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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History, by
+Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Introductory American History
+
+Author: Henry Eldridge Bourne
+        Elbert Jay Benton
+
+Posting Date: October 24, 2011 [EBook #9897]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: October 28, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG
+Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+
+BY
+
+HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE
+AND
+ELBERT JAY BENTON
+
+PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
+
+
+
+1912
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+This volume is the introductory part of a course in American history
+embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee of Eight of the
+American Historical Association.[1] The plan calls for a continuous
+course running through grades six, seven, and eight. The events which
+have taken place within the limits of what is now the United States must
+necessarily furnish the most of the content of the lessons. But the
+Committee urge that enough other matter, of an introductory character,
+be included to teach boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of
+age that our civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of
+the Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of our
+country in its true historical setting. The Committee recommend that
+about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to this preliminary
+matter, and that the remainder of the year be given to the period of
+discovery and exploration.
+
+The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four lines of
+development in the world's history leading up to American
+history proper.
+
+First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by which the
+ancient civilized world, originally made up of communities like the
+Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean Seas,
+spread to southern Italy and adjacent lands. The Roman conquest of Italy
+and of the barbarian tribes of western Europe expanded the civilized
+world to the shores of the Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new
+nations grew up. The migration of Europeans to the American continent
+was the final step.
+
+Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in extent was a
+growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of what we call
+geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the herald of an
+expanding world.
+
+A third process was the creation and transmission of all that we mean by
+civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the effort should be to
+"show, in a very simple way, the civilization which formed the heritage
+of those who were to go to America, that is, to explain what America
+started with."
+
+The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate the three
+or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in American
+colonization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the
+child some feeling for the name 'England,' 'Spain,' 'Holland,' and
+'France.'"
+
+No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of Greece,
+Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an attempt would be
+utterly destructive of the plan. Only those features of early
+civilization and those incidents of history have been selected which
+appear to have a vital relation to the subsequent fortunes of mankind in
+America as well as in Europe. They are treated in all cases as
+introductory. Opinions may differ upon the question of what topics best
+illustrate the relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of
+opportunity for the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a
+textbook based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of
+selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to
+illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may prefer
+Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler dramatic
+development. In the same way teachers may desire to give more emphasis
+to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval civilization or certain heroic
+persons treated very briefly in this book. Exercises similar to those
+inserted at the end of each chapter offer means of supplementing work
+provided in the text.
+
+The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of the
+Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a natural
+culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same plan of
+division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore, open with the
+study of the first permanent English settlements.
+
+The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than most of
+the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is treated, we hope,
+with such simplicity and definiteness of statement that it will be
+comprehensible and instructive to pupils of the sixth grade.
+
+At the close of the book will be found a list of references. From this
+teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and descriptions to
+illustrate any features of the subject which especially interest their
+classes. In the index is given the pronunciation of difficult names.
+
+We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with wise advice
+and criticism.
+
+[Footnote 1: The Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's,
+1909.]
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER
+
+    I. THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE
+
+   II. OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS
+
+  III. HOW THE GREEKS LIVED
+
+   IV. GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS
+
+    V. NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS
+
+   VI. THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE
+
+  VII. THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC
+
+ VIII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD
+
+   IX. CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+    X. EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO
+
+   XI. HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES
+
+  XII. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES
+
+ XIII. TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+  XIV. THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD
+
+   XV. OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD
+
+  XVI. EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE MAINLAND
+
+ XVII. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA
+
+XVIII. RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE
+
+  XIX. FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA
+
+   XX. THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN
+
+  XXI. THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA
+
+REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS
+
+INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE
+
+
+THE EMIGRANT AND WHAT HE BRINGS TO AMERICA. The emigrant who lands
+  at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any other seaport, brings with
+  him something which we do not see. He may have in his hands only a
+  small bundle of clothing and enough money to pay his railroad fare to
+  his new home, but he is carrying another kind of baggage more valuable
+  than bundles or boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other
+  baggage is the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought
+  from the fatherland.
+
+  He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which he hopes
+  to labor in America. In his native land he has been taught to obey the
+  laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This fits him to share in our
+  self-government. He also brings great memories, for he likes to think
+  of the brave and noble deeds done by men of his race. If he is a
+  religious man, he worships God just as his forefathers have for
+  hundreds of years. To understand how the emigrant happens to know what
+  he does and to be what he is, we must study the history of the country
+  from which he comes.
+
+ALL AMERICANS ARE EMIGRANTS. If this is true of the newcomer, it is
+  equally true of the rest of us, for we are all emigrants. The Indians
+  are the only native Americans, and when we find out more about them we
+  may learn that they, too, are emigrants. If we follow the history of
+  our families far enough back, we shall come upon the names of our
+  forefathers who sailed from Europe. They may have come to America in
+  the early days when there were only a few settlements scattered along
+  our Atlantic coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War
+  changed the English colonies into the United States.
+
+  Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians, we are
+  simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the Europe in which
+  our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our story. In order to
+  understand our own history we must know something of the history of
+  England, France, Germany, Italy, and other European lands.
+
+WHAT THE EARLY EMIGRANTS BROUGHT. If we read the story of our
+  forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers to several
+  important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek for new lands or
+  for new ways to lands already known? How did the people of Europe live
+  at the time he discovered America? What did they know how to do? Were
+  they skilful in all sorts of work, or were they as rude and ignorant
+  as the Indians on the western shores of the Atlantic?
+
+  The answers which history will give to these questions will say that
+  the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought with them much of
+  the same knowledge and many of the same customs and memories which
+  emigrants bring nowadays and which we also have. It is true that since
+  the time the first settlers came men have found out how to make many
+  new things. The most important of these are the steam-engine, the
+  electric motor, the telegraph, and the telephone. But it is surprising
+  how many important things, which we still use, were made before
+  Columbus saw America.
+
+  [Illustration: A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING VESSEL
+  The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered great
+  hardships]
+
+  For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been
+  discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men could
+  make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The ships in
+  which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large and wonderful
+  to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were steered with the help
+  of a compass, an instrument which the Indians had never seen.
+
+  Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been known
+  hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest was the art
+  of writing. The way to write words or sounds was found out so long ago
+  that we shall never know the name of the man who first discovered it.
+  The historians tell us he lived in Egypt, which was in northern
+  Africa, exactly where Egypt is now. Some men were afraid that the new
+  art might do more harm than good. The king to whom the secret was told
+  thought that the children would be unwilling to work hard and try to
+  remember because everything could be written down and they would not
+  need to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to
+  put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made several
+  letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a mixture of little
+  pictures and queer marks.
+
+  [Illustration: Cleopatra EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING]
+
+OLD AND NEW INVENTIONS. Those who first discover how to make things
+  are called inventors, and what they make are called inventions. Now if
+  we should write out a list of the most useful inventions, we could
+  place in one column the inventions which were made before the days of
+  Columbus and in another those which have been made since. With this
+  list before us we may ask which inventions we could live without and
+  which we could not spare unless we were willing to become like the
+  savages. We should find that a large number of the inventions which we
+  use every day belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is
+  another reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and
+  working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our
+  forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history.
+
+  [Illustration: Phoenician Early Greek Early Latin English
+  GROWTH OF LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET]
+
+A PLAN OF STUDY. The discovery of America was made in 1492, at the
+  beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before Modern Times were the
+  Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand years. These began three or four
+  hundred years after the time of Christ or what we call the beginning
+  of the Christian Era. All the events that took place earlier we say
+  happened in Ancient Times. Much that we know was learned first by the
+  Greeks or Romans who lived in Ancient Times.
+
+  It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called
+  Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards, and
+  many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent of
+  Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of what they
+  knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out how these things
+  were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages and what they added to
+  them. This will help us to find out what our forefathers started with
+  when they came to live in America.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides his
+    baggage?
+
+    2. Why are all Americans emigrants?
+
+    3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America bring with
+    them?
+
+    4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone or
+    the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the map.
+    How did Egyptian writing look?
+
+    5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were
+    invented before he discovered America?
+
+    6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient Times?
+    By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the art of
+    writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented? In what
+    Times was the telephone invented?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising
+    folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of sailing
+    ships, ships used now and those used long ago.
+
+    2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country
+    stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from ports
+    like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now live.
+
+    3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the map the
+    European country from which his parents or his grandparents or his
+    forefathers came.
+
+    4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his
+    forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each
+    find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each tell
+    the most interesting hero story from among the stories of the mother
+    country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the tools used in
+    the old home were like the tools his parents use here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS
+
+ANCIENT CITIES THAT STILL EXIST. In Ancient Times the most
+  important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean. The
+  northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The first is
+  Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean;
+  the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the third, the end of
+  which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece. Beyond Greece is Asia
+  Minor, the part of Asia which lies between the Mediterranean Sea and
+  the Black Sea.
+
+  The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in Ancient
+  Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks, just as they
+  were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the cities that the
+  Greeks and Romans built are still standing. Alexandria was founded by
+  the great conqueror Alexander. Constantinople used to be the Greek
+  city of Byzantium. Another Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern
+  French city of Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times,
+  except that it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name
+  of Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum.
+
+RUINS WHICH SHOW HOW THE ANCIENTS LIVED. In many of these cities
+  are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of carving, vases,
+  mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we may see and from
+  which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans lived. Near Naples are
+  the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city suddenly destroyed during an
+  eruption of the volcano Vesuvius.
+
+  For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or twenty feet
+  of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets and the walls of
+  the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and the walls in many
+  places were only partly standing, but things which in other ancient
+  cities had entirely disappeared were kept safe in Pompeii under the
+  volcanic ashes.
+
+  The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see how its
+  inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit their public
+  buildings and their private houses, can handle their dishes and can
+  look at the paintings on their walls or the mosaics in the floors. But
+  interesting as Pompeii is, we must not think that its ruins teach us
+  more than the ruins of Rome or Athens or many other ancient cities.
+  Each has something important to tell us of the people who lived long
+  ago.
+
+ANCIENT WORDS STILL IN USE. The ancient Greeks and Romans have left
+  us some things more useful than the ruins of their buildings. These
+  are the words in our language which once were theirs, and which we use
+  with slight changes in spelling. Most of our words came in the
+  beginning from Germany, where our English forefathers lived before
+  they settled in England. To the words they took over from Germany they
+  added words borrowed from other peoples, just as we do now. We have
+  recently borrowed several words from the French, such as tonneau and
+  limousine, words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the
+  name automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek word.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII The houses of the
+  better sort were built with an open court in the center]
+
+  In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming into our
+  language from other languages. Several thousand have come from Latin,
+  the language of the Romans; several hundred from Greek, either
+  directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the French. The word
+  school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was borrowed from the French,
+  who took it from the Greeks. Geography is another word which came,
+  through French and Latin, from the Greeks, to whom it meant that which
+  is written about the earth. The word grammar came in the same way. The
+  word alphabet is made by joining together the names of the first two
+  Greek letters, alpha and beta.
+
+  Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and this is
+  not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek. Some of these
+  are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil, apostle, and martyr.
+  The Greeks have handed down to us many words about government,
+  including the word itself, which in the beginning meant "to steer."
+  Politics meant having to do with a _polis_ or city. Several of the
+  words most recently made up of Greek words are telegraph, telephone,
+  phonograph, and thermometer.
+
+MANY WORDS BORROWED FROM THE ROMANS. Nearly ten times as many of
+  our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the Greeks, and it is
+  not strange, because at one time the Romans ruled over all the country
+  now occupied by the Italians, the French, the Spaniards, a part of the
+  Germans, and the English, so that these peoples naturally learned the
+  words used by their conquerors and governors.
+
+INTERESTING ANCIENT STORIES. In the poems and tales which we learn
+  at home or at school are stories which Greek and Roman parents and
+  teachers taught their children many hundred years ago. We learn them
+  partly because they are interesting, and because they please or amuse
+  us, and partly because they appear so often in our books that it is
+  necessary to know them if we would understand our own books and
+  language. Who has not heard of Hercules and his Labors, of the Search
+  for the Golden Fleece, the Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of
+  Ulysses? We love modern fairy stories and tales of adventure, but they
+  are not more pleasing than these ancient stories.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PLAIN OF MARATHON]
+
+THE STORY OF THE GREEKS. Our language and our books are full of
+  memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story of the Greeks
+  comes before the story of the Romans, for the Greeks were living in
+  beautiful cities, with temples and theaters, while the Romans were
+  still an almost unknown people dwelling on the hills that border the
+  river Tiber.
+
+MEMORIES OF GREEK COURAGE. The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took
+  place in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of
+  Persia about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was
+  no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe.
+  Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings, others
+  by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together when any
+  danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned traitor and helped
+  the enemy against the others. The most dangerous enemy the Greeks had,
+  until the Romans attacked them, was the kingdom of Persia, which
+  stretched from the Aegean Sea far into Asia. In the war with the
+  Persians the Greeks fought three famous battles, at Marathon,
+  Thermopylae, and Salamis, the stories of which men have always liked
+  to hear and remember.
+
+PREPARING FOR MARATHON, 490 B.C. To the Athenians belong the
+  glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city of Athens now
+  stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters still attract students
+  and travelers to Greece. The plain of Marathon lay more than twenty
+  miles to the northeast, and the roads to it led through mountain
+  passes. When the Athenians heard that the hosts of the Great King of
+  Persia were approaching, they sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to
+  ask aid of Sparta, a city one hundred and forty miles away, in the
+  peninsula now called the Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of
+  Greece. This runner reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans
+  said it would be against their religious custom to march before the
+  moon was full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy
+  alone--one small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten
+  thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by a
+  thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of Plataea.
+
+  [Illustration: GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS From a Greek vase of
+  about the time of the battle of Marathon]
+
+HOW THE ATHENIANS WERE ARMED. Although the Persians had six times
+  as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so well armed for
+  hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was the bow and arrow,
+  while the Greeks used the lance and a short sword. The Greek soldier
+  was protected by his bronze helmet, solid across the forehead and over
+  the nose; by his breastplate, a leathern or linen tunic covered with
+  small metal scales, with flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves
+  or pieces of metal in front of his knees and shins. He was also
+  protected by a shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his
+  knees. According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten
+  generals, each commanding one day in turn.
+
+THE BATTLE-GROUND. Marathon was a plain about two miles wide, lying
+  between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads ran toward
+  Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost reached the sea,
+  the other up a narrow valley and over the mountains. The Athenians
+  were encamped in this valley, where they could attack the Persians if
+  they tried to follow the shore road.
+
+  The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near the
+  shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they had so many
+  more soldiers than the Athenians and because they meant to use their
+  horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched the Persians, not
+  knowing what it was best to do. Half the generals did not wish to risk
+  a battle, but Miltiades was eager to fight, for he feared that delay
+  would lead timid citizens or traitors to yield to the Persians. He
+  finally gained his wish, and on his day of command the battle was
+  ordered.
+
+THE BATTLE. The Persians by this time had decided to sail around to
+  the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen on board their
+  ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew up their
+  foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their comrades--the
+  Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run. The Persians thought
+  this madness, because the Greeks had no archers or horsemen. But the
+  Greeks saw that if they moved forward slowly the Persians would have
+  time to shoot arrows at them again and again.
+
+  When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the two ends
+  of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore. In the
+  center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks were not at
+  first successful, and were forced to retreat. But those who had been
+  victorious came to their rescue, attacked the Persians in the rear,
+  and finally drove them off. The Persians ran into the sea to reach the
+  ships, and the Athenians followed them. Some of the Greeks were so
+  eager in the fight that they seized the sides of the ships and tried
+  to keep them from being rowed away, but the Persians cut at their
+  hands and made them let go.
+
+  [Illustration: THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS Where a great sea-fight
+  between Greeks and Persians took place]
+
+THE NEWS OF THE VICTORY. The Athenians had won a victory of which
+  they were so proud that they meant it never should be forgotten. Their
+  city had suddenly become great through the courage and self-sacrifice
+  of her citizens. One hundred and ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on
+  the battle-field their comrades raised over their bodies a mound of
+  earth which still marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner
+  Pheidippides to bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until
+  he reached the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on
+  his lips, he fell dead.
+
+OTHER VICTORIES OF THE GREEKS. Marathon was only the beginning of
+  Greek victories over the Persians, only the first struggle in the long
+  wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years after Marathon the Spartans
+  won everlasting glory by their heroic stand at the Pass of Thermopylae
+--three hundred Greeks against the mighty army of the Persian king
+  Xerxes. The barbarian hordes passed over their bodies, took the road
+  to Athens, burned the city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight
+  which took place on the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian
+  territory and the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to
+  Athenian courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader,
+  Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other
+  Greeks wanted to sail away.
+
+WHY MARATHON IS REMEMBERED. The victories of Marathon and Salamis
+  were great not only because small armies of Greeks put to flight the
+  hosts of Persia, they were great because they saved the independence
+  of Greece. If the Greeks had become the subjects and slaves of Persia,
+  they would not have built the wonderful buildings, or carved the
+  beautiful statues, or written the books which we study and admire.
+  When we think of the Greeks as our first teachers we feel as proud of
+  their victories as if they were our own victories.
+
+THE WARS OF THE GREEK CITIES. The Athenians had done the most in
+  winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore Athens was for
+  many years the most powerful city in Greece. The Spartans were always
+  jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a century after the victory
+  of Marathon they conquered and humbled Athens. The worst faults of the
+  Greeks were such jealousies and the desire to lord it over one
+  another. Greek history is full of wars of city against city, Sparta
+  against Athens, Corinth against Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In
+  these wars many heroic deeds were done, of which we like to read, but
+  it is more important for us to understand how the Greeks lived.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the map.
+    (For each difficult name find the pronunciation in the index.)
+
+    2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which tell
+    us how the people lived?
+
+    3. From what country did most of our words come in the beginning?
+    Why are they now called English? What peoples used the word
+    geography before we did? About how many words do we get from the
+    Greeks, and how many from the Romans?
+
+    4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the Romans?
+    Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived.
+
+    5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the Greeks?
+
+    6. Find the city of Athens on the map. Find Sparta. Where
+    was Marathon? What city won glory at Marathon?
+
+    7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and Asia
+    Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising folders.
+    Collect postal cards giving such pictures.
+
+    2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned in Chapter II,
+    and tell it.
+
+    3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed from
+    the way the Greek soldiers were.
+
+    4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a "Marathon."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+HOW THE GREEKS LIVED
+
+THE GREEK CITIES. The Greeks lived in cities so much of the time that
+  we do not often think of them as ever living in the country. The
+  reason for this was that their government and everything else
+  important was carried on in the city. The cities were usually
+  surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made them safe from
+  sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was often a lofty hill,
+  which we should call a fort or citadel, but which they called the
+  upper city or acropolis. There the people lived at first when they
+  were few in number, and thither they fled if the walls of their city
+  were broken down by enemies.
+
+  In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain. Its top
+  was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one were steep
+  cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful temples.
+
+PRIVATE HOUSES. Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did not spend much
+  money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses would seem small,
+  badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But what their houses lacked
+  was more than made up by the beauty and splendor of the public
+  buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and especially the temples.
+
+TEMPLES. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds of worshipers
+  like the large churches of Europe and America to-day. Religious
+  ceremonies were most often carried on in the open air. The Parthenon,
+  the most famous temple of Ancient Times, was small. Its principal room
+  measured less than one hundred feet in length. Part of this room was
+  used for an altar and for the ivory and gold statue of the goddess
+  Athena.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY]
+
+THE PARTHENON. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a similar temple,
+  we notice the columns in front and along the sides. The Parthenon had
+  eight at each end and seventeen on each side. They were thirty-four
+  feet high. A few feet within the columns on the sides was the wall of
+  the temple. Before the vestibule and entrances at the front and at the
+  rear stood six more columns. The beauty of the marble from which
+  stones and columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders
+  carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the
+  pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon the
+  columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above the
+  columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a frieze)
+  ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The temple was
+  not left a glistening white, but parts of it were painted in blue, or
+  red, or gilt, or orange.
+
+  [Illustration: THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO The
+  Parthenon is the large temple on the right]
+
+OTHER GREEK TEMPLES. This beautiful temple is now partly ruined. Ruins
+  of other temples are on the Acropolis, and one better preserved,
+  called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill. There are also similar
+  ruins in many places along the shores of the Mediterranean. The most
+  interesting are at Paestum in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily. Long
+  before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans how to
+  construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings, and this the
+  Romans later taught the peoples of western Europe.
+
+GREEK METHODS OF BUILDING STILL USED. If we look at our large
+  buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek buildings.
+  Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is imitated; sometimes
+  this form is changed as the Romans changed it, or as it was changed by
+  builders who lived after the time of the Romans. If the model of the
+  whole building is not used, there are similar pillars, or gables, or
+  the sculpture in the pediment and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks
+  had three kinds of pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The
+  Doric is simple and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top,
+  delicate and beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with
+  leaves springing gracefully from the top of the pillar.
+
+  [Illustration: Doric Ionic Corinthian GREEK ORDERS OF
+  ARCHITECTURE]
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS]
+
+THEATERS. The first Greek theater was only a smooth open space near a
+  hillside, with a tent, called a _skene_, or scene, in which the
+  actors dressed. Later an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed
+  on the hillside, and across the open end was placed the _scene_,
+  which had been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a
+  house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are furnished
+  with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters thousands of people
+  gathered. Plays were generally given as a part of religious festivals,
+  and there were contests between writers to see which could produce the
+  best play. Sometimes the plays followed one another for three days
+  from morning until night. Many of them are so interesting that people
+  still read them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied
+  them, and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write
+  plays.
+
+  [Illustration: THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS]
+
+THE STADIUM. A building which somewhat resembled the theater was the
+  stadium, where races were run. The difference was that it was oblong
+  instead of half round. The most famous stadium, at Olympia, was seven
+  hundred and two feet long, with raised seats on both sides and around
+  one end of the running track. The other end was open. About fifty
+  thousand persons used to gather there to watch the races.
+
+PORTICOES. There were other buildings, some for meeting places, some
+  for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes, where the judges
+  held court or the city officers carried on their business. The
+  porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over, with occasionally
+  a second story. As they stretched along the sides of a square or
+  market place they added much to the beauty of a city.
+
+GREEK SCULPTURE. We know that the Greeks were skilful sculptors
+  because from the ruins of their cities have been dug wonderful marble
+  and bronze statues which are now preserved in the great museums of the
+  world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and Rome, and here in America, in New
+  York and Boston. Museums which cannot have the original statues
+  usually contain copies or casts of them in plaster. The statues are
+  generally marred and broken, but enough remains to show us the
+  wonderful beauty of the artist's work. Among the most famous are the
+  Venus, of Melos (or "de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a
+  museum called the Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia
+  in Greece; and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in
+  London.
+
+  [Illustration: THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS) An ancient
+  Greek statue now in the Vatican]
+
+  Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the Greek
+  statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may learn how such
+  beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to excel the Greeks,
+  but are content to remain their pupils.
+
+PAINTING AND POTTERY. The Greeks were also painters, makers of
+  pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of their
+  workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in the ruins of
+  ancient buildings and tombs.
+
+  [Illustration: A GREEK BOOK The upper picture, shows the book
+  open.]
+
+WHAT THE BOYS WERE TAUGHT. The Greek boys were not very good at
+  arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or their fingers
+  to help them in reckoning. In learning to write they smeared a thin
+  layer of wax over a board and marked on that. There was a kind of
+  paper called papyrus, made from a reed which grew mostly in Egypt, but
+  this was expensive. Rolls were made of sheets of it pasted together,
+  and these were their books. One of the books the boys studied much was
+  the poems of Homer--the Iliad and the Odyssey--which tell about the
+  siege of Troy and the wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these
+  long poems by heart. They also stored away in their memories the
+  sayings of other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know
+  what to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in
+  such excellent words.
+
+GAMES AND EXERCISES FOR BOYS. It is not surprising that Greek boys
+  knew how to play, but it is surprising that they played many of the
+  games which boys play now, such as hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks
+  and drakes, and blind man's buff. They even "pitched pennies." In
+  school the boys were taught not only to read and write, but to be
+  skilful athletes, and to play on the lyre, accompanying this with
+  singing. The gymnasium was often an open space near a stream into
+  which they could plunge after their exercises were over. They were
+  taught to box, to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear.
+  Military training was important for them, since all might be called to
+  fight for the safety of their city.
+
+THE OLYMPIC GAMES. Boys and young men were trained as runners,
+  wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because they enjoyed
+  these exercises and the Greeks thought them an important part of
+  education, but also that they might bring back honors and prizes to
+  their city from the great games which all the Greeks held every few
+  years. The most famous of these games were held at Olympia. There the
+  Greeks went from all parts of the country, carrying their tents and
+  cooking utensils with them, because there were not enough houses in
+  Olympia to hold so many people. Wars even were stopped for a time in
+  order that the games might not be postponed.
+
+THE REWARDS OF THE VICTORS. The principal contest was a dash for two
+  hundred yards, although there were longer races and many other kinds
+  of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to see the most brutal
+  sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands and arms were covered with
+  heavy strips of leather stiffened with pieces of iron or lead. For the
+  games men trained ten months, part of the time at Olympia. The prize
+  was a crown of wild olive, and the winner returned in triumph to his
+  city, where poets sang his praises, a special seat at public games was
+  reserved for him, and often artists were employed to make a bronze
+  statue of him to be set up in Olympia or in his own city.
+
+  [Illustration: GREEK GAMES--RUNNING From an antique vase]
+
+THE GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. The citizen of Athens, and of other Greek
+  cities, had more to do with his government than do most Americans with
+  theirs. As nearly all work was done by slaves, he had plenty of time
+  to attend meetings. All the citizens could attend the great assembly,
+  or _ecclesia_, where six thousand at least must be present before
+  anything could be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be
+  admitted to citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized,
+  from Athens as hurtful to its welfare.
+
+  There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less
+  important questions without laying them before the general assembly.
+  This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but members of the
+  council whose term had ended had a right to object to any new member
+  as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council ruled for a tenth of the
+  year, and they chose their president by lot every day, so that any
+  worthy man at Athens had a chance to be president for a day and a
+  night.
+
+  [Illustration: A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.]
+
+  Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six thousand
+  judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a thousand and one,
+  or even fifteen hundred and one, took part. Before such large courts
+  and assemblies it was necessary to be a good speaker to be able to win
+  a case or persuade the citizens. Some of the greatest orators of the
+  world were Athenians, the best known being Demosthenes.
+
+SOCRATES. The Athenians were not always just, although so many of them
+  acted as judges. One court, composed of five hundred and one judges,
+  condemned to death Socrates, the wisest man of the Greeks and one of
+  the wisest in the world. He did not make speeches, or write books, or
+  teach in school. He went about, in the market place, at the gymnasium,
+  and on the streets, asking men, young and old, questions about what
+  interested him most, that is, What is the true way to live? If people
+  did not give him an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions,
+  until sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he
+  asked questions about everything that he did not believe in anything,
+  not even in the religion of his city.
+
+  [Illustration: SOCRATES After the marble bust in the Vatican]
+
+THE DEATH OF SOCRATES, 399 B.C. After a while the enemies of Socrates
+  accused him of being a wicked man who persuaded young men to be
+  wicked. He was tried by an Athenian court, which made the terrible
+  blunder of finding him guilty and condemning him to death. According
+  to the Athenian custom he was obliged to drink a cup of poisonous
+  hemlock. This he did, after talking to his friends cheerily about how
+  a good man should live. As he wrote no books we have learned about him
+  from his friends. The most famous of these was Plato, who is also
+  counted among the wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives
+  of these men is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to
+  live after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of
+  building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived?
+
+    2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens look?
+
+    3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment. Show
+    where the frieze was placed. Find on a map Paestum.
+
+    4. What did the Greeks first mean by a _scene_? Why do we still
+    study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters?
+
+    5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such
+    buildings?
+
+    6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues?
+
+    7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about the
+    great public games of the Greeks.
+
+    8. How were the Greek rolls or books made?
+
+    9. Tell the story of Socrates.
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek
+    buildings?
+
+    2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.
+
+    3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a papered
+    room.
+
+    4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and the
+    government of your town?
+
+    5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the
+    courts in your town?
+
+    6. Are Olympic games held now? Where?
+
+    7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners at
+    Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic games?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS
+
+WHEN THE ATLANTIC WAS UNKNOWN. One of the most important things
+  done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore the coasts and lands of
+  Europe and to make settlements wherever they went. At first they knew
+  little of the western and northern parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek
+  whom we call the "Father of History," and who was a great traveler,
+  said, "Though I have taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an
+  assurance from any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side
+  of Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark
+  shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood that tin
+  and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called the "ends of the
+  earth." As tin came from England, it is plain that he had heard a little
+  of that island.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED BY THE GREEK
+  HISTORIAN HERODOTUS]
+
+GREEK EMIGRANTS. Long before Athens became a great and beautiful
+  city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on distant shores. Those
+  who lived on the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as those who lived
+  where the kingdom of Greece is now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The
+  Greek colonies were very important, because by them the ancient
+  civilized world was made larger, just as by the settlement of America
+  the modern world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from
+  home for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England and
+  Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a new land to
+  make a living and obtain property, or they did not like the way their
+  city was ruled, and being unable to change this, resolved to build
+  elsewhere a city which they could manage as they pleased.
+
+HOW THEY LOCATED A NEW CITY. There were several different lands to
+  which they could go, just as the European of to-day may sail for the
+  United States or South America or Australia. They could attempt to
+  settle on the shores of the Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa,
+  or try to reach Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France
+  and Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice of
+  the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These priests
+  knew more about good places for settlements than most other persons,
+  because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi and the priests were
+  wise enough to inquire about all parts of the world.
+
+  [Illustration: _The territory occupied by the Greeks is
+  indicated by solid black_]
+
+  The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to locate
+  their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They discovered that
+  these words meant that an earlier band of emigrants had passed by the
+  wonderful harbor of the present city of Constantinople and had settled
+  instead on the other shore of the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they
+  chose the better place and began to build the city of Byzantium, which
+  later became Constantinople.
+
+MOTHER AND DAUGHTER CITIES. Solemn ceremonies took place when
+  colonists departed. They carried with them fire from the hearth of the
+  mother city in order to light a similar fire on their new hearth, for
+  every city had its hearthstone and on it a fire that was never quenched.
+  The ties between the mother and the daughter city were close, and the
+  enemies of one were the enemies of the other. He who wished to visit the
+  colony usually went to the mother city to find a ship bound thither.
+
+WHERE THE SETTLEMENTS WERE MADE. When the Greek sailors first
+  entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean, and called it
+  the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until that time they had been
+  accustomed to sail only from island to island in the Aegean Sea. After a
+  while they made settlements all around the shores of the Black Sea, and
+  in later times Athens drew from this region her supply of grain. Still
+  more important settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for
+  it was through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks
+  knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes and to
+  the Romans.
+
+DANGERS OF THE VOYAGE. At first Greek sailors feared the dangers of the
+  western Mediterranean as much as those of the Black Sea. They imagined
+  that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful monsters Scylla and Charybdis
+  lurked in the Straits of Messina waiting to seize and swallow the
+  unlucky passer-by. On the slopes of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought,
+  hideous, one-eyed giants, the Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites
+  with the quivering flesh of many captives.
+
+  [Illustration: GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN ITALY]
+
+GREEKS IN THE WEST. The earliest settlement of the Greeks in Italy
+  was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay of Naples. Later
+  these colonists entered the bay and founded the "new city," or Neapolis,
+  which we call Naples. Finally there were so many Greek cities in
+  southern Italy that it was named "Great Greece." The Greeks also made
+  settlements in what is now southern France and eastern Spain. The
+  principal one was Massilia, or Marseilles. Through the traders of this
+  city the ancient world obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country
+  which is now called England.
+
+GREEK COLONIES AS CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION. The Greeks in these
+  colonies traded with the natives whose villages were near by, and many
+  of the natives learned to live like the Greeks. In this way the Greeks
+  became teachers of civilization, and the Greek world, which at first was
+  made up of cities on the shores of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place
+  to place along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.
+
+  [Illustration: A GREEK TRIREME]
+
+GREEK SHIPS. The ships of the Greeks were very different from
+  modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by steam, nor did they
+  rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships do. They had sails, but
+  were driven forward mostly by their oars. The trireme, or ordinary
+  war-ship, had its oars arranged in three banks, fifty men rowing at
+  once. After these had rowed several hours, or a "watch," another fifty
+  took their places, and finally a third fifty, so that the ships could be
+  rowed at high speed all the time. With the aid of its two sails a
+  trireme is said to have gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a
+  night. These boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and
+  fifteen feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not
+  high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak, which,
+  driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides. The Greek
+  grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more capable of enduring
+  rough weather.
+
+  [Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT After the bust in the
+  Capitoline Museum, Rome]
+
+ALEXANDER THE GREAT, KING OF MACEDON FROM 336 TO 323 B.C. Greek
+  ways of living were also carried eastward as well as westward. The
+  enlargement of the Greek world in this direction was due to Alexander
+  the Great, the most skilful soldier and the ablest leader of men among
+  all the Greeks. Alexander was king of Macedon, and like the earlier
+  Greeks he regarded the Persians as his enemies, and made war upon them.
+  After conquering the Persians he marched across western Asia until he
+  had reached the Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well
+  as a conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were
+  named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is still the
+  chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language commonly spoken
+  throughout the lands near the eastern Mediterranean. This is the reason
+  why in later times the New Testament was written in Greek.
+
+ALEXANDRIA. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the center and
+  Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a great library which
+  contained over five hundred thousand volumes or rolls. There also was
+  the museum or university, in which many learned men were at work. The
+  best known of these men was Euclid, who perfected the mathematics which
+  we call geometry, and Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape
+  and size of the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on
+  his great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce.
+  From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships to be
+  admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking for many of the
+  beautiful things which the Greeks made.
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks
+    emigrate to the colonies?
+
+    2. Point out on the map, the lands to which they might go.
+    Name several cities which they built.
+
+    3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother city?
+
+    4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece?
+
+    5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed.
+
+    6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he reign?
+    How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning victories?
+
+    7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times?
+
+    8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do Americans go
+    to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it was for the
+    Greeks to reach their colonies?
+
+    2. What country now has the most colonies?
+
+    3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops.
+
+    4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden Horn?"
+    Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at Marseilles?
+
+    5. Collect pictures of these cities.
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    (Chapters II, III, and IV)
+
+    _Ten things we owe to the Greeks_:
+
+    1. Many useful words.
+
+    2. Many interesting tales.
+
+    3. Many examples of heroism.
+
+    4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings.
+
+    5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes.
+
+    6. How to write great plays.
+
+    7. How to speak before large audiences.
+
+    8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato.
+
+    9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics.
+
+    10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live, and
+    think and act as they did.
+
+    _Two important dates_:
+
+    Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS
+
+THE GREEK COLONIES AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. The Greek colonies were
+  sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native tribes whose lands
+  they had seized or by the wilder tribes that dwelt further from the
+  coast. In Sicily their most dangerous neighbors were the Carthaginians
+  at the western end of the island. The chief town of these people was
+  Carthage, situated opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now
+  Tunis. The Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of
+  Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because of
+  their many ships held control of a large part of the western
+  Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very early
+  times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and silver.
+
+THE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS. In Italy the most dangerous neighbors of
+  the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived half-way up the western
+  side of the peninsula along the river Tiber. The history of the Romans,
+  like the history of the Greeks, is full of interesting and wonderful
+  tales. Some of them are legends, such as every people likes to tell
+  about its early history. They relate how the city was founded by two
+  brothers, Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the
+  Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the farmer
+  Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in sixteen days drove
+  off the neighboring tribes which were attacking the Romans and then went
+  back to his plough.
+
+THE GAULS BURN ROME, 390 B.C. The Romans told stories of their
+  defeats as well as of their victories. One of these tells how hosts of
+  Gauls, a people of the same race as the forefathers of the French,
+  streamed southward from the valley of the Po. The Romans were alarmed by
+  such tall men, with fierce eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords
+  crashed through the frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop
+  the invaders, but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from
+  Rome, this army was destroyed.
+
+  The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline, the
+  steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of the older
+  senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge from the fury of
+  the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in ivory chairs in the
+  market place or Forum at the foot of the Capitoline hill. The Gauls at
+  first gazed in wonder at the strange sight of the motionless figures.
+  When one of them attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the
+  senator struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and
+  priests and slew them.
+
+  [Illustration: CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL]
+
+  The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long time the
+  Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At last they
+  discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point of scaling the
+  height when some geese, sacred to the goddess Juno, cackled and flapped
+  their wings until the garrison was aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong
+  down the precipice. The garrison was saved, but the city was burned.
+  This happened in Rome just one hundred years after the battle of
+  Marathon in Greece.
+
+THE CAUDINE FORKS. Another adventure did not have so happy an
+  ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a tribe living on the
+  slopes of the Apennines, who were continually attacking the Greek cities
+  on the coast. The war was caused by the attempt of the Romans to protect
+  one of the Greek cities. The Roman generals, with a large army, in
+  making their way into the Samnite country attempted to march through a
+  narrow gorge which broadened out into a plain and then was closed again
+  at the farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge
+  they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones. They
+  also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they hastened to
+  retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance closed in the same
+  way. After vain attempts to force a passage or to scale the surrounding
+  heights they were obliged to surrender.
+
+  [Illustration: THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS]
+
+  [Illustration: ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER]
+
+  The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and soldiers, each
+  clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke" made of two spears
+  set upright with one laid across, while they stood by and jeered. If any
+  Roman looked angry or sullen at his disgrace, they struck or even killed
+  him. This was called the disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass
+  where the Romans were caught.
+
+THE ROMANS AND THE GREEK CITIES. Not many years after this the
+  Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern Italy. The Greeks of
+  Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now, called to their aid Pyrrhus,
+  who ruled a part of Alexander's old kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful
+  general, and he had with him, besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen,
+  many trained elephants. A charge of these elephants was too much for the
+  Romans, who were already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers
+  of Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in this
+  they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek soldiers that
+  Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and we are ruined." In a
+  third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he was defeated, and returned
+  to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of the Greek cities in Italy.
+
+THE ROMANS CONQUERORS OF ITALY. By this time there were few tribes
+  south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as their masters. All
+  Italy was united under their rule. This was the first step in the
+  conquest of the world that lay about the Mediterranean Sea and in the
+  extension of that ancient world to the shores of the Atlantic and to
+  England. Before we read the story of the other conquests we must inquire
+  who the Roman people were and how they lived.
+
+HOW THE ROMANS LIVED. In early times most of the Romans were
+  farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned according to the
+  number of cattle he owned. Their manner of living was simple and frugal.
+  Like the Greek, the Roman had his games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but
+  used slaves or freedmen as drivers. He also went to the theater,
+  although he thought it unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an
+  occupation was for foreigners or slaves.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA]
+
+ROMAN BOYS AT SCHOOL. The boys at school did not learn poems, as
+  did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws made by the
+  Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read, copied, and learned by
+  heart. Their interest in laws was the first sign that they were to
+  become the world's greatest lawmakers.
+
+ROMAN WOMEN. In their respect for women the Romans were superior to
+  the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the women's apartments of
+  the house, as she was expected to do at Athens, but was her husband's
+  companion, received his guests, directed her household, and went in and
+  out as she chose.
+
+PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. The men of the families which first ruled
+  Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest were plebeians or
+  common people. There were also many slaves, but they had no rights. At
+  first only the patricians knew exactly what the laws were, because the
+  laws were not written in a book. When disputes arose between patricians
+  and plebeians about property, the plebeians believed the patricians
+  changed the laws in order to gain an advantage over their poorer
+  neighbors.
+
+  The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the city and
+  refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then they compelled
+  the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called the Twelve Tables. At
+  this time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the
+  Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all the
+  offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles themselves.
+
+GOVERNMENT AT ROME. The Romans had once been ruled by kings, but
+  now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls were chosen each year
+  because the Romans feared that a single consul might make himself a
+  king, or, at least, gain too much power. The real rulers of Rome,
+  however, were the senators, the men who had held the prominent offices.
+  There were assemblies of the people, but these generally did what the
+  senators or other officers told them to do.
+
+  Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who drew up a
+  list or census of the citizens and of their property. Another officer
+  was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the plebeians to protect
+  them against the patricians. The tribune was not at first a member of
+  the senate, but he was given a seat outside the door, and if a law was
+  proposed that would injure the plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which
+  means "I forbid," and the law had to be dropped. This is the origin of
+  our word "veto."
+
+HOW THE ROMANS TREATED THE ITALIANS. The Romans were wise in their
+  dealings with the cities or tribes which they conquered. They not only
+  sent out colonies of their fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands
+  they had seized, but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in
+  their government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of
+  Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their wars
+  with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread over Italy.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD]
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in
+    Sicily? Find Carthage on the map. Where did the
+    Carthaginians come from originally? Find Phoenicia on the map.
+
+    2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy? Find the
+    Tiber and Rome on the map.
+
+    3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How long was
+    this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the death of
+    Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of Macedon?
+
+    4. Find the land of the Samnites on the map. Tell the story
+    of the Caudine Forks.
+
+    5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to help
+    them against the Romans? What did he say after his second battle
+    with the Romans?
+
+    6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the Romans as
+    masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians?
+
+    7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from the ways
+    of the Greeks.
+
+    8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern themselves?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome."
+
+    2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy.
+
+    3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over
+    Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians?
+
+    4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii. 3-25,
+    and tell what is said there about the riches of the Tyrians. Find
+    out who destroyed Tyre.
+
+    [Illustration: AN EARLY ROMAN COIN]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE
+
+ROME IN PERIL. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took about two
+  hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples living in the
+  other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took nearly as long
+  again. Only twice in these four or five hundred years was Rome in
+  serious danger of destruction. Once it was by the Gauls, as we have
+  read, who captured all the city except the citadel. The second time it
+  was by the Carthaginians, who lived on the northern coast of Africa.
+  The Romans were finally victorious over all their enemies because they
+  were patient and courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that
+  they could be conquered.
+
+CAUSE OF WAR WITH CARTHAGE. The Carthaginians were angry at the way
+  the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm the steady growth of
+  the Roman power, and feared that the Romans, if masters of Italy,
+  would attack their trade with the cities of the western Mediterranean.
+  A quarrel broke out over a city in Sicily. At first the Carthaginians
+  seemed to have the best of it, because they had a strong war fleet
+  while the Romans had only a few small vessels. But the Romans
+  hurriedly built ships and placed upon each a kind of drawbridge,
+  fitted with great hooks called grappling-irons. These they let down
+  upon the enemy's decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and
+  over these drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the
+  Carthaginian ships.
+
+  When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a great
+  sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would leave the
+  cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward the Romans took
+  advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to demand more money
+  and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder the Carthaginians were
+  angry. The result was a new and more terrible war.
+
+HANNIBAL. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by Hannibal, who
+  understood how to fight battles better than any of the generals whom
+  the Romans sent against him. The story is told that when he was a boy
+  his father made him promise, at the altar of his city's gods, undying
+  hatred to Rome. Even the Romans thought him a wonderful man. Their
+  historians said that toil did not wear out his body or exhaust his
+  energy. Cold or heat were alike to him. He never ate or drank more
+  than he needed. He slept when he had time, whether it was day or
+  night, wrapping himself in a military cloak and lying on the ground in
+  the midst of his soldiers. He did not dress better than the other
+  officers, but his weapons and his horses were the best in the army.
+
+WAR CARRIED INTO ITALY, 218 B.C. Hannibal decided that the war should
+  be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome. He started from
+  Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled, marched across southern
+  Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the Alps. To climb the Alps was
+  the most difficult part of his long journey.
+
+CROSSING THE ALPS. There were no roads across the mountains, only
+  rough paths used by the mountaineers, who constantly attacked
+  Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly upon them from behind a
+  turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks upon them from above. The
+  elephants, the horses, and the baggage animals of the army were
+  frightened, and in the tumult many of them slipped over the precipices
+  and were dashed on the rocks below. For five days the army toiled
+  upward, and then rested two days on the summit of the pass.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS]
+
+  Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and the
+  paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush by
+  thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a landslide,
+  and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a thousand feet.
+  In order to build a new road it was necessary to crack the rocks. This
+  the soldiers did by making huge fires and pouring wine over the heated
+  surface. At last, worn out, ragged, and half starved, the army reached
+  the plains of Italy, but with a loss of half its men.
+
+HOW HANNIBAL WON A VICTORY. The first great battle with the Romans was
+  fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and in it Hannibal
+  showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a Roman army. It was a
+  winter's day and the river was swollen by rains. The two camps lay on
+  opposite banks. In the early morning Hannibal sent across the river a
+  body of horsemen to attack the Roman camp and draw the Romans into a
+  battle. At the same time he ordered his other soldiers to eat
+  breakfast, to build fires before their tents to warm themselves, and
+  to rub their bodies with oil, so that they might be strong for the
+  coming fight.
+
+  The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the Carthaginian
+  horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out of camp, chasing
+  the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy waters the Romans waded
+  breast-high, and when they came up on the opposite bank they were
+  benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal knew that the Romans had
+  crossed the river he attacked them fiercely with all his troops. Two
+  thousand men whom he had placed in ambush fell upon the rear of their
+  line. Their allies were frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing
+  that destruction was certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke
+  through the Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the
+  army was destroyed.
+
+ROMAN ENDURANCE. This was not the last of the Roman defeats. Two other
+  armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the next two years. In the
+  battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand Romans, including eighty
+  senators, were slain. The news filled the city with weeping women, but
+  the senate did not think of yielding. When their allies deserted them,
+  they besieged the faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers,
+  and sold the inhabitants into slavery.
+
+  They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but tried to
+  wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his troops and by
+  making it difficult for him to get food for his army. They carried the
+  war into Spain and finally into Africa, and when, with a weakened
+  army, Hannibal faced them there, they defeated him. His defeat was the
+  ruin of Carthage, for the unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet
+  destroyed, to pay the Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain
+  to them.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN SOLDIER]
+
+OTHER ROMAN TRIUMPHS. The war with Carthage ended two hundred and two
+  years before the birth of Christ. In the wars that followed, Roman
+  armies fought not only in Spain and Africa, but also in Greece and
+  Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also Corinth, a Greek city. Roman
+  generals enriched themselves and sent great treasures back to Rome.
+  Roman merchants grew rich because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth
+  were ruined or because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade
+  with any city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but
+  in the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores of
+  the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the Romans
+  had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some things and
+  they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the arts of living.
+  The ancient world became a sort of partnership, and we call its
+  civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek and Roman.
+
+THE ROMANS AS RULERS. The Romans at first treated the lands in Sicily,
+  Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered territories, or
+  provinces, sending to rule over them officers who were to act both as
+  governors and judges. With these men went many tax-collectors or
+  "publicans." The Romans were obliged to leave in most provinces a
+  large body of soldiers to put down any attempt at rebellion. Often the
+  officers and the publicans robbed the country instead of ruling it
+  justly.
+
+EVIL RESULTS OF CONQUEST. During the wars the Romans had lost many of
+  their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich in the business of
+  providing for the armies and navies, and they were eager for new wars
+  in order to make still bigger fortunes. Hannibal's marches up and down
+  Italy had driven thousands of farmers from their homes, and they had
+  wandered to Rome for safety and food. When the war was over many of
+  them did not go back to their homes. Those who did found that they
+  could no longer get fair prices for their crops because great
+  quantities of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands.
+  Wealthy men bought the little farms and joined them, making great
+  estates where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and
+  olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for slaves
+  were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about eight cents
+  apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while the rich sent
+  everywhere for new luxuries.
+
+  [Illustration: GLADIATORS After carvings on the tomb of
+  Scaurus]
+
+CRUEL SPORTS. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers and victorious
+  generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals were turned loose to
+  tear one another to pieces. What was worse, human prisoners were
+  compelled to fight, armed with swords or spears. These men were called
+  gladiators, and often were specially trained to fight with one another
+  or with wild beasts.
+
+SOME THINGS THE ROMANS LEARNED. But the successes of the Romans
+  brought them other things which were good. They took the buildings of
+  the Greeks as models and built similar temples and porticoes in Rome,
+  especially about the old market place or Forum. Their own houses,
+  which in earlier times were nothing but cabins, they enlarged, and if
+  they were rich enough, built palaces, adorned with paintings and with
+  statues. Unfortunately many of these came from the plunder of Greek
+  cities, for the Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer
+  Romans continued to live in wretched hovels.
+
+THE THEATER. The Romans learned more about the theaters of the Greeks.
+  Their plays were either translated into Latin from Greek or retold in
+  a different manner from the original Greek. The Romans did not succeed
+  in writing any plays of their own which were as good as the plays of
+  the Greeks.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE, FRANCE]
+
+THE NEW EDUCATION OF THE ROMANS. The Greeks also taught the Romans how
+  to write poems and histories. The first histories were written in
+  Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write in Latin prose and
+  poetry as good as much that had been written by the Greeks. Greek
+  became the second language of every educated Roman, and thus he could
+  enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as those written by Romans. The
+  education of the Roman boy now began with the poems of Homer, and the
+  young man's education was not thought to be finished until he had
+  traveled in Greece and the lands along the eastern Mediterranean.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long to
+    conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did all
+    this happen?
+
+    2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did Hannibal
+    promise his father? What sort of a leader was Hannibal?
+
+    3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of the
+    Trebia?
+
+    4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield?
+
+    5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this war
+    with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon, and
+    after the death of Alexander the Great?
+
+    6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule these
+    colonies?
+
+    7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What
+    became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get
+    their slaves?
+
+    8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was the
+    Graeco-Roman world?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean mark on
+    each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Egypt,
+    the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding these dates in
+    any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford, Myers, Morey,
+    West, Wolfson.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC
+
+NEW CONQUESTS OF THE ROMANS. The Romans had as yet conquered only
+  civilized peoples like themselves, with the exception of the tribes in
+  Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman armies were to push northward
+  over the plains and through the forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into
+  unknown Germany, and over the Channel into Britain, equally unknown.
+  They were to be explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were
+  to carry their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so
+  increase greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as
+  the Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient civilized
+  world was beginning to move from its older center, the Mediterranean,
+  toward the shore of the Atlantic.
+
+ANCESTORS OF THE FRENCH AND THE GERMANS. The tribes living in Gaul
+  were not at that time called French, but Gallic. The Gauls were like the
+  Britons who lived across the Channel in Britain. The German ancestors of
+  the English had not yet crossed the North Sea to that land. Beyond the
+  Rhine lived the Germans, who had but little to do with the Romans and
+  the Greeks and were still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away
+  from the Roman settlements were not much more civilized.
+
+  The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was that the
+  Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the land or dug in
+  mines or traded along the rivers, while the Germans had no towns and
+  dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their wealth, like that of the early
+  Romans, was their cattle. The land they cultivated was divided between
+  them year after year, so that a German owned only his hut and the plot
+  of ground or garden about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed
+  on high hills and were protected by strong walls.
+
+THE TERRIBLE GERMANS. The Romans had at first been afraid of the
+  Gauls, because they had never forgotten how terribly these people had
+  once defeated them. But since that time they had fought the Gauls so
+  often that they were losing this fear. They now dreaded more to meet the
+  Germans, who seemed like giants because they were taller even than
+  the Gauls.
+
+  [Illustration: GALLIC WARRIORS]
+
+GALLIC AND GERMAN WARRIORS. The leaders of the Germans were sometimes
+  kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called _duces_, from which
+  comes our word duke. The Gallic chieftains were adorned with gold
+  necklaces, bracelets, and rings. When they went out to battle, they wore
+  helmets shaped like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies
+  were protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their
+  principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic nobles
+  were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted followers, who
+  shared the joys of victory or died with them in case of defeat. It was a
+  disgrace to lose one's sword or to survive if the leader was killed.
+
+HOW THE GERMANS LIVED. When the Germans were not fighting they were
+  idle, for all work was done by women and slaves. They were great
+  drinkers and gamblers, and often in their games a man would stake his
+  freedom upon the result. If he lost, he became the slave of the winner.
+  The Germans respected their wives, even if they compelled them to do the
+  hard work. The women sometimes went with the men to battle, and their
+  cries encouraged the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce
+  reproaches of the women drove them back to the fight.
+
+RELIGION OF THE GERMANS. We remember the religion of the Germans
+  because four days of the week are named for their gods or the gods of
+  their neighbors across the Baltic. Their principal god was Wodan, or
+  Odin, god of the sun and the tempest. Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday
+  is named for Thor, the Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw,
+  gave a name to Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The
+  German, like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place
+  where brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days
+  in feasting.
+
+JULIUS CAESAR. Julius Caesar was the great Roman general who
+  conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions across the Rhine into
+  Germany and over the Channel into Britain. He was a wealthy noble who,
+  like other nobles, held one office after another until he became consul.
+  He was also a great political leader, and with two other men controlled
+  Rome. We should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them
+  "triumvirs."
+
+  [Illustration: JULIUS CAESAR After the bust in the Museum at
+  Naples]
+
+CAESAR IN GAUL. As soon as Caesar became governor of the province
+  of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful general as well as a
+  successful politician. He interfered in the wars between the Gauls,
+  taking sides with the friends of the Romans. When a large army of
+  Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it and drove it back across the Rhine.
+  One war led to another until all the tribes from the country now called
+  Belgium to the Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman
+  people. His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three
+  times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and energy he
+  always succeeded in gaining the victory.
+
+VERCINGETORIX, GALLIC HERO. The great hero of the Gauls in their
+  struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a young noble who
+  lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His father had been killed in
+  an attempt to make himself king of his native city. Vercingetorix
+  believed that if the Gauls did not unite against the Romans they would
+  soon see their lands become Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no
+  match for the Romans in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to
+  starve the Romans out of the country. He planned to destroy all village
+  stores of grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which
+  wandered from the main army in search of food.
+
+CAESAR AND VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix found the work of
+  conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally driven to
+  take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul. Here the Romans
+  prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug miles of deep trenches
+  about the fortress so that the imprisoned Gauls could not break through.
+  They dug other trenches to protect themselves from the attacks of a
+  great army of Gauls which came to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches
+  were fifteen or twenty feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades
+  and ramparts, and filled with water where this was possible. Several
+  times the Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness
+  and stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day.
+
+DEATH OF VERCINGETORIX. Vercingetorix now proved that he was a real
+  hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if this would save the
+  town. But Caesar demanded the submission of all the chiefs. When they
+  had laid down their arms before the conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on
+  a gaily decorated horse. He rode around the throne where Caesar sat,
+  dismounted in front, took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His
+  fate was hard. He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the
+  triumphal procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death
+  in a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the
+  French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of
+  Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many years
+  afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman provinces.
+
+  [Illustration: THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE
+  RHINE]
+
+CAESAR IN GERMANY. Caesar crossed the Rhine into Germany on a bridge
+  which his engineers built in ten days. He laid waste the fields of the
+  tribes near the river in order to make the name of Rome feared, and then
+  returned to Gaul and destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to
+  Britain, the last time marching a few miles north of where London now
+  stands. His purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls
+  to attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as far
+  as the hills of Scotland.
+
+THE GERMAN HERO HERMANN. The Romans were not fortunate in their
+  later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When Caesar's grandnephew
+  Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army under Varus into the
+  forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a leader of the Germans, gathered
+  the tribes together and utterly destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever
+  Augustus thought of this dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus,
+  give me back my legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern
+  boundaries of the Roman conquests.
+
+GAULS AND BRITONS BECOME ROMAN. Although the Gauls had fought
+  stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the Italians
+  themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and began to use
+  Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their schools were
+  sometimes regarded as better than the schools in Italy, and Roman youths
+  were sent to Gaul to learn how best to speak their own language. The
+  Britons also became very good Romans. Even the Germans frequently
+  crossed the Rhine and enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned
+  to their own country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them.
+
+THE INTEREST OF AMERICANS IN ROMAN SUCCESSES. For Americans the
+  influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul, Germany, and Britain is
+  more important than their work in the eastern Mediterranean, because
+  from those countries came the early settlers of America. The
+  civilization which the Romans taught the peoples of western Europe was
+  to become a valuable part of the civilization of our forefathers.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395
+  A.D.]
+
+SIZE OF THE ROMAN WORLD. We may realize how large the world of the
+  Romans was by observing on a modern map that within its limits lay
+  modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the southern part of
+  Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the Turkish Empire both in
+  Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. For a time
+  they also ruled north of the Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they
+  are descended from Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were
+  influenced by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not
+  try to bring them under their rule.
+
+  No modern empire has included so many important countries. If we compare
+  this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of the Greeks, we shall
+  understand how useful it was that the Romans adopted much of the Greek
+  civilization, for they could carry it to places that the Greeks
+  never reached.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC,
+  IN BRITTANY, FRANCE]
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the Mediterranean,
+    into what other countries did they march?
+
+    2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the Gauls
+    lived.
+
+    3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from that of
+    the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to the Gauls?
+
+    4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods?
+
+    5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What was
+    the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of
+    Vercingetorix.
+
+    6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did Caesar
+    go?
+
+    [Illustration: A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS CAESAR]
+
+    7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time of
+    Augustus?
+
+    8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much like the
+    Romans?
+
+    9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest of
+    Gaul and Britain?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who ever
+    lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin his wars
+    in Gaul? What difference was there between what these two generals
+    did? Whose work is the more important for us?
+
+    2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each
+    country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This will
+    take a long time, but many pictures may be found in advertising
+    folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies.
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    (Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII)
+
+    _How the Graeco-Roman world was built up_:
+
+    1. The Greeks drive back the Persians.
+
+    2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the
+    Mediterranean and Black Seas.
+
+    3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern Mediterranean.
+
+    4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their ways of
+    living.
+
+    5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their colonies.
+
+    6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the Mediterranean.
+
+    7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain.
+
+    _Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman world_:
+
+    Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C.
+    Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal,
+    202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C.
+
+    [Illustration: ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD
+
+STRIFE AT ROME. While the Romans were conquering the ancient world
+  they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain men resolved that
+  Rome should not be managed any longer by the noble senators for their
+  own benefit or for the benefit of rich contractors and merchants. They
+  wished to have the idle crowds of men who packed the shows and circuses
+  settled as free farmers on the unused lands of Italy.
+
+  Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus,
+  sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other nobles looked upon
+  them with hatred and killed them, first Tiberius and afterward Caius.
+  These murders did not end the trouble. The leaders on both sides armed
+  their followers, and bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals
+  led their armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an
+  army into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the
+  republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these generals put
+  to death hundreds of their enemies.
+
+CAESAR RULES ROME. The strife in the city had ceased for a time
+  when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared power with Caesar as
+  a "triumvir," joined the senators in planning his ruin. Caesar led his
+  army into Italy to the borders of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is
+  cast,'" he crossed the sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome.
+  Pompey and his party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into
+  those who followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was
+  everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He brought
+  back order into the government of the city and of the provinces, but in
+  the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the senate-house by several
+  senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had been his friend.
+
+ORIGIN OF THE TITLE "EMPEROR." Caesar had not been called
+  "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his titles was
+  "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from which our word
+  "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor of Rome. In later times
+  the very word Caesar became an imperial title, not only in the Roman
+  Empire, but also in modern Germany, for "Kaiser" is another form of the
+  word "Caesar."
+
+BEGINNINGS OF THE EMPIRE. Caesar's successor was his grandnephew
+  Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of his titles. Augustus
+  carried out many of Caesar's plans for improving the government in Rome
+  and in the provinces. The people in the provinces were no longer robbed
+  by Roman officers. Many of them became Roman citizens. After a time all
+  children born within the empire were considered Romans, just as if they
+  had been born in Rome.
+
+THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman Empire carried on the work which the
+  republic had begun. It did some things better than the republic had done
+  them. Within its frontiers there was peace for two or three hundred
+  years. Many people had an opportunity to share in all the best that the
+  Greeks and Romans had learned. Unfortunately the peoples imitated the
+  bad as well as the good.
+
+ROMAN ROADS. As builders the Romans taught much to those who lived
+  after them. Their great roads leading out from Rome have never been
+  excelled. In Gaul these roads served, centuries later, to mark out the
+  present French system of highroads and showed many a route to the
+  builders of railroads. They were made so solid that parts of them still
+  remain after two thousand years.
+
+  [Illustration: Augustus Caesar After the statue in the Vatican]
+
+HOW THESE ROADS WERE BUILT. In planning their roads the Romans did
+  not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep valleys or marshy
+  lands. They often pierced the hills with tunnels and bridged the valleys
+  or swamps. In building a road they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide
+  and pounded the earth at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom
+  was placed a layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of
+  broken stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was
+  covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken tiles,
+  which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On the top were
+  laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that there need be no jar
+  when a wagon rolled over the road.
+
+  Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and fro
+  throughout the empire, but especially for troops or government
+  messengers sent with all speed to regions where there was danger of
+  revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by the barbarians.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD]
+
+AQUEDUCTS. Next to their roads the most remarkable Roman structures
+  were the aqueducts which brought water to the city from rivers or
+  springs, some of them many miles away. Had they known, as we do, how to
+  make heavy iron pipes, their aqueducts would have been laid underground,
+  except where they crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used
+  were not strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water,
+  and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which stretches
+  from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the streams of flowing
+  water were carried in stone channels resting upon arches which sometimes
+  reached the height of over ninety feet.
+
+THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT. The Claudian aqueduct, which is the most
+  magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for about seven miles
+  and a half. Although broken in many places, and though the water has not
+  flowed through its lofty channels for sixteen hundred years, it is one
+  of the grandest sights in the neighborhood of Rome. If we add together
+  the lengths of the aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which
+  provided Rome with her water supply, the total is over three hundred
+  miles. They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water
+  a day.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT Completed by the
+  Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D. The structure was nearly a hundred
+  feet high]
+
+PUBLIC BATHS. The Romans used great quantities of water for their
+  public baths, which were large buildings with rooms especially made for
+  bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges. They were also, like the
+  Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise, conversation, and reading. Many
+  were built as monuments by wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee
+  was charged for entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and
+  the wages of those who managed the baths.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+TWO FAMOUS BUILDINGS. Many of the Roman temples, porticoes, and
+  theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the Romans used the arch
+  more than did the Greeks, and in this the builders of later times
+  imitated them. Among their greatest buildings were the amphitheaters,
+  from the benches of which crowds watched gladiators fighting one another
+  or struggling with wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was
+  the Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were one
+  hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six hundred
+  and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and twelve. There were
+  seats enough for forty-five thousand persons. The lowest seats were
+  raised fifteen feet above the arena or central space where men or wild
+  beasts fought. Through an arrangement of underground pipes the arena
+  could be flooded so that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a
+  real naval battle.
+
+  Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold the crowds
+  that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having seats for two
+  hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the Romans became more and
+  more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some equally splendid buildings were
+  used for better things.
+
+  [Illustration: The Pantheon]
+
+THE PANTHEON. One of these was the Pantheon, a temple which was
+  afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is now used as the
+  burial-place of the Italian kings. The most remarkable part of it is the
+  dome, which has a width of a little over one hundred and forty-two feet.
+  No other dome in the world is so wide. The Romans were very successful
+  in covering large spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later
+  builders of domes and arches are their pupils.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ARCH OF TITUS]
+
+BASILICAS. The Romans had other large buildings called basilicas.
+  These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in the center covered
+  by a great roof. They were used as places for public meetings. One of
+  them had one hundred and eight pillars arranged in a double row around
+  the sides and ends of this central space. The name basilica is Greek and
+  means "royal." Some of these basilicas were used as Christian churches
+  when the Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was
+  then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the aisles.
+
+TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. The Romans built beautiful arches to celebrate
+  their victories. Several of these still remain, with sentences cut into
+  their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of their builders. Modern
+  people have taken them as models for similar memorial arches.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the Pont
+  du Gard, near Nimes, France]
+
+ROMAN LAW. The Romans did much for the world by their laws. They
+  showed little regard for the rights of men captured in war and were
+  cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they considered carefully the
+  rights of free men and women. Under the emperors the lawyers and judges
+  worked to make the laws clearer and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor
+  Justinian, who ruled at the time when the empire was already half ruined
+  by the attacks of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to
+  gather into a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws
+  lasted long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of
+  the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our laws
+  in America.
+
+  [Illustration: PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND Unearthed
+  not many years ago at Aldborough. Such stones laid in the form of
+  designs or pictures are called Mosaics]
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers Tiberius
+    and Caius Gracchus try to do?
+
+    2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to ruin
+    him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman leaders?
+
+    3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the origin of
+    the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die?
+
+    4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized the
+    Roman Empire?
+
+    5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were their
+    roads built? Do any traces of them still remain?
+
+    6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure water?
+
+    7. What was a Roman bath?
+
+    8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their buildings? Name
+    the largest buildings in Rome. What was a basilica? Of what use were
+    basilicas to the Christians later?
+
+    9. Do you remember the earliest form of the Roman law (Chapter
+    V)? What did Justinian do with the laws in his day? Are
+    these laws important to us?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and Augustus?
+
+    2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman roads
+    and if they are likely to last as long. What different kinds of
+    roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a small model of
+    a Roman road?
+
+    3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities provided
+    with great public baths like those of the Romans?
+
+    4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the revised
+    statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the code of
+    Justinian, only not so brief.
+
+    [Illustration: TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+THE RELIGION OF THE JEWS. Among the cities captured by the Romans
+  was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories from the Old
+  Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived David, the shepherd
+  boy who, after wonderful adventures, became king of his people. There
+  his son Solomon built a temple of dazzling splendor. Among this people
+  had arisen great preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that
+  religion did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in
+  justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for religion, just
+  as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans a genius for
+  government.
+
+THE JEWS CONQUERED BY THE ROMANS. When the Jews first heard of the
+  Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who made and unmade
+  kings. In later years they learned that the Romans were hard masters and
+  they feared and hated them. The Jewish kingdom was one of the last
+  countries along the shores of the Mediterranean which the Romans
+  conquered, but like all the others it finally became a Roman province.
+
+JESUS OF NAZARETH. A few years before the Jewish kingdom became a
+  Roman province there was born in a village near Jerusalem a child named
+  Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in Nazareth he gathered about him
+  followers or disciples whom he taught to live and act as is told in the
+  books of the New Testament.
+
+  [Illustration: A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of Olives
+  in the distance]
+
+  This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first held by a
+  little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a city of Asia
+  whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman citizenship, believed
+  that the message of the new religion was meant for all nations. He
+  taught it in many cities of Asia Minor and Greece, and even went as far
+  west as Rome. Several of the epistles or letters in the New Testament
+  were written by Paul to churches which he had founded or where he had
+  taught. So it happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which
+  multitudes consider even more important than the art and literature of
+  the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the Romans.
+
+WHY THE CHRISTIANS WERE PERSECUTED. The Romans at first refused to
+  permit any one in their empire to call himself a Christian. They
+  disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that the Roman gods were real
+  gods, asserting that these gods were mere images in wood and stone. The
+  Christians did this also, but in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst
+  offense of the Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of
+  secret society and held meetings to which other persons were not
+  admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies.
+
+  The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their refusal to join
+  in the public ceremonies which honored the emperor as if he were a god
+  who had given peace and order to the world and who was able to reward
+  the good and punish the evil. The Christians believed it to be wrong to
+  join in the worship of an emperor, whether he were alive or dead.
+
+CHRISTIANS PUT TO DEATH. The Romans were cruel in their manner of
+  punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered death in its most
+  horrible forms. Some were burned, others were tortured, others were torn
+  to pieces by wild animals in the great amphitheaters to satisfy the
+  fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst of the Roman emperors, who, many
+  thought, set Rome on fire in order that he might enjoy the sight of the
+  burning city, tried to turn suspicion from himself by accusing the
+  Christians of the crime. He punished them by tying them to poles,
+  smearing their bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches.
+
+THE CHRISTIANS ALLOWED TO WORSHIP. The new religion spread rapidly
+  from province to province in spite of these persecutions. At first the
+  Christians worshiped secretly, but later they ventured to build
+  churches. Finally, three centuries after the birth of Christ, the
+  emperors promised that the persecutions should cease and that the
+  Christians might worship undisturbed.
+
+  [Illustration: A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE]
+
+THE ROMAN EMPIRE BECOMES CHRISTIAN ABOUT 325 A.D. Constantine was
+  the first emperor to become Christian. He was the one who made the Greek
+  city Byzantium the capital of the empire and for whom it was renamed
+  Constantinople. For a time both the old Roman religion and the Christian
+  religion were favored by the emperors, but before the fourth century
+  closed the old religion was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the
+  Roman gods were mostly country people, called in Latin _pagani_, and
+  therefore their religion was called "paganism."
+
+HOW THE CHURCH WAS RULED. One of the reasons why the Christians had
+  been successful in their struggle with the Roman emperors was that they
+  were united under wise and brave leaders. The Christians in each large
+  city were ruled by a bishop, and the bishops of several cities were
+  directed by an archbishop. In the western part of the empire the bishop
+  of Rome, who was called the pope, was honored as the chief of the
+  bishops and archbishops, and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the
+  eastern part the archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and
+  Alexandria and Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in
+  authority with him.
+
+  There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks. The
+  priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks lived in groups
+  in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their purpose was to dwell
+  far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary life and give themselves to
+  prayer and fasting; sometimes they acted as a brotherhood of teachers in
+  barbarous communities, teaching the people better methods of farming,
+  and carrying the arts of civilized life beyond the borders of
+  the empire.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times?
+
+    2. Do you remember any of the stories of David?
+
+    3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David ruled?
+
+    4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth of
+    Jesus Christ?
+
+    5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How did the
+    Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ before the
+    emperors allowed the Christians to worship undisturbed?
+
+    [Illustration: A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES Abbey of
+    Saint-Germain des Pres as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and
+    moat or ditch]
+
+    6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a
+    Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old
+    Roman gods?
+
+    7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named? What two
+    kinds of clergy were there?
+
+    _Important date_: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became Christian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO
+
+THE MIDDLE AGES. It was more than a thousand years from the time of
+  Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is called "Mediaeval,"
+  or the "Middle Ages." During these long centuries the ancient civilized
+  world of the Roman Empire was much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on
+  the southern shores of the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or
+  Moors. The Moors conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands
+  of Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The Turks,
+  the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet" Mohammed, who
+  died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies of the Christians.
+
+WESTERN EUROPE. The other part of the European world was also
+  changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic were now more
+  important than those on the shores of the Mediterranean. The names of
+  the different countries were changed. Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there
+  was France; instead of Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for
+  Germania, Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire,
+  was finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa and
+  Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories ruled by
+  dukes, princes, or kings.
+
+FATE OF CIVILIZATION. The most important question to ask is, How
+  much of the manner of living or civilization of the Greeks and the
+  Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The answer is found in the
+  history of the Middle Ages. In this history is also found what men added
+  to that which they had learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The
+  emigrants to America were to carry with them knowledge which not even
+  the wisest men of the ancient world had possessed.
+
+  [Illustration: WALL OF AURELIAN This wall enclosed the ancient
+  city of Rome. It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five
+  feet high, and had three hundred towers]
+
+MEDIAEVAL GERMAN EMIGRANTS. The first part of the history of the
+  Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from whom most of our
+  forefathers were descended began to move from the northern forests
+  towards the borders of the Roman Empire. Many thousand men had already
+  crossed the Rhine and the Danube to serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes
+  an unusually strong and skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans
+  had also crossed the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich
+  Gallic nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and
+  the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers. The
+  Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit of work and
+  were glad to hire these foreigners.
+
+STORY OF ULFILAS. Many of the Goths who lived north of the Danube
+  had forsaken their old gods and become Christians. They were taught by
+  Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them, afterward a missionary. He
+  translated the Bible into the Gothic language, and this translation is
+  the most ancient specimen of German that we possess. Many of the other
+  German tribes learned about Christianity from the Goths, and although
+  they might be enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of
+  the Church.
+
+THE GOTHS INVADE THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The Roman emperors tried to
+  prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier in great numbers,
+  because, once across, if they did not find work and food, they became
+  plunderers. Not many years after Constantine's death, a million Goths
+  had passed the Danube and had plundered the country almost to the walls
+  of Constantinople. This was not like the invasion of a regular army,
+  which comes to fight battles and to arrange terms of peace.
+
+  The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example, moved as a
+  whole people, with their wives and children, their cattle, and the few
+  household goods they owned. Wherever they wished to settle they demanded
+  of the Romans one third, sometimes two thirds, of the land. They soon
+  learned to be good neighbors of the older inhabitants, although at first
+  they were little better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the
+  Goths, led them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did
+  not injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the
+  churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about plundering
+  villages and attacking cities did far greater damage. The Roman
+  government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the provinces fell
+  into the hands of German kings.
+
+BEGINNINGS OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND GERMANY. Britain was attacked by
+  the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany across the North Sea.
+  They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves of
+  them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country was then
+  called Angle-land or England, and the people Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen.
+
+  The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the Franks from
+  the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name France to the land.
+
+  At about the same time the other German tribes that had remained in
+  Germany united under one king.
+
+THE RESULT OF BARBARIAN ATTACKS. The part of the ancient world
+  which lay about Constantinople was less changed than the rest during the
+  Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople were high and thick, and they
+  withstood attack after attack until 1453. Within their shelter men
+  continued to live much as they had lived in Ancient Times. A few
+  delighted to study the writings of the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the
+  other countries of western Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The
+  ancient baths, amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled
+  and fell. The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the
+  Colosseum as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This
+  was done in every country where Roman buildings existed.
+
+  [Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES]
+
+  The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still stranger
+  fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at another as a prison
+  and gradually became the home of hundreds of the criminals and the poor
+  of the city. "Every archway held its nest of human outcasts. From stone
+  to stone they cast their rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the
+  very entrails of the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the
+  pursuit of the officers of the law."
+
+  Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France, and few
+  from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of Italy and France
+  and England did not know how to read Greek. Many of them also ceased to
+  read the writings of the ancient Romans.
+
+  [Illustration: ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This
+  church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its walls
+  show some of the bricks of the original chapel]
+
+THE ENGLISH BECOME CHRISTIANS, 597 A.D. Christianity had spread
+  throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the religion of all the
+  tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon the ruins of the Empire.
+  The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded Britain, were still worshipers
+  of the gods Wodan and Thor. They had never learned from the Goths of
+  Ulfilas anything about Christianity.
+
+  One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys were offered
+  for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a monk and was the
+  abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing and asked who they were.
+  He was told they were Angles. "Angels," he cried, "yes, they have faces
+  like angels, and should become companions of the angels in heaven." When
+  this good abbot became pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they
+  established themselves at Canterbury.
+
+  [Illustration: GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES]
+
+MISSIONARIES TO THE GERMANS AND THE SLAVS. The conversion of the
+  English helped in the spread of Christianity on the Continent, for
+  Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest missionary to the Germans.
+  He won thousands from the worship of their ancient gods and founded many
+  churches. The Slavs, who lived east of the Germans, were taught by
+  missionaries from Constantinople instead of from Rome.
+
+THE EDUCATED MEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The missionaries and teachers
+  of the Church had been educated like the older Romans. They read Roman
+  books, and tried to preserve the knowledge which both Greeks and Romans
+  had gathered. Influenced by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the
+  north also tried to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the
+  priests of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some
+  parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved, although
+  the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful cities were mere
+  heaps of ruins.
+
+THE VIKINGS. The emigration of whole peoples from one part of
+  Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was overrun. New
+  peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out the tribes which had
+  already settled within its boundaries and were learning the ways of
+  civilization.
+
+  One of these peoples came from the regions now known as Norway, Sweden,
+  and Denmark. They were called Danes by the English, and Northmen or
+  Normans by other Europeans. They had another name, Vikings, which was
+  their word for sea-rovers.
+
+  It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than march on the
+  land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked nothing better than
+  to fight and conquer and rob in other countries. There was not a land in
+  western Europe, even as far south as Sicily, that they did not visit.
+  Wherever they went they plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a
+  blackened trail.
+
+THE DANES IN ENGLAND. The Danes ravaged the eastern and southern
+  shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery, partly because
+  there was little left to take, they began to settle in the land. Alfred,
+  the greatest of the early English kings, was driven by them into the
+  swamps for a while, but in the year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of
+  them in battle and persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a
+  Christian. Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion
+  of England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes was
+  obeyed there.
+
+  [Illustration: A VIKING SHIP AT SEA]
+
+THE DANES BECOME NORMANS. No more Danes or Northmen came to trouble
+  England for a time, but instead they crossed the Channel to France and
+  rowed up the Seine and tried to capture Paris. A few years later a
+  Frankish king gave them the city of Rouen, further down the Seine, and
+  the region about it which was called Normandy. These Normans also
+  accepted Christianity.
+
+THE VIKINGS BECOME DISCOVERERS. Before another hundred years had
+  passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult than sailing up
+  rivers and burning towns. They were the first to venture far out of
+  sight of land, though their ships were no larger than our fishing boats.
+  These bold sailors visited the Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of
+  Scotland, and finally reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle
+  flourished, and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up
+  with the old homeland and with the British islands.
+
+  Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a colony to
+  Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further west. He called
+  it Greenland because, he said, men would be more easily persuaded to go
+  there if the land had a good name. This was probably in the year 985.
+
+  [Illustration: LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston]
+
+DISCOVERY OF VINLAND. Eric had a son, called Leif Ericson, or Leif
+  the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well received at the court of King
+  Olaf. Not long before missionaries had persuaded Olaf and his people to
+  give up their old gods and accept Christianity, and Leif followed their
+  example. Leif set out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the
+  new religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and to
+  his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the summer, for on
+  the way his ship was driven out of its course and came upon strange
+  lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large trees grew. The milder
+  climate and stories of large trees useful for building ships aroused the
+  curiosity of the Greenlanders.
+
+  They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North America at
+  places which they called Helluland, that is, the land of flat stones;
+  Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where the grape-vines grow.
+  Helluland was probably on the coast of Labrador, Markland somewhere on
+  the shores of Newfoundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia.
+
+THE SETTLEMENT IN VINLAND. Thornfinn Karlsefni, a successful trader
+  between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to plant a colony in the new
+  lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to the number of one hundred and sixty
+  men and several women, set out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded
+  with supplies and many cattle. They built huts and remained three or
+  four winters in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement
+  disappeared long ago.
+
+  They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking Indians, with
+  coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with whom they traded red
+  cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between the Northmen and the Indians,
+  who outnumbered them. So many Northmen were killed that the survivors
+  became alarmed and returned to Greenland.
+
+  [Illustration: DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN The American lands
+  they found are marked with diagonal lines]
+
+VINLAND FORGOTTEN. The voyages to Vinland soon ceased and the
+  discoveries of Leif and his followers were only remembered in the songs
+  or "sagas" of the people. They thought of Vinland mainly as a land of
+  flat stones, great trees, and fierce natives. Nor did the wise men of
+  Europe who heard the Northmen's story guess that a New World had been
+  discovered. It was probably fortunate that five hundred years were to go
+  by before Europeans settled in America, for within that time they were
+  to learn a great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had
+  left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the ruins of
+  the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses, where few knew
+  of them. The more Europeans possessed before they set out, the more
+  Americans would have to start with.
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA MANUSCRIPT]
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval" period?
+
+    2. Show on the map, what part of the Roman Empire was
+    conquered by the Mohammedans.
+
+    3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and Spain,
+    Why were they changed to what they are now?
+
+    4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from their
+    homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a living?
+
+    5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian religion?
+    When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they ask of the
+    inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years separated the
+    capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the Gauls?
+
+    6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes conquered
+    Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople was captured?
+
+    7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many cities? Who
+    tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had
+    done? Who used the language of the Romans?
+
+    8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians. Who
+    taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city did
+    the Slavs receive missionaries?
+
+    9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of Denmark,
+    Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas? Where did they
+    make settlements?
+
+    10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America. Why did
+    the Northmen leave Vinland?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter.
+
+    2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned in the
+    chapter on the countries where they settled.
+
+    3. Ask children in school who know some other language than English
+    what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy.
+
+    _Important dates_:
+
+    Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D.
+
+    Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES
+
+HEROES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The Middle Ages, like Ancient Times, are
+  recalled by many interesting tales. Some of them, such as the stories of
+  King Arthur and his Knights, the story of Roland, and the Song of the
+  Niebelungs, are only tales and not history. Others tell us about great
+  kings, Charlemagne and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of
+  Germany, or St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was
+  Alfred, who fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally
+  conquered and persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule.
+
+KING ALFRED BEGAN TO REIGN IN 871. King Alfred was a skilful
+  warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of peace. When he
+  was a boy he had shown his love of books. His mother once offered a
+  beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize to the one of her sons who
+  should be the first to learn it. Alfred could not yet read, but he had a
+  ready memory, and with the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and
+  won the prize.
+
+  At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few even of the
+  clergy could read. During the long wars with the Danes many books had
+  been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more useful than books and ceased
+  to care about reading. King Alfred feared that the Saxons would soon
+  become ignorant barbarians, and sent for priests and monks who were
+  learned and were able to teach his clergy. He sent even into France
+  for such men.
+
+EARLY ENGLISH BOOKS. As it would be easier for people to learn to
+  read books written in the language they spoke rather than in Latin,
+  Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin books into English.
+  Among these was a history written by a Roman before the Germans had
+  overthrown the Roman Empire. This history told about the world of the
+  Greeks and the Romans.
+
+  Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year to year
+  of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was called the
+  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history written in the English
+  language. It was carefully kept for many years after Alfred's death.
+  Another wise thing Alfred did was to collect the laws or "dooms" of the
+  earlier kings, so that every one might know what the law required.
+
+  [Illustration: EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE From a copy in
+  the British Museum]
+
+THE BEGINNING OF A NAVY. Alfred has been called the creator of the
+  English navy. He thought that the only way to keep the Danes from
+  plundering his shores was to fight them on the sea. He built several
+  ships which were bigger than the Danish ships, but they were not always
+  victorious, for they could not follow the Danish ships into shallow
+  water. Nevertheless, the Danes could not plunder England as easily
+  as before.
+
+THE NEW ARMY. Alfred organized his fighting men in a better way. In
+  times past the men had been called upon to fight only when the Danes
+  were near, but now he kept a third of his men ready all the time, and
+  another third he placed in forts, so the rest were able to work in the
+  fields in safety. There are good reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred
+  as a hero.
+
+WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR BEGAN TO RULE ENGLAND IN 1066. About a
+  hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke of Normandy,
+  crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English king in battle, and
+  seized the throne. This was not altogether a misfortune to the English,
+  for they came under the same ruler as the Normans and they shared in all
+  that the men of the Continent were beginning to learn. For one thing,
+  builders from the Continent taught the English to construct the great
+  Norman churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees.
+  Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the chiefs
+  or lords that were inclined to oppress the common people.
+
+HENRY II. Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled over most of
+  western France as well as over England. His officers and nobles were
+  tired out by his endless traveling in his lands, which extended from the
+  banks of the river Loire in France to the borders of Scotland. All
+  Englishmen and Americans should remember him with gratitude because of
+  the improvements he made in the ways of discovering the truth when
+  disputes arose and were carried into courts.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL From the
+  Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the Conqueror. The
+  figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred and thirty feet long,
+  and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight colors are used]
+
+ORDEALS AND TRIALS BY BATTLE. Before Henry's reign it was the
+  custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the truth by
+  arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals. The two most
+  common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the ordeal by water. In the
+  ordeal by fire an iron was heated red-hot, and after it had been blessed
+  by a priest it was put into the hand of the man the truth of whose word
+  was being tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His
+  hand was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that
+  time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for they
+  thought God would keep an innocent man from being punished.
+
+  In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water which had
+  been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the people thought the
+  water would not receive him. If he sank at once, he was pulled out and
+  treated as if he had told the truth.
+
+  [Illustration: TRIAL BY BATTLE After a drawing in an old
+  manuscript]
+
+  A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose dispute was to
+  be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each was armed with a
+  hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who gave up lost his case.
+
+TRIAL BY JURY. King Henry introduced a better way of finding out
+  the truth. He called upon twelve men from a neighborhood to come before
+  the judges, to promise solemnly to tell what they knew about a matter,
+  and then to decide which person was in the right. They were supposed to
+  know about the facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with
+  one another before they made a decision.
+
+  Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two groups, one
+  to tell what they knew and the other to listen and decide what was true.
+  Those who told what they knew were called the witnesses, and those who
+  listened and decided were called jurors. The name jurors came from a
+  Latin word meaning to take an oath.
+
+RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED. King Henry had two sons, Richard and John.
+  Richard was the boldest and most skilful fighter of his time. When the
+  news was brought to England that Jerusalem had been captured by the
+  Mohammedans, he led an army to Palestine to recapture it. He failed to
+  take the city, but he became famous throughout the East as a fearless
+  warrior and was ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death
+  his brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as Richard
+  was brave and generous.
+
+THE GREAT CHARTER. The leaders of the people, the nobles and the
+  clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In 1215 they raised an
+  army and threatened to take the kingdom from John and crown another
+  prince as king. John was soon ready to promise anything in order to
+  obtain power once more, and the nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede
+  on the river Thames, a few miles west of London, and compelled him to
+  sign a list of promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate
+  promises, it was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did
+  not keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on him,
+  and he even said that this would be their duty.
+
+PROMISES OF THE CHARTER. Many of the articles of the Great Charter
+  were important only to the men of King John's day, but others are as
+  important to us as to them. In these the king promised that every one
+  should be treated justly. He said he would not refuse to listen to the
+  complaints of those who thought they were wronged. The king also
+  promised that he would not decide in favor of a rich man just because
+  the rich man might offer him money. He would put no one in prison who
+  had not been tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important
+  promise the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of
+  the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people to have
+  something to say about how their money should be spent. This right is a
+  very important part of what we call self-government.
+
+  [Illustration: A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER]
+
+PROMISES OF THE GREAT CHARTER RENEWED. In after times whenever the
+  English thought a king was doing them a wrong they reminded him of the
+  promises made by King John in the Great Charter and demanded that the
+  promises be solemnly renewed.
+
+  In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns to send a
+  number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and clergy to talk
+  over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings, soon followed Simon's
+  example by asking the townsmen for advice about matters of government.
+  After a while this became the custom. Occasionally the king wanted the
+  advice of the clergy, the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and
+  called them together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an
+  assembly in which talking or discussion goes on.
+
+  [Illustration: Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster
+  Abbey--WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT. Only the most important nobles or lords
+  could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the meeting would be too
+  large to do any business. The other lords chose certain ones from their
+  number to go in place of all the rest. We call such men representatives.
+  In this way, besides the men who represented the towns, there were
+  present these nobles who represented the landowners of the counties.
+  Gradually these nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own,
+  while the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in another
+  assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of Commons and the
+  House of Lords, and the two made up the parliament.
+
+AN ASSEMBLY OF REPRESENTATIVES. This parliament was a great
+  invention. The English had discovered a better way of governing
+  themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We call it the
+  representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived far from Rome wanted
+  to take part in the elections, he was obliged to leave his farm or his
+  business and travel to Rome, for only the citizens who were at Rome
+  could have a share in making the laws. It never occurred to the Romans
+  that the citizens outside of Rome could send some of their number as
+  representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament was an
+  important step towards what we mean in America by "government of the
+  people, for the people, and by the people."
+
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle Ages.
+    What stories have you learned about these heroes?
+
+    2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show his
+    love of books? What did he do to help his people to a knowledge
+    of books?
+
+    3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back the
+    Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English navy?
+
+    4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the English
+    and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help them?
+
+    5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an ordeal and
+    a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed and what did
+    they do? How were they afterwards divided?
+
+    6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a king
+    was his brother John?
+
+    7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called
+    "Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget
+    these promises?
+
+    8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to talk
+    over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this body
+    finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided?
+
+    9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention? What
+    did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome and
+    wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of the
+    story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne, Frederick
+    the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen.
+
+    2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and those of
+    to-day, and explain their differences.
+
+    3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is
+    guilty.
+
+    4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes the
+    laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the
+    whole country?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES
+
+WHAT THE ENGLISH OWED TO THEIR EUROPEAN NEIGHBORS. If the English
+  succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how to govern
+  themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected them from attack,
+  and they could quarrel with their king without running much risk that
+  their enemies in other countries would take advantage of the quarrel to
+  seize their lands or attempt to conquer them.
+
+  The French were not so well placed. France also was not united like
+  England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were almost
+  independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and dukes. In
+  France it would not have been wise for the people to quarrel with the
+  king, for he was their natural protector against cruel lords. Germany
+  and Italy were even more divided, with not only counties and duchies,
+  but also cities nearly as independent as the ancient cities of Greece.
+
+  The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the English were
+  doing, and some of these were so well done that the English were ready
+  to accept these Europeans as their teachers. The memory of what the
+  Greeks and the Romans had done remained longer in southern France and
+  Italy because so many buildings were still standing which reminded
+  Frenchmen and Italians of the people who built them.
+
+  [Illustration: A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS]
+
+CLASSES OF PEOPLE. The people of Europe, as well as of England,
+  were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The clergy seemed to
+  form another class because there were so many of them. Besides the
+  parish priests and the bishops there were thousands of monks, who were
+  persons who chose to dwell together in monasteries under the rule of an
+  abbot or a prior, rather than live among ordinary people where men were
+  so often tempted to do wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others.
+  The monks worked on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the
+  libraries, or prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to
+  read were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries or
+  the bishops' houses there were few books.
+
+THE NOBLES. The nobles were either knights, barons, counts, or
+  dukes. In England there were also earls. Many mediaeval nobles ruled
+  like kings, but over a smaller territory. They gained their power
+  because they were rich in land and could support many men who were ready
+  to follow them in battle, or because in the constant wars they proved
+  themselves able to keep anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or
+  a town. Timid and peaceable people were often glad to put themselves
+  under the protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed
+  by other fighting nobles.
+
+  In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings, who were
+  at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring nobles as well
+  as peasants under their own rule and to compel every one to obey the
+  same laws. After this the nobles became what we call an aristocracy,
+  proud of their family history, generally living in better houses and
+  owning more land than their neighbors, but with little power
+  over others.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE 1. The Donjon-keep. 2.
+  Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court. 5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7.
+  Mount, where justice was executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings]
+
+  [Illustration: PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF FRANCE]
+
+CASTLES. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle Ages were
+  obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses called castles.
+  They were often placed on a hilltop or on an island or in a spot where
+  approach to the walls could be made difficult by a broad canal, or moat,
+  filled with water. At different places along the walls were towers, and
+  within the outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to
+  capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the enemy.
+  These castles were gloomy places to live in until, centuries later,
+  their inner walls were pierced with windows. Many are still standing,
+  others are interesting heaps of ruins.
+
+KNIGHTHOOD. The lords of the castles were occupied mostly in
+  hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords from interfering
+  with them or to win for themselves more lands and power. They hunted
+  that they might have meat for their tables. In later times, when it was
+  not so necessary to kill animals for food, they hunted as a sport.
+  Fighting also ceased to be the chief occupation, although the nobles
+  were expected to accompany the king in his wars.
+
+  From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the Church as
+  priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A boy was sent to the
+  castle of another lord, where he served as a page, waiting on the lord
+  at table or running errands. He was trained to ride a horse boldly and
+  to be skilful with the sword and the lance. When his education was
+  finished he was usually made a knight, an event which took place with
+  many interesting ceremonies.
+
+  The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons and arms
+  for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the altar of the
+  church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night. In the final
+  ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received a slight blow on
+  the neck from the sword of some knight, or perhaps of the king. His
+  armor covered him from head to foot in metal, and sometimes his horse
+  was also covered with metal plates. When he was fully armed, he was
+  expected to show his skill to the lords and ladies who were present.
+
+THE DUTIES OF A KNIGHT. The duties of the knight were to defend the
+  weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful to his lord and king,
+  and to be courteous even to an enemy. A knight true to these duties was
+  called "chivalrous," a word which means very much what we mean by the
+  word "gentlemanly." There were many wicked knights, but we must not
+  forget that the good knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping
+  promises, respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor.
+
+  [Illustration: A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century]
+
+THE PEASANTS. Most of the people were peasants or townsmen. There
+  were few towns, because many had been burned by the barbarian tribes
+  which broke into the Roman Empire, or had been destroyed in the later
+  wars. The peasants were crowded in villages close to the walls of some
+  castle or monastery. They paid dearly for the protection which the lord
+  of the castle or the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were
+  obliged to work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring
+  him eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They also
+  gave him a part of their harvest.
+
+THE TOWNSMEN. At first the towns belonged to lords, or abbots, or
+  bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and ruled themselves or
+  received officers from the king. When they ruled themselves, their towns
+  were called communes. The citizens agreed that whenever the town bell
+  was rung they would gather together. Any one who was absent was fined.
+  For them "eternal vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the
+  belfries of these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the
+  citizens of to-day of the struggles of the early days.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF CARCASSONNE This is an ancient city in
+  France founded by the Romans]
+
+  The men of each occupation or trade were organized into societies or
+  guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices. There were guilds of
+  goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers, that is, workers in gold and
+  iron and sellers of fish. The merchants also had their guilds. In many
+  towns no one was allowed to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was
+  not a member of a guild.
+
+OLD CITIES WHICH STILL EXIST. Many of the towns which grew up in
+  the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England and Europe. Their
+  citizens can look back a thousand years and more over the history of
+  their city, can point to churches, to town halls, and sometimes to
+  private houses, that have stood all this time. They can often show the
+  remains of mediaeval walls or broad streets where once these walls
+  stood, and the moats that surrounded them. The traveler in York or
+  London, in Paris, in Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches
+  for the relics about which so many interesting stories of the past
+  are told.
+
+VENICE AND GENOA. One of the most fascinating of these old cities
+  is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from the shore of
+  Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of the Adriatic.
+  Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a Roman city on the
+  mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in the fifth century after
+  Christ. In many places piles had to be driven into the loose sands to
+  furnish a foundation for houses. The Venetians did not try to keep out
+  the water but used it as streets, and instead of driving in wagons they
+  went about in boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks
+  had done in those same waters hundreds of years before.
+
+  Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and Taranto,
+  the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the peninsula to the
+  west was another trading city called Genoa, which was the birthplace
+  of Columbus.
+
+MODERN LANGUAGES. While the people of mediaeval times were building
+  city walls and towers to protect themselves they were also doing other
+  things. Almost without knowing it they formed the languages which we now
+  speak and write--English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish.
+
+  The English and German languages are closely related because the
+  forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany, taking
+  their language with them. This older language was gradually changed, but
+  it still remained like German. Dutch is another language like both
+  English and German.
+
+  There are many words in these languages borrowed from other peoples.
+  Englishmen, because of their long union with western France, borrowed
+  many words from the French. The French did not invent these words, for
+  the French language grew out of the Latin language which the French
+  learned from the Romans.
+
+HOW MODERN LANGUAGES WERE FORMED. In English we have two sets of
+  words and phrases: one is used in writing books or speeches, the other
+  in conversation. When the Gauls learned Latin, the language of Rome,
+  most of them learned the words used in conversation and did not learn
+  the words of Roman books. Before long spoken words differed so much from
+  the older written words that only scholars understood that the two had
+  belonged to the same language. This new language was French. In the same
+  way Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in Italy
+  and Spain.
+
+  When men began to write books in the new languages, the changes went on
+  more slowly because the use of words in books kept the spelling the
+  same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was still used in the religious
+  services of the Church and in the schools and universities.
+
+  [Illustration: VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL]
+
+SCHOOLS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. In the Middle Ages most boys and girls
+  did not go to school. Education was principally for those who expected
+  to become priests or monks. The schools were in the monasteries or in
+  the houses or palaces of the bishops. The students were taught a little
+  Latin grammar, to write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned
+  arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the festivals
+  of the Church should come; and music, so much as was then known of it.
+  Printing had not been invented, so there were no text-books for them to
+  study, and written books or manuscripts were too costly. Students
+  listened to the teacher as he read from his manuscripts and copied the
+  words or tried to remember them.
+
+THE BEGINNING OF UNIVERSITIES. If students remained in the schools
+  after these things had been learned, they studied the laws of the
+  Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious questions which
+  are called theology. Some teachers talked in such an interesting way
+  about such questions that hundreds of students came to listen. Like
+  other kinds of workers, who were organized in societies or guilds, the
+  teachers and students formed a guild called a university. The teachers
+  were the master-workmen, and the students were the apprentices.
+
+WHERE THE STUDENTS LIVED. In the beginning the universities had no
+  buildings of their own, and the teachers taught in hired halls, the
+  students boarding wherever they could find lodgings. Partly to help
+  students who were too poor to pay for good lodgings, and partly to bring
+  the students under the direct rule of teachers, colleges were built.
+  These were not separate institutions like the American colleges, but
+  simply houses for residence, although later some teaching was done
+  in them.
+
+SOME FAMOUS UNIVERSITIES. The oldest university was in Bologna in
+  Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the Romans to its
+  students eight hundred years ago. The University of Paris was called the
+  greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its students numbered sometimes
+  between six and seven thousand. About the same time the English
+  universities of Oxford and Cambridge were formed, and there, many years
+  later, a large number of the men who settled in America were educated.
+
+THE WISDOM OF THE ARABS. Students in these universities obtained
+  several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs, the followers
+  of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long before Europeans
+  thought of founding universities the Arabs had flourishing schools and
+  universities in Spain. The capital of the Mohammedan Empire was first at
+  Bagdad on the Euphrates, where once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of
+  the tales of the Arabian Nights.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the
+  fourteenth century]
+
+WHAT EUROPEANS BORROWED FROM THE ARABS. The Arabs had learned much
+  of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and they also found out
+  much for themselves. The numerals which we use are Arabic; and algebra,
+  one of our principal studies in mathematics, was thought out by the
+  Arabs. Their learned men were deeply interested in the books of
+  Aristotle, an ancient Greek, who had been a teacher of Alexander the
+  Great. They translated his books into Arabic, and Christian students in
+  Spain translated the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the
+  University of Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other
+  thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found in this
+  Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what Aristotle had
+  written in Greek.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors in the
+  twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the Moorish
+  architecture.]
+
+BUILDERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The Greeks and the Romans had been
+  great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded in building
+  churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which equaled in grandeur
+  and beauty the best that the ancient builders had made. The large
+  churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because their builders were able
+  to place masses of stone high in the air and to cover immense spaces
+  with beautiful vaulted roofs. Builders nowadays imitate, but not often,
+  if ever, equal them. Fortunately the original buildings are still
+  standing in many English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and
+  Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt, and
+  Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear,
+  showing the arches and buttresses]
+
+CHURCH BUILDING. The Italians began by building churches like Roman
+  basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported by heavy walls, were also
+  used north of the Alps, and the method of building was named Romanesque,
+  or in England, Norman. The architects or builders of western France
+  discovered a way of roofing over just as large spaces without using such
+  heavy walls, so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows.
+  Instead of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls
+  between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called
+  buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was sometimes more
+  than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor. The glass of the
+  windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from the Bible or from lives
+  of sainted men and women. The outer walls, especially the western front,
+  the doorways and the towers, were richly carved and adorned with
+  statues, and often with the figures of strange birds and beasts which
+  lived only in the imagination of the builders. This method of building
+  was named Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town
+  halls and private houses. Architects use similar methods of
+  building nowadays.
+
+  [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic
+  interior.]
+
+THE RENAISSANCE. Men who could build and adorn great churches and
+  town halls and who were eager to study in the new universities should be
+  called civilized. The barbarous days were gone, but men still had much
+  to learn from the ancient Greeks and Romans. Many of the ancient
+  buildings were in ruins, the statues half buried or broken, the
+  paintings destroyed, and the books lost. Men began to search for what
+  was left of these things and to study them carefully to learn what the
+  Graeco-Roman world had been like. After a while students could think of
+  nothing else, and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the
+  Romans and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first
+  interested in these things is called the Renaissance or "rebirth,"
+  because men were so unlike what they had been that they seemed born
+  again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the Middle Ages came to
+  an end.
+
+  [Illustration: ST. PETER'S AT ROME]
+
+PETRARCH. One of the earliest of these "new" men was Petrarch, an
+  Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a hundred years before
+  Columbus. He wished above all things to read, copy, and possess the
+  writings of the Romans, and especially of Cicero, an orator and writer
+  who lived in the days of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends
+  searched for the manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved,
+  hidden away in monastery libraries.
+
+  The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent large sums
+  of money in collecting and copying ancient writings. At this time a
+  beginning of the great libraries of Europe was made, Petrarch tried to
+  learn Greek, but could find no one in Italy able to teach him.
+
+GREEK BOOKS BROUGHT AGAIN TO ITALY. Shortly after Petrarch died
+  some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the aid of the pope and the
+  kings of the West in an attempt to drive back the Turks, who had already
+  crossed into Europe and settled in the lands which they now occupy.
+  Unless help should be sent to Constantinople, the city would certainly
+  fall into their hands. With these Greeks was one of those men who still
+  loved to read the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to
+  remain a few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek
+  to the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a grammar
+  of the Greek language, in order that after he had returned to
+  Constantinople others might be able to continue his teaching.
+
+  Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly as they
+  had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their agents to
+  Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar brought back to
+  Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land to which students from
+  Germany, France, and England went to learn Greek and to obtain copies of
+  Greek books. It was fortunate that so many books had been brought from
+  Constantinople, for at last, in 1453, the Turks captured that city and
+  no place in the East was left where the books of the Greeks were studied
+  as they had been at Constantinople.
+
+  [Illustration: A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+THE INVENTION OF PRINTING. After collectors of Greek and Roman
+  writings had made several good libraries, partly by purchase, partly by
+  copying manuscripts belonging to others, a great invention was made
+  which enabled these writings to be spread far and wide and placed in the
+  hands of every student. This invention was the method of printing with
+  movable types. It is not quite certain who made the invention, although
+  John Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the
+  inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the same
+  time, that is, about 1450.
+
+DIFFERENT KINDS OF TYPE. In forming their type the German printers
+  imitated the lettering made by copyists with a quill. Their type is
+  called Gothic, and it is still widely used in German books. The Italian
+  printers made their letters more round and simple in shape, imitating
+  the handwriting of the best Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in
+  which many European peoples, as also the English and the Americans,
+  print their books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which,
+  because they were the inventors, is named _italic_.
+
+THE ALDINE PRESS. One of the most famous printers of this early
+  time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci. He gathered about
+  him a number of Greeks and planned to print all the Greek manuscripts
+  that had been discovered. This he did in beautiful type, imitated from
+  the handwriting of one of his Greek friends. He sold the books for a
+  price per volume about equal to our fifty cents, so that few scholars
+  were too poor to buy.
+
+SOME EARLY PRINTED BOOKS. Another great printer was the Englishman
+  William Caxton, who learned the art in the Netherlands. Among the books
+  he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The first book printed by
+  Gutenberg was the Bible in Latin. Early in the sixteenth century,
+  through the labors of a Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the
+  German Froben, the New Testament in Greek was printed.
+
+ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. The artists and the architects of this
+  time began to imitate the buildings they found or that they unearthed.
+  They used round arches and domes more than the pointed arches and
+  vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders. Sculptors pictured in stone the
+  stories of the Greek and Roman gods and heroes. Statues long buried in
+  ancient ruins were dug up, and great artists like the Italian Michel
+  Angelo studied them and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut.
+  On every hand men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of
+  the founders of the civilized world.
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE OF PART OF CAXTON'S AENEID (REDUCED)
+  With the same in modern type]
+
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer in
+    France and Italy than in Germany and England?
+
+    2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle Ages?
+    What was the difference between a parish priest and a monk?
+
+    3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what sorts
+    of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the "keep"?
+
+    4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How was a
+    young man made a knight? What were the duties of a knight?
+
+    5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the Middle
+    Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves? What was a
+    guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their cities?
+
+    6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember Genoa?
+
+    7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow? How
+    were the changes made in the old language? Where did the English get
+    their language? Was it just like the English we speak?
+
+    8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the word
+    "university" mean then? Name two or three universities founded then
+    which still exist. What did the Arabs teach Christian students?
+
+    9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages especially like
+    to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why do we admire these
+    great churches?
+
+    10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more Roman
+    and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living and
+    thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first of
+    these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek books?
+
+    11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new
+    knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where do
+    we get our Roman and _italic_ type? What books did the Venetian
+    printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous
+    German printer.
+
+    12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance like
+    to study and imitate?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different
+    European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why are
+    they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight?
+
+    2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of castles
+    still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls.
+
+    3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from advertising
+    folders.
+
+    4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do the
+    students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle Ages?
+
+    5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect pictures
+    of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain, or Africa,
+    or Asia.
+
+    6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find
+    pictures of churches in America which resemble them.
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    _How ancient civilization was preserved_
+
+    1. What ruined so many ancient cities?
+
+    2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the
+    Romans had done?
+
+    3. What language did the churchmen continue to use?
+
+    4. How did the missionaries help?
+
+    5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the Romans
+    had known?
+
+    6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks had
+    known?
+
+    7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help in
+    preserving the ancient knowledge?
+
+    8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men of
+    Petrarch's time do?
+
+    9. What help came from the invention of printing?
+
+    10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance learn
+    about the Greeks and the Romans?
+
+    [Illustration: HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH
+    CENTURY]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES
+
+THE PERILS OF TRADERS. There was a time in the Middle Ages when
+  merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to another for fear of
+  being plundered by some robber lord or common thief. If they traveled by
+  sea they might also be attacked by robbers. Some of these robbers, like
+  the Northmen, came from afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put
+  out from near-by ports when there seemed nothing better to do.
+
+  This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great lords
+  succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the merchants armed
+  vessels of their own to drive the pirates from the sea. As trade grew
+  greater the towns became richer and stronger and the robbers and pirates
+  fewer, so that the number of merchant ships increased rapidly and long
+  voyages were attempted.
+
+FAIRS. At first trade was carried on at great fairs, held in places
+  convenient for the merchants of England and western Europe. The fairs
+  lasted about six weeks, and one fair followed another. As soon as the
+  first was over the merchants packed their unsold wares and journeyed to
+  the next. At the fairs were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks
+  from the East, skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and
+  other products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain.
+
+THE TREASURES OF THE EAST. Men in the Middle Ages were dependent
+  for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly called the East.
+  By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India, China, or the Molucca
+  Islands, where the choicest spices still grow. Spices were a great
+  luxury, and were needed to flavor the food, because the manner of
+  cooking was poor and there was little variety in the kinds of food. Most
+  of the cotton cloth, the silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also
+  procured from the East.
+
+  [Illustration: TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT]
+
+ROUTES TO THE EAST. No one knew that it was possible to reach Asia
+  by sailing around the southern point of Africa or through what is called
+  the Strait of Magellan. The products of the East were brought to Europe
+  by several routes, two reaching the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in
+  Egypt, a third at Antioch, in Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern
+  shore of the Black Sea.
+
+  The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the deserts
+  from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern India. Ships
+  from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice struggled with one
+  another for the right to bring back these precious wares and sell them
+  to the merchants of Europe, who were ready to pay high prices.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE AGES]
+
+VENETIAN TRADERS. Merchants from Germany came to Venice to trade
+  the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and silks, which they
+  carried back across the Alps. Once a year the Venetians sent a fleet of
+  vessels westward through the straits of Gibraltar and along the Atlantic
+  shore as far as Bruges and London. The voyage was long and dangerous,
+  and the Venetians traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for
+  two or three times what they cost in Venice.
+
+THE CRUSADES. One event that brought to the Venetians an
+  opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The Mohammedans had
+  long held a large part of Spain, and towards the end of the eleventh
+  century they threatened France and Italy. They also attacked what was
+  left of the Roman Empire in the East, and the emperors sent to the pope
+  and the western kings frantic appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen,
+  Germans, Englishmen, and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire
+  to go to Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy
+  City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries large
+  armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories, sometimes being
+  defeated in battle or overcome by disease.
+
+WHAT THE VENETIANS GAINED FROM THE CRUSADES. Most of the Crusaders
+  went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no ships of their own
+  they often took passage in Venetian ships. The Venetians asked large
+  sums for this, and also succeeded in obtaining all the rights of trade
+  in many of the seaports which were captured. Sometimes the Venetians
+  undertook to govern islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along
+  the coasts, but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than
+  to build up an empire.
+
+  THE NEW VENETIAN SHIPS. The Crusaders who returned to Europe brought
+  back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and their tales made other
+  men eager for them. For this reason more ships were built to sail in the
+  Mediterranean. The shipowners attempted to make their ships larger and
+  stronger. They were larger than those built by the English or by other
+  peoples along the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There
+  is an account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells us
+  that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews of one
+  thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but had a mast,
+  sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they could use if the wind
+  was favorable.
+
+  [Illustration: VENETIAN SHIPS]
+
+DANGERS OF THE SEA. One difficulty about sailing was the lack of
+  any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night, of telling the
+  direction in which they were going. The sailors did not like to venture
+  far from shore, although the open sea is safer during a storm than a
+  wind-swept and rocky coast. At the time when the sailors of the
+  Mediterranean were building up their trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and
+  the Black Sea, two instruments came into use which enabled them to tell
+  just where they were.
+
+THE COMPASS. One of these instruments was the compass, which the
+  Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs before the
+  Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle, rub its point with a
+  magnet, and lay the needle on a cork floating in water, he will have a
+  rough sort of compass. The point of the needle wherever it may be turned
+  will swing back towards the north, thus guiding the sailors.
+
+  [Illustration: MARINER'S COMPASS]
+
+  The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story that at
+  first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused to sail under
+  a captain who used it. But a century later it was in general use, and
+  had been so much improved that even in the severest storms the needle
+  remained level and pointed steadily towards the north.
+
+  [Illustration: AN ASTROLABE]
+
+THE ASTROLABE. The other instrument, called the astrolabe, was a
+  brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To this circle were fastened
+  two movable bars, at the ends of which were sights, or projecting pieces
+  pierced by a hole. The astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that
+  one bar was horizontal and the other could be moved until through its
+  sights some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on
+  the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above the
+  horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the place where
+  they were. In a similar way their longitude could be found out.
+
+  The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could be used
+  only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments it was possible
+  to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle of the fourteenth
+  century ships from Genoa and Portugal had visited the Madeira and the
+  Canary Islands, and even the Azores which are a thousand miles from
+  the mainland.
+
+WHAT MEN THOUGHT ABOUT A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Men learned more
+  about other strange lands through a Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, who
+  wrote an account of his wonderful journey to the court of the Grand
+  Khan, or Emperor of the Mongols, of his travels through China, and of
+  his return to Persia by sea.
+
+  Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was a great
+  marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in sailing around
+  Africa it would be impossible to reach the region of the spices and
+  silks and jewels which they so much desired. They also thought that the
+  heat in the tropics was so intense that at a certain distance down the
+  coast of Africa they would find the water of the ocean boiling. These
+  things and the tales of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had
+  terrified them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling.
+
+THE MONGOLS. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the court of the
+  Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were great conquerors, and
+  they not only subdued the Chinese but marched westward, overrunning most
+  of Russia and stopping only when they were on the frontiers of Italy.
+  For a long time southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital
+  was just north of the Great Wall of China.
+
+  The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to the pope for
+  missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's father and uncle while on
+  a trading expedition had found their way to his court, and on a second
+  journey, in 1271, they took with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years.
+  The emperor was much interested in his western visitors and took young
+  Marco into his service.
+
+  [Illustration: THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After an
+  old Chinese manuscript]
+
+MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS. Marco Polo traveled over China on official
+  errands, while his father and uncle were gathering wealth by trade.
+  After many years they desired to return to Italy, but the emperor was
+  unwilling to lose such able servants. It happened, however, that the
+  emperor wished to send a princess as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of
+  Persia, also a Mongol sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to
+  be trustworthy seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal
+  husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went on
+  to Italy.
+
+  They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that their
+  relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize them. It was
+  like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned to his native
+  Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by nobody. The Polos proved
+  the truth of what they said by showing the great treasures which they
+  had sewed into the dresses of coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which
+  they wore. They displayed jewels of the greatest value, diamonds,
+  emeralds, rubies, and sapphires.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS
+  The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black, and that first
+  described by Marco Polo is dotted]
+
+WHAT MARCO POLO TOLD. In the account Marco Polo wrote of his
+  travels and of the countries he had visited he described a wonderful
+  palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered with gold and
+  silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people, and its ceiling was
+  inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco Polo so large, so rich,
+  and so beautiful that no man on earth could design anything to equal it.
+  The robes of the emperor and his twelve thousand nobles and knights were
+  of silk and beaten gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with
+  precious stones.
+
+  Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in the costly
+  wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and cheap. He described
+  from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen hundred miles from the mainland.
+  Its people, he said, were white, civilized, and wondrously rich. The
+  palace of the emperor of Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and
+  floors were of solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick.
+
+REASONS FOR FINDING A SEA ROUTE TO THE EAST. Tales of such great
+  wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach the East. Marco Polo
+  had shown that it was possible to sail past India, through the islands,
+  to the eastern coast of Asia. When printing was invented his account was
+  printed, and the copy of that book which Columbus owned is still
+  preserved. Upon its margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about
+  geography.
+
+  Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales of the
+  East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the land was lost,
+  because the Mongol emperors were driven out of China and the new rulers
+  would not permit Europeans to enter the country. The ordinary caravan
+  routes to the East were also closed not long afterwards. In 1453 the
+  Turks captured Constantinople, drove away the Italian merchants, and
+  prevented European sailors from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years
+  later the Turks seized Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately
+  before this happened a better route had been discovered.
+
+THE PORTUGUESE SAILORS. During the Middle Ages the Portuguese princes
+  fought to recover Portugal from the Moors. When this was done they were
+  eager to cross the straits and attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry
+  of Portugal made an expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to
+  know more about the coast south of the point beyond which European
+  sailors dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea
+  of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics.
+
+  [Illustration: DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old
+  picture]
+
+  From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been called "The
+  Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely promontory in southern
+  Portugal, and gathered about him learned men of all peoples, Arabian and
+  Jewish mathematicians, and Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this
+  new school of seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to
+  sail farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had
+  gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed Cape
+  Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without suffering
+  the fate which men had once feared. But they were discouraged when they
+  found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the coast turned southward again,
+  for they had hoped to sail eastward to Asia.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA
+  The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East. The solid line
+  shows the new Portuguese route]
+
+CAPE OF GOOD HOPE DISCOVERED. At last in 1487 the end of what
+  seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate captain who
+  accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a family of daring
+  seamen. He had been sailing southward along the coast for nearly eight
+  months, when a northerly gale drove him before it for thirteen days. The
+  weather cleared and Diaz turned eastward to find the coast. As he did
+  not see land he turned northward and soon discovered land to the west.
+  This showed that he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew
+  were unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the
+  western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of Storms, but
+  the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned, named it the Cape of
+  Good Hope, for now he knew that an expedition could be sent directly to
+  the Indies.
+
+  Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was the most
+  wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about.
+
+THE SEA ROUTE TO INDIA. Eleven years later the Portuguese king sent
+  Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt to reach the coast of India
+  by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da
+  Gama was successful and landed at Calicut on the south-western coast of
+  India. He returned to Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty
+  times the cost of the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the
+  East which enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon.
+
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who traveled
+    by sea or land? What was a fair?
+
+    2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes? Point
+    these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in Italy? How did
+    the Venetians get their wares to London?
+
+    3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the Mohammedans? What
+    did the Venetian traders gain by these wars? Describe a large
+    Venetian ship of this time.
+
+    4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail great
+    seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe was made.
+
+    5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern Asia?
+    Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he return to
+    Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had visited?
+
+    6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to Asia? What
+    did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How was the Cape of
+    Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this voyage?
+
+    7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the
+    voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must have
+    been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the Moluccas, or
+    China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or London?
+
+    2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves?
+
+    3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China? Where
+    has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols. Collect
+    pictures of China and Japan.
+
+    4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo.
+
+    5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of Portugal.
+    Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United States.
+
+
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    _Steps Towards the Discovery of America_
+
+    Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain.
+
+    Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain.
+
+    Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland.
+
+    Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages to
+    London and Bruges.
+
+    Marco Polo's travels in China and the East.
+
+    Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape of
+    Good Hope.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD
+
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Six years before Vasco da Gama made his
+  famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new trade route for
+  the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had formed and carried out a
+  much bolder plan. This was Christopher Columbus, and his plan was to
+  sail directly west from Europe into the unknown ocean in search of new
+  islands and the coast of Asia. Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in
+  Italy, had followed his younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably
+  led there by the fame of Prince Henry's explorations.
+
+  The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for the
+  Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their expeditions
+  along the coast of Africa. All the early associations of Columbus were
+  with men interested in voyages of discovery, and particularly with those
+  engaged in the daring search for a sea route to India.
+
+HOW COLUMBUS FORMED HIS PLAN. Columbus gathered all the information
+  on geography which he could from ancient writers and from modern
+  discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was shaped like a
+  ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned, why might not a ship
+  sail around it from east to west? Or, better, why not sail directly west
+  to India, and perhaps find many wonderful islands between Europe and
+  Asia? His imagination was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the
+  marvelous riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of
+  going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly
+  boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most men of
+  the fifteenth century to be madness.
+
+  [Illustration: CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS The oldest known picture of
+  Columbus, in the National Library, Madrid]
+
+HIS NOTION OF THE DISTANCE TO ASIA. Columbus made two fortunate
+  errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He imagined that Asia
+  extended much farther eastward than it actually does, making it nearer
+  Europe, and estimated the earth to be smaller than it is. His figures
+  placed Japan less than 3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead
+  of the 12,000 miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought
+  Japan would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated.
+
+HOW HE SECURED HELP. Even so, many years passed before Columbus was
+  able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself, and needed the help
+  of some government to fit out such an expedition. He may have tried to
+  get his native city, Genoa, to help him. There is such a story. If he
+  did, it was without success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal,
+  where he lived a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in
+  the discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the
+  same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to
+  undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise.
+
+  The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him waiting
+  many years for an answer. They thought that they had more important work
+  in hand. There was another king in Spain at the time, the king of the
+  Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the Christian king and queen, were trying
+  to conquer the Moors, and thus to end the struggle between Christians
+  and Mohammedans for the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly
+  eight centuries. This war required all the strength and revenue
+  of Spain.
+
+  Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly discouraged, the
+  war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the seat of their former
+  power, was finally taken in January, 1492. Now was a good time to ask
+  favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and to plan large enterprises for the
+  future. Powerful friends aided Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen
+  Isabella was persuaded to promise him all the help that he needed.
+
+THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. Three ships, or caravels as they were
+  called, were fitted out. The _Santa Maria_ was the largest of the three,
+  but it was not much larger than the small sailing yachts which we see
+  to-day. It was about ninety feet long by twenty feet broad, and had a
+  single deck. This was Columbus's principal ship or flagship. The second
+  caravel, the _Pinta_, was much swifter, built high at the prow and
+  stern, and furnished with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the
+  officers, but without a deck in the center. The third and smallest
+  caravel, called the _Nina_, the Spanish word for baby, was built much
+  like the _Pinta_. Ninety persons made up the three crews.
+
+  [Illustration: COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC The shaded portions
+  represent the land as Columbus expected to find it. The light outline
+  of the Americas shows the actual position of the land as he found it.]
+
+  The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the shores
+  of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never gone far out
+  into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller vessels in a voyage of
+  discovery, because they would be able to run close to the shores and
+  into the smaller harbors and up the rivers.
+
+BEGINNING OF THE VOYAGE. The expedition set sail from Palos in
+  Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary Islands. These
+  were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus as the most
+  convenient starting-point. The little fleet was delayed three weeks at
+  the islands making repairs. On September 6 Columbus was off again. He
+  struck due west from the Canaries.
+
+THE TERRORS OF THE VOYAGE. While the little fleet was still in
+  sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly frightened the
+  sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an event an omen of evil.
+  But the expedition had fine weather day after day. Steady, gentle,
+  easterly winds, the trade winds of the tropics, wafted them slowly
+  westward. But the timid sailors began to wonder how they would ever be
+  able to return against winds which seemed never to change from the east.
+
+  Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area than the
+  whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared they might be
+  driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in quicksands. They imagined, too,
+  that great sea-monsters were lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to
+  devour them.
+
+  [Illustration: A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS After the reconstructed
+  model exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893]
+
+THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NEW LAND. In spite of fears and complaints,
+  and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward course for more than
+  four weeks. Then as he began to see so many birds flying to the
+  southwest, he concluded that land must be nearer in that direction. He
+  had heard that most of the islands held by the Portuguese were
+  discovered by following the flight of birds. So on October 7 the
+  westward course was changed to one slightly southwest.
+
+  From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating branches,
+  occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits of cane, were
+  encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers became common sights.
+  The Queen had promised a small pension to the one who should first see
+  land. Columbus had offered to give a silken doublet in addition. With
+  what eagerness the sailors must have kept on the lookout!
+
+THE GREAT DISCOVERY. At last as the fleet was sailing onward in the
+  bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if carried by hand along
+  a shore. A few hours later, about two o'clock on the morning of October
+  12, a sailor on the _Pinta_ saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a
+  few miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for
+  daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they approached
+  the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus named it San
+  Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know which one of the
+  Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it was the one now called
+  Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with the royal standard and banners
+  flying to take possession of the land in the name of King Ferdinand and
+  Queen Isabella.
+
+WHERE COLUMBUS THOUGHT HE WAS. The astonished inhabitants of the
+  island soon gathered to see the strange sight--the landing of white men
+  in the West Indies. They looked upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the
+  white men as gods. Nor was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The
+  people were a strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and
+  painted to suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of
+  self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that chattered in
+  the trees above them. Such savages bore little resemblance to the people
+  whom Marco Polo said inhabited the Spice Islands.
+
+  Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not far from
+  Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas satisfied him that he
+  was in the ocean near the coast of Asia, for had not Marco Polo
+  described it as studded with thousands of spice-bearing islands? He had
+  not found any spices, but the air was full of fragrance and the trees
+  and herbs were strange in appearance. Of course if the islands were the
+  Indies, the people must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and
+  this name clung to the red men, although their islands were not the
+  true Indies.
+
+  [Illustration: WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST LANDED]
+
+THE SEARCH FOR THE GOLDEN EAST. Columbus thought that the natives
+  meant to tell him in their sign language of a great land to the south
+  where gold abounded. He set off in search of this, and came upon a land
+  the natives called Cuba. Its large size convinced him that he had at
+  last found the Asiatic mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew
+  knowing many languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found
+  neither cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great
+  disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search for the
+  riches which he expected to find.
+
+THE MISFORTUNES OF COLUMBUS. While on the coast of Cuba, Pinzon,
+  the commander of the _Pinta_, deserted him. Pinzon, whose ship was
+  swifter than the others, probably wished to be the first to get home, in
+  order to tell a story which would gain him the credit of the discovery
+  of the Indies. A few days later Columbus discovered a large island which
+  the natives called Hayti, and which he called Espanola or "Spanish
+  Land." At every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco
+  Polo had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Espanola Columbus's
+  own ship, the _Santa Maria_, was totally wrecked. Such disasters
+  convinced him that it was high time to return to Spain with the news of
+  his discovery.
+
+PREPARATIONS FOR RETURN TO SPAIN. As there was not room for both
+  crews on the tiny _Nina_, his one remaining ship, it became necessary to
+  leave about forty sailors in Espanola. A fort was built, and supplies
+  were left for a year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to
+  Spain. Ten Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his
+  friends in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the
+  language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their people.
+
+THE SEARCH FOR CHINA RENEWED. There was rejoicing in Palos when the
+  voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon Columbus. It was now
+  easy to get men and money for another voyage. In September, 1493,
+  Columbus started to return to his islands, this time with seventeen
+  ships and fifteen hundred men, all confident that they would soon see
+  the marble palaces of China, and secure a share in the wealth of the
+  Spice Islands. No one yet realized that a new world--two great
+  continents--lay between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus
+  went directly to Espanola, where he found that his colony of the
+  previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new settlement was
+  quickly started. A little town called Isabella was built, with a fort, a
+  church, a market place, public granary, and dwelling-houses. Isabella
+  was the first real settlement in the New World.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS]
+
+OTHER VOYAGES TO THE NEW WORLD. Columbus made two other voyages. He
+  continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he believed to be near.
+  He made a third voyage from Spain to the West Indies in 1498. He sailed
+  farther south, and came upon the mainland which later was called South
+  America. A fourth expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call
+  Central America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he
+  had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the coast
+  of Asia.
+
+THE SAD END OF COLUMBUS'S LIFE. The close of his life was a sad
+  one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches which he had
+  expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the islands had
+  rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely before the king
+  and queen of misgovernment in his territories. Once his opponents had
+  him carried to Spain chained like a common prisoner. He was given his
+  liberty on reaching Spain, but the people had become prejudiced
+  against him.
+
+  Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his brother
+  Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to pass a crowd
+  of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them with hoots: "There go
+  the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who has discovered a
+  land of vanity and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships
+  and disappointments broke down the great discoverer, and he died
+  neglected and almost forgotten by the people of Spain.
+
+  [Illustration: THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA]
+
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the plan Diaz
+    had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama carried out a few
+    years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz desire to find a sea
+    route to India? Had anybody before Columbus believed the
+    earth round?
+
+    2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of the
+    earth? Why was this a fortunate error?
+
+    3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why did he
+    find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain finally favored
+    his cause? Who were the Moors?
+
+    4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the West
+    Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised?
+
+    5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his first
+    voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands did he
+    find on his later voyages? What did he think he had found?
+
+    6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the Admiral of
+    Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity and deceit,
+    the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by this?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing ships of
+    other explorers of that day. How does the deck arrangement on those
+    differ from the ocean steamships of to-day? What advantage would
+    ships like those of Columbus have over present steamships in
+    exploring strange coasts? What disadvantages?
+
+    2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were afraid to
+    go on and wished to turn back to Spain.
+
+    3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where
+    Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and China.
+    What great mass of land was really very near the island he first
+    discovered?
+
+    4. Find from the maps mentioned in Chapter IV (Greek World), Chapter
+    VII (Roman World), Chapter VIII (The world after Polo's journey),
+    and Chapter XIV (The world as known after Columbus), how much more
+    the Romans knew of the world than the Greeks had known, the
+    Europeans after Marco Polo's journey than the Romans, and the
+    Europeans after Columbus's voyage than after Marco Polo's journey.
+
+    _Important Date_--1492. The discovery of America by Columbus.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+
+OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD
+
+THE RACE TO THE INDIES. The discovery of all the lands which make
+  what we call the New World came very slowly. It was the work of many
+  different explorers. Most of the expeditions sent out to the new islands
+  went in search of a passage to India. It was a fine race. Each nation
+  was eager to see its ships the first to reach India by the westward
+  route. All were disappointed at finding so much land between Europe and
+  Asia. It seemed to them to be of little value and to block the way to
+  the richer countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered
+  the great continents which we know as North and South America. Columbus
+  had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a turning-point
+  in history.
+
+JOHN CABOT. John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time in the
+  service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of discovery. This
+  was five years after Columbus discovered the West Indies. Cabot had
+  heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain had occupied unknown
+  islands. He planned to do the same for King Henry VII of England. For
+  his voyage he had a single vessel no larger than the _Nina_, the
+  smallest ship in the fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew.
+  He passed around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west
+  until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North America
+  somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the southern end of
+  Nova Scotia.
+
+CABOT'S DISCOVERY. John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but he found
+  notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making nets, which
+  showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human beings. Like
+  Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of China.
+
+THE CABOT VOYAGES FORGOTTEN. Before the end of 1497 John Cabot was
+  back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and his son, Sebastian
+  Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found lands in the following
+  year. The Cabot voyages, however, were soon almost forgotten by the
+  people of England.
+
+  [Illustration: SEBASTIAN CABOT After the picture ascribed to
+  Holbein]
+
+THE NAMING OF THE NEW LANDS. Why was our country named America
+  rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and northern
+  continents which we call the Americas were named for Americus Vespucius
+  rather than for Christopher Columbus. This seems the more strange since
+  we know so little about the life of Americus. Americus Vespucius was
+  born in Florence, Italy, and like many other young Italians of that day
+  entered the service of neighboring countries. He went to Spain and
+  accompanied several Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new
+  continent which Columbus had discovered on his third voyage.
+
+  Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the leader in any
+  expedition. But he seems to have written to his friends interesting
+  accounts of what he had seen. In one of these letters Americus seems to
+  have written boastfully of how he had found lands which might be called
+  a new world. He said that the new continent was more populous and more
+  full of animals than Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate
+  was even more temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was
+  clearly a new world.
+
+WHY AMERICUS WAS REGARDED AS THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA. The
+  statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the newly
+  invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so could be read
+  by the learned of all countries. They were impressed by the belief of
+  Americus that he had seen a new world and not simply the Indies. This
+  was especially true of men living outside of Spain who had heard little
+  of Columbus or his discovery.
+
+  Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery was a way to
+  the Indies and the finding of islands on the way thither less important.
+  Besides, when he saw what we call South America he had no idea that it
+  was a new world. The people of Europe either never knew that he had
+  discovered the mainland or had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a
+  great deal about Americus and his doings. It is not strange that
+  Americus rather than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer
+  of America.
+
+TWO NAMES FOR THE NEW LANDS. Even then the new continent might not
+  have been called America but for the suggestion of a young scholar of
+  the time. Martin Waldseemueller, a professor of geography at the college
+  of St. Die, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography. In his
+  description of the parts of the world unknown to the ancients, he
+  suggested naming the continent stretching to the south for Americus.
+
+  [Illustration: FACSIMILE Of the passage in the _Cosmographia
+  Introductio_ (1507), by Martin Waldseemueller, in which the name of
+  America is proposed for the New World.]
+
+
+    The facsimile's transcription reads as follows:
+
+    Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta
+    pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa
+    est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore
+    sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam
+    dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint
+    nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi
+    navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur.
+
+
+  Waldseemueller thought Americus had been the real discoverer of this
+  continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these regions are more widely
+  explored, and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus
+  Vespucius, I do not see why any one may justly forbid it to be named
+  Amerige--that is, Americ's Land, from Americus, the discoverer."
+
+  Others adopted Waldseemueller's suggestion and the name America came into
+  general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards continued to call all
+  the new lands by the name which Columbus had given them--the Indies.
+  America was at first the name for South America only, but later was also
+  used by writers for the other continent which was soon found to the
+  north. It was natural to distinguish the two continents as South and
+  North America.
+
+BALBOA. The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless search for
+  the real Indies, but the more they explored the more they saw that a
+  great continental barrier was lying across the sea passage to Asia. A
+  few began to suspect that after all America was not a part of Asia.
+  Vasco Nunez Balboa was one of these. Balboa was a planter who had
+  settled in Espanola. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his
+  creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a vessel
+  bound for the northern coast of South America. From there he went to the
+  eastern border of Panama with a party of gold seekers. The Indians told
+  him of a great sea and of an abundance of gold on its shores to be found
+  a short distance across the isthmus. It is probable that the Indians
+  wished to get rid of the Spaniards as neighbors.
+
+  [Illustration: VASCO NUNEZ BALBOA]
+
+BALBOA'S DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. Balboa resolved to make a name
+  for himself and to be the discoverer of the other sea. He set off in
+  1513. The land is not more than forty-five miles wide at Panama, but it
+  is almost impassable even to this day. For twenty-two days the hardy
+  adventurers advanced through a forest, dense with thickets and tangled
+  swamps and interlacing vines--so thick that for days the sun could not
+  be seen--and over rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to
+  an open sea stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the
+  South Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given it
+  afterward.
+
+  Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of land was
+  comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that North America, too,
+  was narrower than it proved to be, and the search for the passage to the
+  Indies was pushed with greater vigor.
+
+MAGELLAN. A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had really won the
+  race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and Columbus for India, the land
+  of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He had won in 1497 by going around the
+  Cape of Good Hope. Another explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally,
+  reached the Indies in a long westward voyage lasting two years, from
+  1519 to 1521.
+
+  [Illustration: FERDINAND MAGELLAN]
+
+THE BEGINNING OF MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE. Magellan, himself a Portuguese,
+  tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of Portugal to aid him
+  in his project. He succeeded better in Spain, and sailed from there in
+  1519 with a small fleet given him by the young king Charles. The five
+  ships in his fleet were old and in bad repair, and the crews had been
+  brought together from every nation. They sailed directly to South
+  America, and spent the first year searching every inlet along the coast
+  for a passage.
+
+  [Illustration: THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN]
+
+  They found that the natives of South America used for food vegetables
+  that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts." The Indians called
+  them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of the great foods of
+  to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter was passed on the cold
+  and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan called the natives "Patagones,"
+  the word in his language meaning big feet, from the large foot-prints
+  which they left on the sand.
+
+THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. Magellan finally found a strait, since
+  named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed his ships through it
+  amid the greatest dangers. The change from the rough waters of the
+  strait to the calm sea beyond made the word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem
+  the most suitable name for the vast body of water which they
+  had entered.
+
+THE FIRST VOYAGE ACROSS THE PACIFIC. From the western coast of
+  South America Magellan struck boldly out into the Pacific Ocean on his
+  way to Asia. The crews suffered untold hardships. The very rats which
+  overran the rotten ships became a luxurious article of food which only
+  the more fortunate members of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen
+  lived for days on the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These
+  were soaked in sea-water and roasted over the fire.
+
+  Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam, where
+  plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of small islands,
+  of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his word for robbers, used
+  because the natives were such robbers. The expedition discovered a group
+  of islands afterwards called the Philippines. There Magellan fell in
+  with traders from the Indies and knew that the remainder of the voyage
+  would be through well-known seas and over a route frequently followed.
+  Poor Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was
+  killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the natives.
+
+  [Illustration: AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523 After
+  Magellan's voyage, but before the exploration of North America had
+  gone far]
+
+  Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice Islands,
+  across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and so back to
+  Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons of cloves, worth more
+  than enough to pay the whole cost of the expedition. Such was the value
+  of the trade Europe was so eagerly seeking.
+
+WHAT MAGELLAN HAD SHOWN THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE. Magellan's voyage
+  had, however, been a great event. Historians are agreed that it was the
+  greatest voyage in the history of mankind. It had shown in a practical
+  way that the earth is a globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had
+  long taught, for a ship had sailed completely around it.
+
+  But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not dreamed. He
+  had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay between Europe and
+  Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which the Spanish explorers had
+  found, and which other people were beginning to call the Americas, were
+  really a new world entirely separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia
+  as Columbus had thought.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at finding two
+    continents between Europe and Asia?
+
+    2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this land
+    was? Why did the English people take little interest in this voyage?
+
+    3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that Americus
+    Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did the Spaniards
+    continue to call the new region? Why did the Spaniards have one name
+    and the other Europeans another name for a long time?
+
+    4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men search
+    for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more vigorously
+    after Balboa's expedition?
+
+    5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in
+    history? What three things had Magellan shown the European world?
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter who
+    helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite the
+    name of each the name of the land he discovered.
+
+    2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map and make a list of the lands
+    or countries he passed. Look at the map of North America on this old
+    map, and at the one in mentioned Chapter XIX. How do you account for
+    the queer shape of North America on the old map?
+
+    _Important date_--1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage
+    around the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+
+EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND
+
+THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MEXICAN INDIANS. Early Spanish explorers on
+  the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the mainland more highly
+  civilized than the natives of the West Indies. Some of these, especially
+  the Aztecs, lived in large villages or cities and were ruled by powerful
+  chiefs or kings. They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers
+  several stories in height.
+
+  Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the Spanish had
+  seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and coated with hard white
+  plaster. Some of them were of immense size and could hold many families.
+  Doors had not been invented, but hangings of woven grass or matting of
+  cotton served instead. Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle
+  answered for door-bells.
+
+  The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved with a sort
+  of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like the old Roman
+  aqueducts, although not so large, carried water from the neighboring
+  hills for fountains and rude public baths.
+
+  The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their families. Workmen
+  made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils and dishes of pottery
+  for every-day use. The people cultivated the fields around the cities,
+  raising a great variety of foods, and even built ditches to carry water
+  for irrigating the fields. All this was in striking contrast with the
+  simple habits of the West Indians.
+
+  [Illustration: AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE Now in the National
+  Museum in the City of Mexico]
+
+CRUEL CUSTOMS OF THE AZTECS. With all the good features of Mexican
+  life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over the other Indians,
+  there was much that was hideous and cruel. The Aztecs, the most powerful
+  tribes, were continually at war with their neighbors. They lived mainly
+  upon the plunder of their enemies and the tribute which they took from
+  those they had conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly
+  idols as gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives
+  taken in war as human sacrifices.
+
+SPANISH IDEAS OF MEXICO. The reports of the Aztec civilization and
+  of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited the interest and greed
+  of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the China which Marco Polo had
+  described, and might offer a chance of immense wealth for those who
+  should conquer it. In truth, Mexican civilization did resemble that of
+  Asia more than anything that the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a
+  powerful chief or king of the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol
+  Emperor of Persia or China.
+
+  [Illustration: MONTEZUMA, THE LAST KING OF MEXICO After Montanus
+  and Ogilby]
+
+CORTES. In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent Hernando Cortes to
+  explore and conquer Mexico. The expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now
+  situated. The ships were then sunk in order to cut off all hope of
+  retreat for the soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cortes, "were
+  means of retreat necessary!" Cortes, with great skill, worked up the
+  zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All thought it
+  a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the practice of offering
+  human sacrifices, and to force the Christian religion upon the natives.
+
+  The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of Mexico, which
+  was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom. Cortes and his men had learned
+  the Indian mode of fighting from ambush, and also how successfully to
+  match cunning and treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent
+  his invasion of their country.
+
+HOW THE SPANIARDS AND THE AZTECS FOUGHT. The Mexican warriors,
+  though they fought fiercely, were no match for the Spaniards. The
+  Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow, using arrows pointed with
+  a hard kind of stone. They carried for hand-to-hand fighting a narrow
+  club set with a double edge of razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind
+  of armor made from quilted cotton. But such things were useless against
+  Spanish bullets shot from afar.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ARMOR OF CORTES After an engraving of the
+  original in the National Museum, Madrid]
+
+  The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick armor and
+  shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the Spanish leaders were
+  mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly appearance to the
+  simple-minded Indians. The story is told that the Mexicans believed that
+  one of their gods had once floated out to sea, saying that, in the
+  fulness of time, he would return with fair-skinned companions to begin
+  again his rule over his people. Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of
+  the white men as the return of this god and thought that resistance
+  would be useless. Such natives sent presents, made their peace with
+  Cortes, and so weakened the opposition to the conquerors.
+
+CORTES IN PERIL. Cortes easily entered the City of Mexico, and
+  forced Montezuma to resign. But here the natives attacked his army in
+  such numbers that he had to retreat to escape capture. The Spaniards
+  fled from the city at night amid the onslaught of the inhabitants
+  fighting for their religion and their homes.
+
+  [Illustration: CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORTES After Van Menken.
+  There are in the naval museum at Annapolis guns captured in the Mexican
+  War supposed to be those used by Cortes]
+
+  The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cortes started in the
+  evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000 Indian allies, and 80
+  horses. There were left in the morning 500 soldiers, 2,000 allies, and
+  20 horses. Cortes is said to have buried his face in his hands and wept
+  for his lost followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking
+  Mexico. He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to
+  return to the attack on the capital city.
+
+CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MEXICO. The siege which followed, lasting
+  nearly three months, has rarely been matched in history for the bravery
+  and suffering of the natives. The fighting was constant and terrible.
+  The fresh water supply was cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and
+  famine aided the invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and
+  Cortes entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the Aztecs. A
+  greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse and rebuild the
+  City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish civilization, and Mexico a
+  New Spain. By such work Cortes showed that he could be not only a great
+  conqueror, but also an able ruler in time of peace.
+
+  [Illustration: THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS
+  From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus]
+
+PIZARRO. A few years after Cortes conquered Mexico a second army
+  conquered another famous Indian kingdom. Francisco Pizarro commanded
+  this expedition, which set out from Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been
+  with Balboa at the discovery of the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and,
+  like his master, had become interested in the stories the Indians told
+  of a rich kingdom far to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians
+  described was that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The
+  Spaniards called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by
+  softening the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a
+  native Indian chieftain.
+
+  [Illustration: A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S
+  It is more than eight feet high and five feet across, and was dug up in
+  the central square of the City of Mexico more than one hundred
+  years ago]
+
+CONQUEST OF PERU. Pizarro found the Incas divided as usual by civil
+  wars and incapable of much resistance. One of their rival chiefs was
+  outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro by a trick, and was himself
+  made a prisoner instead. He offered to give Pizarro in return for his
+  freedom as much gold as would fill his prison room as high as he could
+  reach. The offer was accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases,
+  plates, images, and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian
+  idols, was gathered together.
+
+  The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost $7,000,000
+  worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As much more was taken
+  from the Indians by force. The whole was divided among the conquerors.
+  Pizarro's share was worth nearly a million dollars. But the poor chief
+  who had made them suddenly rich was suspected of plotting to have his
+  warriors ambush them as they left the country, was tried by his
+  conquerors, and put to death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over.
+  Peru, like Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement.
+  Emigrants, instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of
+  going on into the newer regions which Cortes and Pizarro had won.
+
+EMIGRANTS TO SPANISH AMERICA. It was much harder in the sixteenth
+  century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is today. The first
+  and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in getting permission to leave
+  Spain. No one could go who had not secured the king's consent. The
+  emigrant must show that neither he nor his father nor his grandfather
+  had ever been guilty of heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had
+  been steadfast Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give
+  her consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of Spain
+  could not secure permits to move to the New World. Foreigners of
+  whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and were usually kept
+  out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly for Spaniards.
+
+HARDSHIPS OF THE SEA VOYAGE. Those who did go to the colonies found
+  the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has related that it cost
+  him about one hundred and eighty dollars for the passage, and that he
+  provided his own chickens and bread. The danger to sailing ships from
+  storms was much greater than it is today for steamships. The voyage
+  required three or four weeks and not uncommonly as many months.
+
+THE NEED OF LABORERS. The hardships and dangers of the voyage and
+  the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept most people from
+  going to the New World. Emigration was slow, amounting to about a
+  thousand a year. There were always fewer capable white laborers than the
+  landowners in the colonies needed for their work, for there was much to
+  do in clearing the land and preparing it for use. The landowners were
+  usually well-to-do Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields
+  themselves. A great many of the laborers who migrated to America served
+  in the army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The
+  craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm
+  laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies, during the
+  early history of the colonies, made slaves of the Indians and compelled
+  them to take the place of the laborers they needed and could not obtain.
+
+INDIAN SLAVERY. The people of Europe thought that the whole world
+  belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians, whether Indian or
+  negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity or of being made slaves.
+  The choice of Christianity did not always save them from the fate of
+  slavery. In this the Spaniards were no more cruel than their neighbors
+  the English or the French. The Spanish planters from the beginning
+  forced the Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work
+  in their mines.
+
+  The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the Indian
+  unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves did not do the
+  tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful quarters rapidly
+  broke down the natives. The white men also brought into the island
+  diseases which they, with their greater experience, could resist, but
+  from which, one writer says, the Indians died like sheep with a
+  distemper.
+
+  [Illustration: A SPANISH GALLEON Ships like this carried the
+  Spanish emigrants to America]
+
+SLAVERY DESTROYS THE WEST INDIANS. When the number of the Indians
+  in Espanola and Cuba had decreased so much that there were not enough
+  left to meet the needs of the planters, slave-hunters searched the
+  neighboring islands for others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly
+  gone, and the planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves,
+  the king of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he
+  did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same purpose,
+  and the change merely meant that negroes took the place of Indians as
+  slaves. The story of the change is in great part the story of the life
+  of Bartholomew de Las Casas.
+
+LAS CASAS. The father of Las Casas was a companion of Columbus on
+  his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain, taking with him a young
+  Indian slave whom he gave to his son. This youth became greatly
+  interested in the race to which his young slave belonged. In 1502 he
+  went to Espanola to take possession of his father's estate. The
+  planter's life did not long satisfy him and finally he became a priest.
+  He moved from Espanola to Cuba, the newer colony.
+
+  Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and gave his
+  own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the abuses of
+  slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves, and secured many
+  reforms which lessened the hardships of their lot. Since the planters
+  demanded more laborers and Las Casas thought the negro would be hardier
+  than the Indian, he advocated negro slavery in place of Indian slavery
+  as the less of two evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his
+  king, Charles V, to put an end to Indian slavery of every form.
+
+  His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West Indies.
+  They had decreased until almost none were left. It is said that there
+  were two hundred thousand Indians in Espanola in 1492, and that in 1548
+  there were barely five hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken
+  place in the other islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to
+  save the Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless
+  islanders.
+
+NEGRO SLAVERY. Las Casas later regretted that he had advised the
+  planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the Indians. Some
+  negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the coast of Africa
+  during their explorations and taken to Europe as slaves. Columbus
+  carried a few of these to the West Indies with him, and others had
+  followed his example, but negro slavery had grown very slowly until
+  after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery, when it increased rapidly in
+  Spanish America.
+
+  [Illustration: LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in the
+  Academy, Mexico. Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to
+  shield the natives from Spanish cruelty]
+
+THE MISSIONS OF THE MAINLAND. Las Casas became at one time a
+  missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors located on the
+  southern border of Mexico, in a region called by the Spaniards the "Land
+  of War." Three times a Spanish army had invaded the country, and three
+  times it had been driven back by the native defenders. Las Casas wished
+  to show the Spaniards that more could be accomplished by treating the
+  Indians kindly than by bloody warfare and conquest.
+
+  He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of the
+  Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as Christian
+  teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won the friendship
+  of the Indians in time and changed the land of constant warfare into one
+  of peace. They led the natives to destroy their idols and to give up
+  cannibalism. The mission established among them and kept up by the monks
+  who were attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up
+  on the mainland.
+
+THE WORK OF THE MISSIONS. Influenced by the work of Las Casas
+  against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the Spaniards bent their
+  efforts to preserve and Christianize the natives wherever they came upon
+  them in America. Catholic priests gathered the Indians into permanent
+  villages, which were called missions. Within about one hundred years
+  after the death of Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000
+  Indians in such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to
+  build better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen
+  practices.
+
+  Every mission became a little industrial school for children and parents
+  alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and trades and the customs
+  and language of their teachers. Each Indian cultivated his own plot of
+  land and worked two hours a day on the farm belonging to the village.
+  The produce of the village farm supported the church. The monks or
+  friars who had charge of the mission cared for the poor, taught in the
+  schools, preserved the peace and order of the village, and looked after
+  the religious welfare of all.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE]
+
+  Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations, and
+  planters established farms around them, and they became Spanish villages
+  in every respect like those in the islands or in the Old World, except
+  that many inhabitants in the towns on the mainland were Indians. The
+  emigrants freely intermarried with the Indians and a mixed race took the
+  place of the old inhabitants. The customs, language, religion, and rule
+  of Spain prevailed in this New Spain, though in some ways the new
+  civilization was not so good as that of the Old World.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did they
+    differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly anxious to
+    conquer Mexico?
+
+    2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards? How
+    many soldiers and Indian allies did Cortes lose in one battle? How
+    long did it take Cortes to conquer Mexico?
+
+    3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later? By
+    whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors, Cortes
+    and Pizarro, in their expeditions?
+
+    4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the West
+    Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians and begin
+    making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in this change?
+
+    5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish Missions
+    accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian tribes
+    in Mexico?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and
+    occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United States,
+    or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or from some
+    neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the Aztecs in these
+    respects or the West Indians?
+
+    2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four hundred
+    years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find out who
+    may not come into the United States to-day. What did it cost one
+    traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century? Find out the
+    cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How long did it take
+    to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length of a voyage from
+    Europe to-day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+
+THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA
+
+PONCE DE LEON. While men like Cortes were exploring and conquering
+  the countries on the west shore of the Gulf of Mexico, others began to
+  search the vast regions to the north. One of these explorers was Ponce
+  de Leon, who had come to Espanola with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards
+  spent many years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood
+  from something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond the
+  Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if he
+  bathed in it.
+
+  [Illustration: PONCE DE LEON]
+
+  As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search of this
+  wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where flowers grew in
+  great abundance. It was the Easter season in 1513. Since the Spanish
+  call this season _Pascua Florida_ or Flowery Easter, Ponce called the
+  new flowery country Florida. He went ashore near the present site of St.
+  Augustine, and later, while trying to establish a settlement, lost his
+  life in a battle with the Indians.
+
+EXPLORATIONS OF NORTH AMERICAN COAST. Other Spanish explorers
+  between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast from Florida to Vera
+  Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to Labrador. They sought
+  continually for a passage to India. Every large inlet was entered, for
+  it might prove to be the long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of
+  North America took shape on the maps of that time. Two famous
+  expeditions into the interior of the country did much to enlarge this
+  knowledge. One was made by De Soto through the region which now forms
+  seven southern states of the United States, and the other was by
+  Coronado through the great southwest.
+
+  [Illustration: HERNANDO DE SOTO]
+
+DE SOTO. Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in Spain, had won
+  fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of Spain, to reward his
+  bravery and skill in conquering Indians, made him Governor of Cuba. In
+  those days the Governor of Cuba controlled Florida. It was a larger
+  Florida than the present state of that name, for Spanish Florida
+  included the whole north coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into
+  the continent without any definite boundary.
+
+THE STORY OF THE GILDED MAN. De Soto had heard a fanciful story of
+  a country so rich in gold that its king was smeared every morning with
+  gum and then thickly sprinkled with powdered gold, which was washed off
+  at night. De Soto thought this country might be somewhere in Florida,
+  and prepared to search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language
+  _El Dorado._
+
+THE COMRADES OF DE SOTO. More than six hundred men, some of them
+  from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain and Portugal, flocked
+  to De Soto's banner. They sold their possessions at home and ventured
+  all their wealth in the hope of obtaining great riches in Florida.
+
+DE SOTO'S ROUTE THROUGH THE SOUTH OF NORTH AMERICA. De Soto crossed
+  from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and advanced northward
+  by land to an Indian village near Apalachee Bay. Here he spent the first
+  winter. A white man, whom the Indians had taken captive twelve years
+  before and finally adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an
+  interpreter.
+
+  [Illustration: SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY]
+
+  In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a journey
+  into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed northeasterly through
+  the country now within Georgia and South Carolina, as far, perhaps, as
+  the border of North Carolina. From here it passed through the mountains,
+  and turned southwesterly through Tennessee and Alabama until a large
+  Indian village called Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of
+  Mobile Bay. Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The
+  Alabama Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by.
+  Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the
+  unknown interior.
+
+THE HARDSHIPS OF THE JOURNEY. His army was almost exhausted by the
+  difficulties of the journey. A road had to be cut and broken through
+  thickets and forest, paths had to be made through the many swamps, and
+  fords found across the rivers. It frequently became necessary to stop
+  for months at a time, to let the horses, worn out from travel and
+  starving because of the scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The
+  stores which the army brought with them soon gave out. The men were
+  forced to live like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots
+  of wild plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of
+  their scanty stores of corn and beans.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIANS BROILING FISH]
+
+CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE INDIANS. De Soto was cruel in his treatment
+  of the conquered natives along his route. Many of his officers came with
+  him really for the purpose of obtaining Indian slaves for their
+  plantations in Cuba. Indian women were made to do the work of the camp.
+  Indian men were chained together and forced to carry the baggage. The
+  chiefs were held as hostages for the good behavior of the whole tribe.
+  The Indians who tried to shirk work or offered resistance were killed
+  without mercy.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542]
+
+  De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the white men, and
+  left him the enemy of any who should come to those regions in
+  after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped destruction at the
+  hands of the enraged savages. They attacked the Spaniards with all their
+  strength at Mauvilla, and again while they were in camp in northern
+  Mississippi for the winter of 1540-1541. These two battles with the
+  Indians cost the Spaniards their baggage, which was destroyed in the
+  burning villages. New clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of
+  wild animals. Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets,
+  shirts, stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked
+  much like a band of Robinson Crusoes.
+
+THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. De Soto marched on northwesterly
+  until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the site of the present
+  city of Memphis. There he came upon a great river. One of his officers
+  tells us that the river was so wide at this point that if a man on the
+  other side stood still, it could not be known whether he were a man or
+  not; that the river was of great depth, and of a strong current; and
+  that the water was always muddy.
+
+  De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or Great River,
+  but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans have adopted the
+  Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had probably passed the mouth of
+  the Mississippi River before De Soto, and wondered at its mighty size,
+  but De Soto was the first white man to approach it from the land and to
+  appreciate the importance of his discovery.
+
+WANDERINGS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The Spaniards cut down trees,
+  made them into planks and built barges on which they crossed the
+  Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year through the endless
+  woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now within the state of
+  Arkansas. They probably went as far west as the open plains of Oklahoma
+  or Texas. In these border regions between the forests and the prairies
+  they met Indians who used the skins of the buffalo for clothing.
+
+  [Illustration: BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI]
+
+DEATH AND BURIAL OF DE SOTO. The severe winter of 1541-1542
+  discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent nearly three years in
+  a vain search. The natives whom they had found made clothing from the
+  fiber in the bark of mulberry trees and from the hides of buffaloes, and
+  stored beans and corn for food, but such things seemed of little value
+  to the seekers for the Gilded Man.
+
+  De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish a colony
+  somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his purpose to send to
+  Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement as a base, make a farther
+  search in the plains of the great West. He did not live to carry out his
+  plan. Long exposure and anxiety had weakened him. The malaria of the
+  swamps attacked him, and he died within a few days. His body was wrapped
+  in mantles weighted with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered
+  in the midst of the great river he had discovered.
+
+  His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the Indians. The
+  Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the Sun, and now he had
+  died like any other mortal. They were afraid if the Indians found his
+  body they would cease to believe that the strangers were immortal and
+  would massacre them all. The Indians were told that the great leader had
+  gone to Heaven, as he had often done before, and that he would return in
+  a few days.
+
+RESULTS OF DE SOTO'S JOURNEY. The weary survivors built boats,
+  floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed cautiously along
+  the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four years and three months,
+  and half of the army which set out had perished. However, the expedition
+  of De Soto will always remain one of the most remarkable journeys in the
+  history of North America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into
+  the interior. With it had begun the written history of the country now
+  composing at least eight states in the United States, Florida, Georgia,
+  South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and
+  Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the present Oklahoma and Texas, and had
+  certainly passed down the Mississippi River through Louisiana.
+
+THE STORY OF THE SEVEN CITIES. While De Soto was exploring the
+  southeastern part of North America a second expedition searched the
+  southwest. Both were looking for rich Indian kingdoms like Mexico and
+  Peru. The second expedition came about in this manner. Some of the
+  Indians from northern Mexico told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in
+  the distant past their ancestors came forth from seven caves.
+
+  [Illustration: AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO]
+
+  The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of their own
+  about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time Spain was overrun by
+  the Moors in the eighth century, seven bishops, flying from persecution,
+  had taken refuge, with a great company of followers, on an island or
+  group of islands far out in the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built
+  Seven Cities. Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of
+  their wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have actually
+  seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to tell them of these
+  Seven Cities instead of seven caves.
+
+  The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much trouble in
+  understanding the Indian languages. They had long expected to find the
+  Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was rumor that white travelers had
+  seen them north of Mexico.
+
+THE JOURNEY OF FRIAR MARCOS. In 1539 the Viceroy of Mexico sent a
+  frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together with a negro,
+  Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for them. Friar Marcos
+  traveled far to the north. He inquired his way of the Indians, always
+  asking them about Seven Cities. He described them as large cities with
+  houses made of stone and mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him,
+  directed him to seven Zuni villages or pueblos. The first of these they
+  called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven Cities
+  of Cibola.
+
+  The good friar himself never entered even the first of them. His negro,
+  Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the way, but this rough,
+  greedy fellow offended the Indians, who promptly murdered him. When the
+  friar approached he found the Indians so excited and hostile that he
+  dared not enter their village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill
+  at a distance, from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola.
+  The houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the
+  wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and gave him
+  the idea of a much larger and richer city than really existed. Friar
+  Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened, hurriedly retraced
+  his steps.
+
+CORONADO. There was great excitement in Mexico over the story Friar
+  Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew, as such stories
+  always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing else was thought of in
+  all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made ready a great army for the
+  conquest of the Seven Cities of Cibola. He gave the command to his
+  intimate friend, Francisco de Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany
+  him, but it was necessary to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of
+  nobles, eager to go, traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the
+  viceroy's permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors
+  to their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as a
+  title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great wealth when
+  the Seven Cities should be discovered!
+
+  [Illustration: A ZUNI PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE]
+
+THE ARMY OF CORONADO. In the early part of 1540, Coronado set forth
+  from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf of California. He had an
+  army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly all the younger sons of nobles.
+  They were fitted out with polished coats of mail and gilded armor,
+  carried lances and swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from
+  the large stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few
+  footmen armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and
+  Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white masters. Some
+  led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage, or drove the oxen and
+  cows, the sheep and swine which would be needed on the journey. A small
+  fleet carried part of the baggage by way of the Gulf of California,
+  prepared also to help Coronado in other ways, and to explore the Gulf
+  to its head.
+
+  [Illustration: THE ROUTE OF CORONADO]
+
+THE ROUTE OF CORONADO TO CIBOLA. The large army marched slowly
+  through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon became
+  impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small following of
+  picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous wilderness of
+  northern Mexico and across the desert plains of southeastern Arizona.
+  After a march lasting five months, over a distance equal to that from
+  New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon the Seven Cities of Cibola; but
+  the real Seven Cities of Cibola as Coronado found them bore little
+  resemblance to what he had expected.
+
+  [Illustration: A ZUNI PUEBLO]
+
+THE REAL SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA. The first city of Cibola was an
+  Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed houses, built of stone
+  and sun-dried clay. The houses were entered by climbing ladders to the
+  top and then passing down into the rooms as we enter ships through
+  hatches. The people wore only such clothes as could be woven from the
+  coarse fiber of native plants, or patched together from the tanned skins
+  of the cat or the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but
+  only small and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some
+  skill in making small things for house and personal decoration, mainly
+  in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green stone.
+
+  The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of poor villages
+  inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that Coronado had found
+  the Zuni pueblos in the western part of New Mexico. The conquest of
+  these was a wofully small thing for so grand and costly an expedition.
+  No gold or silver or precious jewels had been found.
+
+  [Illustration: CANYON OF THE COLORADO]
+
+THE CANYON OF THE COLORADO. Yet the wonders of the natural world
+  about them astonished and interested the Spaniards. Some of their number
+  found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River and vividly described it to
+  their comrades. As they looked into its depths it seemed as if the water
+  was six feet across, although in reality it was many hundred feet wide.
+  Some tried without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream
+  below or to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who
+  staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the cliff were
+  about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far as they could
+  swore that when they reached these rocks they found them bigger than the
+  great tower of Seville, which is two hundred and seventy-five feet high.
+
+  CORONADO IN NEW MEXICO. Coronado marched from the Cities of Cibola
+  eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River, and settled for the
+  winter in an Indian village a short distance south of the present city
+  of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The Spaniards drove the natives out, only
+  allowing them to take the clothes they wore.
+
+A WINTER IN AN INDIAN VILLAGE. The soldiers passed the severe
+  winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best houses of the
+  Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and beans had been left by
+  the unfortunate owners. The live stock brought from Mexico furnished an
+  abundance of fresh meat. Coronado required the Indians to furnish three
+  hundred pieces of cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the
+  place of their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians
+  time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to take
+  their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a soldier came upon
+  an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he compelled the unlucky
+  fellow to exchange with him without more ado.
+
+  Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts of his men
+  made him much loved by them, but much hated by the Indians. It is no
+  wonder that such treatment drove the Indians into rebellion, and that
+  Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel war of reconquest and revenge.
+
+THE TALE OF QUIVIRA. An Indian slave in one of the villages cheered
+  Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale about a wonderful city,
+  many days' journey across the plains to the northeast, which he called
+  Quivira. The king of Quivira, he said, took his nap under a large tree,
+  on which were hung little gold bells, which put him to sleep as they
+  swung in the air. Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of
+  wrought gold. The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his
+  hearers to make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he
+  could in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless
+  plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown.
+
+THE SEARCH FOR QUIVIRA. The slave's story deceived the Spaniards.
+  Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of finding a rich country
+  and marched away in search of Quivira. He traveled to the northeast for
+  seventy-seven days. There were no guiding land marks. Soldiers measured
+  the distance traveled each day by counting the footsteps. The plains
+  were flat, save for an occasional channel cut by some river half buried
+  in the sand; they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small
+  rim of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses.
+
+QUIVIRA. The most marvelous sight of the long journey was the herds
+  of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians guided Coronado in the
+  end to a cluster of Indian villages which they called Quivira. This was
+  somewhere in what is now central Kansas near Junction City. The Indians
+  were in all probability the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met
+  with a bitter disappointment.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN TEPEES]
+
+  Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered Indian
+  villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening grass or straw
+  or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the poorest and most
+  barbarous which he had met. Coronado was, however, fortunate in securing
+  a supply of corn and buffalo meat in Quivira for his long
+  return journey.
+
+CORONADO'S OPINION OF THE WEST. A year later a crestfallen army of
+  half-starved men clad in the skins of animals stumbled back homeward
+  through Mexico in straggling groups. Great sadness prevailed in Mexico,
+  for many had lost their fortunes besides friends and relatives in the
+  enterprise. Coronado seemed to the people of the time to have led a
+  costly army on a wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions
+  he had crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away
+  from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country was
+  neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth keeping.
+
+RESULTS OF CORONADO'S EXPLORATIONS. We know better to-day the
+  value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved the age-long
+  mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the southwest of the United
+  States of our day. The rich region now included in the great states of
+  Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it
+  was soon after described for the European world. His men had explored
+  the Gulf of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its
+  source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower California was
+  not an island but a part of the mainland. Others soon explored the
+  entire coast of California to the limits of the present state of Oregon.
+
+HOW DE SOTO AND CORONADO CAME NEAR MEETING. De Soto and Coronado
+  together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to the center of
+  North America. A story which was told by De Soto's men shows how close
+  together the two great explorers were at one time. While Coronado was in
+  Quivira, De Soto was wandering along the borders of the plains west of
+  the Mississippi River, though neither knew of the nearness of the other.
+  An Indian woman who ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De
+  Soto's, nine days later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains
+  there would have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the
+  meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot refrain
+  from wondering how different would have been the ending with the two
+  great armies united and encouraged to continue their explorations.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What did
+    he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered
+    Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards
+    understood it?
+
+    2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did he
+    search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he planning
+    to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable? Through
+    what present states of the United States did he pass?
+
+    3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities? Why did
+    he expect to find them there? What was the story of the Seven
+    Cities? Of the Seven Caves?
+
+    4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of Cibola?
+    What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North America in
+    search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to Quivira? What did
+    he find Quivira to be?
+
+    5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he found
+    out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of the
+    present states of the United States did his route touch?
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus,
+    Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, on the knowledge of the new world.
+
+    _Important date_--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE
+
+THE RIVALS OF SPAIN. When the early voyages to America and Asia were
+  ended, the French, the English, and the other northern peoples of
+  Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for new lands and for new
+  routes to old lands. The French had sent a few fishermen to the Banks
+  of Newfoundland, and that was all. The English had made one or two
+  voyages and appeared to be no longer interested. (See Chapter XIV,
+  Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers,
+  or keen traders, occupied much of the time in the struggle against the
+  North Sea, which threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and
+  cities.
+
+
+THE TRADE-WINDS. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a great
+  advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for such voyages.
+  To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good Hope. To go to
+  America a southern route was taken, for in the North Atlantic the
+  prevailing winds are from the southwest, while south of Spain the
+  trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making it easy to sail to
+  America. To take the northern route, which was the natural one for
+  French and English sailors, would be to battle against head winds and
+  heavy seas.
+
+THE SPANIARDS AND THE PORTUGUESE DIVIDE THE WORLD. The Spaniards
+  and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave them the right
+  to all new lands which should be found and to all trade by sea with the
+  Golden East. Two years after the first voyage of Columbus the Spaniards
+  agreed with the Portuguese that a line running 370 leagues west of the
+  Cape Verde Islands should separate the regions claimed by each. The
+  Spaniards were to hold all lands discovered west of that line, and the
+  Portuguese all east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by
+  the Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the
+  Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that especially
+  interests us as students of American history.
+
+  [Illustration: CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol, England,
+  in memory of the first sailor from England to visit America]
+
+THE MAIN QUESTION. Were the Spaniards to keep what they claimed and
+  continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The answer to this question
+  is found in the history of Europe during the sixteenth century.
+  Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were drawn into quarrels in Europe
+  which cost them many men and much money. The consequence was that they
+  were unable to make full use of their discoveries, even if they had
+  known how. Before the century was ended their rivals, the English and
+  the French, were stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects,
+  had rebelled against them.
+
+THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH DESIRE A SHARE. Men had such great ideas
+  of the immense wealth of the Indies that the successes of one nation
+  made the other nations eager for some part of the spoil. Englishmen and
+  Frenchmen were not likely to allow the Portuguese to take all they could
+  find by sailing eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards
+  to keep whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by
+  following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for new
+  routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they saw by the
+  way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels came from this
+  rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other causes.
+
+KING CHARLES AND KING FRANCIS. About the time Cortes conquered
+  Mexico, his master, King Charles of Spain, began a war against Francis,
+  the king of France. As long as these two kings lived they were either
+  fighting or preparing to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only,
+  there might have been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and
+  claimed others which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region
+  north of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a
+  district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As he was
+  the German emperor besides, the French king thought him too dangerous to
+  be left in peace. These wars have little to do with American history,
+  except that they helped to weaken the king of Spain and to prevent the
+  Spaniards from making the most of their early successes in colonizing.
+
+RELIGION A CAUSE OF STRIFE. Religion was the most serious cause of
+  quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king of Spain was the prince
+  most injured by the struggle. At the time of Prince Henry of Portugal
+  and of Columbus all peoples in western Europe worshiped in the same
+  manner, taught their children the same beliefs, and in religious matters
+  they all obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles
+  began in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over
+  Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who rebelled and
+  founded a republic of their own. The English finally became the
+  principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom were of the same
+  religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish methods of defending
+  religion, especially after the Spaniards had massacred a band of French
+  settlers in America.
+
+  [Illustration: EMPEROR CHARLES V]
+
+THE "REFORMERS." Many men became discontented at the way the Church
+  was managed. At first all were agreed that the evils of which they
+  complained could be removed if priests, bishops, and pope worked
+  together to that end. After a while some teachers in different countries
+  not only complained of evils, but refused to believe as the Church had
+  taught and as most people still believed. They did not mean to divide
+  the Christian Church into several churches, but they thought they
+  understood the words of the Bible better than the teachers of
+  the Church.
+
+THE REFORMATION. At that time people who were not agreed in their
+  religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the same countries. The
+  princes and kings who were faithful to the Church ordered that the new
+  teachers and their followers should be punished. Other princes accepted
+  the views of the "reformers," and soon began to punish those of their
+  subjects who continued to believe as the Church taught. In Germany these
+  princes were called "Protestants," because they protested against the
+  efforts of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of
+  the new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused to
+  remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the pope.
+
+CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT LEADERS. The most famous leaders of the
+  Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, Reginald
+  Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an Italian. Loyola had been a
+  soldier in his youth, but while recovering from a serious wound,
+  resolved to be a missionary. With several other young men of the same
+  purpose he founded the Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the
+  Protestants the greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John
+  Calvin, a Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at
+  Wittenberg in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise.
+  Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis resolved
+  to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was obliged to leave the
+  country. He settled in the Swiss city of Geneva.
+
+THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. Luther's teachings were accepted by many
+  Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated the Bible into
+  German. After a while his followers formed a Church of their own which
+  was called Lutheran. It differed from the Roman Catholic Church in the
+  way it was governed as well as in what it taught.
+
+THE FRENCH HUGUENOTS. Calvin lived in Geneva, but most of those who
+  accepted his teachings continued to live in France. The nickname
+  Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They were not permitted
+  by the French king to worship as Calvin taught, but by 1562 so many
+  nobles had joined them that it was no longer possible to treat them as
+  criminals. They were permitted to hold their meetings outside the walled
+  towns. The leader whom they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny.
+  Both he and they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the
+  Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which the king
+  of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects.
+
+THE KING OF SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. Philip II inherited from his
+  father Charles seventeen duchies, counties, and other districts north of
+  France in what is now Belgium and Holland. Charles had known how to
+  manage these people, because he was brought up among them. The task of
+  managing them was not easy. Each district or city had its own special
+  rights and its people demanded that these should be respected by the
+  ruling prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule
+  the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled the
+  people of Spain.
+
+  [Illustration: THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE NETHERLANDS]
+
+PROTESTANTS IN THE NETHERLANDS. The trouble was made worse because
+  many of the Netherlanders became followers of Luther or Calvin, and
+  brought their books into the country. Now Philip, like his father
+  Charles, was faithful to the teachings of the Church, and thought it was
+  his duty to punish such persons. The result was that Philip soon had two
+  kinds of enemies in his Netherland provinces, those who did not like the
+  way he ruled and those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and
+  the two united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were
+  driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border
+  from France.
+
+THE NETHERLANDS. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are well
+  named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live, because much
+  of the land is below the level of the sea at high tide, and some of it
+  at low tide. For several hundred years the Dutch built dikes to keep
+  back the sea, or pumped it out where it flowed in and covered the lower
+  lands. Occasionally great storms broke through the dikes and caused the
+  Dutch months or years of labor. A people so brave and industrious were
+  not likely to submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they
+  would rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views,
+  which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the southern
+  Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became Calvinists
+  generally emigrated to the northern cities, like Amsterdam, where they
+  were safer.
+
+  [Illustration: Map Of The Netherlands]
+
+WILLIAM OF ORANGE. William, Prince of Orange, was the leader of the
+  Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by Charles, Philip's
+  father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the great ceremony held in
+  Brussels when Charles gave up his throne to Philip. William was called
+  the "Silent," because he was careful not to tell his plans to any except
+  his nearest friends. When Philip returned to Spain, William was made
+  governor or _stadtholder_ of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland,
+  Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other great
+  nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with the heretics
+  and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the southern Netherlanders
+  and the northern Netherlanders were united, although the southern
+  Netherlanders remained faithful to the Roman Catholic religion.
+
+SPAIN AND ENGLAND. The English at first had no reason to quarrel
+  with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the Netherlanders, who
+  were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they sold great quantities of
+  wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges, Brussels, and Ghent, and bought
+  fine cloth woven in those towns. The friendship of the ruler of the
+  Netherlands seemed necessary, if this trade was to prosper. It was the
+  trouble about religion which finally made the English and the
+  Spaniards enemies.
+
+HENRY VIII. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of England, the
+  king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to refuse obedience to the
+  pope. The king called himself the head of the Church in England.
+  Lutheran views crept into the country as they had done into the
+  Netherlands, but King Henry at first disliked the Lutherans quite as
+  much as he grew to dislike the pope.
+
+THE ENGLISH CHURCH. So long as Henry lived not much change was made
+  in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the Church. During the short
+  reign of his son, the English Church became more like the Protestant
+  Churches on the Continent, except that in England there were still
+  archbishops and bishops, and the government of the Church went on much
+  as before. When Henry's daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop
+  these changes, and for a few years her subjects were again obedient to
+  the pope, but she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth,
+  became queen.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH]
+
+THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND THE CATHOLICS. In religious matters Queen
+  Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother had done. All persons
+  were forced to attend the religious services carried on in the manner
+  ordered in the prayer-book. Roman Catholics could not hold any
+  government office. They were punished if they tried to persuade others
+  to remain faithful to the older Church. Philip did not like this, but
+  for a time he preferred to be on friendly terms with the English.
+
+  [Illustration: COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH]
+
+QUEEN ELIZABETH. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for forty-five
+  years. The English regard her reign as the most glorious in their
+  history. Before it was over they proved themselves more than a match for
+  the Spaniards on the sea. They also began to seek for routes to the East
+  and to attempt settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The
+  Greek and Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and
+  Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to make the
+  English language the rival of the languages of Greece and Rome. This was
+  the time when Shakespeare wrote his first plays.
+
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or Portugal
+    than from England?
+
+    2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did they
+    draw the line of division?
+
+    3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what
+    countries did King Charles rule?
+
+    4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was chiefly
+    injured by such struggles?
+
+    5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they
+    called?
+
+    6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants? Who
+    were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name?
+
+    7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands quarrel?
+
+    8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived? Who was
+    the hero of the Dutch?
+
+    9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly? What
+    king of England refused to obey the pope?
+
+    10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How did
+    Elizabeth settle the question of religion?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISE
+
+    Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and towns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA
+
+CARTIER. During the reign of Francis I, the French made the first
+  serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far East and to settle
+  the new lands that seemed to lie directly across the pathway. In 1534
+  Jacques Cartier was sent with two ships in search of a strait beyond the
+  regions controlled by Spain or Portugal which would lead into the
+  Pacific Ocean. Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland
+  and into the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf
+  of St. Lawrence.
+
+CARTIER AT MONTREAL. Cartier made a second voyage in the following
+  year, exploring the great river which he called the St. Lawrence. He
+  went up the river until the heights of Mount Royal or Montreal, as he
+  called them, appeared on his right hand, and swift rapids in the river
+  blocked his way in front. The name Lachine rapids, or the China rapids,
+  which was afterwards given to these, remains to remind us that Cartier
+  was searching for a passage to China.
+
+THE FIRST WINTER IN CANADA. Cartier spent the severe winter which
+  followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the site of the modern
+  city of Quebec. The expedition returned to France with the coming
+  of spring.
+
+ATTEMPTS TO PLANT A COLONY AT QUEBEC. Several years later, in 1541,
+  Cartier and others attempted to establish a permanent settlement on the
+  St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get good colonists to settle in the cold
+  climate so far north, the leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons
+  for debtors and criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They
+  selected the neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in
+  1535, where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their
+  colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a new
+  settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the hostility
+  of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all gladly returned
+  to France.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP SHOWING JACQUES CARTIER's VOYAGES
+  Thus: 1st Voyage---- 2d Voyage.... 3d Voyage--> -->]
+
+  The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement on the St.
+  Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St. Lawrence would prove
+  the long-sought passage to China had to be given up, but the river which
+  he had discovered and so thoroughly explored proved to be a great
+  highway into the center of North America.
+
+COLIGNY'S PLAN FOR A HUGUENOT COLONY. Nearly thirty years later the
+  French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the plan of establishing a
+  colony in America, which would be a refuge for the Huguenots if their
+  enemies got the upper hand in France. An expedition left France in 1564,
+  and selected a site for a settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns
+  river in Florida. It seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline,
+  was quickly built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They
+  were chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented
+  tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them.
+
+THE MISDEEDS OF THE COLONISTS. They spent their time visiting
+  distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and silver, or
+  plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West Indies. No one thought
+  of preparing the soil and planting seeds for a food supply. It seemed
+  easier to rob neighbors. The provisions which they had brought with them
+  gave out. Game and fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but
+  they were without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year
+  had passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to
+  digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge of
+  angry Indians confronted them.
+
+RELIEF SENT TO THE COLONY. In August, 1565, just as the
+  half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an
+  expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few young
+  nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three hundred in
+  all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of supplies and
+  other things needed by a colony in a new country. It looked then as
+  though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan and establish a
+  permanent colony in America.
+
+  [Illustration: FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN FLORIDA
+  From De Bry's Voyages]
+
+FORT CAROLINE AND THE SPANIARDS. The French had, however, settled
+  in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult to settle in America at
+  any place along the Atlantic coast without doing so. The Spaniards
+  regarded all North America from Mexico to Labrador as lying within
+  Florida. The attempt of the French to settle on the lands claimed by the
+  king of Spain was sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct
+  of the French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the
+  West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest of
+  robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's followers
+  more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were Huguenots.
+
+MENENDEZ. At the time the news reached Spain of Coligny's
+  settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro Menendez, was
+  preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and thus after a long delay
+  carry out the task which De Soto had vainly attempted. Menendez was
+  naturally as eager as the king to drive out the French intruders. So an
+  expedition larger than was planned at first was hurried off. Menendez
+  was to do three things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize
+  the Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida.
+
+THE DEFEAT OF THE FRENCH FLEET. Menendez with a part of his fleet
+  arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the relief expedition
+  which Coligny had sent over came into harbor. His ships attacked and
+  scattered those of the French. The vessels of the French for the most
+  part sought refuge on the high seas. They were too swift to be
+  overtaken, but no match for the Spanish in battle. Menendez decided to
+  wait for the rest of his ships before making another attack on Fort
+  Caroline. Meanwhile he sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles
+  till he came to an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine.
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE FOUNDED. A friendly Indian chief readily gave his
+  dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like structure, made of
+  the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with palmetto leaves. Soldiers
+  quickly dug a ditch around it and threw up a breastwork of earth and
+  small sticks. The colonists who came with Menendez landed and set about
+  the usual work of founding a settlement. Such was the beginning of the
+  Spanish town of St. Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in
+  the United States.
+
+  [Illustration: ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY MENENDEZ
+  Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby]
+
+FRENCH SAIL TO ATTACK ST. AUGUSTINE. Both sides prepared for a
+  terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and the Spaniards in
+  their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French struck the first blow. A
+  few of the weaker and the sick soldiers were left at Fort Caroline to
+  stand guard with the women and children. The main body aboard the ships
+  advanced by sea to attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered
+  and wrecked the French fleet before it arrived.
+
+MENENDEZ DESTROYS FORT CAROLINE. Menendez now took advantage of the
+  storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading through swamps and
+  fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale. His drenched and hungry
+  followers fell like wild beasts upon the few French left in the fort.
+  About fifty of the women and children were spared to become captives. As
+  many men escaped in the forests around the fort, but the greater part
+  were killed.
+
+CAPTURE OF THE SHIPWRECKED FRENCH. The French fleet had been
+  wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St. Augustine. A
+  few days later Menendez discovered some survivors wandering along the
+  coast, half starved, trying to live on the shell-fish they found on the
+  beach, and slowly and painfully working their way back toward Fort
+  Caroline. The Frenchmen begged Menendez to be allowed to remain in the
+  country till ships could be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling
+  to make any terms with them.
+
+MURDER OF THE CAPTIVES. The unhappy Frenchmen were taken prisoners,
+  and, a few hours later, put to death. Other shipwrecked refugees were
+  captured a few days later, and these suffered the same fate. Nearly
+  three hundred perished in this cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless
+  deed, and yet such was the character of all warfare at the time.
+  Menendez believed that he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain
+  think Menendez unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of
+  the Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say to
+  him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as to those
+  he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys."
+
+  [Illustration: NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS OF
+  DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER]
+
+  [Illustration: (map)]
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore and
+    settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why France
+    had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of the
+    continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he specially
+    interested in St. Lawrence region?
+
+    2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine rapids,
+    given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence river?
+
+    3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French colony in
+    North America? How much had he and his friends accomplished for
+    France in North America?
+
+    4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in America?
+    Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on the map.
+    Give several reasons why they soon got into trouble with
+    the Spaniards.
+
+    5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do? What
+    things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St.
+    Augustine? Find it on the map.
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. Examine the map of North America in 1541. What parts
+    of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can you see
+    why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great river?
+
+    2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French
+    explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from
+    Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in one
+    of your geographies.
+
+    _Important Date_: 1565. The founding of St. Augustine.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN
+
+CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE NETHERLANDERS. Two years after the cruel
+  massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II, the King of
+  Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the Netherlanders, and
+  sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke of Alva, who was as
+  pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing prominent nobles, and he
+  would have arrested the Prince of Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A
+  court was set up which condemned many persons to death, including the
+  greatest nobles of the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of
+  Blood. Alva also turned the merchants against him by compelling them to
+  pay the "tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods
+  every time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so
+  thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to Spain.
+
+THE BEGGARS OF THE SEA. Just then something happened which gave
+  Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance. The men who were
+  resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands had been nicknamed the
+  "Beggars." When they were driven from the cities they took to the sea.
+  The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes found a port of refuge in La
+  Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the western coast of France, and sometimes
+  they put into friendly English harbors. From these places they would
+  sail out and attack Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572
+  ordered a fleet of these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their
+  own shores and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success
+  encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to rise and
+  expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns.
+
+THE FRENCH PROMISE AID. As soon as Coligny heard the news he urged
+  the French king to send an army into the Netherlands and take vengeance
+  not only for the massacre at Fort Caroline, but also for all the wrongs
+  that he and his father and his grandfather had ever received at the
+  hands of the Spaniards. The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the
+  Netherlanders promising aid.
+
+  [Illustration: GASPARD DE COLIGNY After the portrait in the
+  Public Library, Geneva]
+
+MASSACRE OF HUGUENOTS IN PARIS. The plan was never carried out.
+  While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in Paris, his enemies
+  attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed these enemies, including
+  the king's mother, persuaded the king that Coligny and the Huguenots
+  were plotting against him, and goaded the king into ordering the murder
+  of all the Huguenots in Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands
+  of Huguenots perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen
+  Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny had
+  missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon to have
+  other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to help the Dutch.
+  These new enemies were the English.
+
+THE ENGLISH DRAWN INTO THE CONFLICT. The religious troubles in
+  England had been growing more serious. Two or three plots were made to
+  assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the throne Queen Mary of
+  Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip began to encourage these
+  plotters, especially after the pope in 1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth
+  and forbidden her subjects to obey her as queen. She was sure to be
+  dragged into the struggle in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have
+  seen that she had once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of
+  Coligny and his followers frightened the English and made many of them
+  anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the Continent,
+  the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were utterly destroyed.
+
+GROWTH OF ENGLISH TRADE. If England should be drawn into war, her
+  safety would depend mainly upon her ships. Englishmen had always taken
+  to the sea, as was natural for men whose shores were washed by the
+  Atlantic, the Channel and the North Sea, but they were slow in building
+  fleets of ships either for trade or for war. The trade of the country
+  with other peoples in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by
+  foreigners. Yet since the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a
+  change had taken place. English merchants found their way to all
+  markets. They also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the
+  religious troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill
+  to England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and silks.
+
+THE NEW ENGLISH NAVY. The English navy was growing. One of the new
+  ships, _The Triumph_, carried 450 seamen, 50 gunners, and 200 soldiers.
+  Besides harquebuses for the soldiers, there were many kinds of cannon
+  with strange names, such as culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines,
+  and rabinets. Four of the cannon were large enough to shoot a
+  cannon-ball eight inches in diameter. But it was on the skill and
+  courage of her men rather than upon the size of her ships that England
+  relied for victory.
+
+  [Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE After the painting at Buckland
+  Abby, England]
+
+SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. One of these men was Francis Drake. He was son
+  of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the rigging of the
+  great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the streets. In time young
+  Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a small trading vessel. Fortune
+  smiled on the lad early in life. His master died, and out of love for
+  the apprentice who had served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis
+  Drake became thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most
+  popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains.
+
+SLAVE-TRADERS. He often went with his cousin, John Hawkins, on
+  voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from slave-traders along the
+  coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they found, and carried them to the
+  Spanish planters of the West Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout
+  and humane as other men of their time. They simply could not see any
+  wrong in enslaving the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they
+  enjoyed the wild life of the slave-trader with its dangers and
+  rich rewards.
+
+WHY DRAKE HATED THE SPANIARDS. The king of Spain tried to keep the
+  trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted to prevent the
+  trade of the English slavers with the West Indies. Spanish ships-of-war
+  ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins and Drake hoped for large
+  profits. The Spaniards won thereby the undying hatred of Drake.
+
+THE DRAGON OF THE SEAS. It was a time, too, when Drake's countrymen
+  at home shared his intense hatred of the Spaniard. While England and
+  Spain were not at war with one another, English and Spanish traders
+  fought whenever they met on the high seas. The English made the Spanish
+  settlements in America their special prey. At certain times of the year
+  Spanish ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and
+  silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like many
+  another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of their
+  precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his cunning and
+  courage. More than once he was forced to bury his treasures in the sand
+  to lighten his ships that they might sail the faster, and escape his
+  pursuers. The Spaniards came to know and to fear Drake as the Dragon
+  of the Seas.
+
+  [Illustration: SPANISH TREASURE SHIP]
+
+DRAKE'S VENTURE. Drake once formed the plan to take a fleet into
+  the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure ships where they
+  would be less on their guard. A fleet of five ships was made ready.
+  Contributions from wealthy merchants and powerful nobles, perhaps a gift
+  from Queen Elizabeth herself, gave him the means for unusual luxuries in
+  the equipment of his fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were
+  taken on board Drake's own ship, the _Pelican_, or the _Golden Hind_ as
+  he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left Plymouth in
+  1577. One after another of the ships turned back or was destroyed on the
+  long voyage of twelve months across the Atlantic and through the Strait
+  of Magellan.
+
+BEYOND THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. The _Golden Hind_ alone remained to
+  carry out the original project. As it entered the Pacific Ocean a furious
+  storm drove the little vessel southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions
+  where the oceans meet. No one before had sailed so far south.
+
+THE FIRST PRIZES. Drake regained control of his ship when the storm
+  had passed, and sailed northward along the coast, plundering and robbing
+  as he went. Once, as a land-party was searching along the shore for
+  fresh water, it came upon a Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver
+  beside him. His nap was disturbed long enough to take away his burden.
+  Further on they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train
+  of Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The
+  Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their boats.
+  A treasure ship, nicknamed the _Spitfire_, on the way to Panama, was
+  captured after a long chase of nearly eight hundred miles. Drake
+  obtained from it unknown quantities of gold and silver. With such a rich
+  load, his thoughts turned to the homeward voyage.
+
+DRAKE'S VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD. By this time a host of Spanish
+  war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture him on his
+  return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now confronted with real
+  danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He and many other Englishmen of
+  his day were sure a passage would be found somewhere through North
+  America between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Spanish, French, and
+  English explorers had all carried on the search for this passage. Drake
+  decided to return by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the
+  coast of California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington
+  as far as Vancouver
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE]
+
+  When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he gave up the
+  search.
+
+  After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles above the
+  modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the Pacific to return
+  home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by going around the world.
+  He touched at the Philippines, visited the Spice Islands, and slowly
+  worked his way around the Cape of Good Hope. The _Golden Hind_, long
+  since given up as lost, reached England in the fall of 1580, after
+  nearly three years' absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around
+  the world. Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor.
+
+DRAKE'S REWARD. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake told of
+  outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most gorgeous robes
+  she visited his ship, where a banquet had been prepared. While Drake
+  knelt at her feet she made him a knight. And so it was that the man whom
+  the Spaniards called with good reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the
+  English called by a new title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the
+  greatest sea-captain of the age. His ship, the _Golden Hind_, was
+  ordered to be preserved forever.
+
+THE DUTCH STRUGGLE AGAINST SPAIN. A few years after Drake returned
+  the English took a deeper interest in the struggle between Philip and
+  the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of help from the French
+  Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals more boldly than ever. The
+  Spanish soldiers treated the towns which surrendered so savagely that
+  the other towns decided it was better to die fighting than to yield. The
+  siege of Leyden became famous because, after food had given out and the
+  inhabitants were starving their friends cut the great dikes in order
+  that the boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might
+  be floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood also
+  drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of the city a
+  strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the dikes could again
+  be replaced.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT]
+
+THE DEATH OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. King Philip had come to the
+  conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the Dutch could not
+  be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince William's head, offering a
+  large sum of money to any one who should kill him. The first attempts
+  failed, but finally in 1584 he was shot.
+
+SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. The murder of William alarmed the English for
+  Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already aided men who were
+  plotting against her. She sent an army into the Netherlands to aid the
+  Dutch, although she had not made up her mind to attack Philip directly.
+  The army did not give much help to the Dutch, but it is remembered
+  because a noble English poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in
+  one of the battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back,
+  tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men always do,
+  and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it was brought to him
+  he saw on the ground a common soldier more sorely wounded than he. He
+  immediately sent the water to the soldier saying, "Thy necessity is
+  greater than mine."
+
+THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. The king of Spain now decided that he could
+  not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly punished the English. He
+  even planned to put himself upon the English throne, claiming that he
+  was the heir of one of the early kings of England. Months were spent in
+  preparing a great fleet, an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the
+  Channel, take on board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross
+  over to England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's
+  usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so much
+  shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had to be
+  postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of
+  Spain's beard."
+
+THE ARMADA IN THE CHANNEL. It was July, 1588, before the
+  "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English Channel. Many
+  of the Spanish ships were larger than the English ships, but they were
+  so clumsy that the English could outsail them and attack them from any
+  direction they chose. Moreover, the Spaniards needed to fight close at
+  hand in order that the soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in
+  the fray. The English kept out of range of these guns and used their
+  heavy cannon.
+
+  [Illustration: THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL After
+  an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the
+  House of Lords]
+
+DESTRUCTION OF THE ARMADA. With the English ships clinging to the
+  flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards moved heavily up the
+  Channel. In the narrower waters between Dover and Calais the English
+  attacked more fiercely, and sank several Spanish vessels. Soon the
+  others were fleeing into the North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many
+  sought to reach Spain by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some
+  of these ships were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's
+  proud fleet returned to Spain.
+
+EFFECT OF THE DEFEAT OF THE ARMADA ON SPAIN. This was the last
+  attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain had been
+  exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies for the Invincible
+  Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and the English attacked and
+  plundered Spanish vessels wherever they found them.
+
+THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE DUTCH. The ruin of the Armada also meant
+  that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent of the Spanish
+  king. Seven of the northern provinces had already formed a union and had
+  begun to call themselves the United Netherlands. They were growing
+  richer while their neighboring provinces on the south, which had decided
+  to return to their allegiance to Spain, grew poorer.
+
+FIRST VOYAGE OF THE DUTCH TO THE EAST. Even while the fight was
+  going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had not permitted them
+  to trade while he could control them. One of these places was Lisbon,
+  the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch obtained spices which the
+  Portuguese brought from the East Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized
+  Portugal, and the Dutch could no longer go to Lisbon. This made them
+  anxious to find their way to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out.
+  This voyage was unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the
+  Dutch had almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of
+  Spain, from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across
+  the Atlantic to the shores of America.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name was
+    given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the Netherlands?
+    Why were they given this name?
+
+    2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the Netherlands?
+    Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people were ready to
+    help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least why the English
+    were willing to help the Dutch against Spain?
+
+    3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to make a
+    navy?
+
+    4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the Spaniards?
+    What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he come to go
+    around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since Magellan made
+    his voyage?
+
+    5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards think
+    of him? Why did each people think as it did?
+
+    6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why did
+    this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder?
+
+    7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and make
+    himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out his plan?
+    Why were the English victorious in the great battle with the Armada?
+    Where was the battle fought?
+
+    8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the
+    Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of Spain?
+
+    9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war with
+    Spain ended?
+
+    10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French for
+    trade and settlements in America?
+
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous voyage
+    around the world?
+
+    2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in Chapters 19
+    and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and settling America?
+
+    3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and the
+    southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA
+
+ENGLISH INTEREST IN AMERICA AWAKENED. Voyages like those made by
+  Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout England to learn more
+  about the New World. Until this time even the great discoveries of
+  Columbus and the Cabots had failed to stir the English people to take
+  part in the exploration and settlement of the Americas. The principal
+  reason was because their attention was occupied by the struggle between
+  their monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should
+  govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth had been
+  on the throne some years.
+
+  Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned their ships
+  toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as he had done,
+  mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on board the ships of Spain
+  bound homeward. Some of them explored the coast of North America, hoping
+  to find valuable regions that had not fallen into the possession of the
+  Spaniards.
+
+THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE. Martin Frobisher made three voyages, the
+  last in 1578, in search of a passage through North America to China. He
+  entered the bay which bears his name, and the strait which was later
+  called after Hudson, but failed to find a passage. Drake attempted to
+  find the western entrance to such a passage in 1579 as a short cut
+  homeward when he tried to avoid his Spanish pursuers.
+
+GILBERT. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey Gilbert. He
+  wished to build up another England across the sea, just as the people of
+  Spain were building up another Spain. He planned to do this by
+  establishing farms to which he and others might send laborers who could
+  not find work at home. Queen Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage
+  him, and to repay him for the expense of carrying the emigrants over,
+  she promised him the land for six hundred miles on each side of his
+  settlements.
+
+  [Illustration: CHARLCOTE HALL An English Manor House of the time
+  of Queen Elizabeth]
+
+FAILURE OF GILBERT'S EXPEDITION. Gilbert tried twice to plant a
+  colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Sir Walter
+  Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in the expedition of
+  1578. He would have been in the disastrous second attempt in 1583 had
+  not Queen Elizabeth, full of forebodings of danger to her favorite,
+  refused to let him go. As it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert
+  took a large supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please
+  the savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless
+  commander.
+
+  The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583. The ship
+  that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted before they were out
+  of sight of England. One was left in Newfoundland. The wreck of the
+  largest ship, with most of the provisions, off Cape Breton, so
+  discouraged the crews that they prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the
+  plan to settle on such barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to
+  return on the _Squirrel_, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This
+  was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of the
+  little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran into a
+  fearful storm as it approached the Azores.
+
+  Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he refused to
+  desert his companions, with whom he had passed through so many storms
+  and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by his reply, "Do not
+  fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land." One night the _Squirrel_
+  suddenly sank. All on board were lost. Such was the sad ending of the
+  first efforts to establish an English colony in North America.
+
+RALEIGH Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan which his
+  kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the height of his
+  favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him wealthy, especially by the
+  gift of large estates which she had taken from others. She readily
+  promised him the same privileges in America which she had offered to
+  Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless thought that he might increase his fortune
+  and win glory for himself and for his country by planting English
+  colonies in the New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the
+  undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able
+  commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had fortune,
+  skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a friend of poets and
+  scholars and a student of books; like Drake, he was a natural leader
+  of men.
+
+  [Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON]
+
+VIRGINIA. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an expedition to explore
+  the coast for a suitable site for a colony. His men sailed by way of the
+  Canaries, and came upon North America in the neighborhood of Pamlico
+  Sound, avoiding the stormy route directly across the Atlantic which
+  Gilbert had followed. They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore
+  of Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North
+  Carolina and Virginia.
+
+  They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were particularly
+  pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by the Indians Roanoke
+  Island. They noted with wonder the overhanging grape-vines loaded with
+  fruit, the fine cedar trees which seemed to them the highest and reddest
+  in the world, the great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless
+  deer in the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth
+  was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed it to
+  be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and made Raleigh
+  a knight.
+
+THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONISTS. Raleigh made several attempts to plant
+  a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was led by John White in 1587.
+  White had visited Virginia on an earlier voyage, and painted more than
+  seventy pictures of Indian life, representing their dress and their
+  manner of living. These may still be seen in the British Museum in
+  London. His interest in the country and its Indian population made his
+  appointment as governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the
+  selection of colonists in order to secure farmers rather than
+  gold-seekers. Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony
+  of about one hundred and fifty persons.
+
+ROANOKE. White and his followers settled on Roanoke Island. They
+  found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers had built some
+  years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several huts were still
+  standing, but they were falling to pieces. The first task was to rebuild
+  the huts and move into them from their ships. A baby girl was born a few
+  days after the landing, the first child born of English parents in the
+  New World. Her father, Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her
+  mother, Eleanor Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was
+  given the name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be
+  her home.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES]
+
+THE COLONISTS IN DANGER. The little colony must have foreseen the
+  hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for before Governor
+  White had been in America two months, he was sent back to England to
+  obtain more provisions, White, from his own account, did not wish to
+  leave his daughter and granddaughter.
+
+WHITE'S SEARCH FOR AID. White returned to England in the fall of
+  1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England was alarmed by the
+  rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to land an invading army. The
+  friends of Virginia in England were too busy protecting their own homes
+  from the invader to give heed to the needs of the farmer colonists
+  across the sea. White traveled through England, seeking aid for his
+  friends and family, but was disappointed everywhere.
+
+WHY RALEIGH GAVE NO HELP. Raleigh had by no means forgotten his
+  colonists, but his queen and his country had the first claim on him
+  through the long war with Spain. Twice during this period, he found time
+  and means to prepare relief expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped
+  the first one just as it was ready to sail, because all the ships were
+  needed at that moment for service in the war. A second expedition was
+  attacked by the Spaniards and forced to return.
+
+THE LOST COLONY. White finally secured passage for himself on a
+  fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and relief supplies of
+  his own, but as a passenger on another man's ship. It was the summer of
+  1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four years after his departure. The
+  colonists were not to be found. Their houses were torn down. The chests
+  which they had evidently buried in order to hide them from the Indians
+  had been dug up and ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers
+  which he had left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were
+  torn and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through
+  with rust.
+
+  One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large letters
+  CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the old fort. White
+  recalled the agreement made when he left four years before. If the
+  colonists should find it necessary to leave Roanoke, they were to carve
+  on a tree the name of the place to which they were going. If they were
+  in danger or distress when they left, they were to carve a cross over
+  the name of the place. White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the
+  name of a small island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived
+  who were known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe
+  among the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search for
+  them because the captains of the ships which brought him over refused to
+  delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were evidently more eager to
+  attack the Spaniards than to find a few luckless emigrants.
+
+  [Illustration: AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589
+  After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum]
+
+  The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history. It is
+  believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and lived with
+  them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted the ways of their
+  protectors.
+
+VALUE OF THE EFFORTS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH. Raleigh had
+  failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new England in America,
+  but he had awakened in his countrymen an interest in America, and made
+  known the advantages of its soil and climate. The French had apparently
+  made no greater headway. Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken
+  up, and the Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The
+  history of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec,
+  Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's at
+  Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in America which
+  were not strongly supported by friends or by the home government. These
+  attempts to plant colonies in America were not, however, as bad failures
+  as they appeared. Both nations had learned much about the country and
+  about the preparations needed for permanent settlements.
+
+WHAT THE SPANISH HAD ACCOMPLISHED. In 1600 Spain seemed to have
+  achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of that time shows
+  Spain in possession of vast territories in North and South America. The
+  English had a small tract, Virginia, in which they had some interest but
+  no colonists. The French regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by
+  right of discovery, but they could point to no settlements to clinch
+  that claim.
+
+  The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two hundred cities
+  and towns which they had planted in their territories. About two hundred
+  thousand Spaniards, farmers, miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had
+  either migrated from Spain to America or had been born there of
+  emigrants since Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come
+  under their rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and
+  called themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro
+  slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines in
+  Spanish America.
+
+  [Illustration: Regions in the New World and the East claimed by
+  the Countries of Europe after a century of exploration.]
+
+  The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like the cities
+  of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and mason-work abounded.
+  Churches, monasteries, a university, higher schools for boys and girls,
+  four hospitals, of which one was for Indians, and public buildings,
+  similar to those in the cities of old Spain, already existed. Spanish
+  life and Spanish culture had spread over a large area in the New World,
+  and the most remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had
+  been bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into Spain
+  and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new world.
+
+THE PROSPECTS OF THE SPANISH COLONIES. But the outlook for Spain in
+  America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her Dutch subjects and
+  the war with England, which grew out of that quarrel, left her
+  completely worn out. She no longer had the people to spare for American
+  settlements. These ceased to grow as they once had. Negroes and Indians
+  outnumbered the Spaniards in most of them. The three races mingled
+  together and intermarried until a new people, the Spanish American,
+  differing in color and blood from either of the old races, was formed.
+
+THE LATER STORY OF COLONIZATION. Spain's rivals--the Dutch, the
+  English, and the French--were just reaching the height of their power.
+  They had settled their most serious religious differences. Their
+  merchants were eagerly looking about for commercial opportunities. A
+  considerable population in each of them, but more especially in England,
+  was discontented and ready to try its fortunes in a new world. The
+  Spaniards had passed by the best parts of North America as worthless.
+  The people and the unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of
+  colonies on a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American
+  colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the Dutch,
+  the French, and the English colonization of North America.
+
+
+    QUESTIONS
+
+    1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in America
+    before Drake's time? What finally, made the English sea-captains
+    turn to American adventure and exploration?
+
+    2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you find for
+    his failure?
+
+    3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of planting
+    English colonies in America? What part of North America did his men
+    select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable place? What name
+    was given to the country?
+
+    4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What did
+    White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search
+    of them?
+
+    5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in their
+    efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained anything
+    from all their efforts?
+
+    6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus? Why
+    were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been? What
+    rivals were ready to begin colonies in America?
+
+
+    EXERCISES
+
+    1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give Gilbert
+    for his plan in North America? Was there this much (twelve hundred
+    miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America unclaimed by the
+    French and the Spaniards?
+
+    2. Find Roanoke Island on the map.
+
+    3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by the
+    English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of
+    discovery and exploration (1492-1600). What parts of North America
+    were still unknown? With the use of some map of the world to-day
+    make a list of the colonies of the same countries now.
+
+
+    REVIEW
+
+    1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in discovering
+    the New World, and give for each the name of the region he found.
+
+    2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which they
+    carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do, the
+    knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and Britain?
+    What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English learned to
+    do, the knowledge of which they either were already, as in the case
+    of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in the case of England
+    and France, were prepared to carry into North America?
+
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS
+
+The following references are given in the hope that they will be helpful
+to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive, but enough are given
+so that one or more books for each subject should be found in any fairly
+equipped school or public library. Some of these books may be assigned
+to the brighter or more ambitious members of the class for home
+readings. Extracts from others may be read to the class directly. Still
+others will furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller
+statements of fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A
+Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill
+and Tail (Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further
+information regarding those that are given here.
+
+
+    A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii, iii,
+    and iv.)
+
+    _(a) Histories of the Greeks_.
+
+    Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy
+    history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes;
+    Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the
+    Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
+    Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of
+    the Greeks.
+
+    _(b) Versions of some famous old Greek stories_, especially the
+    story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden Fleece,
+    the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses.
+
+    A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H.
+    A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's The
+    Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; C. H.
+    and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; Charles
+    Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in Tanglewood
+    Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the Golden Fleece in a
+    specially interesting manner. Bryant's translation of the Odyssey is
+    one of the best known versions of that story and may generally be
+    found in public libraries.
+
+    _(c) Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes_. Short accounts of the
+    lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles, Socrates,
+    Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives of Greek
+    Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece; Jennie Hall, Men
+    of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men; E.M.
+    Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and Plutarch's Lives. There
+    are several abridged editions of the latter, but those by C.E.
+    Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives,
+    are best adapted to the use of schools.
+
+    _(d) Various features of Greek Life_, as the home, the schools,
+    food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government have been
+    described in the books on Greek Life.
+
+    Among these are Bluemner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (translated
+    by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks;
+    Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker, Life in
+    Ancient Athens.
+
+    _(e) Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria_. Descriptions of these
+    great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any history of
+    Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, ch. 2, or
+    Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in Draper,
+    Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for Alexandria,
+    will serve the purpose.
+
+    _(f)_ A description of the battle of Marathon, abridged from the
+    History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M. Fling's
+    Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many incidents
+    in Greek History as the Greek writers told them.
+
+    _(g)_ A description of the materials, methods of building,
+    decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples,
+    theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek
+    Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art.
+
+    _(h)_ Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's History
+    of the Greeks, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth about the Old Greek
+    Legends, or the same author's account, Vol. I, pp. 272-295, of
+    Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden Day.
+
+    B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v, vi,
+    vii, viii and ix.)
+
+    _(a) Histories of the Romans_.
+
+    Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History;
+    How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History of Rome;
+    though the last two do not cover the entire period of Roman history.
+    Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive in style and
+    supplied with a great variety of pictures and other
+    illustrative matter.
+
+    Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the
+    Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
+    Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of the
+    chief events in Roman history.
+
+    _(b) Versions of famous old Roman stories_, especially the
+    wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the Sabine
+    Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus.
+
+    A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths; H.A.
+    Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story of the
+    Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and Harding, City of
+    Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome, gives the story of
+    Horatius at the Bridge, together with several other stories from
+    early Roman history.
+
+    _(c) Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor, Freya,
+    and Tyr (Tiw)._ C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber, Myths of
+    Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages;
+    Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie, Norse Stories; Eva
+    March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice Zimmern, Gods and Heroes
+    of the North.
+
+    _(d) The Story of Hermann_ (or the struggle between the Romans and
+    Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta Stories, pp.
+    139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of Germany.
+
+    _(e) Short Biographies of some famous Romans_. Short accounts of the
+    lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero, and Constantine are
+    given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; Harding, The City of
+    Seven Hills; and several of them in Plutarch's Lives. A simple
+    account of the Life of Hannibal, the Carthaginian enemy of Rome,
+    will also be found in these books.
+
+    _(f) Interesting phases of Roman Life_: for example, the Roman boy,
+    country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling, amusements, etc.
+    See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero; H.W.
+    Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B. Platner, Topography
+    and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World
+    of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of Roman life are described in
+    F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma.
+
+    _(g)_ For descriptions of incidents in Roman history and phases of
+    Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them, see Botsford,
+    Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman History.
+
+    C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and xiii.)
+
+    _(a) Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages_. G.B.
+    Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of Spain
+    from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic;
+    J.R. Green, Short History of the English People; E.F. Henderson, A
+    Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short History of Italy.
+
+    _(b) Collection of stories adapted to children of the grades_: The
+    Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table,
+    the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland. These stories have
+    all been written many times, and any librarian can give the reader
+    copies of them as told by several writers. The following is a
+    partial list only:
+
+    A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends
+    Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages;
+    Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan, European
+    Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland; Frances N. Greene,
+    Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence Holbrook, Northland
+    Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's King Arthur; Stevens and
+    Allen, King Arthur Stories from Malory.
+
+    _(c) Famous Men of the Middle Ages_; for example, Charlemagne, King
+    Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the Conqueror, Frederick
+    Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King John, Saint Louis of
+    France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg.
+
+    See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise Creighton,
+    Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of
+    Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren and Poland,
+    Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of the Middle
+    Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of England;
+    M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps in the
+    History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva March
+    Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from English
+    History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the Poets.
+    Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great Traveler,
+    is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story of his
+    travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has been
+    reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32.
+
+    _(d) Viking Tales_. The interesting stories of the Northern
+    discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie Hall,
+    Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the Lucky,
+    and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland).
+
+    _(e) The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals_. Other
+    kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be obtained
+    in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202; Pennsylvania
+    Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16; or in Thatcher
+    and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton, Introduction to
+    the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent explanation of mediaeval
+    methods of trial.
+
+    _(f) Famous accounts of how the People of England won the Magna
+    Charta_.
+
+    Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181;
+    Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson,
+    Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source
+    Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303.
+
+    _(g) Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life_. Maude B. Dutton, Little
+    Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on How a Page became a
+    Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding, The Story of the Middle
+    Ages, especially the chapters describing life in castle, life in
+    village, and life in monastery. Eva March Tappan, European Hero
+    Stories, especially the topic, Life in Middle Ages, p. 118, the
+    Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna Charta, p. 111.
+
+    D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America. (For
+    use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.)
+
+    _(a) Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations_. E.G.
+    Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2 volumes;
+    and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World.
+
+    _(b) Short, easy biographies of famous explorers_. (Da Gama,
+    Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and Raleigh.)
+
+    Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F. Gordy,
+    Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance of
+    Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times; Higginson,
+    Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B. Hodgdon, A
+    First Course in American History, Book I; W.H. Johnson, The World's
+    Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of Columbus and Magellan;
+    Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L. Pratt, America's Story for
+    America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude V.D. Southworth, Builders of
+    our Country, Book I; Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the
+    Southwest.
+
+    _(c) Stories of explorations as told by the explorers themselves_.
+
+    Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart, Source
+    Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early accounts of John
+    Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart, Source Readers, No.
+    1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of De Soto as described by
+    one of his followers, in Hart, Source Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old
+    South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado; Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31,
+    the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35, Cortes' Account of the City of
+    Mexico; No. 36, The Death of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages
+    of the Cabots; No. 89, The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The
+    First Voyage to Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No.
+    116, Sir Francis Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118,
+    Gilbert's Expedition; No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke.
+
+    _(d) The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,_ of Cortes,
+    Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of the Missions. (See
+    Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.)
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acropolis,
+Africa, explored,
+Aldine Press,
+Alexander the Great,
+Alexandria,
+  founded,
+  end of trade route,
+Alfred, King,
+Alps,
+  Hannibal crosses,
+Alva, in Netherlands,
+America,
+  discovered by Columbus,
+  origin of name,
+Amphitheater,
+  at Rome,
+  Arles,
+Anglo-Saxons,
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
+Apollo,
+Aqueducts,
+  Roman,
+  Aztec,
+Arabic numerals,
+Arabs,
+  see Mohammedans,
+Arches,
+  Roman,
+  triumphal,
+  Gothic,
+  in Renaissance,
+Architecture,
+  Greek,
+  Roman,
+  early Church,
+  Mediaeval,
+  Renaissance,
+Aristocracy,
+  origin of,
+Armada (ar-ma'da),
+  expedition of,
+Arms, Athenian,
+  Gallic,
+  Mediaeval,
+  Aztec,
+Arthur, King,
+Astrolabe,
+Athens,
+Augustus, Emperor,
+Azores,
+Aztecs,
+
+Bahama Islands,
+Balboa (balbo'a),
+Basilicas,
+Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu),
+Beggars of the Sea,
+Black Sea,
+Bologna (bo-lon'ya),
+  University of,
+Boniface,
+Books,
+  Greek,
+  carried to Italy,
+  see printing,
+Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o),
+Boxing, Greek,
+Britain,
+  name changed to England,
+Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um),
+  founded,
+  named Constantinople,
+
+Cabot, John,
+Cabot, Sebastian,
+Caesar, Julius,
+Calvin, John,
+Cambridge, University of,
+Canary Islands,
+Cannae, battle of,
+Canterbury,
+Cape of Good Hope,
+Cape Horn,
+Caroline, Fort,
+  settlement,
+  destroyed,
+Carthaginians,
+Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya),
+Castles,
+Cathedrals,
+Caudine Forks,
+Caxton, William,
+Census, Roman,
+Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain),
+Charybdis (ka-rib'dis),
+China,
+Christianity,
+Cibola,
+  see Seven Cities
+Cincinnatus,
+Clergy,
+Coligny (ko'len'ye),
+Colonies, Greek,
+  Roman,
+  Spanish,
+  French,
+  English,
+Colorado, Canyon of,
+Colosseum,
+Columbus, Christopher.
+  discoveries of,
+Compass, origin of,
+Constantine,
+Constantinople,
+  founded,
+  renamed,
+  educated men of,
+  taken by Turks,
+Consuls, at Rome,
+Corinth,
+Corinthian pillars,
+Coronado, Francisco,
+Cortes, Hernando,
+  conquest of Mexico,
+Courts,
+  Greek,
+  English,
+Crusades,
+Cuba,
+Cumae,
+
+Danes,
+  see Northmen,
+  Normans,
+Dare, Virginia,
+Delphi,
+Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez),
+De Soto, Fernando,
+Diaz, Bartholomew,
+Discus thrower,
+Doric pillars,
+Drake, Sir Francis,
+  adventures in America,
+  voyage around world,
+  attack on Spain,
+Duke, origin of word,
+Dutch, war for independence,
+
+East, The,
+  defined,
+  search for sea routes,
+Education,
+  Greek,
+  Roman,
+  Mediaeval,
+Egyptians,
+Elizabeth, Queen,
+England,
+  first known,
+  inhabited by Britons,
+  conquered by Romans,
+  name,
+  christianized,
+  Danes in,
+  in Middle Ages,
+  aids Dutch,
+  navy,
+  war with Spain,
+English explorations and colonies,
+English language, origin,
+Erasmus,
+Eric the Red,
+Espanola (es-pan-yo'la)
+Euclid,
+
+Fairs, Mediaeval,
+Ferdinand, King,
+Florida,
+  origin of name,
+  exploration,
+  St. Augustine in,
+France,
+  see Gauls,
+  name,
+  Danes in,
+  in Middle Ages,
+  sailors of,
+  colonies in America,
+Francis I, King,
+French language,
+Friar Marcos,
+Friday, origin of name,
+Frieze,
+Frobisher, Martin,
+
+Gama, Vasco da,
+Games,
+  Greek,
+  Roman,
+Gauls,
+Genoa,
+Germany,
+  language,
+  early,
+  name,
+  early emigrants from,
+  missionaries to,
+Gilbert, Humphrey,
+Girgenti (jer-jen'te),
+  temple at,
+Gladiators,
+Gothic architecture,
+Goths,
+Government,
+  at Athens,
+  at Rome,
+  in England,
+Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius,
+Great Charter,
+Greece,
+  language of,
+  early history,
+  manner of living in,
+  colonies,
+  rivals,
+  conquered by Rome,
+  and the Renaissance,
+Greenland,
+Gregory, Pope,
+Guam,
+Guilds,
+Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk),
+Gymnasium, Greek,
+
+Hannibal,
+Hawkins, John,
+Hayti, see Espanola,
+Henry, Prince, the Navigator,
+Henry II, of England,
+Henry VIII, of England,
+Hercules,
+Hermann,
+Hermes,
+Herodotus (herod'otus),
+Homer,
+Horatius,
+House of Commons,
+House of Lords,
+Houses,
+  Greek,
+  Roman,
+  Aztec,
+  in Cibola,
+Huguenots (hu'ge-nots),
+  origin of,
+  in America,
+  and Dutch,
+
+Iceland,
+Incas,
+India,
+Indians,
+  origin of name,
+  of Mexico,
+  of Peru,
+  as slaves,
+  missions to,
+  and De Soto,
+  in Cibola,
+  in Quivira,
+  at Roanoke,
+Indies,
+Ionic pillars,
+Isabella, Queen of Spain,
+Isabella, town in Espanola,
+Italy,
+  Greeks in,
+  Romans masters of,
+  farmers in,
+  Goths invade,
+  Mediaeval,
+  Renaissance in,
+
+Japan,
+Jerusalem,
+Jews,
+John, King of England,
+Jury, origin of,
+Justice,
+  Greek,
+  English,
+Justinian,
+
+Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne)
+Knights,
+
+Las Casas (ca'sas),
+Latin,
+  words,
+  literature,
+  learned by the Gauls,
+  in Middle Ages,
+  in Renaissance,
+Law,
+  Roman,
+  English,
+Leif Ericson,
+London,
+Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la)
+Luther, Martin,
+
+Madeira Islands (madei'ra),
+Magellan,
+Magellan, Strait of,
+Magna Charta,
+Marathon,
+Marco Polo,
+Marseilles (mar-salz),
+Mary, Queen of England,
+Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath)
+Mexico, conquest of,
+Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo),
+Middle Ages,
+  defined,
+  close,
+Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez)
+Missionaries,
+Missions, Spanish,
+Mississippi River, discovery of,
+Modern Times, defined,
+Mohammedans,
+Moluccas,
+Monasteries,
+Mongol Tartars,
+Montezuma, King of Aztecs,
+Montreal,
+Moors,
+Mosaics,
+
+Naples,
+Navy,
+  English,
+  in battle against the Armada,
+Netherlands, revolt of,
+New Testament,
+  Greek,
+  first printed,
+Nobles,
+Norman architecture,
+Norman Conquest,
+Normans,
+Northmen,
+Notre Dame (no'tr'dam)
+  in Paris,
+
+Odin,
+Olympia,
+Olympic games,
+Ordeals,
+Oxford, University of,
+
+Pacific Ocean,
+Paestum (pes'tum),
+Paintings, Greek,
+Panama,
+Pantheon (Pan'theon),
+Papyrus (pa-pi'rus),
+Paris,
+Parliament, English, origin of,
+Parthenon (par'thenon),
+Patagonia,
+Patricians,
+Paul, the Apostle,
+Peasants,
+Pediment,
+Persia,
+Peru, conquest of,
+Petrarch (pe'trark),
+Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez),
+Philip II,
+Philippines,
+Phoenicia,
+Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro),
+  conquest of Peru,
+Plataeans,
+Plato,
+Plebeians,
+Pompeii (pom-pa'ye),
+Pompey,
+Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on),
+Pope, the Bishop of Rome,
+Porticoes,
+Portugal,
+  sailors of,
+  and the New World,
+Potato, found by Magellan,
+Pottery,
+  Greek,
+  Aztec,
+  Zuni,
+Printing, invented,
+Ptolemy (tol'e-mi),
+Pyrrhus (pir'us),
+
+Quebec,
+Quivira,
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter,
+Renaissance (ren'e-sans),
+Richard, the Lionhearted,
+Roads, Roman,
+Roanoke,
+Roman Empire,
+  size,
+  origin,
+Roman type,
+Romans,
+  language,
+  see Latin, early,
+  contact with Greeks,
+  wars in Italy,
+  early manner of living,
+  war with Carthage,
+  conquer Gaul and Britain,
+  Empire of,
+  civilization of,
+  Christianized,
+  empire ruined,
+  literature of,
+  influence,
+Romanesque architecture,
+Romulus,
+
+Salamis,
+Samnites,
+San Salvador,
+St. Augustine,
+Sardinia,
+Saxons,
+Sculpture, Greek,
+Scylla (sil'a),
+Senators, at Rome,
+Seven Cities of Cibola,
+Shakespeare,
+Ships,
+  Greek,
+  early English,
+  Venetian,
+  of Columbus,
+  of English navy,
+Sicily,
+Sidney, Sir Philip,
+Simon de Montfort,
+Slaves,
+  Greek,
+  Roman,
+  Indians as,
+  Negroes as,
+Slave-trade,
+  Spanish,
+  English,
+Socrates (sok'ra-tez),
+Spain, early settlements in,
+  Romans capture,
+  name,
+  Arabs in,
+  Columbus and,
+  claim to New World,
+  colonies of,
+  war with Netherlands,
+  war with England,
+Sparta,
+Spice Islands,
+Spice trade,
+Stadium,
+Statues, Greek,
+
+Temples, Greek,
+Theater,
+  Greek,
+  early Roman,
+  later,
+Thebes,
+Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez),
+Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le),
+Theseum (these'um),
+Thor,
+Thursday, origin of name,
+"Tin Islands,"
+Towns, in Middle Ages,
+Trade, Mediaeval,
+Trade-winds,
+Trebia, battle of,
+Trial by battle,
+Tribune, Roman,
+Trireme,
+Troy,
+Turks,
+"Twelve Tables,"
+Tyre,
+
+Ulfilas,
+Ulysses,
+Universities,
+
+Venice,
+Venus of Melos,
+Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix),
+Vespucius, Americus,
+Veto, at Rome,
+Vikings,
+Vinland,
+Virginia,
+  origin of name,
+  colony in,
+
+Watling Island,
+Wednesday, origin of name,
+West Indies,
+White, John,
+William the Conqueror,
+William of Orange,
+Wodan,
+Women, Roman,
+Words,
+Writing, art of,
+
+Xerxes (zurk'zez),
+
+Zuni,
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History, by
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