forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers +to several important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek +for new lands or for new ways to lands already known? How did the +people of Europe live at the time he discovered America? What did +they know how to do? Were they skilful in all sorts of work, or +were they as rude and ignorant as the Indians on the western +shores of the Atlantic?</p> +<p>The answers which history will give to these questions will +say that the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought +with them much of the same knowledge and many of the same customs +and memories which emigrants bring nowadays and which we also +have. It is true that since the time the first settlers came men +have found out how to make many new things. The most important of +these are the steam-engine, the electric motor, the telegraph, +and the telephone. But it is surprising how many important +things, which we still use, were made before Columbus saw +America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="009.gif" src= +"Pictures/009.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING +VESSEL<br> +The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered +great hardships</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been +discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men +could make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The +ships in which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large +and wonderful to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were +steered with the help of a compass, an instrument which the +Indians had never seen.</p> +<p>Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been +known hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest +was the art of writing. The way to write words or sounds was +found out so long ago that we shall never know the name of the +man who first discovered it. The historians tell us he lived in +Egypt, which was in northern Africa, exactly where Egypt is now. +Some men were afraid that the new art might do more harm than +good. The king to whom the secret was told thought that the +children would be unwilling to work hard and try to remember +because everything could be written down and they would not need +to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to +put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made +several letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a +mixture of little pictures and queer marks.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="010.gif" src= +"Pictures/010.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Old and New Inventions</b>. Those who first discover how to +make things are called inventors, and what they make are called +inventions. Now if we should write out a list of the most useful +inventions, we could place in one column the inventions which +were made before the days of Columbus and in another those which +have been made since. With this list before us we may ask which +inventions we could live without and which we could not spare +unless we were willing to become like the savages. We should find +that a large number of the inventions which we use every day +belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is another +reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and +working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our +forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="011.gif" src= +"Pictures/011.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>A Plan of Study</b>. The discovery of America was made in +1492, at the beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before +Modern Times were the Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand +years. These began three or four hundred years after the time of +Christ or what we call the beginning of the Christian Era. All +the events that took place earlier we say happened in Ancient +Times. Much that we know was learned first by the Greeks or +Romans who lived in Ancient Times.</p> +<p>It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called +Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards, +and many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent +of Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of +what they knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out +how these things were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages +and what they added to them. This will help us to find out what +our forefathers started with when they came to live in +America.</p> +<br> + +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides +his baggage?</p> +<p>2. Why are all Americans emigrants?</p> +<p>3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America +bring with them?</p> +<p>4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone +or the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the +map. How did Egyptian writing look?</p> +<p>5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were +invented before he discovered America?</p> +<p>6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient +Times? By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the +art of writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented? +In what Times was the telephone invented?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising +folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of +sailing ships, ships used now and those used long ago.</p> +<p>2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country +stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from +ports like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now +live.</p> +<p>3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the +map the European country from which his parents or his +grandparents or his forefathers came.</p> +<p>4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his +forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each +find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each +tell the most interesting hero story from among the stories of +the mother country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the +tools used in the old home were like the tools his parents use +here.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1086"></a><a href="#2589">CHAPTER II</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</p> +<p><b>Ancient Cities that still exist</b>. In Ancient Times the +most important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean. +The northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The +first is Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the +Atlantic Ocean; the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the +third, the end of which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece. +Beyond Greece is Asia Minor, the part of Asia which lies between +the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. (See the <a name= +"1897"></a><a href="#4350">map[2]</a>.)</p> +<p>The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in +Ancient Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks, +just as they were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the +cities that the Greeks and Romans built are still standing. +Alexandria was founded by the great conqueror Alexander. +Constantinople used to be the Greek city of Byzantium. Another +Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern French city of +Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times, except that +it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name of +Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum.</p> +<p><b>Ruins which show how the Ancients lived</b>. In many of +these cities are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of +carving, vases, mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we +may see and from which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans +lived. Near Naples are the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city +suddenly destroyed during an eruption of the volcano +Vesuvius.</p> +<p>For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or +twenty feet of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets +and the walls of the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and +the walls in many places were only partly standing, but things +which in other ancient cities had entirely disappeared were kept +safe in Pompeii under the volcanic ashes.</p> +<p>The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see +how its inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit +their public buildings and their private houses, can handle their +dishes and can look at the paintings on their walls or the +mosaics in the floors. But interesting as Pompeii is, we must not +think that its ruins teach us more than the ruins of Rome or +Athens or many other ancient cities. Each has something important +to tell us of the people who lived long ago.</p> +<p><b>Ancient Words still in Use</b>. The ancient Greeks and +Romans have left us some things more useful than the ruins of +their buildings. These are the words in our language which once +were theirs, and which we use with slight changes in spelling. +Most of our words came in the beginning from Germany, where our +English forefathers lived before they settled in England. To the +words they took over from Germany they added words borrowed from +other peoples, just as we do now. We have recently borrowed +several words from the French, such as tonneau and limousine, +words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the name +automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek +word.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="015.gif" src= +"Pictures/015.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII<br> +The houses of the better sort were<br> +built with an open court in the center</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming +into our language from other languages. Several thousand have +come from Latin, the language of the Romans; several hundred from +Greek, either directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the +French. The word school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was +borrowed from the French, who took it from the Greeks. Geography +is another word which came, through French and Latin, from the +Greeks, to whom it meant that which is written about the earth. +The word grammar came in the same way. The word alphabet is made +by joining together the names of the first two Greek letters, +alpha and beta.</p> +<p>Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and +this is not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek. +Some of these are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil, +apostle, and martyr. The Greeks have handed down to us many words +about government, including the word itself, which in the +beginning meant "to steer." Politics meant having to do with a +<i>polis</i> or city. Several of the words most recently made up +of Greek words are telegraph, telephone, phonograph, and +thermometer.</p> +<p><b>Many Words borrowed from the Romans</b>. Nearly ten times +as many of our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the +Greeks, and it is not strange, because at one time the Romans +ruled over all the country now occupied by the Italians, the +French, the Spaniards, a part of the Germans, and the English, so +that these peoples naturally learned the words used by their +conquerors and governors.</p> +<p><b>Interesting Ancient Stories</b>. In the poems and tales +which we learn at home or at school are stories which Greek and +Roman parents and teachers taught their children many hundred +years ago. We learn them partly because they are interesting, and +because they please or amuse us, and partly because they appear +so often in our books that it is necessary to know them if we +would understand our own books and language. Who has not heard of +Hercules and his Labors, of the Search for the Golden Fleece, the +Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of Ulysses? We love modern fairy +stories and tales of adventure, but they are not more pleasing +than these ancient stories.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="017.gif" src= +"Pictures/017.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE PLAIN OF MARATHON</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Story of the Greeks</b>. Our language and our books are +full of memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story +of the Greeks comes before the story of the Romans, for the +Greeks were living in beautiful cities, with temples and +theaters, while the Romans were still an almost unknown people +dwelling on the hills that border the river Tiber.</p> +<p><b>Memories of Greek Courage</b>.<a name="3953"></a><a href= +"#4598">[11]</a> The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took place +in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of Persia +about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was +no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe. +Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings, +others by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together +when any danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned +traitor and helped the enemy against the others. The most +dangerous enemy the Greeks had, until the Romans attacked them, +was the kingdom of Persia, which stretched from the Aegean Sea +far into Asia. In the war with the Persians the Greeks fought +three famous battles, at Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, the +stories of which men have always liked to hear and remember.</p> +<p><b>Preparing for Marathon, 490 B.C.</b> To the Athenians +belong the glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city +of Athens now stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters +still attract students and travelers to Greece. The plain of +Marathon lay more than twenty miles to the northeast, and the +roads to it led through mountain passes. When the Athenians heard +that the hosts of the Great King of Persia were approaching, they +sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to ask aid of Sparta, a city +one hundred and forty miles away, in the peninsula now called the +Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of Greece. This runner +reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans said it would +be against their religious custom to march before the moon was +full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy alone--one +small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten +thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by +a thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of +Plataea.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="019.gif" src= +"Pictures/019.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS<br> +From a Greek vase of about the time of the battle of +Marathon</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>How the Athenians were Armed</b>. Although the Persians had +six times as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so +well armed for hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was +the bow and arrow, while the Greeks used the lance and a short +sword. The Greek soldier was protected by his bronze helmet, +solid across the forehead and over the nose; by his breastplate, +a leathern or linen tunic covered with small metal scales, with +flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves or pieces of metal +in front of his knees and shins. He was also protected by a +shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his knees. +According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten +generals, each commanding one day in turn.</p> +<p><b>The Battle-ground</b>. Marathon was a plain about two miles +wide, lying between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads +ran toward Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost +reached the sea, the other up a narrow valley and over the +mountains. The Athenians were encamped in this valley, where they +could attack the Persians if they tried to follow the shore +road.</p> +<p>The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near +the shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they +had so many more soldiers than the Athenians and because they +meant to use their horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched +the Persians, not knowing what it was best to do. Half the +generals did not wish to risk a battle, but Miltiades was eager +to fight, for he feared that delay would lead timid citizens or +traitors to yield to the Persians. He finally gained his wish, +and on his day of command the battle was ordered.</p> +<p><b>The Battle</b>. The Persians by this time had decided to +sail around to the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen +on board their ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew +up their foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their +comrades--the Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run. +The Persians thought this madness, because the Greeks had no +archers or horsemen. But the Greeks saw that if they moved +forward slowly the Persians would have time to shoot arrows at +them again and again.</p> +<p>When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the +two ends of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore. +In the center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks +were not at first successful, and were forced to retreat. But +those who had been victorious came to their rescue, attacked the +Persians in the rear, and finally drove them off. The Persians +ran into the sea to reach the ships, and the Athenians followed +them. Some of the Greeks were so eager in the fight that they +seized the sides of the ships and tried to keep them from being +rowed away, but the Persians cut at their hands and made them let +go.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="021.gif" src= +"Pictures/021.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS<br> +Where a great sea-fight between<br> +Greeks and Persians took place</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The News of the Victory</b>. The Athenians had won a +victory of which they were so proud that they meant it never +should be forgotten. Their city had suddenly become great through +the courage and self-sacrifice of her citizens. One hundred and +ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on the battle-field their +comrades raised over their bodies a mound of earth which still +marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner Pheidippides to +bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until he reached +the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on his +lips, he fell dead.</p> +<p><b>Other Victories of the Greeks</b>. Marathon was only the +beginning of Greek victories over the Persians, only the first +struggle in the long wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years +after Marathon the Spartans won everlasting glory by their heroic +stand at the Pass of Thermopylae --three hundred Greeks against +the mighty army of the Persian king Xerxes. The barbarian hordes +passed over their bodies, took the road to Athens, burned the +city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight which took place on +the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian territory and +the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to Athenian +courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader, +Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other +Greeks wanted to sail away.</p> +<p><b>Why Marathon is remembered</b>. The victories of Marathon +and Salamis were great not only because small armies of Greeks +put to flight the hosts of Persia, they were great because they +saved the independence of Greece. If the Greeks had become the +subjects and slaves of Persia, they would not have built the +wonderful buildings, or carved the beautiful statues, or written +the books which we study and admire. When we think of the Greeks +as our first teachers we feel as proud of their victories as if +they were our own victories.</p> +<p><b>The Wars of the Greek Cities</b>. The Athenians had done +the most in winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore +Athens was for many years the most powerful city in Greece. The +Spartans were always jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a +century after the victory of Marathon they conquered and humbled +Athens. The worst faults of the Greeks were such jealousies and +the desire to lord it over one another. Greek history is full of +wars of city against city, Sparta against Athens, Corinth against +Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In these wars many heroic +deeds were done, of which we like to read, but it is more +important for us to understand how the Greeks lived.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the <a name= +"1921"></a><a href="#4350">map[3].</a> (For each difficult name +find the pronunciation in the index.)</p> +<p>2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which +tell us how the people lived?</p> +<p>3. From what country did most of our words come in the +beginning? Why are they now called English? What peoples used the +word geography before we did? About how many words do we get from +the Greeks, and how many from the Romans?</p> +<p>4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the +Romans? Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived.</p> +<p>5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the +Greeks?</p> +<p>6. Find the city of Athens on the <a name="1416"></a> <a href= +"#4350">map[4].</a> Find Sparta. Where was Marathon? What city +won glory at Marathon?</p> +<p>7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and +Asia Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising +folders. Collect postal cards giving such pictures.</p> +<p>2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned <a name= +"4598"></a><a href="#3953">[11]</a> and tell it.</p> +<p>3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed +from the way the Greek soldiers were.</p> +<p>4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a +"Marathon."</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="2718"></a><a href="#4974">CHAPTER III</a></h2> +<br> + +<p class="c3">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</p> +<p><b>The Greek Cities.</b> The Greeks lived in cities so much of +the time that we do not often think of them as ever living in the +country. The reason for this was that their government and +everything else important was carried on in the city. The cities +were usually surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made +them safe from sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was +often a lofty hill, which we should call a fort or citadel, but +which they called the upper city or acropolis. There the people +lived at first when they were few in number, and thither they +fled if the walls of their city were broken down by enemies.</p> +<p>In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain. +Its top was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one +were steep cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful +temples.</p> +<p><b>Private Houses.</b> Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did +not spend much money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses +would seem small, badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But +what their houses lacked was more than made up by the beauty and +splendor of the public buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and +especially the temples.</p> +<p><b>Temples</b>. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds +of worshipers like the large churches of Europe and America +to-day. Religious ceremonies were most often carried on in the +open air. The Parthenon, the most famous temple of Ancient Times, +was small. Its principal room measured less than one hundred feet +in length. Part of this room was used for an altar and for the +ivory and gold statue of the goddess Athena.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="025.gif" src= +"Pictures/025.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Parthenon</b>. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a +similar temple, we notice the columns in front and along the +sides. The Parthenon had eight at each end and seventeen on each +side. They were thirty-four feet high. A few feet within the +columns on the sides was the wall of the temple. Before the +vestibule and entrances at the front and at the rear stood six +more columns. The beauty of the marble from which stones and +columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders +carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the +pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon +the columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above +the columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a +frieze) ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The +temple was not left a glistening white, but parts of it were +painted in blue, or red, or gilt, or orange.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="026.gif" src= +"Pictures/026.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO<br> +The Parthenon is the large temple on the right</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Other Greek Temples.</b> This beautiful temple is now +partly ruined. Ruins of other temples are on the Acropolis, and +one better preserved, called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill. +There are also similar ruins in many places along the shores of +the Mediterranean. The most interesting are <a name="1547">at</a> +<a href="#2229">Paestum</a> in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily. +Long before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans +how to construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings, +and this the Romans later taught the peoples of western +Europe.</p> +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="027.gif" src= +"Pictures/027.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GREEK ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Greek Methods of Building still used.</b> If we look at our +large buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek +buildings. Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is +imitated; sometimes this form is changed as the Romans changed +it, or as it was changed by builders who lived after the time of +the Romans. If the model of the whole building is not used, there +are similar pillars, or gables, or the sculpture in the pediment +and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks had three kinds of +pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric is simple +and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top, delicate and +beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with leaves +springing gracefully from the top of the pillar.</p> +<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="028.gif" src= +"Pictures/028.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Theaters</b>. The first Greek theater was only a smooth +open space near a hillside, with a tent, called a +<i>skené</i>, or scene, in which the actors dressed. Later +an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed on the hillside, +and across the open end was placed the <i>scene</i>, which had +been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a +house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are +furnished with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters +thousands of people gathered. Plays were generally given as a +part of religious festivals, and there were contests between +writers to see which could produce the best play. Sometimes the +plays followed one another for three days from morning until +night. Many of them are so interesting that people still read +them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied them, +and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write +plays.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="029.gif" src= +"Pictures/029.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Stadium.</b> A building which somewhat resembled the +theater was the stadium, where races were run. The difference was +that it was oblong instead of half round. The most famous +stadium, at Olympia, was seven hundred and two feet long, with +raised seats on both sides and around one end of the running +track. The other end was open. About fifty thousand persons used +to gather there to watch the races.</p> +<p><b>Porticoes.</b> There were other buildings, some for meeting +places, some for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes, +where the judges held court or the city officers carried on their +business. The porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over, +with occasionally a second story. As they stretched along the +sides of a square or market place they added much to the beauty +of a city.</p> +<p><b>Greek Sculpture.</b> We know that the Greeks were skilful +sculptors because from the ruins of their cities have been dug +wonderful marble and bronze statues which are now preserved in +the great museums of the world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and +Rome, and here in America, in New York and Boston. Museums which +cannot have the original statues usually contain copies or casts +of them in plaster. The statues are generally marred and broken, +but enough remains to show us the wonderful beauty of the +artist's work. Among the most famous are the Venus, of Melos (or +"de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a museum called the +Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia in Greece; +and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in +London.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="030.gif" src= +"Pictures/030.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS)<br> +An ancient Greek statue now in the Vatican</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the +Greek statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may +learn how such beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to +excel the Greeks, but are content to remain their pupils.</p> +<p><b>Painting and Pottery</b>. The Greeks were also painters, +makers of pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of +their workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in +the ruins of ancient buildings and tombs.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="031.gif" src= +"Pictures/031.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A GREEK BOOK<br> +The upper picture, shows the book open</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>What the Boys were taught</b>. The Greek boys were not very +good at arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or +their fingers to help them in reckoning. In learning to write +they smeared a thin layer of wax over a board and marked on that. +There was a kind of paper called papyrus, made from a reed which +grew mostly in Egypt, but this was expensive. Rolls were made of +sheets of it pasted together, and these were their books. One of +the books the boys studied much was the poems of Homer--the Iliad +and the Odyssey--which tell about the siege of Troy and the +wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these long poems by +heart. They also stored away in their memories the sayings of +other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know what +to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in +such excellent words.</p> +<p><b>Games and Exercises for Boys.</b> It is not surprising that +Greek boys knew how to play, but it is surprising that they +played many of the games which boys play now, such as +hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks and drakes, and blind man's +buff. They even "pitched pennies." In school the boys were taught +not only to read and write, but to be skilful athletes, and to +play on the lyre, accompanying this with singing. The gymnasium +was often an open space near a stream into which they could +plunge after their exercises were over. They were taught to box, +to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear. Military +training was important for them, since all might be called to +fight for the safety of their city.</p> +<p><b>The Olympic Games.</b> Boys and young men were trained as +runners, wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because +they enjoyed these exercises and the Greeks thought them an +important part of education, but also that they might bring back +honors and prizes to their city from the great games which all +the Greeks held every few years. The most famous of these games +were held at Olympia. There the Greeks went from all parts of the +country, carrying their tents and cooking utensils with them, +because there were not enough houses in Olympia to hold so many +people. Wars even were stopped for a time in order that the games +might not be postponed.</p> +<p><b>The Rewards of the Victors.</b> The principal contest was a +dash for two hundred yards, although there were longer races and +many other kinds of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to +see the most brutal sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands +and arms were covered with heavy strips of leather stiffened with +pieces of iron or lead. For the games men trained ten months, +part of the time at Olympia. The prize was a crown of wild olive, +and the winner returned in triumph to his city, where poets sang +his praises, a special seat at public games was reserved for him, +and often artists were employed to make a bronze statue of him to +be set up in Olympia or in his own city.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="033.gif" src= +"Pictures/033.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GREEK GAMES--RUNNING<br> +From an antique vase</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Government of Athens.</b> The citizen of Athens, and of +other Greek cities, had more to do with his government than do +most Americans with theirs. As nearly all work was done by +slaves, he had plenty of time to attend meetings. All the +citizens could attend the great assembly, or <i>ecclesia</i>, +where six thousand at least must be present before anything could +be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be admitted to +citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized, from +Athens as hurtful to its welfare.</p> +<p>There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less +important questions without laying them before the general +assembly. This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but +members of the council whose term had ended had a right to object +to any new member as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council +ruled for a tenth of the year, and they chose their president by +lot every day, so that any worthy man at Athens had a chance to +be president for a day and a night.</p> +<p>Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six +thousand judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a +thousand and one, or even fifteen hundred and one, took part. +Before such large courts and assemblies it was necessary to be a +good speaker to be able to win a case or persuade the citizens. +Some of the greatest orators of the world were Athenians, the +best known being Demosthenes.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="034.gif" src= +"Pictures/034.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Socrates.</b> The Athenians were not always just, although +so many of them acted as judges. One court, composed of five +hundred and one judges, condemned to death Socrates, the wisest +man of the Greeks and one of the wisest in the world. He did not +make speeches, or write books, or teach in school. He went about, +in the market place, at the gymnasium, and on the streets, asking +men, young and old, questions about what interested him most, +that is, What is the true way to live? If people did not give him +an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions, until +sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he +asked questions about everything that he did not believe in +anything, not even in the religion of his city.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="035.gif" src= +"Pictures/035.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SOCRATES<br> +After the marble bust in the Vatican</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Death of Socrates, 399 B.C</b>. After a while the +enemies of Socrates accused him of being a wicked man who +persuaded young men to be wicked. He was tried by an Athenian +court, which made the terrible blunder of finding him guilty and +condemning him to death. According to the Athenian custom he was +obliged to drink a cup of poisonous hemlock. This he did, after +talking to his friends cheerily about how a good man should live. +As he wrote no books we have learned about him from his friends. +The most famous of these was Plato, who is also counted among the +wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives of these men +is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to live +after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of +building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived?</p> +<p>2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens +look?</p> +<p>3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment. +Show where the frieze was placed. Find on a <a name="2092"></a><a +href="#4350">map[5]</a> Paestum.</p> +<p>4. What did the Greeks first mean by a <i>scene</i>? Why do we +still study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters?</p> +<p>5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such +buildings?</p> +<p>6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues?</p> +<p>7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about +the great public games of the Greeks.</p> +<p>8. How were the Greek rolls or books made?</p> +<p>9. Tell the story of Socrates.</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek +buildings?</p> +<p>2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.</p> +<p>3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a +papered room.</p> +<p>4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and +the government of your town?</p> +<p>5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the +courts in your town?</p> +<p>6. Are Olympic games held now? Where?<br> +</p> +<p>7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners +at Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic +games?</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="3618"></a><a href="#1808">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</p> +<p><b>When the Atlantic was unknown</b>. One of the most +important things done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore +the coasts and lands of Europe and to make settlements wherever +they went. At first they knew little of the western and northern +parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek whom we call the "Father of +History," and who was a great traveler, said, "Though I have +taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an assurance from +any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side of +Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark +shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood +that tin and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called +the "ends of the earth." As tin came from England, it is plain +that he had heard a little of that island.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="037.gif" src= +"Pictures/037.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED<br> +BY THE GREEK HISTORIAN HERODOTUS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Greek Emigrants.</b> Long before Athens became a great and +beautiful city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on +distant shores. Those who lived on the western coast of Asia +Minor, as well as those who lived where the kingdom of Greece is +now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The Greek colonies were +very important, because by them the ancient civilized world was +made larger, just as by the settlement of America the modern +world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from home +for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England +and Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a +new land to make a living and obtain property, or they did not +like the way their city was ruled, and being unable to change +this, resolved to build elsewhere a city which they could manage +as they pleased.</p> +<p><b>How they located a New City.</b> There were several +different lands to which they could go, just as the European of +to-day may sail for the United States or South America or +Australia. They could attempt to settle on the shores of the +Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa, or try to reach +Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France and +Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice +of the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These +priests knew more about good places for settlements than most +other persons, because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi +and the priests were wise enough to inquire about all parts of +the world.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="4350"><img alt="039.gif" src= +"Pictures/039.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"><i>The territory occupied by the Greeks<br> +is indicated by solid black</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#4761">[1]</a> <a href= +"#1897">[2]</a> <a href="#1921">[3]</a> <a href= +"#1416">[4]</a> <a href="#2092">[5]</a> <a href= +"#1974">[6]</a> <a href="#2910">[7]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to +locate their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They +discovered that these words meant that an earlier band of +emigrants had passed by the wonderful harbor of the present city +of Constantinople and had settled instead on the other shore of +the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they chose the better place +and began to build the city of Byzantium, which later became +Constantinople.</p> +<p><b>Mother and Daughter Cities.</b> Solemn ceremonies took +place when colonists departed. They carried with them fire from +the hearth of the mother city in order to light a similar fire on +their new hearth, for every city had its hearthstone and on it a +fire that was never quenched. The ties between the mother and the +daughter city were close, and the enemies of one were the enemies +of the other. He who wished to visit the colony usually went to +the mother city to find a ship bound thither.</p> +<p><b>Where the Settlements were made.</b> When the Greek sailors +first entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean, +and called it the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until +that time they had been accustomed to sail only from island to +island in the Aegean Sea. After a while they made settlements all +around the shores of the Black Sea, and in later times Athens +drew from this region her supply of grain. Still more important +settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for it was +through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks +knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes +and to the Romans.</p> +<p><b>Dangers of the Voyage.</b> At first Greek sailors feared +the dangers of the western Mediterranean as much as those of the +Black Sea. They imagined that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful +monsters Scylla and Charybdis lurked in the Straits of Messina +waiting to seize and swallow the unlucky passer-by. On the slopes +of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought, hideous, one-eyed giants, the +Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites with the quivering flesh +of many captives.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="2229"></a><img alt="041.gif" src= +"Pictures/041.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a href="#1547">GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN +ITALY</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Greeks in the West</b>.<a name="1660"></a><a href= +"#3255">(See map[7a].)</a> The earliest settlement of the Greeks +in Italy was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay +of Naples. Later these colonists entered the bay and founded the +"new city," or Neapolis, which we call Naples. Finally there were +so many Greek cities in southern Italy that it was named "Great +Greece." The Greeks also made settlements in what is now southern +France and eastern Spain. The principal one was Massilia, or +Marseilles. Through the traders of this city the ancient world +obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country which is now +called England.</p> +<p><b>Greek Colonies as Centers of Civilization.</b> The Greeks +in these colonies traded with the natives whose villages were +near by, and many of the natives learned to live like the Greeks. +In this way the Greeks became teachers of civilization, and the +Greek world, which at first was made up of cities on the shores +of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place to place along the +coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="042.gif" src= +"Pictures/042.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A GREEK TRIREME</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Greek Ships.</b> The ships of the Greeks were very +different from modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by +steam, nor did they rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships +do. They had sails, but were driven forward mostly by their oars. +The trireme, or ordinary war-ship, had its oars arranged in three +banks, fifty men rowing at once. After these had rowed several +hours, or a "watch," another fifty took their places, and finally +a third fifty, so that the ships could be rowed at high speed all +the time. With the aid of its two sails a trireme is said to have +gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a night. These +boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and fifteen +feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not +high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak, +which, driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides. +The Greek grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more +capable of enduring rough weather.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="043.gif" src= +"Pictures/043.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ALEXANDER THE GREAT<br> +After the bust in the Capitoline Museum, Rome</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 to 323 +B.C.</b> Greek ways of living were also carried eastward as well +as westward. The enlargement of the Greek world in this direction +was due to Alexander the Great, the most skilful soldier and the +ablest leader of men among all the Greeks. Alexander was king of +Macedon, and like the earlier Greeks he regarded the Persians as +his enemies, and made war upon them. After conquering the +Persians he marched across western Asia until he had reached the +Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well as a +conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were +named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is +still the chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language +commonly spoken throughout the lands near the eastern +Mediterranean. This is the reason why in later times the New +Testament was written in Greek.</p> +<p><b>Alexandria</b>. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the +center and Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a +great library which contained over five hundred thousand volumes +or rolls. There also was the museum or university, in which many +learned men were at work. The best known of these men was Euclid, +who perfected the mathematics which we call geometry, and +Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape and size of +the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on his +great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce. +From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships +to be admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking +for many of the beautiful things which the Greeks made.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks +emigrate to the colonies?</p> +<p>2. Point out on the <a name="4761"></a><a href= +"#4350">map[1]</a>, the lands to which they might go. Name +several cities which they built.</p> +<p>3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother +city?</p> +<p>4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece?</p> +<p>5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed.</p> +<p>6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he +reign? How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning +victories?</p> +<p>7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times?</p> +<p>8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do +Americans go to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it +was for the Greeks to reach their colonies?</p> +<p>2. What country now has the most colonies?</p> +<p>3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops.</p> +<p>4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden +Horn?" Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at +Marseilles?</p> +<p>5. Collect pictures of these cities.</p> +<p class="c3">REVIEW</p> +<p>(Chapters II, III, and IV)</p> +<p><i>Ten things we owe to the Greeks</i>:</p> +<p>1. Many useful words.</p> +<p>2. Many interesting tales.</p> +<p>3. Many examples of heroism.</p> +<p>4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings.</p> +<p>5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes.</p> +<p>6. How to write great plays.</p> +<p>7. How to speak before large audiences.</p> +<p>8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato.</p> +<p>9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics.</p> +<p>10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live, +and think and act as they did.</p> +<p><i>Two important dates</i>:</p> +<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323 +B.C.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1080"></a><a href="#4930">CHAPTER V</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</p> +<p><b>The Greek Colonies and the Carthaginians</b>. The Greek +colonies were sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native +tribes whose lands they had seized or by the wilder tribes that +dwelt further from the coast. In Sicily their most dangerous +neighbors were the Carthaginians at the western end of the +island. The chief town of these people was Carthage, situated +opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now Tunis. The +Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of +Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because +of their many ships held control of a large part of the western +Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very +early times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and +silver.</p> +<p><b>The Greeks and the Romans</b>. In Italy the most dangerous +neighbors of the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived +half-way up the western side of the peninsula along the river +Tiber. The history of the Romans, like the history of the Greeks, +is full of interesting and wonderful tales. Some of them are +legends, such as every people likes to tell about its early +history. They relate how the city was founded by two brothers, +Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the +Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the +farmer Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in +sixteen days drove off the neighboring tribes which were +attacking the Romans and then went back to his plough.</p> +<p><b>The Gauls burn Rome, 390 B.C.</b> The Romans told stories +of their defeats as well as of their victories. One of these +tells how hosts of Gauls, a people of the same race as the +forefathers of the French, streamed southward from the valley of +the Po. The Romans were alarmed by such tall men, with fierce +eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords crashed through the +frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop the invaders, +but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from Rome, +this army was destroyed.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="047.gif" src= +"Pictures/047.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline, +the steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of +the older senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge +from the fury of the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in +ivory chairs in the market place or Forum at the foot of the +Capitoline hill. The Gauls at first gazed in wonder at the +strange sight of the motionless figures. When one of them +attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the senator +struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and +priests and slew them.</p> +<p>The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long +time the Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At +last they discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point +of scaling the height when some geese, sacred to the goddess +Juno, cackled and flapped their wings until the garrison was +aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong down the precipice. The +garrison was saved, but the city was burned. This happened in +Rome just one hundred years after the battle of Marathon in +Greece.</p> +<p><b>The Caudine Forks.</b> Another adventure did not have so +happy an ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a +tribe living on the slopes of the Apennines, who were continually +attacking the Greek cities on the coast. The war was caused by +the attempt of the Romans to protect one of the Greek cities. The +Roman generals, with a large army, in making their way into the +Samnite country attempted to march through a narrow gorge which +broadened out into a plain and then was closed again at the +farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge +they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones. +They also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they +hastened to retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance +closed in the same way. After vain attempts to force a passage or +to scale the surrounding heights they were obliged to +surrender.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="048.gif" src= +"Pictures/048.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and +soldiers, each clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke" +made of two spears set upright with one laid across, while they +stood by and jeered. If any Roman looked angry or sullen at his +disgrace, they struck or even killed him. This was called the +disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass where the Romans +were caught.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="3255"><img alt="049.gif" src= +"Pictures/049.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#1660">[7a]</a> <a href= +"#3449">[8]</a> <a href="#2799">[9]</a> <a href= +"#1828">[10]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Romans and the Greek Cities.</b> Not many years after +this the Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern +Italy. The Greeks of Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now, +called to their aid Pyrrhus, who ruled a part of Alexander's old +kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful general, and he had with him, +besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen, many trained elephants. A +charge of these elephants was too much for the Romans, who were +already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers of +Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in +this they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek +soldiers that Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and +we are ruined." In a third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he +was defeated, and returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters +of the Greek cities in Italy.</p> +<p><b>The Romans Conquerors of Italy.</b> By this time there were +few tribes south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as +their masters. All Italy was united under their rule. This was +the first step in the conquest of the world that lay about the +Mediterranean Sea and in the extension of that ancient world to +the shores of the Atlantic and to England. Before we read the +story of the other conquests we must inquire who the Roman people +were and how they lived.</p> +<p><b>How the Romans lived.</b> In early times most of the Romans +were farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned +according to the number of cattle he owned. Their manner of +living was simple and frugal. Like the Greek, the Roman had his +games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but used slaves or freedmen as +drivers. He also went to the theater, although he thought it +unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an occupation was for +foreigners or slaves.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="051.gif" src= +"Pictures/051.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Roman Boys at School.</b> The boys at school did not learn +poems, as did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws +made by the Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read, +copied, and learned by heart. Their interest in laws was the +first sign that they were to become the world's greatest +lawmakers.</p> +<p><b>Roman Women.</b> In their respect for women the Romans were +superior to the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the +women's apartments of the house, as she was expected to do at +Athens, but was her husband's companion, received his guests, +directed her household, and went in and out as she chose.</p> +<p><b>Patricians and Plebeians</b>. The men of the families which +first ruled Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest +were plebeians or common people. There were also many slaves, but +they had no rights. At first only the patricians knew exactly +what the laws were, because the laws were not written in a book. +When disputes arose between patricians and plebeians about +property, the plebeians believed the patricians changed the laws +in order to gain an advantage over their poorer neighbors.</p> +<p>The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the +city and refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then +they compelled the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called +the <a name="1656"></a><a href="#2126">Twelve Tables.</a> At this +time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the +Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all +the offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles +themselves.</p> +<p><b>Government at Rome</b>. The Romans had once been ruled by +kings, but now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls +were chosen each year because the Romans feared that a single +consul might make himself a king, or, at least, gain too much +power. The real rulers of Rome, however, were the senators, the +men who had held the prominent offices. There were assemblies of +the people, but these generally did what the senators or other +officers told them to do.</p> +<p>Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who +drew up a list or census of the citizens and of their property. +Another officer was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the +plebeians to protect them against the patricians. The tribune was +not at first a member of the senate, but he was given a seat +outside the door, and if a law was proposed that would injure the +plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which means "I forbid," and the +law had to be dropped. This is the origin of our word "veto."</p> +<p><b>How the Romans treated the Italians</b>. The Romans were +wise in their dealings with the cities or tribes which they +conquered. They not only sent out colonies of their +fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands they had seized, +but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in their +government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of +Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their +wars with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread +over Italy.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="053.gif" src= +"Pictures/053.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks +in Sicily? Find Carthage on the <a name="3449"></a><a href= +"#3255">map[8]</a>. Where did the Carthaginians come from +originally? Find Phoenicia on the <a name="1974"></a><a href= +"#4350">map[6]</a></p> +<p> </p> +<p>2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy? +Find the Tiber and Rome on the <a name="2799"></a><a href= +"#3255">map[9]</a>.</p> +<p>3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How +long was this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the +death of Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of +Macedon?</p> +<p>4. Find the land of the Samnites on the <a name="1828"></a><a +href="#3255">map[10]</a>. Tell the story of the Caudine +Forks.</p> +<p>5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to +help them against the Romans? What did he say after his second +battle with the Romans?</p> +<p>6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the +Romans as masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians?</p> +<p>7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from +the ways of the Greeks.</p> +<p>8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern +themselves?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient +Rome."</p> +<p>2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy.</p> +<p>3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over +Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians?</p> +<p>4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii. +3-25, and tell what is said there about the riches of the +Tyrians. Find out who destroyed Tyre.</p> +</blockquote> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="054.gif" src= +"Pictures/054.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AN EARLY ROMAN COIN</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="3538"></a><a href="#3582">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</p> +<p><b>Rome in Peril</b>. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took +about two hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples +living in the other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took +nearly as long again. Only twice in these four or five hundred +years was Rome in serious danger of destruction. Once it was by +the Gauls, as we have read, who captured all the city except the +citadel. The second time it was by the Carthaginians, who lived +on the northern coast of Africa. The Romans were finally +victorious over all their enemies because they were patient and +courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that they could +be conquered.</p> +<p><b>Cause of War with Carthage</b>. The Carthaginians were +angry at the way the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm +the steady growth of the Roman power, and feared that the Romans, +if masters of Italy, would attack their trade with the cities of +the western Mediterranean. A quarrel broke out over a city in +Sicily. At first the Carthaginians seemed to have the best of it, +because they had a strong war fleet while the Romans had only a +few small vessels. But the Romans hurriedly built ships and +placed upon each a kind of drawbridge, fitted with great hooks +called grappling-irons. These they let down upon the enemy's +decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and over these +drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the +Carthaginian ships.</p> +<p>When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a +great sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would +leave the cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward +the Romans took advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to +demand more money and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder +the Carthaginians were angry. The result was a new and more +terrible war.</p> +<p><b>Hannibal</b>. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by +Hannibal, who understood how to fight battles better than any of +the generals whom the Romans sent against him. The story is told +that when he was a boy his father made him promise, at the altar +of his city's gods, undying hatred to Rome. Even the Romans +thought him a wonderful man. Their historians said that toil did +not wear out his body or exhaust his energy. Cold or heat were +alike to him. He never ate or drank more than he needed. He slept +when he had time, whether it was day or night, wrapping himself +in a military cloak and lying on the ground in the midst of his +soldiers. He did not dress better than the other officers, but +his weapons and his horses were the best in the army.</p> +<p><b>War carried into Italy, 218 B.C</b>. Hannibal decided that +the war should be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome. +He started from Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled, +marched across southern Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the +Alps. To climb the Alps was the most difficult part of his long +journey.</p> +<p><b>Crossing the Alps</b>. There were no roads across the +mountains, only rough paths used by the mountaineers, who +constantly attacked Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly +upon them from behind a turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks +upon them from above. The elephants, the horses, and the baggage +animals of the army were frightened, and in the tumult many of +them slipped over the precipices and were dashed on the rocks +below. For five days the army toiled upward, and then rested two +days on the summit of the pass.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="057.gif" src= +"Pictures/057.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and +the paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush +by thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a +landslide, and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a +thousand feet. In order to build a new road it was necessary to +crack the rocks. This the soldiers did by making huge fires and +pouring wine over the heated surface. At last, worn out, ragged, +and half starved, the army reached the plains of Italy, but with +a loss of half its men.</p> +<p><b>How Hannibal won a Victory</b>. The first great battle with +the Romans was fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and +in it Hannibal showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a +Roman army. It was a winter's day and the river was swollen by +rains. The two camps lay on opposite banks. In the early morning +Hannibal sent across the river a body of horsemen to attack the +Roman camp and draw the Romans into a battle. At the same time he +ordered his other soldiers to eat breakfast, to build fires +before their tents to warm themselves, and to rub their bodies +with oil, so that they might be strong for the coming fight.</p> +<p>The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the +Carthaginian horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out +of camp, chasing the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy +waters the Romans waded breast-high, and when they came up on the +opposite bank they were benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal +knew that the Romans had crossed the river he attacked them +fiercely with all his troops. Two thousand men whom he had placed +in ambush fell upon the rear of their line. Their allies were +frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing that destruction was +certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke through the +Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the army was +destroyed.</p> +<p><b>Roman Endurance</b>. This was not the last of the Roman +defeats. Two other armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the +next two years. In the battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand +Romans, including eighty senators, were slain. The news filled +the city with weeping women, but the senate did not think of +yielding. When their allies deserted them, they besieged the +faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers, and sold the +inhabitants into slavery.</p> +<p>They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but +tried to wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his +troops and by making it difficult for him to get food for his +army. They carried the war into Spain and finally into Africa, +and when, with a weakened army, Hannibal faced them there, they +defeated him. His defeat was the ruin of Carthage, for the +unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet destroyed, to pay the +Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain to them.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="059.gif" src= +"Pictures/059.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ROMAN SOLDIER</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Other Roman Triumphs</b>. The war with Carthage ended two +hundred and two years before the birth of Christ. In the wars +that followed, Roman armies fought not only in Spain and Africa, +but also in Greece and Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also +Corinth, a Greek city. Roman generals enriched themselves and +sent great treasures back to Rome. Roman merchants grew rich +because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth were ruined or +because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade with any +city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but in +the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores +of the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the +Romans had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some +things and they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the +arts of living. The ancient world became a sort of partnership, +and we call its civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek +and Roman.</p> +<p><b>The Romans as Rulers</b>. The Romans at first treated the +lands in Sicily, Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered +territories, or provinces, sending to rule over them officers who +were to act both as governors and judges. With these men went +many tax-collectors or "publicans." The Romans were obliged to +leave in most provinces a large body of soldiers to put down any +attempt at rebellion. Often the officers and the publicans robbed +the country instead of ruling it justly.</p> +<p><b>Evil Results of Conquest</b>. During the wars the Romans +had lost many of their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich +in the business of providing for the armies and navies, and they +were eager for new wars in order to make still bigger fortunes. +Hannibal's marches up and down Italy had driven thousands of +farmers from their homes, and they had wandered to Rome for +safety and food. When the war was over many of them did not go +back to their homes. Those who did found that they could no +longer get fair prices for their crops because great quantities +of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands. Wealthy +men bought the little farms and joined them, making great estates +where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and +olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for +slaves were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about +eight cents apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while +the rich sent everywhere for new luxuries.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="061.gif" src= +"Pictures/061.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GLADIATORS<br> +After carvings on the tomb of Scaurus</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Cruel Sports</b>. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers +and victorious generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals +were turned loose to tear one another to pieces. What was worse, +human prisoners were compelled to fight, armed with swords or +spears. These men were called gladiators, and often were +specially trained to fight with one another or with wild +beasts.</p> +<p><b>Some Things the Romans learned</b>. But the successes of +the Romans brought them other things which were good. They took +the buildings of the Greeks as models and built similar temples +and porticoes in Rome, especially about the old market place or +Forum. Their own houses, which in earlier times were nothing but +cabins, they enlarged, and if they were rich enough, built +palaces, adorned with paintings and with statues. Unfortunately +many of these came from the plunder of Greek cities, for the +Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer Romans +continued to live in wretched hovels.</p> +<p><b>The Theater</b>. The Romans learned more about the theaters +of the Greeks. Their plays were either translated into Latin from +Greek or retold in a different manner from the original Greek. +The Romans did not succeed in writing any plays of their own +which were as good as the plays of the Greeks.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="062.gif" src= +"Pictures/062.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE, +FRANCE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The New Education of the Romans</b>. The Greeks also taught +the Romans how to write poems and histories. The first histories +were written in Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write +in Latin prose and poetry as good as much that had been written +by the Greeks. Greek became the second language of every educated +Roman, and thus he could enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as +those written by Romans. The education of the Roman boy now began +with the poems of Homer, and the young man's education was not +thought to be finished until he had traveled in Greece and the +lands along the eastern Mediterranean.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long +to conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did +all this happen?</p> +<p>2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did +Hannibal promise his father? What sort of a leader was +Hannibal?</p> +<p>3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of +the Trebia?</p> +<p>4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield?</p> +<p>5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this +war with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon, +and after the death of Alexander the Great?</p> +<p>6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule +these colonies?</p> +<p>7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What +became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get +their slaves?</p> +<p>8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was +the Graeco-Roman world?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean +mark on each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor, +and Egypt, the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding +these dates in any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford, +Myers, Morey, West, Wolfson.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4038"></a><a href="#3165">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC</p> +<p><b>New Conquests of the Romans.</b> The Romans had as yet +conquered only civilized peoples like themselves, with the +exception of the tribes in Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman +armies were to push northward over the plains and through the +forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into unknown Germany, and over +the Channel into Britain, equally unknown. They were to be +explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were to carry +their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so increase +greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as the +Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient +civilized world was beginning to move from its older center, the +Mediterranean, toward the shore of the Atlantic.</p> +<p><b>Ancestors of the French and the Germans.</b> The tribes +living in Gaul were not at that time called French, but Gallic. +The Gauls were like the Britons who lived across the Channel in +Britain. The German ancestors of the English had not yet crossed +the North Sea to that land. Beyond the Rhine lived the Germans, +who had but little to do with the Romans and the Greeks and were +still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away from the Roman +settlements were not much more civilized.</p> +<p>The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was +that the Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the +land or dug in mines or traded along the rivers, while the +Germans had no towns and dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their +wealth, like that of the early Romans, was their cattle. The land +they cultivated was divided between them year after year, so that +a German owned only his hut and the plot of ground or garden +about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed on high +hills and were protected by strong walls.</p> +<p><b>The Terrible Germans.</b> The Romans had at first been +afraid of the Gauls, because they had never forgotten how +terribly these people had once defeated them. But since that time +they had fought the Gauls so often that they were losing this +fear. They now dreaded more to meet the Germans, who seemed like +giants because they were taller even than the Gauls.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="065.gif" src= +"Pictures/065.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GALLIC WARRIORS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Gallic and German Warriors.</b> The leaders of the Germans +were sometimes kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called +<i>duces</i>, from which comes our word duke. The Gallic +chieftains were adorned with gold necklaces, bracelets, and +rings. When they went out to battle, they wore helmets shaped +like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies were +protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their +principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic +nobles were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted +followers, who shared the joys of victory or died with them in +case of defeat. It was a disgrace to lose one's sword or to +survive if the leader was killed.</p> +<p><b>How the Germans lived.</b> When the Germans were not +fighting they were idle, for all work was done by women and +slaves. They were great drinkers and gamblers, and often in their +games a man would stake his freedom upon the result. If he lost, +he became the slave of the winner. The Germans respected their +wives, even if they compelled them to do the hard work. The women +sometimes went with the men to battle, and their cries encouraged +the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce reproaches +of the women drove them back to the fight.</p> +<p><b>Religion of the Germans.</b> We remember the religion of +the Germans because four days of the week are named for their +gods or the gods of their neighbors across the Baltic. Their +principal god was Wodan, or Odin, god of the sun and the tempest. +Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday is named for Thor, the +Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw, gave a name to +Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The German, +like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place where +brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days in +feasting.</p> +<p><b>Julius Caesar.</b> Julius Caesar was the great Roman +general who conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions +across the Rhine into Germany and over the Channel into Britain. +He was a wealthy noble who, like other nobles, held one office +after another until he became consul. He was also a great +political leader, and with two other men controlled Rome. We +should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them +"triumvirs."</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="067.gif" src= +"Pictures/067.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">JULIUS CAESAR<br> +<b>After the bust in the Museum at Naples</b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Caesar in Gaul.</b> As soon as Caesar became governor of +the province of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful +general as well as a successful politician. He interfered in the +wars between the Gauls, taking sides with the friends of the +Romans. When a large army of Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it +and drove it back across the Rhine. One war led to another until +all the tribes from the country now called Belgium to the +Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman people. +His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three +times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and +energy he always succeeded in gaining the victory.</p> +<p><b>Vercingetorix, Gallic Hero.</b> The great hero of the Gauls +in their struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a +young noble who lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His +father had been killed in an attempt to make himself king of his +native city. Vercingetorix believed that if the Gauls did not +unite against the Romans they would soon see their lands become +Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no match for the Romans +in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to starve the Romans +out of the country. He planned to destroy all village stores of +grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which +wandered from the main army in search of food.</p> +<p><b>Caesar and Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix found the work +of conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally +driven to take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul. +Here the Romans prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug +miles of deep trenches about the fortress so that the imprisoned +Gauls could not break through. They dug other trenches to protect +themselves from the attacks of a great army of Gauls which came +to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches were fifteen or twenty +feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades and ramparts, and +filled with water where this was possible. Several times the +Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness and +stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day.</p> +<p><b>Death of Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix now proved that +he was a real hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if +this would save the town. But Caesar demanded the submission of +all the chiefs. When they had laid down their arms before the +conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on a gaily decorated horse. He +rode around the throne where Caesar sat, dismounted in front, +took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His fate was hard. +He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the triumphal +procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death in +a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the +French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of +Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many +years afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman +provinces.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="069.gif" src= +"Pictures/069.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE +RHINE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Caesar in Germany</b>. Caesar crossed the Rhine into +Germany on a bridge which his engineers built in ten days. He +laid waste the fields of the tribes near the river in order to +make the name of Rome feared, and then returned to Gaul and +destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to Britain, the last +time marching a few miles north of where London now stands. His +purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls to +attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as +far as the hills of Scotland.</p> +<p><b>The German Hero Hermann</b>. The Romans were not fortunate +in their later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When +Caesar's grandnephew Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army +under Varus into the forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a +leader of the Germans, gathered the tribes together and utterly +destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever Augustus thought of this +dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus, give me back my +legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern boundaries +of the Roman conquests.</p> +<p><b>Gauls and Britons become Roman</b>. Although the Gauls had +fought stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the +Italians themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and +began to use Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their +schools were sometimes regarded as better than the schools in +Italy, and Roman youths were sent to Gaul to learn how best to +speak their own language. The Britons also became very good +Romans. Even the Germans frequently crossed the Rhine and +enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned to their own +country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them.</p> +<p><b>The Interest of Americans in Roman Successes</b>. For +Americans the influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul, +Germany, and Britain is more important than their work in the +eastern Mediterranean, because from those countries came the +early settlers of America. The civilization which the Romans +taught the peoples of western Europe was to become a valuable +part of the civilization of our forefathers.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="1634"><img alt="071.gif" src= +"Pictures/071.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395 +A.D.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#4829">[12]</a> <a href= +"#3355">[13]</a> <a href="#2495">[14]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Size of the Roman World.</b> We may realize how large the +world of the Romans was by observing on a modern map that within +its limits lay modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the +southern part of Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the +Turkish Empire both in Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, +Algeria, and Morocco. For a time they also ruled north of the +Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they are descended from +Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were influenced +by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not try +to bring them under their rule.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="072.gif" src= +"Pictures/072.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC, IN +BRITTANY, FRANCE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>No modern empire has included so many important countries. If +we compare this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of +the Greeks, we shall understand how useful it was that the Romans +adopted much of the Greek civilization, for they could carry it +to places that the Greeks never reached.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the +Mediterranean, into what other countries did they march?</p> +<p>2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the +Gauls lived.</p> +<p>3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from +that of the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to +the Gauls?</p> +<p>4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods?</p> +<p>5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What +was the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of +Vercingetorix.</p> +<p>6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did +Caesar go?</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="073.gif" src= +"Pictures/073.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS +CAESAR</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time +of Augustus?</p> +<p>8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much +like the Romans?</p> +<p>9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest +of Gaul and Britain?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who +ever lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin +his wars in Gaul? What difference was there between what these +two generals did? Whose work is the more important for us?</p> +<p>2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each +country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This +will take a long time, but many pictures may be found in +advertising folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies.</p> +<p class="c3">REVIEW</p> +<p>(Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII)</p> +<p><i>How the Graeco-Roman world was built up</i>:</p> +<p>1. The Greeks drive back the Persians.</p> +<p>2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the +Mediterranean and Black Seas.</p> +<p>3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern +Mediterranean.</p> +<p>4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their +ways of living.</p> +<p>5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their +colonies.</p> +<p>6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the +Mediterranean.</p> +<p>7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain.</p> +<p><i>Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman +world</i>:</p> +<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C. +Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal, +202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C.</p> +</blockquote> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="074.gif" src= +"Pictures/074.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1461"></a><a href="#1050">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2> +<br> + +<p class="c3">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</p> +<p><b>Strife at Rome.</b> While the Romans were conquering the +ancient world they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain +men resolved that Rome should not be managed any longer by the +noble senators for their own benefit or for the benefit of rich +contractors and merchants. They wished to have the idle crowds of +men who packed the shows and circuses settled as free farmers on +the unused lands of Italy.</p> +<p>Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius +Gracchus, sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other +nobles looked upon them with hatred and killed them, first +Tiberius and afterward Caius. These murders did not end the +trouble. The leaders on both sides armed their followers, and +bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals led their +armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an army +into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the +republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these +generals put to death hundreds of their enemies.</p> +<p><b>Caesar rules Rome.</b> The strife in the city had ceased +for a time when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared +power with Caesar as a "triumvir," joined the senators in +planning his ruin. Caesar led his army into Italy to the borders +of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is cast,'" he crossed the +sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome. Pompey and his +party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into those who +followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was +everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He +brought back order into the government of the city and of the +provinces, but in the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the +senate-house by several senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had +been his friend.</p> +<p><b>Origin of the Title "Emperor."</b> Caesar had not been +called "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his +titles was "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from +which our word "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor +of Rome. In later times the very word Caesar became an imperial +title, not only in the Roman Empire, but also in modern Germany, +for "Kaiser" is another form of the word "Caesar."</p> +<p><b>Beginnings of the Empire.</b> Caesar's successor was his +grandnephew Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of +his titles. Augustus carried out many of Caesar's plans for +improving the government in Rome and in the provinces. The people +in the provinces were no longer robbed by Roman officers. Many of +them became Roman citizens. After a time all children born within +the empire were considered Romans, just as if they had been born +in Rome.</p> +<p><b>The Roman Empire.</b> The Roman Empire carried on the work +which the republic had begun. It did some things better than the +republic had done them. Within its frontiers there was peace for +two or three hundred years. Many people had an opportunity to +share in all the best that the Greeks and Romans had learned. +Unfortunately the peoples imitated the bad as well as the +good.</p> +<p><b>Roman Roads.</b> As builders the Romans taught much to +those who lived after them. Their great roads leading out from +Rome have never been excelled. In Gaul these roads served, +centuries later, to mark out the present French system of +highroads and showed many a route to the builders of railroads. +They were made so solid that parts of them still remain after two +thousand years.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="077.gif" src= +"Pictures/077.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">Augustus Caesar After the statue in the +Vatican</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>How these Roads were built.</b> In planning their roads the +Romans did not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep +valleys or marshy lands. They often pierced the hills with +tunnels and bridged the valleys or swamps. In building a road +they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide and pounded the earth +at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom was placed a +layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of broken +stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was +covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken +tiles, which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On +the top were laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that +there need be no jar when a wagon rolled over the road.</p> +<p>Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and +fro throughout the empire, but especially for troops or +government messengers sent with all speed to regions where there +was danger of revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by +the barbarians.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="078.gif" src= +"Pictures/078.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Aqueducts.</b> Next to their roads the most remarkable +Roman structures were the aqueducts which brought water to the +city from rivers or springs, some of them many miles away. Had +they known, as we do, how to make heavy iron pipes, their +aqueducts would have been laid underground, except where they +crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used were not +strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water, +and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which +stretches from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the +streams of flowing water were carried in stone channels resting +upon arches which sometimes reached the height of over ninety +feet.</p> +<p><b>The Claudian Aqueduct.</b> The Claudian aqueduct, which is +the most magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for +about seven miles and a half. Although broken in many places, and +though the water has not flowed through its lofty channels for +sixteen hundred years, it is one of the grandest sights in the +neighborhood of Rome. If we add together the lengths of the +aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which provided Rome +with her water supply, the total is over three hundred miles. +They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water a +day.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="079.gif" src= +"Pictures/079.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT<br> +Completed by the Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D.<br> +The structure was nearly a hundred feet high</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Public Baths</b>. The Romans used great quantities of water +for their public baths, which were large buildings with rooms +especially made for bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges. +They were also, like the Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise, +conversation, and reading. Many were built as monuments by +wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee was charged for +entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and the wages +of those who managed the baths.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="080.gif" src= +"Pictures/080.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Two Famous Buildings</b>. Many of the Roman temples, +porticoes, and theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the +Romans used the arch more than did the Greeks, and in this the +builders of later times imitated them. Among their greatest +buildings were the amphitheaters, from the benches of which +crowds watched gladiators fighting one another or struggling with +wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was the +Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were +one hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six +hundred and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and +twelve. There were seats enough for forty-five thousand persons. +The lowest seats were raised fifteen feet above the arena or +central space where men or wild beasts fought. Through an +arrangement of underground pipes the arena could be flooded so +that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a real naval +battle.</p> +<p>Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold +the crowds that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having +seats for two hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the +Romans became more and more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some +equally splendid buildings were used for better things.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="081.gif" src= +"Pictures/081.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE PANTHEON</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Pantheon.</b> One of these was the Pantheon, a temple +which was afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is +now used as the burial-place of the Italian kings. The most +remarkable part of it is the dome, which has a width of a little +over one hundred and forty-two feet. No other dome in the world +is so wide. The Romans were very successful in covering large +spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later builders of +domes and arches are their pupils.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="082.gif" src= +"Pictures/082.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ARCH OF TITUS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Basilicas</b>. The Romans had other large buildings called +basilicas. These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in +the center covered by a great roof. They were used as places for +public meetings. One of them had one hundred and eight pillars +arranged in a double row around the sides and ends of this +central space. The name basilica is Greek and means "royal." Some +of these basilicas were used as Christian churches when the +Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was +then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the +aisles.</p> +<p><b>Triumphal Arches.</b> The Romans built beautiful arches to +celebrate their victories. Several of these still remain, with +sentences cut into their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of +their builders. Modern people have taken them as models for +similar memorial arches.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="083.gif" src= +"Pictures/083.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the +Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Roman Law.</b> The Romans did much for the world by their +laws. They showed little regard for the rights of men captured in +war and were cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they +considered carefully the rights of free men and women. Under the +emperors the lawyers and judges worked to make the laws clearer +and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor Justinian, who ruled at +the time when the empire was already half ruined by the attacks +of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to gather into +a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws lasted +long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of +the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our +laws in America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="084.gif" src= +"Pictures/084.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND<br> +Unearthed not many years ago at Aldborough.<br> + Such stones laid in the form of designs or pictures are called +Mosaics</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers +Tiberius and Caius Gracchus try to do?</p> +<p>2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to +ruin him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman +leaders?</p> +<p>3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the +origin of the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die?</p> +<p>4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized +the Roman Empire?</p> +<p>5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were +their roads built? Do any traces of them still remain?</p> +<p>6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure +water?</p> +<p>7. What was a Roman bath?</p> +<p>8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their +buildings? Name the largest buildings in Rome. What was a +basilica? Of what use were basilicas to the Christians later?</p> +<p>9. Do you remember the earliest form of the <a name= +"2126"></a> <a href="#1656">Roman law?</a> What did Justinian do +with the laws in his day? Are these laws important to us?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and +Augustus?</p> +<p>2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman +roads and if they are likely to last as long. What different +kinds of roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a +small model of a Roman road?</p> +<p>3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities +provided with great public baths like those of the Romans?</p> +<p>4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the +revised statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the +code of Justinian, only not so brief.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="085.gif" src= +"Pictures/085.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)</td> +</tr> +</table> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4119"></a><a href="#3639">CHAPTER IX</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</p> +<p><b>The Religion of the Jews.</b> Among the cities captured by +the Romans was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories +from the Old Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived +David, the shepherd boy who, after wonderful adventures, became +king of his people. There his son Solomon built a temple of +dazzling splendor. Among this people had arisen great +preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that religion +did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in +justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for +religion, just as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans +a genius for government.</p> +<p><b>The Jews conquered by the Romans.</b> When the Jews first +heard of the Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who +made and unmade kings. In later years they learned that the +Romans were hard masters and they feared and hated them. The +Jewish kingdom was one of the last countries along the shores of +the Mediterranean which the Romans conquered, but like all the +others it finally became a Roman province.</p> +<p><b>Jesus of Nazareth.</b> A few years before the Jewish +kingdom became a Roman province there was born in a village near +Jerusalem a child named Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in +Nazareth he gathered about him followers or disciples whom he +taught to live and act as is told in the books of the New +Testament.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="087.gif" src= +"Pictures/087.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of +Olives in the distance</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first +held by a little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a +city of Asia whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman +citizenship, believed that the message of the new religion was +meant for all nations. He taught it in many cities of Asia Minor +and Greece, and even went as far west as Rome. Several of the +epistles or letters in the New Testament were written by Paul to +churches which he had founded or where he had taught. So it +happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which +multitudes consider even more important than the art and +literature of the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the +Romans.</p> +<p><b>Why the Christians were persecuted.</b> The Romans at first +refused to permit any one in their empire to call himself a +Christian. They disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that +the Roman gods were real gods, asserting that these gods were +mere images in wood and stone. The Christians did this also, but +in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst offense of the +Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of secret +society and held meetings to which other persons were not +admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies.</p> +<p>The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their +refusal to join in the public ceremonies which honored the +emperor as if he were a god who had given peace and order to the +world and who was able to reward the good and punish the evil. +The Christians believed it to be wrong to join in the worship of +an emperor, whether he were alive or dead.</p> +<p><b>Christians put to Death.</b> The Romans were cruel in their +manner of punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered +death in its most horrible forms. Some were burned, others were +tortured, others were torn to pieces by wild animals in the great +amphitheaters to satisfy the fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst +of the Roman emperors, who, many thought, set Rome on fire in +order that he might enjoy the sight of the burning city, tried to +turn suspicion from himself by accusing the Christians of the +crime. He punished them by tying them to poles, smearing their +bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches.</p> +<p><b>The Christians allowed to Worship.</b> The new religion +spread rapidly from province to province in spite of these +persecutions. At first the Christians worshiped secretly, but +later they ventured to build churches. Finally, three centuries +after the birth of Christ, the emperors promised that the +persecutions should cease and that the Christians might worship +undisturbed.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="089.gif" src= +"Pictures/089.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Roman Empire becomes Christian about 325 A.D.</b> +Constantine was the first emperor to become Christian. He was the +one who made the Greek city Byzantium the capital of the empire +and for whom it was renamed Constantinople. For a time both the +old Roman religion and the Christian religion were favored by the +emperors, but before the fourth century closed the old religion +was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the Roman gods were +mostly country people, called in Latin <i>pagani</i>, and +therefore their religion was called "paganism."</p> +<p><b>How the Church was ruled.</b> One of the reasons why the +Christians had been successful in their struggle with the Roman +emperors was that they were united under wise and brave leaders. +The Christians in each large city were ruled by a bishop, and the +bishops of several cities were directed by an archbishop. In the +western part of the empire the bishop of Rome, who was called the +pope, was honored as the chief of the bishops and archbishops, +and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the eastern part the +archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria and +Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in authority +with him.</p> +<p>There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks. +The priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks +lived in groups in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their +purpose was to dwell far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary +life and give themselves to prayer and fasting; sometimes they +acted as a brotherhood of teachers in barbarous communities, +teaching the people better methods of farming, and carrying the +arts of civilized life beyond the borders of the empire.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times?</p> +<p>2. Do you remember any of the stories of David?</p> +<p>3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David +ruled?</p> +<p>4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth +of Jesus Christ?</p> +<p>5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How +did the Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ +before the emperors allowed the Christians to worship +undisturbed?</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="091.gif" src= +"Pictures/091.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES<br> +Abbey of Saint-Germain des Prés<br> +as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and moat or ditch</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a +Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old +Roman gods?</p> +<p>7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named? +What two kinds of clergy were there?</p> +<p><i>Important date</i>: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became +Christian.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="3638"></a><a href="#2725">CHAPTER X</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</p> +<p><b>The Middle Ages.</b> It was more than a thousand years from +the time of Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is +called "Mediaeval," or the "Middle Ages." During these long +centuries the ancient civilized world of the Roman Empire was +much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on the southern shores of +the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or Moors. The Moors +conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands of +Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The +Turks, the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet" +Mohammed, who died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies +of the Christians.</p> +<p><b>Western Europe.</b> The other part of the European world +was also changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic +were now more important than those on the shores of the +Mediterranean. The names of the different countries were changed. +Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there was France; instead of +Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for Germania, +Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire, was +finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa +and Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories +ruled by dukes, princes, or kings.</p> +<p><b>Fate of Civilization.</b> The most important question to +ask is, How much of the manner of living or civilization of the +Greeks and the Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The +answer is found in the history of the Middle Ages. In this +history is also found what men added to that which they had +learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The emigrants to America +were to carry with them knowledge which not even the wisest men +of the ancient world had possessed.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="093.gif" src= +"Pictures/093.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">WALL OF AURELIAN<br> +This wall enclosed the ancient city of Rome.<br> +It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five feet +high, and had three hundred towers</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Mediaeval German Emigrants.</b> The first part of the +history of the Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from +whom most of our forefathers were descended began to move from +the northern forests towards the borders of the Roman Empire. +Many thousand men had already crossed the Rhine and the Danube to +serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes an unusually strong and +skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans had also crossed +the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich Gallic +nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and +the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers. +The Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit +of work and were glad to hire these foreigners.</p> +<p><b>Story of Ulfilas.</b> Many of the Goths who lived north of +the Danube had forsaken their old gods and become Christians. +They were taught by Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them, +afterward a missionary. He translated the Bible into the Gothic +language, and this translation is the most ancient specimen of +German that we possess. Many of the other German tribes learned +about Christianity from the Goths, and although they might be +enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of the +Church.</p> +<p><b>The Goths invade the Roman Empire.</b> The Roman emperors +tried to prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier +in great numbers, because, once across, if they did not find work +and food, they became plunderers. Not many years after +Constantine's death, a million Goths had passed the Danube and +had plundered the country almost to the walls of Constantinople. +This was not like the invasion of a regular army, which comes to +fight battles and to arrange terms of peace.</p> +<p>The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example, +moved as a whole people, with their wives and children, their +cattle, and the few household goods they owned. Wherever they +wished to settle they demanded of the Romans one third, sometimes +two thirds, of the land. They soon learned to be good neighbors +of the older inhabitants, although at first they were little +better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the Goths, led +them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did not +injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the +churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about +plundering villages and attacking cities did far greater damage. +The Roman government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the +provinces fell into the hands of German kings.</p> +<p><b>Beginnings of England, France, and Germany.</b> Britain was +attacked by the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany +across the North Sea. (See map<a name="4829"></a><a href= +"#1634">[12]</a>) They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves +of them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country +was then called Angle-land or England, and the people +Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen.</p> +<p>The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the +Franks from the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name +France to the land.</p> +<p>At about the same time the other German tribes that had +remained in Germany united under one king.</p> +<p><b>The Result of Barbarian Attacks.</b> The part of the +ancient world which lay about Constantinople was less changed +than the rest during the Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople +were high and thick, and they withstood attack after attack until +1453. Within their shelter men continued to live much as they had +lived in Ancient Times. A few delighted to study the writings of +the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the other countries of western +Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The ancient baths, +amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled and fell. +The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the Colosseum +as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This was +done in every country where Roman buildings existed.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="096.gif" src= +"Pictures/096.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still +stranger fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at +another as a prison and gradually became the home of hundreds of +the criminals and the poor of the city. "Every archway held its +nest of human outcasts. From stone to stone they cast their +rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the very entrails of +the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the pursuit +of the officers of the law."</p> +<p>Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France, +and few from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of +Italy and France and England did not know how to read Greek. Many +of them also ceased to read the writings of the ancient +Romans.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="097.gif" src= +"Pictures/097.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This +church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its +walls show some of the bricks of the original chapel</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The English become Christians, 597 A.D.</b> Christianity +had spread throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the +religion of all the tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon +the ruins of the Empire. The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded +Britain, were still worshipers of the gods Wodan and Thor. They +had never learned from the Goths of Ulfilas anything about +Christianity.</p> +<p>One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys +were offered for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a +monk and was the abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing +and asked who they were. He was told they were Angles. "Angels," +he cried, "yes, they have faces like angels, and should become +companions of the angels in heaven." When this good abbot became +pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they established +themselves at Canterbury.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="098.gif" src= +"Pictures/098.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Missionaries to the Germans and the Slavs</b>. The +conversion of the English helped in the spread of Christianity on +the Continent, for Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest +missionary to the Germans. He won thousands from the worship of +their ancient gods and founded many churches. The Slavs, who +lived east of the Germans, were taught by missionaries from +Constantinople instead of from Rome.</p> +<p><b>The Educated Men of the Middle Ages.</b> The missionaries +and teachers of the Church had been educated like the older +Romans. They read Roman books, and tried to preserve the +knowledge which both Greeks and Romans had gathered. Influenced +by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the north also tried +to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the priests +of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some +parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved, +although the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful +cities were mere heaps of ruins.</p> +<p><b>The Vikings.</b> The emigration of whole peoples from one +part of Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was +overrun. New peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out +the tribes which had already settled within its boundaries and +were learning the ways of civilization.</p> +<p>One of these peoples came from the regions now known as +Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They were called Danes by the +English, and Northmen or Normans by other Europeans. They had +another name, Vikings, which was their word for sea-rovers.</p> +<p>It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than +march on the land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked +nothing better than to fight and conquer and rob in other +countries. There was not a land in western Europe, even as far +south as Sicily, that they did not visit. Wherever they went they +plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a blackened trail.</p> +<p><b>The Danes in England.</b> The Danes ravaged the eastern and +southern shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery, +partly because there was little left to take, they began to +settle in the land. Alfred, the greatest of the early English +kings, was driven by them into the swamps for a while, but in the +year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of them in battle and +persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a Christian. +Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion of +England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes +was obeyed there.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="100.gif" src= +"Pictures/100.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A VIKING SHIP AT SEA</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Danes become Normans</b>. No more Danes or Northmen +came to trouble England for a time, but instead they crossed the +Channel to France and rowed up the Seine and tried to capture +Paris. A few years later a Frankish king gave them the city of +Rouen, further down the Seine, and the region about it which was +called Normandy. These Normans also accepted Christianity.</p> +<p><b>The Vikings become Discoverers.</b> Before another hundred +years had passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult +than sailing up rivers and burning towns. They were the first to +venture far out of sight of land, though their ships were no +larger than our fishing boats. These bold sailors visited the +Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of Scotland, and finally +reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle flourished, +and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up with +the old homeland and with the British islands.</p> +<p>Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a +colony to Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further +west. He called it Greenland because, he said, men would be more +easily persuaded to go there if the land had a good name. This +was probably in the year 985.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="101.gif" src= +"Pictures/101.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Discovery of Vinland.</b> Eric had a son, called Leif +Ericson, or Leif the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well +received at the court of King Olaf. Not long before missionaries +had persuaded Olaf and his people to give up their old gods and +accept Christianity, and Leif followed their example. Leif set +out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the new +religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and +to his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the +summer, for on the way his ship was driven out of its course and +came upon strange lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large +trees grew. The milder climate and stories of large trees useful +for building ships aroused the curiosity of the Greenlanders.</p> +<p>They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North +America at places which they called Helluland, that is, the land +of flat stones; Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where +the grape-vines grow. Helluland was probably on the coast of +Labrador, Markland somewhere on the shores of Newfoundland, and +Vinland in Nova Scotia.</p> +<p><b>The Settlement in Vinland.</b> Thornfinn Karlsefni, a +successful trader between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to +plant a colony in the new lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to +the number of one hundred and sixty men and several women, set +out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded with supplies and +many cattle. They built huts and remained three or four winters +in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement disappeared long +ago.</p> +<p>They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking +Indians, with coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with +whom they traded red cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between +the Northmen and the Indians, who outnumbered them. So many +Northmen were killed that the survivors became alarmed and +returned to Greenland.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="103.gif" src= +"Pictures/103.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN<br> +The American lands they found are marked with diagonal lines</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Vinland forgotten.</b> The voyages to Vinland soon ceased +and the discoveries of Leif and his followers were only +remembered in the songs or "sagas" of the people. They thought of +Vinland mainly as a land of flat stones, great trees, and fierce +natives. Nor did the wise men of Europe who heard the Northmen's +story guess that a New World had been discovered. It was probably +fortunate that five hundred years were to go by before Europeans +settled in America, for within that time they were to learn a +great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had +left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the +ruins of the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses, +where few knew of them. The more Europeans possessed before they +set out, the more Americans would have to start with.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="104.gif" src= +"Pictures/104.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA +MANUSCRIPT</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval" +period?</p> +<p>2. Show on the <a name="3355"></a><a href="#1634">map[13]</a>, +what part of the Roman Empire was conquered by the +Mohammedans.</p> +<p>3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and +Spain, Why were they changed to what they are now?</p> +<p>4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from +their homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a +living?</p> +<p>5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian +religion? When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they +ask of the inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years +separated the capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the +Gauls?</p> +<p>6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes +conquered Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople +was captured?</p> +<p>7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many +cities? Who tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and +the Romans had done? Who used the language of the Romans?</p> +<p>8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians. +Who taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city +did the Slavs receive missionaries?</p> +<p>9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of +Denmark, Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas? +Where did they make settlements?</p> +<p>10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America. +Why did the Northmen leave Vinland?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this +chapter.</p> +<p>2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned +in the chapter on the countries where they settled.</p> +<p>3. Ask children in school who know some other language than +English what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain, +and Italy.</p> +<p><i>Important dates</i>:</p> +<p>Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D.</p> +<p>Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1175"></a><a href="#3319">CHAPTER XI</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES</p> +<p><b>Heroes of the Middle Ages.</b> The Middle Ages, like +Ancient Times, are recalled by many interesting tales. Some of +them, such as the stories of King Arthur and his Knights, the +story of Roland, and the Song of the Niebelungs, are only tales +and not history. Others tell us about great kings, Charlemagne +and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of Germany, or +St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was Alfred, who +fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally conquered and +persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule.</p> +<p><b>King Alfred began to reign in 871.</b> King Alfred was a +skilful warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of +peace. When he was a boy he had shown his love of books. His +mother once offered a beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize +to the one of her sons who should be the first to learn it. +Alfred could not yet read, but he had a ready memory, and with +the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and won the prize.</p> +<p>At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few +even of the clergy could read. During the long wars with the +Danes many books had been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more +useful than books and ceased to care about reading. King Alfred +feared that the Saxons would soon become ignorant barbarians, and +sent for priests and monks who were learned and were able to +teach his clergy. He sent even into France for such men.</p> +<p><b>Early English Books.</b> As it would be easier for people +to learn to read books written in the language they spoke rather +than in Latin, Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin +books into English. Among these was a history written by a Roman +before the Germans had overthrown the Roman Empire. This history +told about the world of the Greeks and the Romans.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="107.gif" src= +"Pictures/107.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE<br> +From a copy in the British Museum</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year +to year of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was +called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history +written in the English language. It was carefully kept for many +years after Alfred's death. Another wise thing Alfred did was to +collect the laws or "dooms" of the earlier kings, so that every +one might know what the law required.</p> +<p><b>The Beginning of a Navy.</b> Alfred has been called the +creator of the English navy. He thought that the only way to keep +the Danes from plundering his shores was to fight them on the +sea. He built several ships which were bigger than the Danish +ships, but they were not always victorious, for they could not +follow the Danish ships into shallow water. Nevertheless, the +Danes could not plunder England as easily as before.</p> +<p><b>The New Army.</b> Alfred organized his fighting men in a +better way. In times past the men had been called upon to fight +only when the Danes were near, but now he kept a third of his men +ready all the time, and another third he placed in forts, so the +rest were able to work in the fields in safety. There are good +reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred as a hero.</p> +<p><b>William the Conqueror began to rule England in 1066.</b> +About a hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke +of Normandy, crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English +king in battle, and seized the throne. This was not altogether a +misfortune to the English, for they came under the same ruler as +the Normans and they shared in all that the men of the Continent +were beginning to learn. For one thing, builders from the +Continent taught the English to construct the great Norman +churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees. +Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the +chiefs or lords that were inclined to oppress the common +people.</p> +<p><b>Henry II.</b> Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled +over most of western France as well as over England. His officers +and nobles were tired out by his endless traveling in his lands, +which extended from the banks of the river Loire in France to the +borders of Scotland. All Englishmen and Americans should remember +him with gratitude because of the improvements he made in the +ways of discovering the truth when disputes arose and were +carried into courts.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="109.gif" src= +"Pictures/109.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br> +From the Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the +Conqueror. The figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred +and thirty feet long, and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight +colors are used</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Ordeals and Trials by Battle.</b> Before Henry's reign it +was the custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the +truth by arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals. +The two most common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the +ordeal by water. In the ordeal by fire an iron was heated +red-hot, and after it had been blessed by a priest it was put +into the hand of the man the truth of whose word was being +tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His hand +was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that +time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for +they thought God would keep an innocent man from being +punished.</p> +<p>In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water +which had been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the +people thought the water would not receive him. If he sank at +once, he was pulled out and treated as if he had told the +truth.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="110.gif" src= +"Pictures/110.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">TRIAL BY BATTLE<br> +After a drawing in an old manuscript</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose +dispute was to be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each +was armed with a hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who +gave up lost his case.</p> +<p><b>Trial by Jury.</b> King Henry introduced a better way of +finding out the truth. He called upon twelve men from a +neighborhood to come before the judges, to promise solemnly to +tell what they knew about a matter, and then to decide which +person was in the right. They were supposed to know about the +facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with one +another before they made a decision.</p> +<p>Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two +groups, one to tell what they knew and the other to listen and +decide what was true. Those who told what they knew were called +the witnesses, and those who listened and decided were called +jurors. The name jurors came from a Latin word meaning to take an +oath.</p> +<p><b>Richard the Lionhearted.</b> King Henry had two sons, +Richard and John. Richard was the boldest and most skilful +fighter of his time. When the news was brought to England that +Jerusalem had been captured by the Mohammedans, he led an army to +Palestine to recapture it. He failed to take the city, but he +became famous throughout the East as a fearless warrior and was +ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death his +brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as +Richard was brave and generous.</p> +<p><b>The Great Charter.</b> The leaders of the people, the +nobles and the clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In +1215 they raised an army and threatened to take the kingdom from +John and crown another prince as king. John was soon ready to +promise anything in order to obtain power once more, and the +nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede on the river Thames, a +few miles west of London, and compelled him to sign a list of +promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate promises, it +was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did not +keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on +him, and he even said that this would be their duty.</p> +<p><b>Promises of the Charter.</b> Many of the articles of the +Great Charter were important only to the men of King John's day, +but others are as important to us as to them. In these the king +promised that every one should be treated justly. He said he +would not refuse to listen to the complaints of those who thought +they were wronged. The king also promised that he would not +decide in favor of a rich man just because the rich man might +offer him money. He would put no one in prison who had not been +tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important promise +the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of +the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people +to have something to say about how their money should be spent. +This right is a very important part of what we call +self-government.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="112.gif" src= +"Pictures/112.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Promises of the Great Charter renewed.</b> In after times +whenever the English thought a king was doing them a wrong they +reminded him of the promises made by King John in the Great +Charter and demanded that the promises be solemnly renewed.</p> +<p>In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns +to send a number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and +clergy to talk over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings, +soon followed Simon's example by asking the townsmen for advice +about matters of government. After a while this became the +custom. Occasionally the king wanted the advice of the clergy, +the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and called them +together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an +assembly in which talking or discussion goes on.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="113.gif" src= +"Pictures/113.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster +Abbey<br> +WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The English Parliament.</b> Only the most important nobles +or lords could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the +meeting would be too large to do any business. The other lords +chose certain ones from their number to go in place of all the +rest. We call such men representatives. In this way, besides the +men who represented the towns, there were present these nobles +who represented the landowners of the counties. Gradually these +nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own, while +the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in +another assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of +Commons and the House of Lords, and the two made up the +parliament.</p> +<p><b>An Assembly of Representatives.</b> This parliament was a +great invention. The English had discovered a better way of +governing themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We +call it the representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived +far from Rome wanted to take part in the elections, he was +obliged to leave his farm or his business and travel to Rome, for +only the citizens who were at Rome could have a share in making +the laws. It never occurred to the Romans that the citizens +outside of Rome could send some of their number as +representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament +was an important step towards what we mean in America by +"government of the people, for the people, and by the +people."</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle +Ages. What stories have you learned about these heroes?</p> +<p>2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show +his love of books? What did he do to help his people to a +knowledge of books?</p> +<p>3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back +the Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English +navy?</p> +<p>4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the +English and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help +them?</p> +<p>5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an +ordeal and a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed +and what did they do? How were they afterwards divided?</p> +<p>6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a +king was his brother John?</p> +<p>7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called +"Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget +these promises?</p> +<p>8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to +talk over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this +body finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided?</p> +<p>9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention? +What did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome +and wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of +the story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne, +Frederick the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen.</p> +<p>2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and +those of to-day, and explain their differences.</p> +<p>3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is +guilty.</p> +<p>4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes +the laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the +whole country?</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4072"></a><a href="#3039">CHAPTER XII</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</p> +<p><b>What the English owed to their European Neighbors</b>. If +the English succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how +to govern themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected +them from attack, and they could quarrel with their king without +running much risk that their enemies in other countries would +take advantage of the quarrel to seize their lands or attempt to +conquer them.</p> +<p>The French were not so well placed. France also was not united +like England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were +almost independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and +dukes. In France it would not have been wise for the people to +quarrel with the king, for he was their natural protector against +cruel lords. Germany and Italy were even more divided, with not +only counties and duchies, but also cities nearly as independent +as the ancient cities of Greece.</p> +<p>The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the +English were doing, and some of these were so well done that the +English were ready to accept these Europeans as their teachers. +The memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had done remained +longer in southern France and Italy because so many buildings +were still standing which reminded Frenchmen and Italians of the +people who built them.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="117.gif" src= +"Pictures/117.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Classes of People.</b> The people of Europe, as well as of +England, were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The +clergy seemed to form another class because there were so many of +them. Besides the parish priests and the bishops there were +thousands of monks, who were persons who chose to dwell together +in monasteries under the rule of an abbot or a prior, rather than +live among ordinary people where men were so often tempted to do +wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others. The monks worked +on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the libraries, or +prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to read +were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries +or the bishops' houses there were few books.</p> +<p><b>The Nobles.</b> The nobles were either knights, barons, +counts, or dukes. In England there were also earls. Many +mediaeval nobles ruled like kings, but over a smaller territory. +They gained their power because they were rich in land and could +support many men who were ready to follow them in battle, or +because in the constant wars they proved themselves able to keep +anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or a town. Timid and +peaceable people were often glad to put themselves under the +protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed by +other fighting nobles.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="118.gif" src= +"Pictures/118.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE<br> +1. The Donjon-keep. 2. Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court.<br> +5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7. Mount, where justice was +executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings, +who were at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring +nobles as well as peasants under their own rule and to compel +every one to obey the same laws. After this the nobles became +what we call an aristocracy, proud of their family history, +generally living in better houses and owning more land than their +neighbors, but with little power over others.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="119.gif" src= +"Pictures/119.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF +FRANCE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Castles</b>. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle +Ages were obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses +called castles. They were often placed on a hilltop or on an +island or in a spot where approach to the walls could be made +difficult by a broad canal, or moat, filled with water. At +different places along the walls were towers, and within the +outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to +capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the +enemy. These castles were gloomy places to live in until, +centuries later, their inner walls were pierced with windows. +Many are still standing, others are interesting heaps of +ruins.</p> +<p><b>Knighthood</b>. The lords of the castles were occupied +mostly in hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords +from interfering with them or to win for themselves more lands +and power. They hunted that they might have meat for their +tables. In later times, when it was not so necessary to kill +animals for food, they hunted as a sport. Fighting also ceased to +be the chief occupation, although the nobles were expected to +accompany the king in his wars.</p> +<p>From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the +Church as priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A +boy was sent to the castle of another lord, where he served as a +page, waiting on the lord at table or running errands. He was +trained to ride a horse boldly and to be skilful with the sword +and the lance. When his education was finished he was usually +made a knight, an event which took place with many interesting +ceremonies.</p> +<p>The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons +and arms for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the +altar of the church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night. +In the final ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received +a slight blow on the neck from the sword of some knight, or +perhaps of the king. His armor covered him from head to foot in +metal, and sometimes his horse was also covered with metal +plates. When he was fully armed, he was expected to show his +skill to the lords and ladies who were present.</p> +<p><b>The Duties of a Knight.</b> The duties of the knight were +to defend the weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful +to his lord and king, and to be courteous even to an enemy. A +knight true to these duties was called "chivalrous," a word which +means very much what we mean by the word "gentlemanly." There +were many wicked knights, but we must not forget that the good +knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping promises, +respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="121.gif" src= +"Pictures/121.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Peasants.</b> Most of the people were peasants or +townsmen. There were few towns, because many had been burned by +the barbarian tribes which broke into the Roman Empire, or had +been destroyed in the later wars. The peasants were crowded in +villages close to the walls of some castle or monastery. They +paid dearly for the protection which the lord of the castle or +the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were obliged to +work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring him +eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They +also gave him a part of their harvest.</p> +<p><b>The Townsmen</b>. At first the towns belonged to lords, or +abbots, or bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and +ruled themselves or received officers from the king. When they +ruled themselves, their towns were called communes. The citizens +agreed that whenever the town bell was rung they would gather +together. Any one who was absent was fined. For them "eternal +vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the belfries of +these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the citizens +of to-day of the struggles of the early days.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="122.gif" src= +"Pictures/122.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">VIEW OF CARCASSONNE<br> +This is an ancient city in France founded by the Romans</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The men of each occupation or trade were organized into +societies or guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices. +There were guilds of goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers, +that is, workers in gold and iron and sellers of fish. The +merchants also had their guilds. In many towns no one was allowed +to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was not a member of a +guild.</p> +<p><b>Old Cities which still exist.</b> Many of the towns which +grew up in the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England +and Europe. Their citizens can look back a thousand years and +more over the history of their city, can point to churches, to +town halls, and sometimes to private houses, that have stood all +this time. They can often show the remains of mediaeval walls or +broad streets where once these walls stood, and the moats that +surrounded them. The traveler in York or London, in Paris, in +Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches for the +relics about which so many interesting stories of the past are +told.</p> +<p><b>Venice and Genoa.</b> One of the most fascinating of these +old cities is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from +the shore of Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of +the Adriatic. Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a +Roman city on the mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in +the fifth century after Christ. In many places piles had to be +driven into the loose sands to furnish a foundation for houses. +The Venetians did not try to keep out the water but used it as +streets, and instead of driving in wagons they went about in +boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks had done +in those same waters hundreds of years before.</p> +<p>Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and +Taranto, the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the +peninsula to the west was another trading city called Genoa, +which was the birthplace of Columbus.</p> +<p><b>Modern Languages</b>. While the people of mediaeval times +were building city walls and towers to protect themselves they +were also doing other things. Almost without knowing it they +formed the languages which we now speak and write--English, +German, French, Italian, and Spanish.</p> +<p>The English and German languages are closely related because +the forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany, +taking their language with them. This older language was +gradually changed, but it still remained like German. Dutch is +another language like both English and German.</p> +<p>There are many words in these languages borrowed from other +peoples. Englishmen, because of their long union with western +France, borrowed many words from the French. The French did not +invent these words, for the French language grew out of the Latin +language which the French learned from the Romans.</p> +<p><b>How Modern Languages were formed</b>. In English we have +two sets of words and phrases: one is used in writing books or +speeches, the other in conversation. When the Gauls learned +Latin, the language of Rome, most of them learned the words used +in conversation and did not learn the words of Roman books. +Before long spoken words differed so much from the older written +words that only scholars understood that the two had belonged to +the same language. This new language was French. In the same way +Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in +Italy and Spain.</p> +<p>When men began to write books in the new languages, the +changes went on more slowly because the use of words in books +kept the spelling the same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was +still used in the religious services of the Church and in the +schools and universities.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="125.gif" src= +"Pictures/125.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Schools in the Middle Ages.</b> In the Middle Ages most +boys and girls did not go to school. Education was principally +for those who expected to become priests or monks. The schools +were in the monasteries or in the houses or palaces of the +bishops. The students were taught a little Latin grammar, to +write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned +arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the +festivals of the Church should come; and music, so much as was +then known of it. Printing had not been invented, so there were +no text-books for them to study, and written books or manuscripts +were too costly. Students listened to the teacher as he read from +his manuscripts and copied the words or tried to remember +them.</p> +<p><b>The Beginning of Universities.</b> If students remained in +the schools after these things had been learned, they studied the +laws of the Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious +questions which are called theology. Some teachers talked in such +an interesting way about such questions that hundreds of students +came to listen. Like other kinds of workers, who were organized +in societies or guilds, the teachers and students formed a guild +called a university. The teachers were the master-workmen, and +the students were the apprentices.</p> +<p><b>Where the Students lived.</b> In the beginning the +universities had no buildings of their own, and the teachers +taught in hired halls, the students boarding wherever they could +find lodgings. Partly to help students who were too poor to pay +for good lodgings, and partly to bring the students under the +direct rule of teachers, colleges were built. These were not +separate institutions like the American colleges, but simply +houses for residence, although later some teaching was done in +them.</p> +<p><b>Some Famous Universities.</b> The oldest university was in +Bologna in Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the +Romans to its students eight hundred years ago. The University of +Paris was called the greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its +students numbered sometimes between six and seven thousand. About +the same time the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge +were formed, and there, many years later, a large number of the +men who settled in America were educated.</p> +<p><b>The Wisdom of the Arabs.</b> Students in these universities +obtained several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs, +the followers of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long +before Europeans thought of founding universities the Arabs had +flourishing schools and universities in Spain. The capital of the +Mohammedan Empire was first at Bagdad on the Euphrates, where +once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of the tales of the +Arabian Nights.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="127.gif" src= +"Pictures/127.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the +fourteenth century</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>What Europeans borrowed from the Arabs.</b> The Arabs had +learned much of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and +they also found out much for themselves. The numerals which we +use are Arabic; and algebra, one of our principal studies in +mathematics, was thought out by the Arabs. Their learned men were +deeply interested in the books of Aristotle, an ancient Greek, +who had been a teacher of Alexander the Great. They translated +his books into Arabic, and Christian students in Spain translated +the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the University of +Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other +thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found +in this Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what +Aristotle had written in Greek.</p> +<p>[Illustration 128: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors +in the twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the +Moorish architecture.]</p> +<p><b>Builders in the Middle Ages.</b> The Greeks and the Romans +had been great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded +in building churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which +equaled in grandeur and beauty the best that the ancient builders +had made. The large churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because +their builders were able to place masses of stone high in the air +and to cover immense spaces with beautiful vaulted roofs. +Builders nowadays imitate, but not often, if ever, equal them. +Fortunately the original buildings are still standing in many +English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and +Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt, +and Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and +Rome.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="129.gif" src= +"Pictures/129.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear, +showing the arches and buttresses</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Church Building.</b> The Italians began by building +churches like Roman basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported +by heavy walls, were also used north of the Alps, and the method +of building was named Romanesque, or in England, Norman. The +architects or builders of western France discovered a way of +roofing over just as large spaces without using such heavy walls, +so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows. Instead +of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls +between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called +buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was +sometimes more than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor. +The glass of the windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from +the Bible or from lives of sainted men and women. The outer +walls, especially the western front, the doorways and the towers, +were richly carved and adorned with statues, and often with the +figures of strange birds and beasts which lived only in the +imagination of the builders. This method of building was named +Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town halls +and private houses. Architects use similar methods of building +nowadays.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="130.gif" src= +"Pictures/130.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic +interior</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Renaissance.</b> Men who could build and adorn great +churches and town halls and who were eager to study in the new +universities should be called civilized. The barbarous days were +gone, but men still had much to learn from the ancient Greeks and +Romans. Many of the ancient buildings were in ruins, the statues +half buried or broken, the paintings destroyed, and the books +lost. Men began to search for what was left of these things and +to study them carefully to learn what the Graeco-Roman world had +been like. After a while students could think of nothing else, +and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the Romans +and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first +interested in these things is called the Renaissance or +"rebirth," because men were so unlike what they had been that +they seemed born again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the +Middle Ages came to an end.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="131.gif" src= +"Pictures/131.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ST. PETER'S AT ROME</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Petrarch.</b> One of the earliest of these "new" men was +Petrarch, an Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a +hundred years before Columbus. He wished above all things to +read, copy, and possess the writings of the Romans, and +especially of Cicero, an orator and writer who lived in the days +of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends searched for the +manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved, hidden +away in monastery libraries.</p> +<p>The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent +large sums of money in collecting and copying ancient writings. +At this time a beginning of the great libraries of Europe was +made, Petrarch tried to learn Greek, but could find no one in +Italy able to teach him.</p> +<p><b>Greek Books brought again to Italy.</b> Shortly after +Petrarch died some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the +aid of the pope and the kings of the West in an attempt to drive +back the Turks, who had already crossed into Europe and settled +in the lands which they now occupy. Unless help should be sent to +Constantinople, the city would certainly fall into their hands. +With these Greeks was one of those men who still loved to read +the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to remain a +few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek to +the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a +grammar of the Greek language, in order that after he had +returned to Constantinople others might be able to continue his +teaching.</p> +<p>Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly +as they had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their +agents to Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar +brought back to Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land +to which students from Germany, France, and England went to learn +Greek and to obtain copies of Greek books. It was fortunate that +so many books had been brought from Constantinople, for at last, +in 1453, the Turks captured that city and no place in the East +was left where the books of the Greeks were studied as they had +been at Constantinople.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="133.gif" src= +"Pictures/133.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH +CENTURY</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Invention of Printing.</b> After collectors of Greek +and Roman writings had made several good libraries, partly by +purchase, partly by copying manuscripts belonging to others, a +great invention was made which enabled these writings to be +spread far and wide and placed in the hands of every student. +This invention was the method of printing with movable types. It +is not quite certain who made the invention, although John +Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the +inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the +same time, that is, about 1450.</p> +<p><b>Different Kinds of Type.</b> In forming their type the +German printers imitated the lettering made by copyists with a +quill. Their type is called Gothic, and it is still widely used +in German books. The Italian printers made their letters more +round and simple in shape, imitating the handwriting of the best +Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in which many European +peoples, as also the English and the Americans, print their +books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which, +because they were the inventors, is named <i>italic</i>.</p> +<p><b>The Aldine Press.</b> One of the most famous printers of +this early time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci. +He gathered about him a number of Greeks and planned to print all +the Greek manuscripts that had been discovered. This he did in +beautiful type, imitated from the handwriting of one of his Greek +friends. He sold the books for a price per volume about equal to +our fifty cents, so that few scholars were too poor to buy.</p> +<p><b>Some Early Printed Books.</b> Another great printer was the +Englishman William Caxton, who learned the art in the +Netherlands. Among the books he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury +Tales. The first book printed by Gutenberg was the Bible in +Latin. Early in the sixteenth century, through the labors of a +Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the German Froben, +the New Testament in Greek was printed.</p> +<p><b>Architecture and Sculpture.</b> The artists and the +architects of this time began to imitate the buildings they found +or that they unearthed. They used round arches and domes more +than the pointed arches and vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders. +Sculptors pictured in stone the stories of the Greek and Roman +gods and heroes. Statues long buried in ancient ruins were dug +up, and great artists like the Italian Michel Angelo studied them +and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut. On every hand +men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of the +founders of the civilized world.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="135.gif" src="Pictures/135.gif" +border="1"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer +in France and Italy than in Germany and England?</p> +<p>2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle +Ages? What was the difference between a parish priest and a +monk?</p> +<p>3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what +sorts of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the +"keep"?</p> +<p>4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How +was a young man made a knight? What were the duties of a +knight?</p> +<p>5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the +Middle Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves? +What was a guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their +cities?</p> +<p>6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember +Genoa?</p> +<p>7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow? +How were the changes made in the old language? Where did the +English get their language? Was it just like the English we +speak?</p> +<p>8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the +word "university" mean then? Name two or three universities +founded then which still exist. What did the Arabs teach +Christian students?</p> +<p>9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages +especially like to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why +do we admire these great churches?</p> +<p>10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more +Roman and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living +and thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first +of these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek +books?</p> +<p>11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new +knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where +do we get our Roman and <i>italic</i> type? What books did the +Venetian printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous +German printer.</p> +<p>12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance +like to study and imitate?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different +European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why +are they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight?</p> +<p>2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of +castles still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls.</p> +<p>3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from +advertising folders.</p> +<p>4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do +the students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle +Ages?</p> +<p>5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect +pictures of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain, +or Africa, or Asia.</p> +<p>6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find +pictures of churches in America which resemble them.</p> +<p class="c3">REVIEW</p> +<p class="c4">How ancient civilization was preserved</p> +<p>1. What ruined so many ancient cities?</p> +<p>2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the +Romans had done?</p> +<p>3. What language did the churchmen continue to use?</p> +<p>4. How did the missionaries help?</p> +<p>5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the +Romans had known?</p> +<p>6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks +had known?</p> +<p>7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help +in preserving the ancient knowledge?</p> +<p>8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men +of Petrarch's time do?</p> +<p>9. What help came from the invention of printing?</p> +<p>10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance +learn about the Greeks and the Romans?</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="137.gif" src= +"Pictures/137.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH +CENTURY</td> +</tr> +</table> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4657"></a><a href="#3986">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES</p> +<p><b>The Perils of Traders.</b> There was a time in the Middle +Ages when merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to +another for fear of being plundered by some robber lord or common +thief. If they traveled by sea they might also be attacked by +robbers. Some of these robbers, like the Northmen, came from +afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put out from near-by +ports when there seemed nothing better to do.</p> +<p>This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great +lords succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the +merchants armed vessels of their own to drive the pirates from +the sea. As trade grew greater the towns became richer and +stronger and the robbers and pirates fewer, so that the number of +merchant ships increased rapidly and long voyages were +attempted.</p> +<p><b>Fairs.</b> At first trade was carried on at great fairs, +held in places convenient for the merchants of England and +western Europe. The fairs lasted about six weeks, and one fair +followed another. As soon as the first was over the merchants +packed their unsold wares and journeyed to the next. At the fairs +were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks from the East, +skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and other +products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain.</p> +<p><b>The Treasures of the East.</b> Men in the Middle Ages were +dependent for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly +called the East. By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India, +China, or the Molucca Islands, where the choicest spices still +grow. Spices were a great luxury, and were needed to flavor the +food, because the manner of cooking was poor and there was little +variety in the kinds of food. Most of the cotton cloth, the +silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also procured from the +East.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="139.gif" src= +"Pictures/139.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Routes to the East.</b> No one knew that it was possible to +reach Asia by sailing around the southern point of Africa or +through what is called the Strait of Magellan. The products of +the East were brought to Europe by several routes, two reaching +the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in Egypt, a third at Antioch, in +Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern shore of the Black +Sea.</p> +<p>The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the +deserts from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern +India. Ships from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice +struggled with one another for the right to bring back these +precious wares and sell them to the merchants of Europe, who were +ready to pay high prices.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="140.gif" src= +"Pictures/140.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE +AGES</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Venetian Traders.</b> Merchants from Germany came to Venice +to trade the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and +silks, which they carried back across the Alps. Once a year the +Venetians sent a fleet of vessels westward through the straits of +Gibraltar and along the Atlantic shore as far as Bruges and +London. The voyage was long and dangerous, and the Venetians +traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for two or +three times what they cost in Venice.</p> +<p><b>The Crusades.</b> One event that brought to the Venetians +an opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The +Mohammedans had long held a large part of Spain, and towards the +end of the eleventh century they threatened France and Italy. +They also attacked what was left of the Roman Empire in the East, +and the emperors sent to the pope and the western kings frantic +appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen, Germans, Englishmen, +and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire to go to +Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy +City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries +large armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories, +sometimes being defeated in battle or overcome by disease.</p> +<p><b>What the Venetians gained from the Crusades.</b> Most of +the Crusaders went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no +ships of their own they often took passage in Venetian ships. The +Venetians asked large sums for this, and also succeeded in +obtaining all the rights of trade in many of the seaports which +were captured. Sometimes the Venetians undertook to govern +islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along the coasts, +but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than to +build up an empire.</p> +<p><b>The new Venetian Ships</b>. The Crusaders who returned to +Europe brought back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and +their tales made other men eager for them. For this reason more +ships were built to sail in the Mediterranean. The shipowners +attempted to make their ships larger and stronger. They were +larger than those built by the English or by other peoples along +the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There is an +account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells +us that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews +of one thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but +had a mast, sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they +could use if the wind was favorable.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="142.gif" src= +"Pictures/142.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">VENETIAN SHIPS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Dangers of the Sea.</b> One difficulty about sailing was +the lack of any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night, +of telling the direction in which they were going. The sailors +did not like to venture far from shore, although the open sea is +safer during a storm than a wind-swept and rocky coast. At the +time when the sailors of the Mediterranean were building up their +trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and the Black Sea, two instruments +came into use which enabled them to tell just where they +were.</p> +<p><b>The Compass.</b> One of these instruments was the compass, +which the Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs +before the Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle, +rub its point with a magnet, and lay the needle on a cork +floating in water, he will have a rough sort of compass. The +point of the needle wherever it may be turned will swing back +towards the north, thus guiding the sailors.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="143a.gif" src= +"Pictures/143a.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MARINER'S COMPASS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story +that at first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused +to sail under a captain who used it. But a century later it was +in general use, and had been so much improved that even in the +severest storms the needle remained level and pointed steadily +towards the north.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="143b.gif" src= +"Pictures/143b.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AN ASTROLABE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Astrolabe.</b> The other instrument, called the +astrolabe, was a brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To +this circle were fastened two movable bars, at the ends of which +were sights, or projecting pieces pierced by a hole. The +astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that one bar was +horizontal and the other could be moved until through its sights +some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on +the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above +the horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the +place where they were. In a similar way their longitude could be +found out.</p> +<p>The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could +be used only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments +it was possible to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle +of the fourteenth century ships from Genoa and Portugal had +visited the Madeira and the Canary Islands, and even the Azores +which are a thousand miles from the mainland.</p> +<p><b>What Men thought about a Sea Route to the East.</b> Men +learned more about other strange lands through a Venetian +traveler, Marco Polo, who wrote an account of his wonderful +journey to the court of the Grand Khan, or Emperor of the +Mongols, of his travels through China, and of his return to +Persia by sea.</p> +<p>Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was +a great marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in +sailing around Africa it would be impossible to reach the region +of the spices and silks and jewels which they so much desired. +They also thought that the heat in the tropics was so intense +that at a certain distance down the coast of Africa they would +find the water of the ocean boiling. These things and the tales +of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had terrified +them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling.</p> +<p><b>The Mongols</b>. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the +court of the Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were +great conquerors, and they not only subdued the Chinese but +marched westward, overrunning most of Russia and stopping only +when they were on the frontiers of Italy. For a long time +southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital was just +north of the Great Wall of China.</p> +<p>The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to +the pope for missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's +father and uncle while on a trading expedition had found their +way to his court, and on a second journey, in 1271, they took +with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years. The emperor was much +interested in his western visitors and took young Marco into his +service.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="145.gif" src= +"Pictures/145.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After +an old Chinese manuscript</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Marco Polo's Travels.</b> Marco Polo traveled over China on +official errands, while his father and uncle were gathering +wealth by trade. After many years they desired to return to +Italy, but the emperor was unwilling to lose such able servants. +It happened, however, that the emperor wished to send a princess +as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of Persia, also a Mongol +sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to be trustworthy +seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal +husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went +on to Italy.</p> +<p>They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that +their relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize +them. It was like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned +to his native Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by +nobody. The Polos proved the truth of what they said by showing +the great treasures which they had sewed into the dresses of +coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which they wore. They displayed +jewels of the greatest value, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and +sapphires.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="2613"><img alt="146.gif" src= +"Pictures/146.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS<br> +The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black,<br> +and that first described by Marco Polo is dotted</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#4070">[16]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>What Marco Polo told</b>. In the account Marco Polo wrote +of his travels and of the countries he had visited he described a +wonderful palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered +with gold and silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people, +and its ceiling was inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco +Polo so large, so rich, and so beautiful that no man on earth +could design anything to equal it. The robes of the emperor and +his twelve thousand nobles and knights were of silk and beaten +gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with precious +stones.</p> +<p>Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in +the costly wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and +cheap. He described from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen +hundred miles from the mainland. Its people, he said, were white, +civilized, and wondrously rich. The palace of the emperor of +Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and floors were of +solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick.</p> +<p><b>Reasons for finding a Sea Route to the East</b>. Tales of +such great wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach +the East. Marco Polo had shown that it was possible to sail past +India, through the islands, to the eastern coast of Asia. When +printing was invented his account was printed, and the copy of +that book which Columbus owned is still preserved. Upon its +margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about geography.</p> +<p>Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales +of the East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the +land was lost, because the Mongol emperors were driven out of +China and the new rulers would not permit Europeans to enter the +country. The ordinary caravan routes to the East were also closed +not long afterwards. In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople, +drove away the Italian merchants, and prevented European sailors +from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years later the Turks seized +Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately before this +happened a better route had been discovered.</p> +<p><b>The Portuguese Sailors</b>. During the Middle Ages the +Portuguese princes fought to recover Portugal from the Moors. +When this was done they were eager to cross the straits and +attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry of Portugal made an +expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to know more +about the coast south of the point beyond which European sailors +dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea +of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="148.gif" src= +"Pictures/148.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old +picture</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been +called "The Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely +promontory in southern Portugal, and gathered about him learned +men of all peoples, Arabian and Jewish mathematicians, and +Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this new school of +seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to sail +farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had +gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed +Cape Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without +suffering the fate which men had once feared. But they were +discouraged when they found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the +coast turned southward again, for they had hoped to sail eastward +to Asia.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="149.gif" src= +"Pictures/149.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA<br> +The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East.<br> +The solid line shows the new Portuguese route</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Cape of Good Hope discovered</b>. At last in 1487 the end +of what seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate +captain who accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a +family of daring seamen. He had been sailing southward along the +coast for nearly eight months, when a northerly gale drove him +before it for thirteen days. The weather cleared and Diaz turned +eastward to find the coast. As he did not see land he turned +northward and soon discovered land to the west. This showed that +he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew were +unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the +western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of +Storms, but the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned, +named it the Cape of Good Hope, for now he knew that an +expedition could be sent directly to the Indies.</p> +<p>Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was +the most wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about.</p> +<p><b>The Sea Route to India.</b> Eleven years later the +Portuguese king sent Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt +to reach the coast of India by sailing around the Cape of Good +Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da Gama was successful and landed +at Calicut on the south-western coast of India. He returned to +Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty times the cost of +the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the East which +enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon.</p> +<blockquote> +<p><br> + <b>QUESTIONS</b></p> +<p>1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who +traveled by sea or land? What was a fair?</p> +<p>2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes? +Point these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in +Italy? How did the Venetians get their wares to London?</p> +<p>3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the +Mohammedans? What did the Venetian traders gain by these wars? +Describe a large Venetian ship of this time.</p> +<p>4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail +great seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe +was made.</p> +<p>5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern +Asia? Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he +return to Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had +visited?</p> +<p>6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to +Asia? What did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How +was the Cape of Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this +voyage?</p> +<p>7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the +voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade?</p> +<p><br> + <b>EXERCISES</b></p> +<p>1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must +have been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the +Moluccas, or China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or +London?</p> +<p>2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and +cloves?</p> +<p>3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China? +Where has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols. +Collect pictures of China and Japan.</p> +<p>4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo.</p> +<p>5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of +Portugal. Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United +States.</p> +<p><br> + <b>REVIEW</b></p> +<p>STEPS TOWARDS THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA</p> +<p>Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain.</p> +<p>Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain.</p> +<p>Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland.</p> +<p>Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages +to London and Bruges.</p> +<p>Marco Polo's travels in China and the East.</p> +<p>Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape +of Good Hope.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="2209"></a><a href="#2963">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</p> +<p><b>Christopher Columbus</b>. Six years before Vasco da Gama +made his famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new +trade route for the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had +formed and carried out a much bolder plan. This was Christopher +Columbus, and his plan was to sail directly west from Europe into +the unknown ocean in search of new islands and the coast of Asia. +Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in Italy, had followed his +younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably led there by the +fame of Prince Henry's explorations.</p> +<p>The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for +the Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their +expeditions along the coast of Africa. All the early associations +of Columbus were with men interested in voyages of discovery, and +particularly with those engaged in the daring search for a sea +route to India.</p> +<p><b>How Columbus formed his Plan</b>. Columbus gathered all the +information on geography which he could from ancient writers and +from modern discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was +shaped like a ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned, +why might not a ship sail around it from east to west? Or, +better, why not sail directly west to India, and perhaps find +many wonderful islands between Europe and Asia? His imagination +was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the marvelous +riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of +going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly +boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most +men of the fifteenth century to be madness.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="153.gif" src= +"Pictures/153.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS<br> + The oldest known picture of Columbus,<br> +in the National Library, Madrid</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>His Notion of the Distance to Asia.</b> Columbus made two +fortunate errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He +imagined that Asia extended much farther eastward than it +actually does, making it nearer Europe, and estimated the earth +to be smaller than it is. His figures placed Japan less than +3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead of the 12,000 +miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought Japan +would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated.</p> +<p><b>How he secured Help.</b> Even so, many years passed before +Columbus was able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself, +and needed the help of some government to fit out such an +expedition. He may have tried to get his native city, Genoa, to +help him. There is such a story. If he did, it was without +success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal, where he lived +a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in the +discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the +same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to +undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise.</p> +<p>The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him +waiting many years for an answer. They thought that they had more +important work in hand. There was another king in Spain at the +time, the king of the Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the +Christian king and queen, were trying to conquer the Moors, and +thus to end the struggle between Christians and Mohammedans for +the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly eight centuries. +This war required all the strength and revenue of Spain.</p> +<p>Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly +discouraged, the war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the +seat of their former power, was finally taken in January, 1492. +Now was a good time to ask favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and +to plan large enterprises for the future. Powerful friends aided +Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen Isabella was persuaded +to promise him all the help that he needed.</p> +<p><b>The Ships of Columbus</b>. Three ships, or caravels as they +were called, were fitted out. The <i>Santa Maria</i> was the +largest of the three, but it was not much larger than the small +sailing yachts which we see to-day. It was about ninety feet long +by twenty feet broad, and had a single deck. This was Columbus's +principal ship or flagship. The second caravel, the <i>Pinta</i>, +was much swifter, built high at the prow and stern, and furnished +with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the officers, but +without a deck in the center. The third and smallest caravel, +called the <i>Niña</i>, the Spanish word for baby, was +built much like the <i>Pinta</i>. Ninety persons made up the +three crews.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="1790"><img alt="155.gif" src= +"Pictures/155.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC<br> +The shaded portions represent the land as Columbus expected to +find it.<br> +The light outline of the Americas shows the actual position of +the land</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#1871">[15]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the +shores of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never +gone far out into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller +vessels in a voyage of discovery, because they would be able to +run close to the shores and into the smaller harbors and up the +rivers.</p> +<p><b>Beginning of the Voyage</b>. The expedition set sail from +Palos in Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary +Islands. These were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus +as the most convenient starting-point. The little fleet was +delayed three weeks at the islands making repairs. On September 6 +Columbus was off again. He struck due west from the Canaries.</p> +<p><b>The Terrors of the Voyage</b>. While the little fleet was +still in sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly +frightened the sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an +event an omen of evil. But the expedition had fine weather day +after day. Steady, gentle, easterly winds, the trade winds of the +tropics, wafted them slowly westward. But the timid sailors began +to wonder how they would ever be able to return against winds +which seemed never to change from the east.</p> +<p>Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area +than the whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared +they might be driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in +quicksands. They imagined, too, that great sea-monsters were +lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to devour them.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="157.gif" src= +"Pictures/157.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS<br> +After the reconstructed model<br> +exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The first Signs of a New Land.</b> In spite of fears and +complaints, and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward +course for more than four weeks. Then as he began to see so many +birds flying to the southwest, he concluded that land must be +nearer in that direction. He had heard that most of the islands +held by the Portuguese were discovered by following the flight of +birds. So on October 7 the westward course was changed to one +slightly southwest.</p> +<p>From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating +branches, occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits +of cane, were encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers +became common sights. The Queen had promised a small pension to +the one who should first see land. Columbus had offered to give a +silken doublet in addition. With what eagerness the sailors must +have kept on the lookout!</p> +<p><b>The great Discovery.</b> At last as the fleet was sailing +onward in the bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if +carried by hand along a shore. A few hours later, about two +o'clock on the morning of October 12, a sailor on the +<i>Pinta</i> saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a few +miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for +daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they +approached the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus +named it San Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know +which one of the Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it +was the one now called Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with +the royal standard and banners flying to take possession of the +land in the name of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.</p> +<p><b>Where Columbus thought he was.</b> The astonished +inhabitants of the island soon gathered to see the strange +sight--the landing of white men in the West Indies. They looked +upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the white men as gods. Nor +was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The people were a +strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and painted to +suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of +self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that +chattered in the trees above them. Such savages bore little +resemblance to the people whom Marco Polo said inhabited the +Spice Islands.</p> +<p>Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not +far from Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas +satisfied him that he was in the ocean near the coast of Asia, +for had not Marco Polo described it as studded with thousands of +spice-bearing islands? He had not found any spices, but the air +was full of fragrance and the trees and herbs were strange in +appearance. Of course if the islands were the Indies, the people +must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and this name +clung to the red men, although their islands were not the true +Indies.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="159.gif" src= +"Pictures/159.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST +LANDED</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Search for the Golden East.</b> Columbus thought that +the natives meant to tell him in their sign language of a great +land to the south where gold abounded. He set off in search of +this, and came upon a land the natives called Cuba. Its large +size convinced him that he had at last found the Asiatic +mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew knowing many +languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found neither +cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great +disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search +for the riches which he expected to find.</p> +<p><b>The Misfortunes of Columbus.</b> While on the coast of +Cuba, Pinzon, the commander of the <i>Pinta</i>, deserted him. +Pinzon, whose ship was swifter than the others, probably wished +to be the first to get home, in order to tell a story which would +gain him the credit of the discovery of the Indies. A few days +later Columbus discovered a large island which the natives called +Hayti, and which he called Española or "Spanish Land." At +every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco Polo +had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Española +Columbus's own ship, the <i>Santa Maria</i>, was totally wrecked. +Such disasters convinced him that it was high time to return to +Spain with the news of his discovery.</p> +<p><b>Preparations for Return to Spain.</b> As there was not room +for both crews on the tiny <i>Niña</i>, his one remaining +ship, it became necessary to leave about forty sailors in +Española. A fort was built, and supplies were left for a +year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to Spain. Ten +Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his friends +in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the +language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their +people.</p> +<p><b>The Search for China renewed.</b> There was rejoicing in +Palos when the voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon +Columbus. It was now easy to get men and money for another +voyage. In September, 1493, Columbus started to return to his +islands, this time with seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men, +all confident that they would soon see the marble palaces of +China, and secure a share in the wealth of the Spice Islands. No +one yet realized that a new world--two great continents--lay +between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus went +directly to Española, where he found that his colony of +the previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new +settlement was quickly started. A little town called Isabella was +built, with a fort, a church, a market place, public granary, and +dwelling-houses. Isabella was the first real settlement in the +New World.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><a name="2414"><img alt="161.gif" src= +"Pictures/161.gif"></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b> <a href="#3037">[17]</a></b></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Other Voyages to the New World.</b> Columbus made two other +voyages. He continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he +believed to be near. He made a third voyage from Spain to the +West Indies in 1498. He sailed farther south, and came upon the +mainland which later was called South America. A fourth +expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call Central +America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he +had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the +coast of Asia.</p> +<p><b>The sad End of Columbus's Life.</b> The close of his life +was a sad one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches +which he had expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the +islands had rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely +before the king and queen of misgovernment in his territories. +Once his opponents had him carried to Spain chained like a common +prisoner. He was given his liberty on reaching Spain, but the +people had become prejudiced against him.</p> +<p>Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his +brother Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to +pass a crowd of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them +with hoots: "There go the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland, +the man who has discovered a land of vanity and deceit, the grave +of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships and disappointments broke down +the great discoverer, and he died neglected and almost forgotten +by the people of Spain.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="163.gif" src= +"Pictures/163.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the +plan Diaz had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama +carried out a few years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz +desire to find a sea route to India? Had anybody before Columbus +believed the earth round?</p> +<p>2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of +the earth? Why was this a fortunate error?</p> +<p>3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why +did he find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain +finally favored his cause? Who were the Moors?</p> +<p>4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the +West Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised?</p> +<p>5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his +first voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands +did he find on his later voyages? What did he think he had +found?</p> +<p>6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the +Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity +and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by +this?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing +ships of other explorers of that day. How does the deck +arrangement on those differ from the ocean steamships of to-day? +What advantage would ships like those of Columbus have over +present steamships in exploring strange coasts? What +disadvantages?</p> +<p>2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were +afraid to go on and wished to turn back to Spain.</p> +<p>3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where +Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and +China. What great mass of land was really very near the island he +first discovered? <a name="1871"></a><a href="#1790">(See +map[15].)</a></p> +<p>4. Find from the maps on <a name="2910"></a><a href= +"#4350">(Greek World)[7]</a>, <a name="2495"></a><a href= +"#1634">(Roman World)[14]</a>, <a name="4070"></a><a href= +"#2613">(The world after Polo's journey[16])</a>, and <a name= +"3037"></a><a href="#2414">(The world as known after +Columbus[17])</a>, how much more the Romans knew of the world +than the Greeks had known, the Europeans after Marco Polo's +journey than the Romans, and the Europeans after Columbus's +voyage than after Marco Polo's journey.</p> +<p><i>Important Date</i>--1492. The discovery of America by +Columbus.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4968"></a><a href="#2434">CHAPTER XV</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD</p> +<p><b>The Race to the Indies.</b> The discovery of all the lands +which make what we call the New World came very slowly. It was +the work of many different explorers. Most of the expeditions +sent out to the new islands went in search of a passage to India. +It was a fine race. Each nation was eager to see its ships the +first to reach India by the westward route. All were disappointed +at finding so much land between Europe and Asia. It seemed to +them to be of little value and to block the way to the richer +countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered the +great continents which we know as North and South America. +Columbus had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a +turning-point in history.</p> +<p><b>John Cabot.</b> John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time +in the service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of +discovery. This was five years after Columbus discovered the West +Indies. Cabot had heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain +had occupied unknown islands. He planned to do the same for King +Henry VII of England. For his voyage he had a single vessel no +larger than the <i>Niña</i>, the smallest ship in the +fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew. He passed +around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west +until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North +America somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the +southern end of Nova Scotia.</p> +<p><b>Cabot's Discovery.</b> John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but +he found notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making +nets, which showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human +beings. Like Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of +China.</p> +<p><b>The Cabot Voyages forgotten.</b> Before the end of 1497 +John Cabot was back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and +his son, Sebastian Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found +lands in the following year. The Cabot voyages, however, were +soon almost forgotten by the people of England.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="166.gif" src= +"Pictures/166.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SEBASTIAN CABOT<br> +After the picture ascribed to Holbein</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Naming of the New Lands.</b> Why was our country named +America rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and +northern continents which we call the Americas were named for +Americus Vespucius rather than for Christopher Columbus. This +seems the more strange since we know so little about the life of +Americus. Americus Vespucius was born in Florence, Italy, and +like many other young Italians of that day entered the service of +neighboring countries. He went to Spain and accompanied several +Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new continent which +Columbus had discovered on his third voyage.</p> +<p>Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the +leader in any expedition. But he seems to have written to his +friends interesting accounts of what he had seen. In one of these +letters Americus seems to have written boastfully of how he had +found lands which might be called a new world. He said that the +new continent was more populous and more full of animals than +Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate was even more +temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was clearly a +new world.</p> +<p><b>Why Americus was regarded as the Discoverer of America.</b> +The statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the +newly invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so +could be read by the learned of all countries. They were +impressed by the belief of Americus that he had seen a new world +and not simply the Indies. This was especially true of men living +outside of Spain who had heard little of Columbus or his +discovery.</p> +<p>Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery +was a way to the Indies and the finding of islands on the way +thither less important. Besides, when he saw what we call South +America he had no idea that it was a new world. The people of +Europe either never knew that he had discovered the mainland or +had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a great deal about +Americus and his doings. It is not strange that Americus rather +than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer of +America.</p> +<p><b>Two Names for the New Lands.</b> Even then the new +continent might not have been called America but for the +suggestion of a young scholar of the time. Martin +Waldseemüller, a professor of geography at the college of +St. Dié, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography. +In his description of the parts of the world unknown to the +ancients, he suggested naming the continent stretching to the +south for Americus.</p> +<p> </p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="168.gif" src="Pictures/168.gif" +border="1"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">FACSIMILE Of the passage in the +<i>Cosmographia Introductio</i> (1507),<br> +by Martin Waldseemüller, in which the name of America<br> +is proposed for the New World.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p><br> +<b>The facsimile's transcription reads as follows:</b><br> +<br> + Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta +pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa +est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore +sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam +dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint +nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi +navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur.</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Waldseemüller thought Americus had been the real +discoverer of this continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these +regions are more widely explored, and another fourth part has +been discovered by Americus Vespucius, I do not see why any one +may justly forbid it to be named Amerige--that is, Americ's Land, +from Americus, the discoverer."</p> +<p>Others adopted Waldseemüller's suggestion and the name +America came into general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards +continued to call all the new lands by the name which Columbus +had given them--the Indies. America was at first the name for +South America only, but later was also used by writers for the +other continent which was soon found to the north. It was natural +to distinguish the two continents as South and North America.</p> +<p><b>Balboa.</b> The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless +search for the real Indies, but the more they explored the more +they saw that a great continental barrier was lying across the +sea passage to Asia. A few began to suspect that after all +America was not a part of Asia. Vasco Nuñez Balboa was one +of these. Balboa was a planter who had settled in +Española. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his +creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a +vessel bound for the northern coast of South America. From there +he went to the eastern border of Panama with a party of gold +seekers. The Indians told him of a great sea and of an abundance +of gold on its shores to be found a short distance across the +isthmus. It is probable that the Indians wished to get rid of the +Spaniards as neighbors.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="169.gif" src= +"Pictures/169.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">VASCO NUÑEZ BALBOA</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Balboa's Discovery of the Pacific.</b> Balboa resolved to +make a name for himself and to be the discoverer of the other +sea. He set off in 1513. The land is not more than forty-five +miles wide at Panama, but it is almost impassable even to this +day. For twenty-two days the hardy adventurers advanced through a +forest, dense with thickets and tangled swamps and interlacing +vines--so thick that for days the sun could not be seen--and over +rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to an open sea +stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the South +Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given +it afterward.</p> +<p>Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of +land was comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that +North America, too, was narrower than it proved to be, and the +search for the passage to the Indies was pushed with greater +vigor.</p> +<p><b>Magellan.</b> A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had +really won the race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and +Columbus for India, the land of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He +had won in 1497 by going around the Cape of Good Hope. Another +explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally, reached the Indies in a +long westward voyage lasting two years, from 1519 to 1521.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="170.gif" src= +"Pictures/170.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">FERDINAND MAGELLAN</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Beginning of Magellan's Voyage.</b> Magellan, himself a +Portuguese, tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of +Portugal to aid him in his project. He succeeded better in Spain, +and sailed from there in 1519 with a small fleet given him by the +young king Charles. The five ships in his fleet were old and in +bad repair, and the crews had been brought together from every +nation. They sailed directly to South America, and spent the +first year searching every inlet along the coast for a +passage.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="171.gif" src= +"Pictures/171.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>They found that the natives of South America used for food +vegetables that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts." +The Indians called them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of +the great foods of to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter +was passed on the cold and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan +called the natives "Patagones," the word in his language meaning +big feet, from the large foot-prints which they left on the +sand.</p> +<p><b>The Strait of Magellan.</b> Magellan finally found a +strait, since named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed +his ships through it amid the greatest dangers. The change from +the rough waters of the strait to the calm sea beyond made the +word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem the most suitable name for the +vast body of water which they had entered.</p> +<p><b>The First Voyage across the Pacific.</b> From the western +coast of South America Magellan struck boldly out into the +Pacific Ocean on his way to Asia. The crews suffered untold +hardships. The very rats which overran the rotten ships became a +luxurious article of food which only the more fortunate members +of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen lived for days on +the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These were soaked +in sea-water and roasted over the fire.</p> +<p>Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam, +where plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of +small islands, of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his +word for robbers, used because the natives were such robbers. The +expedition discovered a group of islands afterwards called the +Philippines. There Magellan fell in with traders from the Indies +and knew that the remainder of the voyage would be through +well-known seas and over a route frequently followed. Poor +Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was +killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the +natives.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="173.gif" src= +"Pictures/173.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523<br> +After Magellan's voyage, but before<br> +the exploration of North America had gone far</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice +Islands, across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, +and so back to Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons +of cloves, worth more than enough to pay the whole cost of the +expedition. Such was the value of the trade Europe was so eagerly +seeking.</p> +<p><b>What Magellan had shown the People of Europe.</b> +Magellan's voyage had, however, been a great event. Historians +are agreed that it was the greatest voyage in the history of +mankind. It had shown in a practical way that the earth is a +globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had long taught, for a +ship had sailed completely around it.</p> +<p>But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not +dreamed. He had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay +between Europe and Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which +the Spanish explorers had found, and which other people were +beginning to call the Americas, were really a new world entirely +separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia as Columbus had +thought.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at +finding two continents between Europe and Asia?</p> +<p>2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this +land was? Why did the English people take little interest in this +voyage?</p> +<p>3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that +Americus Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did +the Spaniards continue to call the new region? Why did the +Spaniards have one name and the other Europeans another name for +a long time?</p> +<p>4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men +search for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more +vigorously after Balboa's expedition?</p> +<p>5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in +history? What three things had Magellan shown the European +world?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter +who helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite +the name of each the name of the land he discovered.</p> +<p>2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map,[173.gif], and make a +list of the lands or countries he passed. Look at the map of +North America on this old map, and at the one on [229.gif]. How +do you account for the queer shape of North America on the old +map?</p> +<p class="c4">Important date</p> +<p>1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage around the +world.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="2556"></a><a href="#3614">CHAPTER XVI</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND</p> +<p><b>The Civilization of the Mexican Indians.</b> Early Spanish +explorers on the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the +mainland more highly civilized than the natives of the West +Indies. Some of these, especially the Aztecs, lived in large +villages or cities and were ruled by powerful chiefs or kings. +They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers several +stories in height.</p> +<p>Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the +Spanish had seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and +coated with hard white plaster. Some of them were of immense size +and could hold many families. Doors had not been invented, but +hangings of woven grass or matting of cotton served instead. +Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle answered for +door-bells.</p> +<p>The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved +with a sort of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like +the old Roman aqueducts, although not so large, carried water +from the neighboring hills for fountains and rude public +baths.</p> +<p>The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their +families. Workmen made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils +and dishes of pottery for every-day use. The people cultivated +the fields around the cities, raising a great variety of foods, +and even built ditches to carry water for irrigating the fields. +All this was in striking contrast with the simple habits of the +West Indians.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="177.gif" src= +"Pictures/177.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE<br> +Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Cruel Customs of the Aztecs.</b> With all the good features +of Mexican life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over +the other Indians, there was much that was hideous and cruel. The +Aztecs, the most powerful tribes, were continually at war with +their neighbors. They lived mainly upon the plunder of their +enemies and the tribute which they took from those they had +conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly idols as +gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives +taken in war as human sacrifices.</p> +<p><b>Spanish Ideas of Mexico.</b> The reports of the Aztec +civilization and of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited +the interest and greed of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the +China which Marco Polo had described, and might offer a chance of +immense wealth for those who should conquer it. In truth, Mexican +civilization did resemble that of Asia more than anything that +the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a powerful chief or king of +the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol Emperor of Persia or +China.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="178.gif" src= +"Pictures/178.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MONTEZUMA,<br> +THE LAST KING OF MEXICO<br> +After Montanus and Ogilby</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Cortés.</b> In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent +Hernando Cortés to explore and conquer Mexico. The +expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now situated. The ships were +then sunk in order to cut off all hope of retreat for the +soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cortés, "were means +of retreat necessary!" Cortés, with great skill, worked up +the zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All +thought it a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the +practice of offering human sacrifices, and to force the Christian +religion upon the natives.</p> +<p>The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of +Mexico, which was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom. +Cortés and his men had learned the Indian mode of fighting +from ambush, and also how successfully to match cunning and +treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent his invasion +of their country.</p> +<p><b>How the Spaniards and the Aztecs fought.</b> The Mexican +warriors, though they fought fiercely, were no match for the +Spaniards. The Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow, +using arrows pointed with a hard kind of stone. They carried for +hand-to-hand fighting a narrow club set with a double edge of +razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind of armor made from +quilted cotton. But such things were useless against Spanish +bullets shot from afar.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="179.gif" src= +"Pictures/179.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ARMOR OF CORTÉS<br> +After an engraving of the original in the National Museum, +Madrid</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick +armor and shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the +Spanish leaders were mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly +appearance to the simple-minded Indians. The story is told that +the Mexicans believed that one of their gods had once floated out +to sea, saying that, in the fulness of time, he would return with +fair-skinned companions to begin again his rule over his people. +Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of the white men as the return +of this god and thought that resistance would be useless. Such +natives sent presents, made their peace with Cortés, and +so weakened the opposition to the conquerors.</p> +<p><b>Cortés in Peril.</b> Cortés easily entered +the City of Mexico, and forced Montezuma to resign. But here the +natives attacked his army in such numbers that he had to retreat +to escape capture. The Spaniards fled from the city at night amid +the onslaught of the inhabitants fighting for their religion and +their homes.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="180.gif" src= +"Pictures/180.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORTÉS<br> +After Van Menken.<br> + There are in the naval museum at Annapolis<br> +guns captured in the Mexican War supposed to be those used by +Cortés</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cortés +started in the evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000 +Indian allies, and 80 horses. There were left in the morning 500 +soldiers, 2,000 allies, and 20 horses. Cortés is said to +have buried his face in his hands and wept for his lost +followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking Mexico. +He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to +return to the attack on the capital city.</p> +<p><b>Capture of the City of Mexico.</b> The siege which +followed, lasting nearly three months, has rarely been matched in +history for the bravery and suffering of the natives. The +fighting was constant and terrible. The fresh water supply was +cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and famine aided the +invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and +Cortés entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the +Aztecs. A greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse +and rebuild the City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish +civilization, and Mexico a New Spain. By such work Cortés +showed that he could be not only a great conqueror, but also an +able ruler in time of peace.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="181.gif" src= +"Pictures/181.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS<br> +From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Pizarro.</b> A few years after Cortés conquered +Mexico a second army conquered another famous Indian kingdom. +Francisco Pizarro commanded this expedition, which set out from +Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been with Balboa at the discovery of +the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and, like his master, had become +interested in the stories the Indians told of a rich kingdom far +to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians described was +that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The Spaniards +called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by softening +the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a native +Indian chieftain.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="182.gif" src= +"Pictures/182.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S<br> +It is more than eight feet high and five feet across,<br> +and was dug up in the central square of the City of Mexico<br> +more than one hundred years ago</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Conquest of Peru.</b> Pizarro found the Incas divided as +usual by civil wars and incapable of much resistance. One of +their rival chiefs was outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro +by a trick, and was himself made a prisoner instead. He offered +to give Pizarro in return for his freedom as much gold as would +fill his prison room as high as he could reach. The offer was +accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases, plates, images, +and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian idols, was +gathered together.</p> +<p>The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost +$7,000,000 worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As +much more was taken from the Indians by force. The whole was +divided among the conquerors. Pizarro's share was worth nearly a +million dollars. But the poor chief who had made them suddenly +rich was suspected of plotting to have his warriors ambush them +as they left the country, was tried by his conquerors, and put to +death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over. Peru, like +Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement. Emigrants, +instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of going +on into the newer regions which Cortés and Pizarro had +won.</p> +<p><b>Emigrants to Spanish America.</b> It was much harder in the +sixteenth century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is +today. The first and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in +getting permission to leave Spain. No one could go who had not +secured the king's consent. The emigrant must show that neither +he nor his father nor his grandfather had ever been guilty of +heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had been steadfast +Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give her +consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of +Spain could not secure permits to move to the New World. +Foreigners of whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and +were usually kept out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly +for Spaniards.</p> +<p><b>Hardships of the Sea Voyage.</b> Those who did go to the +colonies found the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has +related that it cost him about one hundred and eighty dollars for +the passage, and that he provided his own chickens and bread. The +danger to sailing ships from storms was much greater than it is +today for steamships. The voyage required three or four weeks and +not uncommonly as many months.</p> +<p><b>The Need of Laborers.</b> The hardships and dangers of the +voyage and the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept +most people from going to the New World. Emigration was slow, +amounting to about a thousand a year. There were always fewer +capable white laborers than the landowners in the colonies needed +for their work, for there was much to do in clearing the land and +preparing it for use. The landowners were usually well-to-do +Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields themselves. A +great many of the laborers who migrated to America served in the +army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The +craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm +laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies, +during the early history of the colonies, made slaves of the +Indians and compelled them to take the place of the laborers they +needed and could not obtain.</p> +<p><b>Indian Slavery.</b> The people of Europe thought that the +whole world belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians, +whether Indian or negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity +or of being made slaves. The choice of Christianity did not +always save them from the fate of slavery. In this the Spaniards +were no more cruel than their neighbors the English or the +French. The Spanish planters from the beginning forced the +Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work in +their mines.</p> +<p>The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the +Indian unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves +did not do the tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful +quarters rapidly broke down the natives. The white men also +brought into the island diseases which they, with their greater +experience, could resist, but from which, one writer says, the +Indians died like sheep with a distemper.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="185.gif" src= +"Pictures/185.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A SPANISH GALLEON<br> +Ships like this carried the Spanish emigrants to America</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Slavery destroys the West Indians.</b> When the number of +the Indians in Española and Cuba had decreased so much +that there were not enough left to meet the needs of the +planters, slave-hunters searched the neighboring islands for +others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly gone, and the +planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves, the king +of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he +did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same +purpose, and the change merely meant that negroes took the place +of Indians as slaves. The story of the change is in great part +the story of the life of Bartholomew de Las Casas.</p> +<p><b>Las Casas.</b> The father of Las Casas was a companion of +Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain, +taking with him a young Indian slave whom he gave to his son. +This youth became greatly interested in the race to which his +young slave belonged. In 1502 he went to Española to take +possession of his father's estate. The planter's life did not +long satisfy him and finally he became a priest. He moved from +Española to Cuba, the newer colony.</p> +<p>Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and +gave his own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the +abuses of slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves, +and secured many reforms which lessened the hardships of their +lot. Since the planters demanded more laborers and Las Casas +thought the negro would be hardier than the Indian, he advocated +negro slavery in place of Indian slavery as the less of two +evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his king, Charles V, +to put an end to Indian slavery of every form.</p> +<p>His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West +Indies. They had decreased until almost none were left. It is +said that there were two hundred thousand Indians in +Española in 1492, and that in 1548 there were barely five +hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken place in the other +islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to save the +Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless +islanders.</p> +<p><b>Negro Slavery.</b> Las Casas later regretted that he had +advised the planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the +Indians. Some negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the +coast of Africa during their explorations and taken to Europe as +slaves. Columbus carried a few of these to the West Indies with +him, and others had followed his example, but negro slavery had +grown very slowly until after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery, +when it increased rapidly in Spanish America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="187.gif" src= +"Pictures/187.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in +the Academy, Mexico.<br> +Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to shield the +natives from Spanish cruelty</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Missions of the Mainland.</b> Las Casas became at one +time a missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors +located on the southern border of Mexico, in a region called by +the Spaniards the "Land of War." Three times a Spanish army had +invaded the country, and three times it had been driven back by +the native defenders. Las Casas wished to show the Spaniards that +more could be accomplished by treating the Indians kindly than by +bloody warfare and conquest.</p> +<p>He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of +the Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as +Christian teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won +the friendship of the Indians in time and changed the land of +constant warfare into one of peace. They led the natives to +destroy their idols and to give up cannibalism. The mission +established among them and kept up by the monks who were +attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up on +the mainland.</p> +<p><b>The Work of the Missions.</b> Influenced by the work of Las +Casas against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the +Spaniards bent their efforts to preserve and Christianize the +natives wherever they came upon them in America. Catholic priests +gathered the Indians into permanent villages, which were called +missions. Within about one hundred years after the death of +Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000 Indians in +such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to build +better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen +practices.</p> +<p>Every mission became a little industrial school for children +and parents alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and +trades and the customs and language of their teachers. Each +Indian cultivated his own plot of land and worked two hours a day +on the farm belonging to the village. The produce of the village +farm supported the church. The monks or friars who had charge of +the mission cared for the poor, taught in the schools, preserved +the peace and order of the village, and looked after the +religious welfare of all.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="189.gif" src= +"Pictures/189.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations, +and planters established farms around them, and they became +Spanish villages in every respect like those in the islands or in +the Old World, except that many inhabitants in the towns on the +mainland were Indians. The emigrants freely intermarried with the +Indians and a mixed race took the place of the old inhabitants. +The customs, language, religion, and rule of Spain prevailed in +this New Spain, though in some ways the new civilization was not +so good as that of the Old World.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did +they differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly +anxious to conquer Mexico?</p> +<p>2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards? +How many soldiers and Indian allies did Cortés lose in one +battle? How long did it take Cortés to conquer Mexico?</p> +<p>3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later? +By whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors, +Cortés and Pizarro, in their expeditions?</p> +<p>4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the +West Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians +and begin making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in +this change?</p> +<p>5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish +Missions accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian +tribes in Mexico?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and +occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United +States, or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or +from some neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the +Aztecs in these respects or the West Indians?</p> +<p>2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four +hundred years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find +out who may not come into the United States to-day. What did it +cost one traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century? +Find out the cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How +long did it take to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length +of a voyage from Europe to-day.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4514"></a><a href="#2459">CHAPTER XVII</a></h2> +<br> + +<p>THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA</p> +<p><b>Ponce de Leon.</b> While men like Cortés were +exploring and conquering the countries on the west shore of the +Gulf of Mexico, others began to search the vast regions to the +north. One of these explorers was Ponce de Leon, who had come to +Española with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards spent many +years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood from +something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond +the Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if +he bathed in it.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="191.gif" src= +"Pictures/191.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">PONCE DE LEON</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search +of this wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where +flowers grew in great abundance. It was the Easter season in +1513. Since the Spanish call this season <i>Pascua Florida</i> or +Flowery Easter, Ponce called the new flowery country Florida. He +went ashore near the present site of St. Augustine, and later, +while trying to establish a settlement, lost his life in a battle +with the Indians.</p> +<p><b>Explorations of North American Coast.</b> Other Spanish +explorers between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast +from Florida to Vera Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to +Labrador. They sought continually for a passage to India. Every +large inlet was entered, for it might prove to be the +long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of North America took +shape on the maps of that time. Two famous expeditions into the +interior of the country did much to enlarge this knowledge. One +was made by De Soto through the region which now forms seven +southern states of the United States, and the other was by +Coronado through the great southwest.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="192.gif" src= +"Pictures/192.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">HERNANDO DE SOTO</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>De Soto.</b> Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in +Spain, had won fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of +Spain, to reward his bravery and skill in conquering Indians, +made him Governor of Cuba. In those days the Governor of Cuba +controlled Florida. It was a larger Florida than the present +state of that name, for Spanish Florida included the whole north +coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into the continent +without any definite boundary.</p> +<p><b>The Story of the Gilded Man.</b> De Soto had heard a +fanciful story of a country so rich in gold that its king was +smeared every morning with gum and then thickly sprinkled with +powdered gold, which was washed off at night. De Soto thought +this country might be somewhere in Florida, and prepared to +search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language <i>El +Dorado.</i></p> +<p><b>The Comrades of De Soto.</b> More than six hundred men, +some of them from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain +and Portugal, flocked to De Soto's banner. They sold their +possessions at home and ventured all their wealth in the hope of +obtaining great riches in Florida.</p> +<p><b>De Soto's Route through the South of North America.</b> De +Soto crossed from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and +advanced northward by land to an Indian village near Apalachee +Bay. Here he spent the first winter. A white man, whom the +Indians had taken captive twelve years before and finally +adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an +interpreter.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="193.gif" src= +"Pictures/193.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a +journey into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed +northeasterly through the country now within Georgia and South +Carolina, as far, perhaps, as the border of North Carolina. From +here it passed through the mountains, and turned southwesterly +through Tennessee and Alabama until a large Indian village called +Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of Mobile Bay. +Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The Alabama +Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by. +Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the +unknown interior.</p> +<p><b>The Hardships of the Journey.</b> His army was almost +exhausted by the difficulties of the journey. A road had to be +cut and broken through thickets and forest, paths had to be made +through the many swamps, and fords found across the rivers. It +frequently became necessary to stop for months at a time, to let +the horses, worn out from travel and starving because of the +scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The stores which the +army brought with them soon gave out. The men were forced to live +like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots of wild +plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of +their scanty stores of corn and beans.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="194.gif" src= +"Pictures/194.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">INDIANS BROILING FISH</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Indians.</b> De Soto was cruel in +his treatment of the conquered natives along his route. Many of +his officers came with him really for the purpose of obtaining +Indian slaves for their plantations in Cuba. Indian women were +made to do the work of the camp. Indian men were chained together +and forced to carry the baggage. The chiefs were held as hostages +for the good behavior of the whole tribe. The Indians who tried +to shirk work or offered resistance were killed without +mercy.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="195.gif" src= +"Pictures/195.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the +white men, and left him the enemy of any who should come to those +regions in after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped +destruction at the hands of the enraged savages. They attacked +the Spaniards with all their strength at Mauvilla, and again +while they were in camp in northern Mississippi for the winter of +1540-1541. These two battles with the Indians cost the Spaniards +their baggage, which was destroyed in the burning villages. New +clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of wild animals. +Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets, shirts, +stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked +much like a band of Robinson Crusoes.</p> +<p><b>The Discovery of the Mississippi.</b> De Soto marched on +northwesterly until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the +site of the present city of Memphis. There he came upon a great +river. One of his officers tells us that the river was so wide at +this point that if a man on the other side stood still, it could +not be known whether he were a man or not; that the river was of +great depth, and of a strong current; and that the water was +always muddy.</p> +<p>De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or +Great River, but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans +have adopted the Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had +probably passed the mouth of the Mississippi River before De +Soto, and wondered at its mighty size, but De Soto was the first +white man to approach it from the land and to appreciate the +importance of his discovery.</p> +<p><b>Wanderings west of the Mississippi.</b> The Spaniards cut +down trees, made them into planks and built barges on which they +crossed the Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year +through the endless woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now +within the state of Arkansas. They probably went as far west as +the open plains of Oklahoma or Texas. In these border regions +between the forests and the prairies they met Indians who used +the skins of the buffalo for clothing.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="197.gif" src= +"Pictures/197.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Death and Burial of De Soto.</b> The severe winter of +1541-1542 discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent +nearly three years in a vain search. The natives whom they had +found made clothing from the fiber in the bark of mulberry trees +and from the hides of buffaloes, and stored beans and corn for +food, but such things seemed of little value to the seekers for +the Gilded Man.</p> +<p>De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish +a colony somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his +purpose to send to Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement +as a base, make a farther search in the plains of the great West. +He did not live to carry out his plan. Long exposure and anxiety +had weakened him. The malaria of the swamps attacked him, and he +died within a few days. His body was wrapped in mantles weighted +with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered in the midst +of the great river he had discovered.</p> +<p>His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the +Indians. The Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the +Sun, and now he had died like any other mortal. They were afraid +if the Indians found his body they would cease to believe that +the strangers were immortal and would massacre them all. The +Indians were told that the great leader had gone to Heaven, as he +had often done before, and that he would return in a few +days.</p> +<p><b>Results of De Soto's Journey.</b> The weary survivors built +boats, floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed +cautiously along the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four +years and three months, and half of the army which set out had +perished. However, the expedition of De Soto will always remain +one of the most remarkable journeys in the history of North +America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into the +interior. With it had begun the written history of the country +now composing at least eight states in the United States, +Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, +Mississippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the +present Oklahoma and Texas, and had certainly passed down the +Mississippi River through Louisiana.</p> +<p><b>The Story of the Seven Cities.</b> While De Soto was +exploring the southeastern part of North America a second +expedition searched the southwest. Both were looking for rich +Indian kingdoms like Mexico and Peru. The second expedition came +about in this manner. Some of the Indians from northern Mexico +told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in the distant past +their ancestors came forth from seven caves.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="199.gif" src= +"Pictures/199.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of +their own about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time +Spain was overrun by the Moors in the eighth century, seven +bishops, flying from persecution, had taken refuge, with a great +company of followers, on an island or group of islands far out in +the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built Seven Cities. +Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of their +wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have +actually seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to +tell them of these Seven Cities instead of seven caves.</p> +<p>The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much +trouble in understanding the Indian languages. They had long +expected to find the Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was +rumor that white travelers had seen them north of Mexico.</p> +<p><b>The Journey of Friar Marcos.</b> In 1539 the Viceroy of +Mexico sent a frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together +with a negro, Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for +them. Friar Marcos traveled far to the north. He inquired his way +of the Indians, always asking them about Seven Cities. He +described them as large cities with houses made of stone and +mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him, directed him to +seven Zuñi villages or pueblos. The first of these they +called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven +Cities of Cibola.</p> +<p>The good friar himself never entered even the first of them. +His negro, Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the +way, but this rough, greedy fellow offended the Indians, who +promptly murdered him. When the friar approached he found the +Indians so excited and hostile that he dared not enter their +village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill at a distance, +from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola. The +houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the +wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and +gave him the idea of a much larger and richer city than really +existed. Friar Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened, +hurriedly retraced his steps.</p> +<p><b>Coronado.</b> There was great excitement in Mexico over the +story Friar Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew, +as such stories always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing +else was thought of in all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made +ready a great army for the conquest of the Seven Cities of +Cibola. He gave the command to his intimate friend, Francisco de +Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany him, but it was necessary +to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of nobles, eager to go, +traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the viceroy's +permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors to +their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as +a title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great +wealth when the Seven Cities should be discovered!</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="201.gif" src= +"Pictures/201.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ZUÑI PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Army of Coronado.</b> In the early part of 1540, +Coronado set forth from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf +of California. He had an army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly +all the younger sons of nobles. They were fitted out with +polished coats of mail and gilded armor, carried lances and +swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from the large +stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few footmen +armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and +Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white +masters. Some led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage, +or drove the oxen and cows, the sheep and swine which would be +needed on the journey. A small fleet carried part of the baggage +by way of the Gulf of California, prepared also to help Coronado +in other ways, and to explore the Gulf to its head.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="202.gif" src= +"Pictures/202.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE ROUTE OF CORONADO</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Route of Coronado to Cibola.</b> The large army marched +slowly through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon +became impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small +following of picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous +wilderness of northern Mexico and across the desert plains of +southeastern Arizona. After a march lasting five months, over a +distance equal to that from New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon +the Seven Cities of Cibola; but the real Seven Cities of Cibola +as Coronado found them bore little resemblance to what he had +expected.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="203.gif" src= +"Pictures/203.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A ZUÑI PUEBLO</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The real Seven Cities of Cibola.</b> The first city of +Cibola was an Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed +houses, built of stone and sun-dried clay. The houses were +entered by climbing ladders to the top and then passing down into +the rooms as we enter ships through hatches. The people wore only +such clothes as could be woven from the coarse fiber of native +plants, or patched together from the tanned skins of the cat or +the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but only small +and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some +skill in making small things for house and personal decoration, +mainly in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green +stone.</p> +<p>The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of +poor villages inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that +Coronado had found the Zuñi pueblos in the western part of +New Mexico. The conquest of these was a wofully small thing for +so grand and costly an expedition. No gold or silver or precious +jewels had been found.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="204.gif" src= +"Pictures/204.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CANYON OF THE COLORADO</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Canyon of the Colorado.</b> Yet the wonders of the +natural world about them astonished and interested the Spaniards. +Some of their number found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River +and vividly described it to their comrades. As they looked into +its depths it seemed as if the water was six feet across, +although in reality it was many hundred feet wide. Some tried +without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream below or +to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who +staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the +cliff were about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far +as they could swore that when they reached these rocks they found +them bigger than the great tower of Seville, which is two hundred +and seventy-five feet high.</p> +<p><b>Coronado in New Mexico.</b> Coronado marched from the +Cities of Cibola eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River, +and settled for the winter in an Indian village a short distance +south of the present city of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The +Spaniards drove the natives out, only allowing them to take the +clothes they wore.</p> +<p><b>A Winter in an Indian Village.</b> The soldiers passed the +severe winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best +houses of the Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and +beans had been left by the unfortunate owners. The live stock +brought from Mexico furnished an abundance of fresh meat. +Coronado required the Indians to furnish three hundred pieces of +cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the place of +their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians +time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to +take their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a +soldier came upon an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he +compelled the unlucky fellow to exchange with him without more +ado.</p> +<p>Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts +of his men made him much loved by them, but much hated by the +Indians. It is no wonder that such treatment drove the Indians +into rebellion, and that Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel +war of reconquest and revenge.</p> +<p><b>The Tale of Quivira.</b> An Indian slave in one of the +villages cheered Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale +about a wonderful city, many days' journey across the plains to +the northeast, which he called Quivira. The king of Quivira, he +said, took his nap under a large tree, on which were hung little +gold bells, which put him to sleep as they swung in the air. +Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of wrought gold. +The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his hearers to +make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he could +in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless +plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown.</p> +<p><b>The Search for Quivira.</b> The slave's story deceived the +Spaniards. Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of +finding a rich country and marched away in search of Quivira. He +traveled to the northeast for seventy-seven days. There were no +guiding land marks. Soldiers measured the distance traveled each +day by counting the footsteps. The plains were flat, save for an +occasional channel cut by some river half buried in the sand; +they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small rim +of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses.</p> +<p><b>Quivira.</b> The most marvelous sight of the long journey +was the herds of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians +guided Coronado in the end to a cluster of Indian villages which +they called Quivira. This was somewhere in what is now central +Kansas near Junction City. The Indians were in all probability +the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met with a bitter +disappointment.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="207.gif" src= +"Pictures/207.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">INDIAN TEPEES</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered +Indian villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening +grass or straw or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the +poorest and most barbarous which he had met. Coronado was, +however, fortunate in securing a supply of corn and buffalo meat +in Quivira for his long return journey.</p> +<p><b>Coronado's Opinion of the West.</b> A year later a +crestfallen army of half-starved men clad in the skins of animals +stumbled back homeward through Mexico in straggling groups. Great +sadness prevailed in Mexico, for many had lost their fortunes +besides friends and relatives in the enterprise. Coronado seemed +to the people of the time to have led a costly army on a +wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions he had +crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away +from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country +was neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth +keeping.</p> +<p><b>Results of Coronado's Explorations.</b> We know better +to-day the value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved +the age-long mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the +southwest of the United States of our day. The rich region now +included in the great states of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, +Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it was soon after +described for the European world. His men had explored the Gulf +of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its +source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower +California was not an island but a part of the mainland. Others +soon explored the entire coast of California to the limits of the +present state of Oregon.</p> +<p><b>How De Soto and Coronado came near meeting.</b> De Soto and +Coronado together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to +the center of North America. A story which was told by De Soto's +men shows how close together the two great explorers were at one +time. While Coronado was in Quivira, De Soto was wandering along +the borders of the plains west of the Mississippi River, though +neither knew of the nearness of the other. An Indian woman who +ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De Soto's, nine days +later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains there would +have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the +meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot +refrain from wondering how different would have been the ending +with the two great armies united and encouraged to continue their +explorations.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What +did he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered +Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards understood +it?</p> +<p>2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did +he search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he +planning to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable? +Through what present states of the United States did he pass?</p> +<p>3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities? +Why did he expect to find them there? What was the story of the +Seven Cities? Of the Seven Caves?</p> +<p>4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of +Cibola? What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North +America in search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to +Quivira? What did he find Quivira to be?</p> +<p>5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he +found out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of +the present states of the United States did his route touch?</p> +<p class="c3">REVIEW</p> +<p>1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus (map, +161.gif), Magellan (map, 173.gif), De Soto (map, 195.gif), +Coronado (map, 202.gif), on the knowledge of the new world.</p> +<p><i>Important date</i>--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi +by De Soto.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4361"></a><a href="#3853">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h2> +<p>RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</p> +<p><b>The Rivals of Spain</b>. When the early voyages to America +and Asia were ended, the French, the English, and the other +northern peoples of Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for +new lands and for new routes to old lands. The French had sent a +few fishermen to the Banks of Newfoundland, and that was all. The +English had made one or two voyages and appeared to be no longer +interested. (See 166.gif, Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only +sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers, or keen traders, occupied much +of the time in the struggle against the North Sea, which +threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and cities.</p> +<p><b>The Trade-Winds</b>. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a +great advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for +such voyages. To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good +Hope. To go to America a southern route was taken, for in the +North Atlantic the prevailing winds are from the southwest, while +south of Spain the trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making +it easy to sail to America. To take the northern route, which was +the natural one for French and English sailors, would be to +battle against head winds and heavy seas.</p> +<p><b>The Spaniards and the Portuguese divide the World</b>. The +Spaniards and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave +them the right to all new lands which should be found and to all +trade by sea with the Golden East. Two years after the first +voyage of Columbus the Spaniards agreed with the Portuguese that +a line running 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should +separate the regions claimed by each. The Spaniards were to hold +all lands discovered west of that line, and the Portuguese all +east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by the +Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the +Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that +especially interests us as students of American history.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="211.gif" src= +"Pictures/211.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol, +England, in memory of the first sailor from England to visit +America</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Main Question.</b> Were the Spaniards to keep what they +claimed and continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The +answer to this question is found in the history of Europe during +the sixteenth century. Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were +drawn into quarrels in Europe which cost them many men and much +money. The consequence was that they were unable to make full use +of their discoveries, even if they had known how. Before the +century was ended their rivals, the English and the French, were +stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects, had +rebelled against them.</p> +<p><b>The English and the French desire a Share</b>. Men had such +great ideas of the immense wealth of the Indies that the +successes of one nation made the other nations eager for some +part of the spoil. Englishmen and Frenchmen were not likely to +allow the Portuguese to take all they could find by sailing +eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards to keep +whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by +following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for +new routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they +saw by the way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels +came from this rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other +causes.</p> +<p><b>King Charles and King Francis</b>. About the time +Cortés conquered Mexico, his master, King Charles of +Spain, began a war against Francis, the king of France. As long +as these two kings lived they were either fighting or preparing +to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only, there might have +been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and claimed others +which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region north +of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a +district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As +he was the German emperor besides, the French king thought him +too dangerous to be left in peace. These wars have little to do +with American history, except that they helped to weaken the king +of Spain and to prevent the Spaniards from making the most of +their early successes in colonizing.</p> +<p><b>Religion a Cause of Strife.</b> Religion was the most +serious cause of quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king +of Spain was the prince most injured by the struggle. At the time +of Prince Henry of Portugal and of Columbus all peoples in +western Europe worshiped in the same manner, taught their +children the same beliefs, and in religious matters they all +obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles began +in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over +Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who +rebelled and founded a republic of their own. The English finally +became the principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom +were of the same religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish +methods of defending religion, especially after the Spaniards had +massacred a band of French settlers in America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="213.gif" src= +"Pictures/213.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">EMPEROR CHARLES V</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The "Reformers."</b> Many men became discontented at the +way the Church was managed. At first all were agreed that the +evils of which they complained could be removed if priests, +bishops, and pope worked together to that end. After a while some +teachers in different countries not only complained of evils, but +refused to believe as the Church had taught and as most people +still believed. They did not mean to divide the Christian Church +into several churches, but they thought they understood the words +of the Bible better than the teachers of the Church.</p> +<p><b>The Reformation.</b> At that time people who were not +agreed in their religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the +same countries. The princes and kings who were faithful to the +Church ordered that the new teachers and their followers should +be punished. Other princes accepted the views of the "reformers," +and soon began to punish those of their subjects who continued to +believe as the Church taught. In Germany these princes were +called "Protestants," because they protested against the efforts +of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of the +new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused +to remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the +pope.</p> +<p><b>Catholic and Protestant Leaders.</b> The most famous +leaders of the Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola, +a Spaniard, Reginald Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an +Italian. Loyola had been a soldier in his youth, but while +recovering from a serious wound, resolved to be a missionary. +With several other young men of the same purpose he founded the +Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the Protestants the +greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John Calvin, a +Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at Wittenberg +in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise. +Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis +resolved to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was +obliged to leave the country. He settled in the Swiss city of +Geneva.</p> +<p><b>The Lutheran Church.</b> Luther's teachings were accepted +by many Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated +the Bible into German. After a while his followers formed a +Church of their own which was called Lutheran. It differed from +the Roman Catholic Church in the way it was governed as well as +in what it taught.</p> +<p><b>The French Huguenots.</b> Calvin lived in Geneva, but most +of those who accepted his teachings continued to live in France. +The nickname Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They +were not permitted by the French king to worship as Calvin +taught, but by 1562 so many nobles had joined them that it was no +longer possible to treat them as criminals. They were permitted +to hold their meetings outside the walled towns. The leader whom +they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Both he and +they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the +Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which +the king of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects.</p> +<p><b>The King of Spain and the Netherlands.</b> Philip II +inherited from his father Charles seventeen duchies, counties, +and other districts north of France in what is now Belgium and +Holland. Charles had known how to manage these people, because he +was brought up among them. The task of managing them was not +easy. Each district or city had its own special rights and its +people demanded that these should be respected by the ruling +prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule +the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled +the people of Spain.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="216.gif" src= +"Pictures/216.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE +NETHERLANDS</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Protestants in the Netherlands.</b> The trouble was made +worse because many of the Netherlanders became followers of +Luther or Calvin, and brought their books into the country. Now +Philip, like his father Charles, was faithful to the teachings of +the Church, and thought it was his duty to punish such persons. +The result was that Philip soon had two kinds of enemies in his +Netherland provinces, those who did not like the way he ruled and +those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and the two +united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were +driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border +from France.</p> +<p><b>The Netherlands.</b> The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are +well named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live, +because much of the land is below the level of the sea at high +tide, and some of it at low tide. For several hundred years the +Dutch built dikes to keep back the sea, or pumped it out where it +flowed in and covered the lower lands. Occasionally great storms +broke through the dikes and caused the Dutch months or years of +labor. A people so brave and industrious were not likely to +submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they would +rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views, +which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the +southern Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became +Calvinists generally emigrated to the northern cities, like +Amsterdam, where they were safer.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="217.gif" src= +"Pictures/217.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">Map Of The Netherlands</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>William of Orange</b>. William, Prince of Orange, was the +leader of the Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by +Charles, Philip's father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the +great ceremony held in Brussels when Charles gave up his throne +to Philip. William was called the "Silent," because he was +careful not to tell his plans to any except his nearest friends. +When Philip returned to Spain, William was made governor or +<i>stadtholder</i> of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland, +Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other +great nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with +the heretics and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the +southern Netherlanders and the northern Netherlanders were +united, although the southern Netherlanders remained faithful to +the Roman Catholic religion.</p> +<p><b>Spain and England</b>. The English at first had no reason +to quarrel with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the +Netherlanders, who were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they +sold great quantities of wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges, +Brussels, and Ghent, and bought fine cloth woven in those towns. +The friendship of the ruler of the Netherlands seemed necessary, +if this trade was to prosper. It was the trouble about religion +which finally made the English and the Spaniards enemies.</p> +<p><b>Henry VIII</b>. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of +England, the king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to +refuse obedience to the pope. The king called himself the head of +the Church in England. Lutheran views crept into the country as +they had done into the Netherlands, but King Henry at first +disliked the Lutherans quite as much as he grew to dislike the +pope.</p> +<p><b>The English Church</b>. So long as Henry lived not much +change was made in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the +Church. During the short reign of his son, the English Church +became more like the Protestant Churches on the Continent, except +that in England there were still archbishops and bishops, and the +government of the Church went on much as before. When Henry's +daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop these changes, and +for a few years her subjects were again obedient to the pope, but +she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth, became +queen.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="219.gif" src= +"Pictures/219.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The English Church and the Catholics</b>. In religious +matters Queen Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother +had done. All persons were forced to attend the religious +services carried on in the manner ordered in the prayer-book. +Roman Catholics could not hold any government office. They were +punished if they tried to persuade others to remain faithful to +the older Church. Philip did not like this, but for a time he +preferred to be on friendly terms with the English.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="220.gif" src= +"Pictures/220.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Queen Elizabeth</b>. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for +forty-five years. The English regard her reign as the most +glorious in their history. Before it was over they proved +themselves more than a match for the Spaniards on the sea. They +also began to seek for routes to the East and to attempt +settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The Greek and +Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and +Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to +make the English language the rival of the languages of Greece +and Rome. This was the time when Shakespeare wrote his first +plays.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or +Portugal than from England?</p> +<p>2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did +they draw the line of division?</p> +<p>3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what +countries did King Charles rule?</p> +<p>4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was +chiefly injured by such struggles?</p> +<p>5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they +called?</p> +<p>6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants? +Who were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name?</p> +<p>7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands +quarrel?</p> +<p>8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived? +Who was the hero of the Dutch?</p> +<p>9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly? +What king of England refused to obey the pope?</p> +<p>10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How +did Elizabeth settle the question of religion?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and +towns.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1511"></a><a href="#2317">CHAPTER XIX</a></h2> +<p class="c3">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA</p> +<p><b>Cartier</b>. During the reign of Francis I, the French made +the first serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far +East and to settle the new lands that seemed to lie directly +across the pathway. In 1534 Jacques Cartier was sent with two +ships in search of a strait beyond the regions controlled by +Spain or Portugal which would lead into the Pacific Ocean. +Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland and into +the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf of +St. Lawrence.</p> +<p><b>Cartier at Montreal</b>. Cartier made a second voyage in +the following year, exploring the great river which he called the +St. Lawrence. He went up the river until the heights of Mount +Royal or Montreal, as he called them, appeared on his right hand, +and swift rapids in the river blocked his way in front. The name +Lachine rapids, or the China rapids, which was afterwards given +to these, remains to remind us that Cartier was searching for a +passage to China.</p> +<p><b>The First Winter in Canada</b>. Cartier spent the severe +winter which followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the +site of the modern city of Quebec. The expedition returned to +France with the coming of spring.</p> +<p><b>Attempts to plant a Colony at Quebec.</b> Several years +later, in 1541, Cartier and others attempted to establish a +permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get +good colonists to settle in the cold climate so far north, the +leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons for debtors and +criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They selected the +neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in 1535, +where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their +colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a +new settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the +hostility of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all +gladly returned to France.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="223.gif" src= +"Pictures/223.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement +on the St. Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St. +Lawrence would prove the long-sought passage to China had to be +given up, but the river which he had discovered and so thoroughly +explored proved to be a great highway into the center of North +America.</p> +<p><b>Coligny's Plan for a Huguenot Colony.</b> Nearly thirty +years later the French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the +plan of establishing a colony in America, which would be a refuge +for the Huguenots if their enemies got the upper hand in France. +An expedition left France in 1564, and selected a site for a +settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns river in Florida. It +seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline, was quickly +built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They were +chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented +tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them.</p> +<p><b>The Misdeeds of the Colonists.</b> They spent their time +visiting distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and +silver, or plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West +Indies. No one thought of preparing the soil and planting seeds +for a food supply. It seemed easier to rob neighbors. The +provisions which they had brought with them gave out. Game and +fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but they were +without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year had +passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to +digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge +of angry Indians confronted them.</p> +<p><b>Relief sent to the Colony.</b> In August, 1565, just as the +half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an +expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few +young nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three +hundred in all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of +supplies and other things needed by a colony in a new country. It +looked then as though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan +and establish a permanent colony in America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="225.gif" src= +"Pictures/225.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN +FLORIDA From De Bry's Voyages</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Fort Caroline and the Spaniards.</b> The French had, +however, settled in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult +to settle in America at any place along the Atlantic coast +without doing so. The Spaniards regarded all North America from +Mexico to Labrador as lying within Florida. The attempt of the +French to settle on the lands claimed by the king of Spain was +sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct of the +French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the +West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest +of robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's +followers more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were +Huguenots.</p> +<p><b>Menendez.</b> At the time the news reached Spain of +Coligny's settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro +Menendez, was preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and +thus after a long delay carry out the task which De Soto had +vainly attempted. Menendez was naturally as eager as the king to +drive out the French intruders. So an expedition larger than was +planned at first was hurried off. Menendez was to do three +things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize the +Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida.</p> +<p><b>The Defeat of the French Fleet.</b> Menendez with a part of +his fleet arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the +relief expedition which Coligny had sent over came into harbor. +His ships attacked and scattered those of the French. The vessels +of the French for the most part sought refuge on the high seas. +They were too swift to be overtaken, but no match for the Spanish +in battle. Menendez decided to wait for the rest of his ships +before making another attack on Fort Caroline. Meanwhile he +sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles till he came to +an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine.</p> +<p><b>St. Augustine founded.</b> A friendly Indian chief readily +gave his dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like +structure, made of the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with +palmetto leaves. Soldiers quickly dug a ditch around it and threw +up a breastwork of earth and small sticks. The colonists who came +with Menendez landed and set about the usual work of founding a +settlement. Such was the beginning of the Spanish town of St. +Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in the United +States.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="227.gif" src= +"Pictures/227.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY +MENENDEZ<br> +Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>French sail to attack St. Augustine.</b> Both sides +prepared for a terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and +the Spaniards in their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French +struck the first blow. A few of the weaker and the sick soldiers +were left at Fort Caroline to stand guard with the women and +children. The main body aboard the ships advanced by sea to +attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered and wrecked +the French fleet before it arrived.</p> +<p><b>Menendez destroys Fort Caroline</b>. Menendez now took +advantage of the storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading +through swamps and fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale. +His drenched and hungry followers fell like wild beasts upon the +few French left in the fort. About fifty of the women and +children were spared to become captives. As many men escaped in +the forests around the fort, but the greater part were +killed.</p> +<p><b>Capture of the shipwrecked French</b>. The French fleet had +been wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St. +Augustine. A few days later Menendez discovered some survivors +wandering along the coast, half starved, trying to live on the +shell-fish they found on the beach, and slowly and painfully +working their way back toward Fort Caroline. The Frenchmen begged +Menendez to be allowed to remain in the country till ships could +be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling to make any terms +with them.</p> +<p><b>Murder of the Captives</b>. The unhappy Frenchmen were +taken prisoners, and, a few hours later, put to death. Other +shipwrecked refugees were captured a few days later, and these +suffered the same fate. Nearly three hundred perished in this +cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless deed, and yet such was +the character of all warfare at the time. Menendez believed that +he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain think Menendez +unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of the +Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say +to him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as +to those he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys."</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="229.gif" src= +"Pictures/229.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS +OF DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="230.gif" src= +"Pictures/230.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">Spanish clash with French over Colonization +attempts</td> +</tr> +</table> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore +and settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why +France had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of +the continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he +specially interested in St. Lawrence region?</p> +<p>2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine +rapids, given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence +river?</p> +<p>3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French +colony in North America? How much had he and his friends +accomplished for France in North America?</p> +<p>4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in +America? Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on +the map on 230.gif. Give several reasons why they soon got into +trouble with the Spaniards.</p> +<p>5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do? +What things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St. +Augustine? Find it on the map, 230.gif.</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Examine the map of North America in 1541 on 229.gif. What +parts of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can +you see why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great +river?</p> +<p>2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French +explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from +Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in +one of your geographies.</p> +<p><i>Important Date</i>: 1565. The founding of St. +Augustine.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4788"></a><a href="#1276">CHAPTER XX</a></h2> +<p>THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN</p> +<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Netherlanders.</b> Two years after +the cruel massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II, +the King of Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the +Netherlanders, and sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke +of Alva, who was as pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing +prominent nobles, and he would have arrested the Prince of +Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A court was set up which +condemned many persons to death, including the greatest nobles of +the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of Blood. Alva also +turned the merchants against him by compelling them to pay the +"tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods every +time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so +thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to +Spain.</p> +<p><b>The Beggars of the Sea.</b> Just then something happened +which gave Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance. +The men who were resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands +had been nicknamed the "Beggars." When they were driven from the +cities they took to the sea. The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes +found a port of refuge in La Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the +western coast of France, and sometimes they put into friendly +English harbors. From these places they would sail out and attack +Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572 ordered a fleet of +these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their own shores +and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success +encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to +rise and expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns.</p> +<p><b>The French promise Aid</b>. As soon as Coligny heard the +news he urged the French king to send an army into the +Netherlands and take vengeance not only for the massacre at Fort +Caroline, but also for all the wrongs that he and his father and +his grandfather had ever received at the hands of the Spaniards. +The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the Netherlanders +promising aid.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="233.gif" src= +"Pictures/233.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">GASPARD DE COLIGNY<br> +After the portrait in the Public Library, Geneva</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Massacre of Huguenots in Paris</b>. The plan was never +carried out. While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in +Paris, his enemies attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed +these enemies, including the king's mother, persuaded the king +that Coligny and the Huguenots were plotting against him, and +goaded the king into ordering the murder of all the Huguenots in +Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands of Huguenots +perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen +Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny +had missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon +to have other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to +help the Dutch. These new enemies were the English.</p> +<p><b>The English drawn into the Conflict</b>. The religious +troubles in England had been growing more serious. Two or three +plots were made to assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the +throne Queen Mary of Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip +began to encourage these plotters, especially after the pope in +1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth and forbidden her subjects to +obey her as queen. She was sure to be dragged into the struggle +in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have seen that she had +once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of Coligny +and his followers frightened the English and made many of them +anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the +Continent, the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were +utterly destroyed.</p> +<p><b>Growth of English Trade</b>. If England should be drawn +into war, her safety would depend mainly upon her ships. +Englishmen had always taken to the sea, as was natural for men +whose shores were washed by the Atlantic, the Channel and the +North Sea, but they were slow in building fleets of ships either +for trade or for war. The trade of the country with other peoples +in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by foreigners. Yet since +the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a change had taken +place. English merchants found their way to all markets. They +also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the religious +troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill to +England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and +silks.</p> +<p><b>The new English Navy</b>. The English navy was growing. One +of the new ships, <i>The Triumph</i>, carried 450 seamen, 50 +gunners, and 200 soldiers. Besides harquebuses for the soldiers, +there were many kinds of cannon with strange names, such as +culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines, and rabinets. Four of +the cannon were large enough to shoot a cannon-ball eight inches +in diameter. But it was on the skill and courage of her men +rather than upon the size of her ships that England relied for +victory.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="235.gif" src= +"Pictures/235.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE<br> +After the painting at Buckland Abby, England</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Sir Francis Drake</b>. One of these men was Francis Drake. +He was son of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the +rigging of the great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the +streets. In time young Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a +small trading vessel. Fortune smiled on the lad early in life. +His master died, and out of love for the apprentice who had +served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis Drake became +thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most +popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains.</p> +<p><b>Slave-Traders</b>. He often went with his cousin, John +Hawkins, on voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from +slave-traders along the coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they +found, and carried them to the Spanish planters of the West +Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout and humane as other men +of their time. They simply could not see any wrong in enslaving +the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they enjoyed the wild +life of the slave-trader with its dangers and rich rewards.</p> +<p><b>Why Drake hated the Spaniards</b>. The king of Spain tried +to keep the trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted +to prevent the trade of the English slavers with the West Indies. +Spanish ships-of-war ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins +and Drake hoped for large profits. The Spaniards won thereby the +undying hatred of Drake.</p> +<p><b>The Dragon of the Seas</b>. It was a time, too, when +Drake's countrymen at home shared his intense hatred of the +Spaniard. While England and Spain were not at war with one +another, English and Spanish traders fought whenever they met on +the high seas. The English made the Spanish settlements in +America their special prey. At certain times of the year Spanish +ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and +silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like +many another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of +their precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his +cunning and courage. More than once he was forced to bury his +treasures in the sand to lighten his ships that they might sail +the faster, and escape his pursuers. The Spaniards came to know +and to fear Drake as the Dragon of the Seas.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="237.gif" src= +"Pictures/237.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SPANISH TREASURE SHIP</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Drake's Venture</b>. Drake once formed the plan to take a +fleet into the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure +ships where they would be less on their guard. A fleet of five +ships was made ready. Contributions from wealthy merchants and +powerful nobles, perhaps a gift from Queen Elizabeth herself, +gave him the means for unusual luxuries in the equipment of his +fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were taken on board +Drake's own ship, the <i>Pelican</i>, or the <i>Golden Hind</i> +as he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left +Plymouth in 1577. One after another of the ships turned back or +was destroyed on the long voyage of twelve months across the +Atlantic and through the Strait of Magellan.</p> +<p><b>Beyond the Strait of Magellan</b>. The <i>Golden Hind</i> +alone remained to carry out the original project. As it entered +the Pacific Ocean a furious storm drove the little vessel +southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions where the oceans meet. +No one before had sailed so far south.</p> +<p><b>The first Prizes</b>. Drake regained control of his ship +when the storm had passed, and sailed northward along the coast, +plundering and robbing as he went. Once, as a land-party was +searching along the shore for fresh water, it came upon a +Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver beside him. His nap +was disturbed long enough to take away his burden. Further on +they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train of +Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The +Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their +boats. A treasure ship, nicknamed the <i>Spitfire</i>, on the way +to Panama, was captured after a long chase of nearly eight +hundred miles. Drake obtained from it unknown quantities of gold +and silver. With such a rich load, his thoughts turned to the +homeward voyage.</p> +<p><b>Drake's Voyage around the World</b>. By this time a host of +Spanish war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture +him on his return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now +confronted with real danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He +and many other Englishmen of his day were sure a passage would be +found somewhere through North America between the Atlantic and +the Pacific. Spanish, French, and English explorers had all +carried on the search for this passage. Drake decided to return +by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the coast of +California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington as +far as Vancouver.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="239.gif" src= +"Pictures/239.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he +gave up the search.</p> +<p>After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles +above the modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the +Pacific to return home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by +going around the world. He touched at the Philippines, visited +the Spice Islands, and slowly worked his way around the Cape of +Good Hope. The <i>Golden Hind</i>, long since given up as lost, +reached England in the fall of 1580, after nearly three years' +absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around the world. +Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor.</p> +<p><b>Drake's Reward</b>. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake +told of outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most +gorgeous robes she visited his ship, where a banquet had been +prepared. While Drake knelt at her feet she made him a knight. +And so it was that the man whom the Spaniards called with good +reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the English called by a new +title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the greatest sea-captain +of the age. His ship, the <i>Golden Hind</i>, was ordered to be +preserved forever.</p> +<p><b>The Dutch Struggle against Spain</b>. A few years after +Drake returned the English took a deeper interest in the struggle +between Philip and the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of +help from the French Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals +more boldly than ever. The Spanish soldiers treated the towns +which surrendered so savagely that the other towns decided it was +better to die fighting than to yield. The siege of Leyden became +famous because, after food had given out and the inhabitants were +starving their friends cut the great dikes in order that the +boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might be +floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood +also drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of +the city a strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the +dikes could again be replaced.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="241.gif" src= +"Pictures/241.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Death of William of Orange</b>. King Philip had come to +the conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the +Dutch could not be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince +William's head, offering a large sum of money to any one who +should kill him. The first attempts failed, but finally in 1584 +he was shot.</p> +<p><b>Sir Philip Sidney</b>. The murder of William alarmed the +English for Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already +aided men who were plotting against her. She sent an army into +the Netherlands to aid the Dutch, although she had not made up +her mind to attack Philip directly. The army did not give much +help to the Dutch, but it is remembered because a noble English +poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in one of the +battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back, +tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men +always do, and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it +was brought to him he saw on the ground a common soldier more +sorely wounded than he. He immediately sent the water to the +soldier saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine."</p> +<p><b>The Invincible Armada</b>. The king of Spain now decided +that he could not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly +punished the English. He even planned to put himself upon the +English throne, claiming that he was the heir of one of the early +kings of England. Months were spent in preparing a great fleet, +an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the Channel, take on +board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross over to +England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's +usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so +much shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had +to be postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of +Spain's beard."</p> +<p><b>The Armada in the Channel</b>. It was July, 1588, before +the "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English +Channel. Many of the Spanish ships were larger than the English +ships, but they were so clumsy that the English could outsail +them and attack them from any direction they chose. Moreover, the +Spaniards needed to fight close at hand in order that the +soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in the fray. The +English kept out of range of these guns and used their heavy +cannon.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="243.gif" src= +"Pictures/243.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br> +After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians<br> +following a tapestry in the House of Lords</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Destruction of the Armada</b>. With the English ships +clinging to the flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards +moved heavily up the Channel. In the narrower waters between +Dover and Calais the English attacked more fiercely, and sank +several Spanish vessels. Soon the others were fleeing into the +North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many sought to reach Spain +by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some of these ships +were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's proud +fleet returned to Spain.</p> +<p><b>Effect of the Defeat of the Armada on Spain</b>. This was +the last attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain +had been exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies +for the Invincible Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and +the English attacked and plundered Spanish vessels wherever they +found them.</p> +<p><b>The Independence of the Dutch</b>. The ruin of the Armada +also meant that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent +of the Spanish king. Seven of the northern provinces had already +formed a union and had begun to call themselves the United +Netherlands. They were growing richer while their neighboring +provinces on the south, which had decided to return to their +allegiance to Spain, grew poorer.</p> +<p><b>First Voyage of the Dutch to the East</b>. Even while the +fight was going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had +not permitted them to trade while he could control them. One of +these places was Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch +obtained spices which the Portuguese brought from the East +Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized Portugal, and the Dutch could +no longer go to Lisbon. This made them anxious to find their way +to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out. This voyage was +unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the Dutch had +almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of Spain, +from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across +the Atlantic to the shores of America.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name +was given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the +Netherlands? Why were they given this name?</p> +<p>2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the +Netherlands? Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people +were ready to help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least +why the English were willing to help the Dutch against Spain?</p> +<p>3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to +make a navy?</p> +<p>4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the +Spaniards? What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he +come to go around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since +Magellan made his voyage?</p> +<p>5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards +think of him? Why did each people think as it did?</p> +<p>6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why +did this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder?</p> +<p>7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and +make himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out +his plan? Why were the English victorious in the great battle +with the Armada? Where was the battle fought?</p> +<p>8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the +Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of +Spain?</p> +<p>9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war +with Spain ended?</p> +<p>10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French +for trade and settlements in America?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous +voyage around the world? See the map on 239.gif.</p> +<p>2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in +Chapters 19 and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and +settling America?</p> +<p>3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and +the southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day.</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="1568"></a><a href="#2767">CHAPTER XXI</a></h2> +<p>THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA</p> +<p><b>English Interest in America Awakened</b>. Voyages like +those made by Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout +England to learn more about the New World. Until this time even +the great discoveries of Columbus and the Cabots had failed to +stir the English people to take part in the exploration and +settlement of the Americas. The principal reason was because +their attention was occupied by the struggle between their +monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should +govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth +had been on the throne some years.</p> +<p>Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned +their ships toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as +he had done, mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on +board the ships of Spain bound homeward. Some of them explored +the coast of North America, hoping to find valuable regions that +had not fallen into the possession of the Spaniards.</p> +<p><b>The Northwest Passage</b>. Martin Frobisher made three +voyages, the last in 1578, in search of a passage through North +America to China. He entered the bay which bears his name, and +the strait which was later called after Hudson, but failed to +find a passage. Drake attempted to find the western entrance to +such a passage in 1579 as a short cut homeward when he tried to +avoid his Spanish pursuers.</p> +<p><b>Gilbert</b>. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey +Gilbert. He wished to build up another England across the sea, +just as the people of Spain were building up another Spain. He +planned to do this by establishing farms to which he and others +might send laborers who could not find work at home. Queen +Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage him, and to repay him +for the expense of carrying the emigrants over, she promised him +the land for six hundred miles on each side of his +settlements.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="247.gif" src= +"Pictures/247.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">CHARLCOTE HALL<br> +An English Manor House of the time of Queen Elizabeth</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Failure of Gilbert's Expedition</b>. Gilbert tried twice to +plant a colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. +Sir Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in +the expedition of 1578. He would have been in the disastrous +second attempt in 1583 had not Queen Elizabeth, full of +forebodings of danger to her favorite, refused to let him go. As +it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert took a large +supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please the +savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless +commander.</p> +<p>The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583. +The ship that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted +before they were out of sight of England. One was left in +Newfoundland. The wreck of the largest ship, with most of the +provisions, off Cape Breton, so discouraged the crews that they +prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the plan to settle on such +barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to return on the +<i>Squirrel</i>, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This +was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of +the little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran +into a fearful storm as it approached the Azores.</p> +<p>Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he +refused to desert his companions, with whom he had passed through +so many storms and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by +his reply, "Do not fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land." +One night the <i>Squirrel</i> suddenly sank. All on board were +lost. Such was the sad ending of the first efforts to establish +an English colony in North America.</p> +<p><b>Raleigh</b> Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan +which his kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the +height of his favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him +wealthy, especially by the gift of large estates which she had +taken from others. She readily promised him the same privileges +in America which she had offered to Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless +thought that he might increase his fortune and win glory for +himself and for his country by planting English colonies in the +New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the +undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able +commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had +fortune, skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a +friend of poets and scholars and a student of books; like Drake, +he was a natural leader of men.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="249.gif" src= +"Pictures/249.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Virginia</b>. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an +expedition to explore the coast for a suitable site for a colony. +His men sailed by way of the Canaries, and came upon North +America in the neighborhood of Pamlico Sound, avoiding the stormy +route directly across the Atlantic which Gilbert had followed. +They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore of Newfoundland +and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North Carolina +and Virginia.</p> +<p>They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were +particularly pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by +the Indians Roanoke Island. They noted with wonder the +overhanging grape-vines loaded with fruit, the fine cedar trees +which seemed to them the highest and reddest in the world, the +great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless deer in +the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth +was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed +it to be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and +made Raleigh a knight.</p> +<p><b>The first English Colonists</b>. Raleigh made several +attempts to plant a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was +led by John White in 1587. White had visited Virginia on an +earlier voyage, and painted more than seventy pictures of Indian +life, representing their dress and their manner of living. These +may still be seen in the British Museum in London. His interest +in the country and its Indian population made his appointment as +governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the selection of +colonists in order to secure farmers rather than gold-seekers. +Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony of +about one hundred and fifty persons.</p> +<p><b>Roanoke</b>. White and his followers settled on Roanoke +Island. They found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers +had built some years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several +huts were still standing, but they were falling to pieces. The +first task was to rebuild the huts and move into them from their +ships. A baby girl was born a few days after the landing, the +first child born of English parents in the New World. Her father, +Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her mother, Eleanor +Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was given the +name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be her +home.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="251.gif" src= +"Pictures/251.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>The Colonists in Danger</b>. The little colony must have +foreseen the hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for +before Governor White had been in America two months, he was sent +back to England to obtain more provisions, White, from his own +account, did not wish to leave his daughter and +granddaughter.</p> +<p><b>White's Search for Aid</b>. White returned to England in +the fall of 1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England +was alarmed by the rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to +land an invading army. The friends of Virginia in England were +too busy protecting their own homes from the invader to give heed +to the needs of the farmer colonists across the sea. White +traveled through England, seeking aid for his friends and family, +but was disappointed everywhere.</p> +<p><b>Why Raleigh gave no Help</b>. Raleigh had by no means +forgotten his colonists, but his queen and his country had the +first claim on him through the long war with Spain. Twice during +this period, he found time and means to prepare relief +expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped the first one just as +it was ready to sail, because all the ships were needed at that +moment for service in the war. A second expedition was attacked +by the Spaniards and forced to return.</p> +<p><b>The lost Colony</b>. White finally secured passage for +himself on a fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and +relief supplies of his own, but as a passenger on another man's +ship. It was the summer of 1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four +years after his departure. The colonists were not to be found. +Their houses were torn down. The chests which they had evidently +buried in order to hide them from the Indians had been dug up and +ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers which he had +left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were torn +and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through with +rust.</p> +<p>One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large +letters CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the +old fort. White recalled the agreement made when he left four +years before. If the colonists should find it necessary to leave +Roanoke, they were to carve on a tree the name of the place to +which they were going. If they were in danger or distress when +they left, they were to carve a cross over the name of the place. +White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the name of a small +island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived who were +known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe among +the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search +for them because the captains of the ships which brought him over +refused to delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were +evidently more eager to attack the Spaniards than to find a few +luckless emigrants.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="253.gif" src= +"Pictures/253.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589<br> +After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history. +It is believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and +lived with them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted +the ways of their protectors.</p> +<p><b>Value of the Efforts of the English and the French</b>. +Raleigh had failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new +England in America, but he had awakened in his countrymen an +interest in America, and made known the advantages of its soil +and climate. The French had apparently made no greater headway. +Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken up, and the +Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The history +of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec, +Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's +at Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in +America which were not strongly supported by friends or by the +home government. These attempts to plant colonies in America were +not, however, as bad failures as they appeared. Both nations had +learned much about the country and about the preparations needed +for permanent settlements.</p> +<p><b>What the Spanish had accomplished</b>. In 1600 Spain seemed +to have achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of +that time shows Spain in possession of vast territories in North +and South America. The English had a small tract, Virginia, in +which they had some interest but no colonists. The French +regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by right of discovery, +but they could point to no settlements to clinch that claim.</p> +<p>The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two +hundred cities and towns which they had planted in their +territories. About two hundred thousand Spaniards, farmers, +miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had either migrated from +Spain to America or had been born there of emigrants since +Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come under their +rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and called +themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro +slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines +in Spanish America.</p> +<table align="center" summary="Picture"> +<tr> +<td align="center"><img alt="255.gif" src= +"Pictures/255.gif"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center"><b>Regions in the New World and the East +claimed by the Countries of Europe after a century of +exploration</b>.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p>The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like +the cities of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and +mason-work abounded. Churches, monasteries, a university, higher +schools for boys and girls, four hospitals, of which one was for +Indians, and public buildings, similar to those in the cities of +old Spain, already existed. Spanish life and Spanish culture had +spread over a large area in the New World, and the most +remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had been +bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into +Spain and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new +world.</p> +<p><b>The Prospects of the Spanish Colonies</b>. But the outlook +for Spain in America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her +Dutch subjects and the war with England, which grew out of that +quarrel, left her completely worn out. She no longer had the +people to spare for American settlements. These ceased to grow as +they once had. Negroes and Indians outnumbered the Spaniards in +most of them. The three races mingled together and intermarried +until a new people, the Spanish American, differing in color and +blood from either of the old races, was formed.</p> +<p><b>The later Story of Colonization</b>. Spain's rivals--the +Dutch, the English, and the French--were just reaching the height +of their power. They had settled their most serious religious +differences. Their merchants were eagerly looking about for +commercial opportunities. A considerable population in each of +them, but more especially in England, was discontented and ready +to try its fortunes in a new world. The Spaniards had passed by +the best parts of North America as worthless. The people and the +unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of colonies on +a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American +colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the +Dutch, the French, and the English colonization of North +America.</p> +<blockquote> +<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p> +<p>1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in +America before Drake's time? What finally, made the English +sea-captains turn to American adventure and exploration?</p> +<p>2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you +find for his failure?</p> +<p>3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of +planting English colonies in America? What part of North America +did his men select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable +place? What name was given to the country?</p> +<p>4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What +did White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search +of them?</p> +<p>5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in +their efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained +anything from all their efforts?</p> +<p>6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus? +Why were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been? +What rivals were ready to begin colonies in America?</p> +<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give +Gilbert for his plan in North America? Was there this much +(twelve hundred miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America +unclaimed by the French and the Spaniards?</p> +<p>2. Find Roanoke Island on the map, 251.gif.</p> +<p>3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by +the English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of +discovery and exploration (1492-1600). See the map, 255.gif. What +parts of North America were still unknown? With the use of some +map of the world to-day make a list of the colonies of the same +countries now.</p> +<p class="c3">REVIEW</p> +<p>1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in +discovering the New World, and give for each the name of the +region he found.</p> +<p>2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which +they carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do, +the knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and +Britain? What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English +learned to do, the knowledge of which they either were already, +as in the case of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in +the case of England and France, were prepared to carry into North +America?</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4410"></a><a href="#1597">REFERENCES FOR +TEACHERS</a></h2> +<p>The following references are given in the hope that they will +be helpful to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive, +but enough are given so that one or more books for each subject +should be found in any fairly equipped school or public library. +Some of these books may be assigned to the brighter or more +ambitious members of the class for home readings. Extracts from +others may be read to the class directly. Still others will +furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller statements of +fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A Bibliography of +History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill and Tail +(Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further +information regarding those that are given here.</p> +<blockquote> +<p><br> + A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii, +iii, and iv.)<br> +<br> + (a) <i>Histories of the Greeks</i>.<br> + Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy +history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes; +Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the +Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in +Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of +the Greeks.<br> +<br> + (b) <i>Versions of some famous old Greek stories</i>, especially +the story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden +Fleece, the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses.<br> + A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths; +H. A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's +The Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; +C. H. and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; +Charles Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in +Tanglewood Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the +Golden Fleece in a specially interesting manner. Bryant's +translation of the Odyssey is one of the best known versions of +that story and may generally be found in public libraries.<br> +<br> + (c) <i>Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes</i>. Short +accounts of the lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles, +Socrates, Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives +of Greek Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; +Jennie Hall, Men of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, +Heroes and Men; E.M. Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and +Plutarch's Lives. There are several abridged editions of the +latter, but those by C.E. Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and +Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives, are best adapted to the use of +schools.<br> +<br> + (d) <i>Various features of Greek Life</i>, as the home, the +schools, food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government +have been described in the books on Greek Life.<br> + Among these are Blümner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks +(translated by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the +Ancient Greeks; Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker, +Life in Ancient Athens.<br> +<br> + (e) <i>Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria</i>. Descriptions +of these great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any +history of Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, +ch. 2, or Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in +Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for +Alexandria, will serve the purpose.<br> +<br> + (f) <i>A description of the battle of Marathon</i>, abridged +from the History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M. +Fling's Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many +incidents in Greek History as the Greek writers told them.<br> +<br> + (g) <i>A description of the materials</i>, methods of building, +decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples, +theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek +Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art.<br> +<br> + (h) <i>Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's +History of the Greeks</i>, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth +about the Old Greek Legends, or the same author's account, Vol. +I, pp. 272-295, of Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden +Day.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> +<p><br> + B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v, +vi, vii, viii and ix.)<br> +<br> + (a) <i>Histories of the Romans</i>.<br> + Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman +History; How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History +of Rome; though the last two do not cover the entire period of +Roman history. Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive +in style and supplied with a great variety of pictures and other +illustrative matter.<br> + Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of +the Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in +Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of +the chief events in Roman history.<br> +<br> + (b) <i>Versions of famous old Roman stories</i>, especially the +wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the +Sabine Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus.<br> + A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths; +H.A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story +of the Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and +Harding, City of Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome, +gives the story of Horatius at the Bridge, together with several +other stories from early Roman history.<br> +<br> + (c) <i>Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor, +Freya, and Tyr (Tiw).</i> C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber, +Myths of Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the +Middle Ages; Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie, +Norse Stories; Eva March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice +Zimmern, Gods and Heroes of the North.<br> +<br> + (d) <i>The Story of Hermann</i> (or the struggle between the +Romans and Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta +Stories, pp. 139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of +Germany.<br> +<br> + (e) <i>Short Biographies of some famous Romans</i>. Short +accounts of the lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero, +and Constantine are given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of +Rome; Harding, The City of Seven Hills; and several of them in +Plutarch's Lives. A simple account of the Life of Hannibal, the +Carthaginian enemy of Rome, will also be found in these +books.<br> +<br> + (f) <i>Interesting phases of Roman Life</i>: for example, the +Roman boy, country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling, +amusements, etc. See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age +of Cicero; H.W. Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B. +Platner, Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker, +Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of +Roman life are described in F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma.<br> +<br> + (g) <i>For descriptions of incidents in Roman history</i> and +phases of Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them, +see Botsford, Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman +History.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> +<p><br> + C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and +xiii.)<br> +<br> + (a) <i>Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>. +G.B. Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of +Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the +Catholic; J.R. Green, Short History of the English People; +E.F. Henderson, A Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short +History of Italy.<br> +<br> + (b) <i>Collection of stories adapted to children of the +grades</i>: The Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of +the Round Table, the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland. +These stories have all been written many times, and any librarian +can give the reader copies of them as told by several writers. +The following is a partial list only:<br> + A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends +Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages; +Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan, +European Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland; +Frances N. Greene, Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence +Holbrook, Northland Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's +King Arthur; Stevens and Allen, King Arthur Stories from +Malory.<br> +<br> + (c) <i>Famous Men of the Middle Ages</i>; for example, +Charlemagne, King Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the +Conqueror, Frederick Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King +John, Saint Louis of France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg.<br> + See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise +Creighton, Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little +Stories of Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren +and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of +the Middle Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of +England; M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps +in the History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva +March Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from +English History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the +Poets. Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great +Traveler, is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story +of his travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has +been reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32.<br> +<br> + (d) <i>Viking Tales</i>. The interesting stories of the Northern +discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie +Hall, Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the +Lucky, and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland).<br> +<br> + (e) <i>The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals</i>. +Other kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be +obtained in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202; +Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16; +or in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton, +Introduction to the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent +explanation of mediaeval methods of trial.<br> +<br> + (f) <i>Famous accounts of how the People of England won the +Magna Charta</i>.<br> + Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181; +Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson, +Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source +Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303.<br> +<br> + (g) <i>Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life</i>. Maude B. +Dutton, Little Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on +How a Page became a Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding, +The Story of the Middle Ages, especially the chapters describing +life in castle, life in village, and life in monastery. Eva March +Tappan, European Hero Stories, especially the topic, Life in +Middle Ages, p. 118, the Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna +Charta, p. 111.</p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> +<p><br> + D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America. +(For use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.)<br> +<br> + (a) <i>Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations</i>. +E.G. Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2 +volumes; and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World.<br> +<br> + (b) <i>Short, easy biographies of famous explorers</i>. (Da +Gama, Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and +Raleigh.)<br> + Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F. +Gordy, Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance +of Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times; +Higginson, Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B. +Hodgdon, A First Course in American History, Book I; W.H. +Johnson, The World's Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of +Columbus and Magellan; Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L. +Pratt, America's Story for America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude +V.D. Southworth, Builders of our Country, Book I; Rosa V. +Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.<br> +<br> + (c) <i>Stories of explorations as told by the explorers +themselves</i>.<br> + Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart, +Source Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early +accounts of John Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart, +Source Readers, No. 1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of +De Soto as described by one of his followers, in Hart, Source +Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado; +Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31, the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35, +Cortés' Account of the City of Mexico; No. 36, The Death +of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages of the Cabots; No. 89, +The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The First Voyage to +Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No. 116, Sir Francis +Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118, Gilbert's Expedition; +No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke.<br> +<br> + (d) <i>The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,</i> of +Cortés, Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of +the Missions. (See Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the +Southwest.)</p> +</blockquote> +<br> +<br> + +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> + +<h2><a name="4994"></a><a href="#1510">INDEX</a></h2> +<br> + +<p><br> + Acropolis,<br> + Africa, explored,<br> + Aldine Press,<br> + Alexander the Great,<br> + Alexandria,<br> + founded,<br> + end of trade route,<br> + Alfred, King,<br> + Alps,<br> + Hannibal crosses,<br> + Alva, in Netherlands,<br> + America,<br> + discovered by Columbus,<br> + origin of name,<br> + Amphitheater,<br> + at Rome,<br> + Arles,<br> + Anglo-Saxons,<br> + Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,<br> + Apollo,<br> + Aqueducts,<br> + Roman,<br> + Aztec,<br> + Arabic numerals,<br> + Arabs,<br> + see Mohammedans,<br> + Arches,<br> + Roman,<br> + triumphal,<br> + Gothic,<br> + in Renaissance,<br> + Architecture,<br> + Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + early Church,<br> + Mediaeval,<br> + Renaissance,<br> + Aristocracy,<br> + origin of,<br> + Armada (ar-ma'da),<br> + expedition of,<br> + Arms, Athenian,<br> + Gallic,<br> + Mediaeval,<br> + Aztec,<br> + Arthur, King,<br> + Astrolabe,<br> + Athens,<br> + Augustus, Emperor,<br> + Azores,<br> + Aztecs,<br> +<br> + Bahama Islands,<br> + Balboa (balbo'a),<br> + Basilicas,<br> + Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu),<br> + Beggars of the Sea,<br> + Black Sea,<br> + Bologna (bo-lon'ya),<br> + University of,<br> + Boniface,<br> + Books,<br> + Greek,<br> + carried to Italy,<br> + see printing,<br> + Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o),<br> + Boxing, Greek,<br> + Britain,<br> + name changed to England,<br> + Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um),<br> + founded,<br> + named Constantinople,<br> +<br> + Cabot, John,<br> + Cabot, Sebastian,<br> + Caesar, Julius,<br> + Calvin, John,<br> + Cambridge, University of,<br> + Canary Islands,<br> + Cannae, battle of,<br> + Canterbury,<br> + Cape of Good Hope,<br> + Cape Horn,<br> + Caroline, Fort,<br> + settlement,<br> + destroyed,<br> + Carthaginians,<br> + Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya),<br> + Castles,<br> + Cathedrals,<br> + Caudine Forks,<br> + Caxton, William,<br> + Census, Roman,<br> + Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain),<br> + Charybdis (ka-rib'dis),<br> + China,<br> + Christianity,<br> + Cibola,<br> + see Seven Cities Cincinnatus,<br> + Clergy,<br> + Coligny (ko'len'ye),<br> + Colonies, Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + Spanish,<br> + French,<br> + English,<br> + Colorado, Canyon of,<br> + Colosseum,<br> + Columbus, Christopher.<br> + discoveries of,<br> + Compass, origin of,<br> + Constantine,<br> + Constantinople,<br> + founded,<br> + renamed,<br> + educated men of,<br> + taken by Turks,<br> + Consuls, at Rome,<br> + Corinth,<br> + Corinthian pillars,<br> + Coronado, Francisco,<br> + Cortes, Hernando,<br> + conquest of Mexico,<br> + Courts,<br> + Greek,<br> + English,<br> + Crusades,<br> + Cuba,<br> + Cumae,<br> +<br> + Danes,<br> + see Northmen,<br> + Normans,<br> + Dare, Virginia,<br> + Delphi,<br> + Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez),<br> + De Soto, Fernando,<br> + Diaz, Bartholomew,<br> + Discus thrower,<br> + Doric pillars,<br> + Drake, Sir Francis,<br> + adventures in America,<br> + voyage around world,<br> + attack on Spain,<br> + Duke, origin of word,<br> + Dutch, war for independence,<br> +<br> + East, The,<br> + defined,<br> + search for sea routes,<br> + Education,<br> + Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + Mediaeval,<br> + Egyptians,<br> + Elizabeth, Queen,<br> + England,<br> + first known,<br> + inhabited by Britons,<br> + conquered by Romans,<br> + name,<br> + christianized,<br> + Danes in,<br> + in Middle Ages,<br> + aids Dutch,<br> + navy,<br> + war with Spain,<br> + English explorations and colonies,<br> + English language, origin,<br> + Erasmus,<br> + Eric the Red,<br> + Españolà (es-pan-yo'la)<br> + Euclid,<br> +<br> + Fairs, Mediaeval,<br> + Ferdinand, King,<br> + Florida,<br> + origin of name,<br> + exploration,<br> + St. Augustine in,<br> + France,<br> + see Gauls,<br> + name,<br> + Danes in,<br> + in Middle Ages,<br> + sailors of,<br> + colonies in America,<br> + Francis I, King,<br> + French language,<br> + Friar Marcos,<br> + Friday, origin of name,<br> + Frieze,<br> + Frobisher, Martin,<br> +<br> + Gama, Vasco da,<br> + Games,<br> + Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + Gauls,<br> + Genoa,<br> + Germany,<br> + language,<br> + early,<br> + name,<br> + early emigrants from,<br> + missionaries to,<br> + Gilbert, Humphrey,<br> + Girgenti (jer-jen'te),<br> + temple at,<br> + Gladiators,<br> + Gothic architecture,<br> + Goths,<br> + Government,<br> + at Athens,<br> + at Rome,<br> + in England,<br> + Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius,<br> + Great Charter,<br> + Greece,<br> + language of,<br> + early history,<br> + manner of living in,<br> + colonies,<br> + rivals,<br> + conquered by Rome,<br> + and the Renaissance,<br> + Greenland,<br> + Gregory, Pope,<br> + Guam,<br> + Guilds,<br> + Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk),<br> + Gymnasium, Greek,<br> +<br> + Hannibal,<br> + Hawkins, John,<br> + Hayti, see Española,<br> + Henry, Prince, the Navigator,<br> + Henry II, of England,<br> + Henry VIII, of England,<br> + Hercules,<br> + Hermann,<br> + Hermes,<br> + Herodotus (herod'otus),<br> + Homer,<br> + Horatius,<br> + House of Commons,<br> + House of Lords,<br> + Houses,<br> + Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + Aztec,<br> + in Cibola,<br> + Huguenots (hu'ge-nots),<br> + origin of,<br> + in America,<br> + and Dutch,<br> +<br> + Iceland,<br> + Incas,<br> + India,<br> + Indians,<br> + origin of name,<br> + of Mexico,<br> + of Peru,<br> + as slaves,<br> + missions to,<br> + and De Soto,<br> + in Cibola,<br> + in Quivira,<br> + at Roanoke,<br> + Indies,<br> + Ionic pillars,<br> + Isabella, Queen of Spain,<br> + Isabella, town in Española,<br> + Italy,<br> + Greeks in,<br> + Romans masters of,<br> + farmers in,<br> + Goths invade,<br> + Mediaeval,<br> + Renaissance in,<br> +<br> + Japan,<br> + Jerusalem,<br> + Jews,<br> + John, King of England,<br> + Jury, origin of,<br> + Justice,<br> + Greek,<br> + English,<br> + Justinian,<br> +<br> + Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne)<br> + Knights,<br> +<br> + Las Casas (ca'sas),<br> + Latin,<br> + words,<br> + literature,<br> + learned by the Gauls,<br> + in Middle Ages,<br> + in Renaissance,<br> + Law,<br> + Roman,<br> + English,<br> + Leif Ericson,<br> + London,<br> + Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la)<br> + Luther, Martin,<br> +<br> + Madeira Islands (madei'ra),<br> + Magellan,<br> + Magellan, Strait of,<br> + Magna Charta,<br> + Marathon,<br> + Marco Polo,<br> + Marseilles (mar-salz),<br> + Mary, Queen of England,<br> + Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath)<br> + Mexico, conquest of,<br> + Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo),<br> + Middle Ages,<br> + defined,<br> + close,<br> + Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez)<br> + Missionaries,<br> + Missions, Spanish,<br> + Mississippi River, discovery of,<br> + Modern Times, defined,<br> + Mohammedans,<br> + Moluccas,<br> + Monasteries,<br> + Mongol Tartars,<br> + Montezuma, King of Aztecs,<br> + Montreal,<br> + Moors,<br> + Mosaics,<br> +<br> + Naples,<br> + Navy,<br> + English,<br> + in battle against the Armada,<br> + Netherlands, revolt of,<br> + New Testament,<br> + Greek,<br> + first printed,<br> + Nobles,<br> + Norman architecture,<br> + Norman Conquest,<br> + Normans,<br> + Northmen,<br> + Notre Dame (no'tr'dam)<br> + in Paris,<br> +<br> + Odin,<br> + Olympia,<br> + Olympic games,<br> + Ordeals,<br> + Oxford, University of,<br> +<br> + Pacific Ocean,<br> + Paestum (pes'tum),<br> + Paintings, Greek,<br> + Panama,<br> + Pantheon (Pan'theon),<br> + Papyrus (pa-pi'rus),<br> + Paris,<br> + Parliament, English, origin of,<br> + Parthenon (par'thenon),<br> + Patagonia,<br> + Patricians,<br> + Paul, the Apostle,<br> + Peasants,<br> + Pediment,<br> + Persia,<br> + Peru, conquest of,<br> + Petrarch (pe'trark),<br> + Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez),<br> + Philip II,<br> + Philippines,<br> + Phoenicia,<br> + Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro),<br> + conquest of Peru,<br> + Plataeans,<br> + Plato,<br> + Plebeians,<br> + Pompeii (pom-pa'ye),<br> + Pompey,<br> + Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on),<br> + Pope, the Bishop of Rome,<br> + Porticoes,<br> + Portugal,<br> + sailors of,<br> + and the New World,<br> + Potato, found by Magellan,<br> + Pottery,<br> + Greek,<br> + Aztec,<br> + Zuñi,<br> + Printing, invented,<br> + Ptolemy (tol'e-mi),<br> + Pyrrhus (pir'us),<br> +<br> + Quebec,<br> + Quivira,<br> +<br> + Raleigh, Sir Walter,<br> + Renaissance (ren'e-sans),<br> + Richard, the Lionhearted,<br> + Roads, Roman,<br> + Roanoke,<br> + Roman Empire,<br> + size,<br> + origin,<br> + Roman type,<br> + Romans,<br> + language,<br> + see Latin, early,<br> + contact with Greeks,<br> + wars in Italy,<br> + early manner of living,<br> + war with Carthage,<br> + conquer Gaul and Britain,<br> + Empire of,<br> + civilization of,<br> + Christianized,<br> + empire ruined,<br> + literature of,<br> + influence,<br> + Romanesque architecture,<br> + Romulus,<br> +<br> + Salamis,<br> + Samnites,<br> + San Salvador,<br> + St. Augustine,<br> + Sardinia,<br> + Saxons,<br> + Sculpture, Greek,<br> + Scylla (sil'a),<br> + Senators, at Rome,<br> + Seven Cities of Cibola,<br> + Shakespeare,<br> + Ships,<br> + Greek,<br> + early English,<br> + Venetian,<br> + of Columbus,<br> + of English navy,<br> + Sicily,<br> + Sidney, Sir Philip,<br> + Simon de Montfort,<br> + Slaves,<br> + Greek,<br> + Roman,<br> + Indians as,<br> + Negroes as,<br> + Slave-trade,<br> + Spanish,<br> + English,<br> + Socrates (sok'ra-tez),<br> + Spain, early settlements in,<br> + Romans capture,<br> + name,<br> + Arabs in,<br> + Columbus and,<br> + claim to New World,<br> + colonies of,<br> + war with Netherlands,<br> + war with England,<br> + Sparta,<br> + Spice Islands,<br> + Spice trade,<br> + Stadium,<br> + Statues, Greek,<br> +<br> + Temples, Greek,<br> + Theater,<br> + Greek,<br> + early Roman,<br> + later,<br> + Thebes,<br> + Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez),<br> + Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le),<br> + Theseum (these'um),<br> + Thor,<br> + Thursday, origin of name,<br> + "Tin Islands,"<br> + Towns, in Middle Ages,<br> + Trade, Mediaeval,<br> + Trade-winds,<br> + Trebia, battle of,<br> + Trial by battle,<br> + Tribune, Roman,<br> + Trireme,<br> + Troy,<br> + Turks,<br> + "Twelve Tables," Tyre,<br> +<br> + Ulfilas,<br> + Ulysses,<br> + Universities,<br> +<br> + Venice,<br> + Venus of Melos,<br> + Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix),<br> + Vespucius, Americus,<br> + Veto, at Rome,<br> + Vikings,<br> + Vinland,<br> + Virginia,<br> + origin of name,<br> + colony in,<br> +<br> + Watling Island,<br> + Wednesday, origin of name,<br> + West Indies,<br> + White, John,<br> + William the Conqueror,<br> + William of Orange,<br> + Wodan,<br> + Women, Roman,<br> + Words,<br> + Writing, art of,<br> +<br> + Xerxes (zurk'zez),<br> +<br> + Zuñi,<br> +</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="c1"> +<br> +<br> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History +by Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY *** + +This file should be named 8iahs10h.htm or 8iahs10h.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8iahs11h.htm +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8iahs10ah.htm + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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