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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN
+HISTORY, by HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History, by 
+Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Introductory American History
+
+Author: Henry Eldridge Bourne
+        Elbert Jay Benton
+
+Posting Date: October 24, 2011 [EBook #9897]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: October 28, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Gundry and PG
+Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table align="center" width="90%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
+cellspacing="0" summary="bookspace">
+<tr>
+<td><br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2 class="c2">INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2>
+<p>BY</p>
+<p>HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON</p>
+<p>PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2>1912</h2>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>This volume is the introductory part of a course in American
+history embodying the plan of study recommended by the Committee
+of Eight of the American Historical Association.<a href=
+"#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> <a name="FNanchor1">The plan</a>
+calls for a continuous course running through grades six, seven,
+and eight. The events which have taken place within the limits of
+what is now the United States must necessarily furnish the most
+of the content of the lessons. But the Committee urge that enough
+other matter, of an introductory character, be included to teach
+boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of age that our
+civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of the
+Old World. Such introductory study will enable them to think of
+our country in its true historical setting. The Committee
+recommend that about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to
+this preliminary matter, and that the remainder of the year be
+given to the period of discovery and exploration.</p>
+<p>The plan of the Committee of Eight emphasizes three or four
+lines of development in the world's history leading up to
+American history proper.</p>
+<p>First, there was a movement of conquest or colonization by
+which the ancient civilized world, originally made up of
+communities like the Greeks and Phoenicians in the Aegean and
+eastern Mediterranean Seas, spread to southern Italy and adjacent
+lands. The Roman conquest of Italy and of the barbarian tribes of
+western Europe expanded the civilized world to the shores of the
+Atlantic. Within this greater Roman world new nations grew up.
+The migration of Europeans to the American continent was the
+final step.</p>
+<p>Second, accompanying the growth of the civilized world in
+extent was a growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth, or of
+what we call geography. Columbus was a geographer as well as the
+herald of an expanding world.</p>
+<p>A third process was the creation and transmission of all that
+we mean by civilization. Here, as the Committee remark, the
+effort should be to "show, in a very simple way, the civilization
+which formed the heritage of those who were to go to America,
+that is, to explain what America started with."</p>
+<p>The Committee also suggest that it is necessary "to associate
+the three or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in
+American colonization with enough of their characteristic
+incidents to give the child some feeling for the name 'England,'
+'Spain,' 'Holland,' and 'France.'"</p>
+<p>No attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of
+Greece, Rome, England, or any other country of Europe. Such an
+attempt would be utterly destructive of the plan. Only those
+features of early civilization and those incidents of history
+have been selected which appear to have a vital relation to the
+subsequent fortunes of mankind in America as well as in Europe.
+They are treated in all cases as introductory. Opinions may
+differ upon the question of what topics best illustrate the
+relation. The Committee leaves a wide margin of opportunity for
+the exercise of judgment in selection. In the use of a textbook
+based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of
+selection. For example, we have chosen the story of Marathon to
+illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of Greece. Others may
+prefer Thermopylae, because this story seems to possess a simpler
+dramatic development. In the same way teachers may desire to give
+more emphasis to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval
+civilization or certain heroic persons treated very briefly in
+this book. Exercises similar to those inserted at the end of each
+chapter offer means of supplementing work provided in the
+text.</p>
+<p>The story of American discovery and exploration in the plan of
+the Committee of Eight follows the introductory matter as a
+natural culmination. In our textbook we have adhered to the same
+plan of division. The work of the seventh grade will, therefore,
+open with the study of the first permanent English
+settlements.</p>
+<p>The discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than
+most of the earlier incidents, but whatever is referred to is
+treated, we hope, with such simplicity and definiteness of
+statement that it will be comprehensible and instructive to
+pupils of the sixth grade.</p>
+<p>At the close of the book will be found a list of references.
+From this teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and
+descriptions to illustrate any features of the subject which
+especially interest their classes. In the index is given the
+pronunciation of difficult names.</p>
+<p>We wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with
+wise advice and criticism.</p>
+<blockquote><a href="#FNanchor1">[1]</a><a name="Footnote_1">The
+Study of History in Elementary Schools. Scribner's,
+1909.</a></blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<table border="0" summary="Contents" cellspacing="2" cellpadding=
+"0">
+<tr>
+<td width="75" align="center"> </td>
+<td width="516">
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center"> </td>
+<td width="516"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3892"></a>CHAPTER</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="4451"></a>I.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#2260">THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2589"></a>II.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1086">OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="4974"></a>III.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#2718">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="1808"></a>IV.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#3618">GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="4930"></a>V.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1080">NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3582"></a>VI.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#3538">THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3165"></a>VII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4038">THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF
+THE ATLANTIC</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="1050"></a>VIII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1461">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3639"></a>IX.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4119">CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2725"></a>X.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#3638">EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3319"></a>XI.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1175">HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN
+THEMSELVES</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3039"></a>XII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4072">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3986"></a>XIII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4657">TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE
+LATER MIDDLE AGES</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2963"></a>XIV.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#2209">THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2434"></a>XV.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4968">OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW
+WORLD</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3614"></a>XVI.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#2556">EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS OF THE
+MAINLAND</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2459"></a>XVII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4514">THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH
+AMERICA</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="3853"></a>XVIII.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4361">RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2317"></a>XIX.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1511">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE
+AMERICA</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="1276"></a>XX.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#4788">THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER
+SPAIN</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4><a name="2767"></a>XXI.</h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a href="#1568">THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE
+AMERICA</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4> </h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a name="1597"></a><a href="#4410">REFERENCES FOR
+TEACHERS</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="75" valign="top" align="center">
+<h4> </h4>
+</td>
+<td width="516">
+<h4><a name="1510"></a><a href="#4994">INDEX AND PRONOUNCING
+VOCABULARY</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY</h2>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="2260"></a><a href="#4451">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
+<p>THE SCATTERED CHILDREN OF EUROPE</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><b>The Emigrant and what he brings to America</b>. The
+emigrant who lands at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or any
+other seaport, brings with him something which we do not see. He
+may have in his hands only a small bundle of clothing and enough
+money to pay his railroad fare to his new home, but he is
+carrying another kind of baggage more valuable than bundles or
+boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold. This other baggage is
+the knowledge, the customs, and the memories he has brought from
+the fatherland.</p>
+<p>He has already learned in Europe how to do the work at which
+he hopes to labor in America. In his native land he has been
+taught to obey the laws and to do his duty as a citizen. This
+fits him to share in our self-government. He also brings great
+memories, for he likes to think of the brave and noble deeds done
+by men of his race. If he is a religious man, he worships God
+just as his forefathers have for hundreds of years. To understand
+how the emigrant happens to know what he does and to be what he
+is, we must study the history of the country from which he
+comes.</p>
+<p><b>All Americans are Emigrants</b>. If this is true of the
+newcomer, it is equally true of the rest of us, for we are all
+emigrants. The Indians are the only native Americans, and when we
+find out more about them we may learn that they, too, are
+emigrants. If we follow the history of our families far enough
+back, we shall come upon the names of our forefathers who sailed
+from Europe. They may have come to America in the early days when
+there were only a few settlements scattered along our Atlantic
+coast, or they may have come since the Revolutionary War changed
+the English colonies into the United States.</p>
+<p>Like the Canadians, the South Americans, and the Australians,
+we are simply Europeans who have moved away. The story of the
+Europe in which our forefathers lived is, therefore, part of our
+story. In order to understand our own history we must know
+something of the history of England, France, Germany, Italy, and
+other European lands.</p>
+<p><b>What the early Emigrants brought</b>. If we read the story
+of our forefathers before they left Europe, we shall find answers
+to several important questions. Why, we ask, did Columbus seek
+for new lands or for new ways to lands already known? How did the
+people of Europe live at the time he discovered America? What did
+they know how to do? Were they skilful in all sorts of work, or
+were they as rude and ignorant as the Indians on the western
+shores of the Atlantic?</p>
+<p>The answers which history will give to these questions will
+say that the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought
+with them much of the same knowledge and many of the same customs
+and memories which emigrants bring nowadays and which we also
+have. It is true that since the time the first settlers came men
+have found out how to make many new things. The most important of
+these are the steam-engine, the electric motor, the telegraph,
+and the telephone. But it is surprising how many important
+things, which we still use, were made before Columbus saw
+America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="009.gif" src=
+"images/009.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A MODERN STEAMSHIP AND AN EARLY SAILING
+VESSEL<br>
+The early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered
+great hardships</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>For one thing, men knew how to print books. This art had been
+discovered during the boyhood of Columbus. Another thing, men
+could make guns, while the Indians had only bows and arrows. The
+ships in which Columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large
+and wonderful to the Indians, who used canoes. The ships were
+steered with the help of a compass, an instrument which the
+Indians had never seen.</p>
+<p>Some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been
+known hundreds or thousands of years before. One of the oldest
+was the art of writing. The way to write words or sounds was
+found out so long ago that we shall never know the name of the
+man who first discovered it. The historians tell us he lived in
+Egypt, which was in northern Africa, exactly where Egypt is now.
+Some men were afraid that the new art might do more harm than
+good. The king to whom the secret was told thought that the
+children would be unwilling to work hard and try to remember
+because everything could be written down and they would not need
+to use their memories. The Egyptians at first used pictures to
+put their words upon rocks or paper, and even after they made
+several letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a
+mixture of little pictures and queer marks.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="010.gif" src=
+"images/010.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">EGYPTIAN PHONETIC WRITING</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Old and New Inventions</b>. Those who first discover how to
+make things are called inventors, and what they make are called
+inventions. Now if we should write out a list of the most useful
+inventions, we could place in one column the inventions which
+were made before the days of Columbus and in another those which
+have been made since. With this list before us we may ask which
+inventions we could live without and which we could not spare
+unless we were willing to become like the savages. We should find
+that a large number of the inventions which we use every day
+belong to the set of things older than Columbus. This is another
+reason why, if we wish to understand our ways of living and
+working, we must ask about the history of the countries where our
+forefathers lived. It is the beginning of our own history.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="011.gif" src=
+"images/011.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"> </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>A Plan of Study</b>. The discovery of America was made in
+1492, at the beginning of what we call Modern Times. Before
+Modern Times were the Middle Ages, lasting about a thousand
+years. These began three or four hundred years after the time of
+Christ or what we call the beginning of the Christian Era. All
+the events that took place earlier we say happened in Ancient
+Times. Much that we know was learned first by the Greeks or
+Romans who lived in Ancient Times.</p>
+<p>It is in the Middle Ages that we first hear of peoples called
+Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Dutchmen, Italians, Spaniards,
+and many others now living in Great Britain and on the Continent
+of Europe. We shall learn first of the Greeks and Romans and of
+what they knew and succeeded in doing, and then shall find out
+how these things were learned by the peoples of the Middle Ages
+and what they added to them. This will help us to find out what
+our forefathers started with when they came to live in
+America.</p>
+<br>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What does the emigrant from Europe bring to America besides
+his baggage?</p>
+<p>2. Why are all Americans emigrants?</p>
+<p>3. What did the earliest emigrants from Europe to America
+bring with them?</p>
+<p>4. Which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone
+or the art of writing? Who invented this art? Find Egypt on the
+map. How did Egyptian writing look?</p>
+<p>5. Why was it a help to Columbus that gunpowder and guns were
+invented before he discovered America?</p>
+<p>6. When did the Christian Era begin? What is meant by Ancient
+Times? By the Middle Ages? By Modern Times? In what Times was the
+art of writing invented? In what Times was the compass invented?
+In what Times was the telephone invented?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Collect from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising
+folders, pictures of ocean steamships. Collect pictures of
+sailing ships, ships used now and those used long ago.</p>
+<p>2. Collect from persons who have recently come to this country
+stories of how they traveled from Europe to America, and from
+ports like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to where they now
+live.</p>
+<p>3. Let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the
+map the European country from which his parents or his
+grandparents or his forefathers came.</p>
+<p>4. Let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his
+forefathers had in the "fatherland" or "mother country." Let each
+find out the manner in which the holidays were kept. Let each
+tell the most interesting hero story from among the stories of
+the mother country or fatherland. Let each find out whether the
+tools used in the old home were like the tools his parents use
+here.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1086"></a><a href="#2589">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>OUR EARLIEST TEACHERS</p>
+<p><b>Ancient Cities that still exist</b>. In Ancient Times the
+most important peoples lived on the shores of the Mediterranean.
+The northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas. The
+first is Spain, which separates the Mediterranean Sea from the
+Atlantic Ocean; the second, shaped like a boot, is Italy; and the
+third, the end of which looks like a mulberry leaf, is Greece.
+Beyond Greece is Asia Minor, the part of Asia which lies between
+the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. (See the <a name=
+"1897"></a><a href="#4350">map[2]</a>.)</p>
+<p>The Italians now live in Italy, but the Romans lived there in
+Ancient Times. The people who live in Greece are called Greeks,
+just as they were more than two thousand years ago. Many of the
+cities that the Greeks and Romans built are still standing.
+Alexandria was founded by the great conqueror Alexander.
+Constantinople used to be the Greek city of Byzantium. Another
+Greek city, Massilia, has become the modern French city of
+Marseilles. Rome had the same name in Ancient Times, except that
+it was spelled Roma. The Romans called Paris by the name of
+Lutetia, and London they called Lugdunum.</p>
+<p><b>Ruins which show how the Ancients lived</b>. In many of
+these cities are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings, bits of
+carving, vases, mosaics, sometimes even wall paintings, which we
+may see and from which we may learn how the Greeks and Romans
+lived. Near Naples are the ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city
+suddenly destroyed during an eruption of the volcano
+Vesuvius.</p>
+<p>For hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or
+twenty feet of ashes. When these were taken away, the old streets
+and the walls of the houses could be seen. No roofs were left and
+the walls in many places were only partly standing, but things
+which in other ancient cities had entirely disappeared were kept
+safe in Pompeii under the volcanic ashes.</p>
+<p>The traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see
+how its inhabitants lived two thousand years ago. He can visit
+their public buildings and their private houses, can handle their
+dishes and can look at the paintings on their walls or the
+mosaics in the floors. But interesting as Pompeii is, we must not
+think that its ruins teach us more than the ruins of Rome or
+Athens or many other ancient cities. Each has something important
+to tell us of the people who lived long ago.</p>
+<p><b>Ancient Words still in Use</b>. The ancient Greeks and
+Romans have left us some things more useful than the ruins of
+their buildings. These are the words in our language which once
+were theirs, and which we use with slight changes in spelling.
+Most of our words came in the beginning from Germany, where our
+English forefathers lived before they settled in England. To the
+words they took over from Germany they added words borrowed from
+other peoples, just as we do now. We have recently borrowed
+several words from the French, such as tonneau and limousine,
+words used to describe parts of an automobile, besides the name
+automobile itself, which is made up of a Latin and a Greek
+word.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="015.gif" src=
+"images/015.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII<br>
+The houses of the better sort were<br>
+built with an open court in the center</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In this way, for hundreds of years, words have been coming
+into our language from other languages. Several thousand have
+come from Latin, the language of the Romans; several hundred from
+Greek, either directly or passed on to us by the Romans or the
+French. The word school is Greek, and the word arithmetic was
+borrowed from the French, who took it from the Greeks. Geography
+is another word which came, through French and Latin, from the
+Greeks, to whom it meant that which is written about the earth.
+The word grammar came in the same way. The word alphabet is made
+by joining together the names of the first two Greek letters,
+alpha and beta.</p>
+<p>Many words about religion are borrowed from the Greeks, and
+this is not strange, for the New Testament was written in Greek.
+Some of these are Bible, church, bishop, choir, angel, devil,
+apostle, and martyr. The Greeks have handed down to us many words
+about government, including the word itself, which in the
+beginning meant "to steer." Politics meant having to do with a
+<i>polis</i> or city. Several of the words most recently made up
+of Greek words are telegraph, telephone, phonograph, and
+thermometer.</p>
+<p><b>Many Words borrowed from the Romans</b>. Nearly ten times
+as many of our words are borrowed from the Romans as from the
+Greeks, and it is not strange, because at one time the Romans
+ruled over all the country now occupied by the Italians, the
+French, the Spaniards, a part of the Germans, and the English, so
+that these peoples naturally learned the words used by their
+conquerors and governors.</p>
+<p><b>Interesting Ancient Stories</b>. In the poems and tales
+which we learn at home or at school are stories which Greek and
+Roman parents and teachers taught their children many hundred
+years ago. We learn them partly because they are interesting, and
+because they please or amuse us, and partly because they appear
+so often in our books that it is necessary to know them if we
+would understand our own books and language. Who has not heard of
+Hercules and his Labors, of the Search for the Golden Fleece, the
+Siege of Troy, or the Wanderings of Ulysses? We love modern fairy
+stories and tales of adventure, but they are not more pleasing
+than these ancient stories.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="017.gif" src=
+"images/017.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE PLAIN OF MARATHON</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Story of the Greeks</b>. Our language and our books are
+full of memories of Greek and Roman deeds of courage. The story
+of the Greeks comes before the story of the Romans, for the
+Greeks were living in beautiful cities, with temples and
+theaters, while the Romans were still an almost unknown people
+dwelling on the hills that border the river Tiber.</p>
+<p><b>Memories of Greek Courage</b>.<a name="3953"></a><a href=
+"#4598">[11]</a> The most heroic deeds of the Greeks took place
+in a great war between the Greek cities and the kingdom of Persia
+about five hundred years before Christ. In those days there was
+no kingdom called Greece, such as the geographies now describe.
+Instead there were cities, a few of which were ruled by kings,
+others by the citizens themselves. These cities banded together
+when any danger threatened them. Sometimes one city turned
+traitor and helped the enemy against the others. The most
+dangerous enemy the Greeks had, until the Romans attacked them,
+was the kingdom of Persia, which stretched from the Aegean Sea
+far into Asia. In the war with the Persians the Greeks fought
+three famous battles, at Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, the
+stories of which men have always liked to hear and remember.</p>
+<p><b>Preparing for Marathon, 490 B.C.</b> To the Athenians
+belong the glories of Marathon. They lived where the modern city
+of Athens now stands. The ruins of their temples and theaters
+still attract students and travelers to Greece. The plain of
+Marathon lay more than twenty miles to the northeast, and the
+roads to it led through mountain passes. When the Athenians heard
+that the hosts of the Great King of Persia were approaching, they
+sent a runner, Pheidippides by name, to ask aid of Sparta, a city
+one hundred and forty miles away, in the peninsula now called the
+Morea, where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of Greece. This runner
+reached Sparta on the second day, but the Spartans said it would
+be against their religious custom to march before the moon was
+full. The Athenians saw that they must meet the enemy alone--one
+small city against a mighty empire. They called their ten
+thousand men together and set out. On the way they were joined by
+a thousand more, the whole army of the brave little town of
+Plataea.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="019.gif" src=
+"images/019.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GREEK SOLDIERS IN ARMS<br>
+From a Greek vase of about the time of the battle of
+Marathon</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>How the Athenians were Armed</b>. Although the Persians had
+six times as many soldiers as the Athenians, they were not so
+well armed for hand to hand fighting. Their principal weapon was
+the bow and arrow, while the Greeks used the lance and a short
+sword. The Greek soldier was protected by his bronze helmet,
+solid across the forehead and over the nose; by his breastplate,
+a leathern or linen tunic covered with small metal scales, with
+flaps hanging below his hips; and by greaves or pieces of metal
+in front of his knees and shins. He was also protected by a
+shield, often long enough to reach from his face to his knees.
+According to a strange custom the Athenians were led by ten
+generals, each commanding one day in turn.</p>
+<p><b>The Battle-ground</b>. Marathon was a plain about two miles
+wide, lying between the mountains and the sea. From it two roads
+ran toward Athens, one along the shore where the hills almost
+reached the sea, the other up a narrow valley and over the
+mountains. The Athenians were encamped in this valley, where they
+could attack the Persians if they tried to follow the shore
+road.</p>
+<p>The Persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near
+the shore. They wanted to fight in the open plain because they
+had so many more soldiers than the Athenians and because they
+meant to use their horsemen. For some time the Athenians watched
+the Persians, not knowing what it was best to do. Half the
+generals did not wish to risk a battle, but Miltiades was eager
+to fight, for he feared that delay would lead timid citizens or
+traitors to yield to the Persians. He finally gained his wish,
+and on his day of command the battle was ordered.</p>
+<p><b>The Battle</b>. The Persians by this time had decided to
+sail around to the harbor of Athens and had taken their horsemen
+on board their ships. When they saw the Greeks coming they drew
+up their foot-soldiers in deep masses. The Athenians and their
+comrades--the Plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run.
+The Persians thought this madness, because the Greeks had no
+archers or horsemen. But the Greeks saw that if they moved
+forward slowly the Persians would have time to shoot arrows at
+them again and again.</p>
+<p>When the Greeks rushed upon the Persians the soldiers at the
+two ends of the Persian line gave way and fled towards the shore.
+In the center, where the best Persian soldiers stood, the Greeks
+were not at first successful, and were forced to retreat. But
+those who had been victorious came to their rescue, attacked the
+Persians in the rear, and finally drove them off. The Persians
+ran into the sea to reach the ships, and the Athenians followed
+them. Some of the Greeks were so eager in the fight that they
+seized the sides of the ships and tried to keep them from being
+rowed away, but the Persians cut at their hands and made them let
+go.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="021.gif" src=
+"images/021.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE STRAITS OF SALAMIS<br>
+Where a great sea-fight between<br>
+Greeks and Persians took place</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The News of the Victory</b>. The Athenians had won a
+victory of which they were so proud that they meant it never
+should be forgotten. Their city had suddenly become great through
+the courage and self-sacrifice of her citizens. One hundred and
+ninety-two Greeks had fallen, and on the battle-field their
+comrades raised over their bodies a mound of earth which still
+marks their tomb. The victors sent the runner Pheidippides to
+bear the news to Athens. Over the hills he ran until he reached
+the market place, and there, with the message of triumph on his
+lips, he fell dead.</p>
+<p><b>Other Victories of the Greeks</b>. Marathon was only the
+beginning of Greek victories over the Persians, only the first
+struggle in the long wars between Europe and Asia. Ten years
+after Marathon the Spartans won everlasting glory by their heroic
+stand at the Pass of Thermopylae --three hundred Greeks against
+the mighty army of the Persian king Xerxes. The barbarian hordes
+passed over their bodies, took the road to Athens, burned the
+city, but were soon beaten in the sea-fight which took place on
+the waters lying between the mainland of Athenian territory and
+the island of Salamis. This victory was also due to Athenian
+courage and leadership, for the Athenians and their leader,
+Themistocles, were resolved to stay and fight, although the other
+Greeks wanted to sail away.</p>
+<p><b>Why Marathon is remembered</b>. The victories of Marathon
+and Salamis were great not only because small armies of Greeks
+put to flight the hosts of Persia, they were great because they
+saved the independence of Greece. If the Greeks had become the
+subjects and slaves of Persia, they would not have built the
+wonderful buildings, or carved the beautiful statues, or written
+the books which we study and admire. When we think of the Greeks
+as our first teachers we feel as proud of their victories as if
+they were our own victories.</p>
+<p><b>The Wars of the Greek Cities</b>. The Athenians had done
+the most in winning the victory over the Persians, and therefore
+Athens was for many years the most powerful city in Greece. The
+Spartans were always jealous of the Athenians, and in less than a
+century after the victory of Marathon they conquered and humbled
+Athens. The worst faults of the Greeks were such jealousies and
+the desire to lord it over one another. Greek history is full of
+wars of city against city, Sparta against Athens, Corinth against
+Athens, and Thebes against Sparta. In these wars many heroic
+deeds were done, of which we like to read, but it is more
+important for us to understand how the Greeks lived.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What ancient cities still exist? Find them on the <a name=
+"1921"></a><a href="#4350">map[3].</a> (For each difficult name
+find the pronunciation in the index.)</p>
+<p>2. What things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which
+tell us how the people lived?</p>
+<p>3. From what country did most of our words come in the
+beginning? Why are they now called English? What peoples used the
+word geography before we did? About how many words do we get from
+the Greeks, and how many from the Romans?</p>
+<p>4. Which people became famous earlier, the Greeks or the
+Romans? Point out on the map the peninsula where each lived.</p>
+<p>5. Why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the
+Greeks?</p>
+<p>6. Find the city of Athens on the <a name="1416"></a> <a href=
+"#4350">map[4].</a> Find Sparta. Where was Marathon? What city
+won glory at Marathon?</p>
+<p>7. What were the worst faults of the Greeks?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Collect pictures of ruined cities in Italy, Greece, and
+Asia Minor, from illustrated papers, magazines, or advertising
+folders. Collect postal cards giving such pictures.</p>
+<p>2. Choose the best one of the Greek stories mentioned <a name=
+"4598"></a><a href="#3953">[11]</a> and tell it.</p>
+<p>3. Find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed
+from the way the Greek soldiers were.</p>
+<p>4. Find out why a long distance run is now called a
+"Marathon."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="2718"></a><a href="#4974">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p class="c3">HOW THE GREEKS LIVED</p>
+<p><b>The Greek Cities.</b> The Greeks lived in cities so much of
+the time that we do not often think of them as ever living in the
+country. The reason for this was that their government and
+everything else important was carried on in the city. The cities
+were usually surrounded by high, thick stone walls, which made
+them safe from sudden attack. Within or beside the city there was
+often a lofty hill, which we should call a fort or citadel, but
+which they called the upper city or acropolis. There the people
+lived at first when they were few in number, and thither they
+fled if the walls of their city were broken down by enemies.</p>
+<p>In Athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain.
+Its top was a thousand feet long, and all the sides except one
+were steep cliffs. On it the Athenians built their most beautiful
+temples.</p>
+<p><b>Private Houses.</b> Unlike people nowadays the Greeks did
+not spend much money on their dwelling-houses. To us these houses
+would seem small, badly ventilated, and very uncomfortable. But
+what their houses lacked was more than made up by the beauty and
+splendor of the public buildings, halls, theaters, porticoes, and
+especially the temples.</p>
+<p><b>Temples</b>. The temples were not intended to hold hundreds
+of worshipers like the large churches of Europe and America
+to-day. Religious ceremonies were most often carried on in the
+open air. The Parthenon, the most famous temple of Ancient Times,
+was small. Its principal room measured less than one hundred feet
+in length. Part of this room was used for an altar and for the
+ivory and gold statue of the goddess Athena.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="025.gif" src=
+"images/025.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS AS IT IS TO-DAY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Parthenon</b>. In a picture of the Parthenon, or of a
+similar temple, we notice the columns in front and along the
+sides. The Parthenon had eight at each end and seventeen on each
+side. They were thirty-four feet high. A few feet within the
+columns on the sides was the wall of the temple. Before the
+vestibule and entrances at the front and at the rear stood six
+more columns. The beauty of the marble from which stones and
+columns were cut might have seemed enough, but the builders
+carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space (called the
+pediment) in front between the roof and the stones resting upon
+the columns. The upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above
+the columns were also carved, and continuous carvings (called a
+frieze) ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside. The
+temple was not left a glistening white, but parts of it were
+painted in blue, or red, or gilt, or orange.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="026.gif" src=
+"images/026.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE TOP OF THE ACROPOLIS 2000 YEARS AGO<br>
+The Parthenon is the large temple on the right</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Other Greek Temples.</b> This beautiful temple is now
+partly ruined. Ruins of other temples are on the Acropolis, and
+one better preserved, called the Theseum, stands on a lower hill.
+There are also similar ruins in many places along the shores of
+the Mediterranean. The most interesting are <a name="1547">at</a>
+<a href="#2229">Paestum</a> in Italy, and at Girgenti in Sicily.
+Long before these temples were ruined they had taught the Romans
+how to construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings,
+and this the Romans later taught the peoples of western
+Europe.</p>
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="027.gif" src=
+"images/027.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GREEK ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Greek Methods of Building still used.</b> If we look at our
+large buildings, we shall see much to remind us of the Greek
+buildings. Sometimes the exact form of the Greek building is
+imitated; sometimes this form is changed as the Romans changed
+it, or as it was changed by builders who lived after the time of
+the Romans. If the model of the whole building is not used, there
+are similar pillars, or gables, or the sculpture in the pediment
+and the frieze is imitated. The Greeks had three kinds of
+pillars, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric is simple
+and solid, the Ionic shows in its capital, or top, delicate and
+beautiful curves, while the Corinthian is adorned with leaves
+springing gracefully from the top of the pillar.</p>
+<table border="0" align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="028.gif" src=
+"images/028.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF THE GREEK THEATER AT EPIDAURUS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Theaters</b>. The first Greek theater was only a smooth
+open space near a hillside, with a tent, called a
+<i>sken&eacute;</i>, or scene, in which the actors dressed. Later
+an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed on the hillside,
+and across the open end was placed the <i>scene</i>, which had
+been changed into a stone building. On its front sometimes a
+house or a palace was painted, just as nowadays theaters are
+furnished with painted scenery. In these open-air theaters
+thousands of people gathered. Plays were generally given as a
+part of religious festivals, and there were contests between
+writers to see which could produce the best play. Sometimes the
+plays followed one another for three days from morning until
+night. Many of them are so interesting that people still read
+them, after twenty-five hundred years. The Romans studied them,
+and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write
+plays.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="029.gif" src=
+"images/029.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE MODERN STADIUM AT ATHENS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Stadium.</b> A building which somewhat resembled the
+theater was the stadium, where races were run. The difference was
+that it was oblong instead of half round. The most famous
+stadium, at Olympia, was seven hundred and two feet long, with
+raised seats on both sides and around one end of the running
+track. The other end was open. About fifty thousand persons used
+to gather there to watch the races.</p>
+<p><b>Porticoes.</b> There were other buildings, some for meeting
+places, some for gymnasiums, and still others called porticoes,
+where the judges held court or the city officers carried on their
+business. The porticoes were simply rows of columns, roofed over,
+with occasionally a second story. As they stretched along the
+sides of a square or market place they added much to the beauty
+of a city.</p>
+<p><b>Greek Sculpture.</b> We know that the Greeks were skilful
+sculptors because from the ruins of their cities have been dug
+wonderful marble and bronze statues which are now preserved in
+the great museums of the world, in Paris, London, Berlin, and
+Rome, and here in America, in New York and Boston. Museums which
+cannot have the original statues usually contain copies or casts
+of them in plaster. The statues are generally marred and broken,
+but enough remains to show us the wonderful beauty of the
+artist's work. Among the most famous are the Venus, of Melos (or
+"de Milo"), which stands in a special room in a museum called the
+Louvre in Paris; the Hermes in the museum of Olympia in Greece;
+and the figures from the Parthenon in the British Museum in
+London.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="030.gif" src=
+"images/030.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE DISCUS-THROWER (DISCOBOLOS)<br>
+An ancient Greek statue now in the Vatican</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Artists nowadays, like the Roman artists long ago, study the
+Greek statues and the Greek sculpture, in order that they may
+learn how such beautiful things can be made. They do not hope to
+excel the Greeks, but are content to remain their pupils.</p>
+<p><b>Painting and Pottery</b>. The Greeks were also painters,
+makers of pottery, and workers in gold and silver. Many pieces of
+their workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in
+the ruins of ancient buildings and tombs.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="031.gif" src=
+"images/031.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A GREEK BOOK<br>
+The upper picture, shows the book open</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>What the Boys were taught</b>. The Greek boys were not very
+good at arithmetic, and even grown men used counting boards or
+their fingers to help them in reckoning. In learning to write
+they smeared a thin layer of wax over a board and marked on that.
+There was a kind of paper called papyrus, made from a reed which
+grew mostly in Egypt, but this was expensive. Rolls were made of
+sheets of it pasted together, and these were their books. One of
+the books the boys studied much was the poems of Homer--the Iliad
+and the Odyssey--which tell about the siege of Troy and the
+wanderings of Ulysses. Boys often learned these long poems by
+heart. They also stored away in their memories the sayings of
+other poets and wise men, so that they could generally know what
+to think, having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in
+such excellent words.</p>
+<p><b>Games and Exercises for Boys.</b> It is not surprising that
+Greek boys knew how to play, but it is surprising that they
+played many of the games which boys play now, such as
+hide-and-seek, tug of war, ducks and drakes, and blind man's
+buff. They even "pitched pennies." In school the boys were taught
+not only to read and write, but to be skilful athletes, and to
+play on the lyre, accompanying this with singing. The gymnasium
+was often an open space near a stream into which they could
+plunge after their exercises were over. They were taught to box,
+to wrestle, to throw the discus, and to hurl the spear. Military
+training was important for them, since all might be called to
+fight for the safety of their city.</p>
+<p><b>The Olympic Games.</b> Boys and young men were trained as
+runners, wrestlers, boxers, and discus throwers, not only because
+they enjoyed these exercises and the Greeks thought them an
+important part of education, but also that they might bring back
+honors and prizes to their city from the great games which all
+the Greeks held every few years. The most famous of these games
+were held at Olympia. There the Greeks went from all parts of the
+country, carrying their tents and cooking utensils with them,
+because there were not enough houses in Olympia to hold so many
+people. Wars even were stopped for a time in order that the games
+might not be postponed.</p>
+<p><b>The Rewards of the Victors.</b> The principal contest was a
+dash for two hundred yards, although there were longer races and
+many other kinds of contests. Unfortunately the Greeks liked to
+see the most brutal sort of boxing, in which the boxer's hands
+and arms were covered with heavy strips of leather stiffened with
+pieces of iron or lead. For the games men trained ten months,
+part of the time at Olympia. The prize was a crown of wild olive,
+and the winner returned in triumph to his city, where poets sang
+his praises, a special seat at public games was reserved for him,
+and often artists were employed to make a bronze statue of him to
+be set up in Olympia or in his own city.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="033.gif" src=
+"images/033.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GREEK GAMES--RUNNING<br>
+From an antique vase</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Government of Athens.</b> The citizen of Athens, and of
+other Greek cities, had more to do with his government than do
+most Americans with theirs. As nearly all work was done by
+slaves, he had plenty of time to attend meetings. All the
+citizens could attend the great assembly, or <i>ecclesia</i>,
+where six thousand at least must be present before anything could
+be decided. By this assembly foreigners might be admitted to
+citizenship or citizens might be expelled, or ostracized, from
+Athens as hurtful to its welfare.</p>
+<p>There was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less
+important questions without laying them before the general
+assembly. This body was chosen by lot just as our juries are, but
+members of the council whose term had ended had a right to object
+to any new member as an unworthy citizen A tenth of the council
+ruled for a tenth of the year, and they chose their president by
+lot every day, so that any worthy man at Athens had a chance to
+be president for a day and a night.</p>
+<p>Many citizens also served in the courts, for there were six
+thousand judges, and in deciding important cases as many as a
+thousand and one, or even fifteen hundred and one, took part.
+Before such large courts and assemblies it was necessary to be a
+good speaker to be able to win a case or persuade the citizens.
+Some of the greatest orators of the world were Athenians, the
+best known being Demosthenes.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="034.gif" src=
+"images/034.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A DECREE OF THE COUNCIL--ABOUT 450 B.C.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Socrates.</b> The Athenians were not always just, although
+so many of them acted as judges. One court, composed of five
+hundred and one judges, condemned to death Socrates, the wisest
+man of the Greeks and one of the wisest in the world. He did not
+make speeches, or write books, or teach in school. He went about,
+in the market place, at the gymnasium, and on the streets, asking
+men, young and old, questions about what interested him most,
+that is, What is the true way to live? If people did not give him
+an answer which seemed good, he asked more questions, until
+sometimes they went away angry. Many of them thought because he
+asked questions about everything that he did not believe in
+anything, not even in the religion of his city.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="035.gif" src=
+"images/035.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SOCRATES<br>
+After the marble bust in the Vatican</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Death of Socrates, 399 B.C</b>. After a while the
+enemies of Socrates accused him of being a wicked man who
+persuaded young men to be wicked. He was tried by an Athenian
+court, which made the terrible blunder of finding him guilty and
+condemning him to death. According to the Athenian custom he was
+obliged to drink a cup of poisonous hemlock. This he did, after
+talking to his friends cheerily about how a good man should live.
+As he wrote no books we have learned about him from his friends.
+The most famous of these was Plato, who is also counted among the
+wisest men that ever lived. The story of the lives of these men
+is another gift which the Greeks made to all who were to live
+after them, and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of
+building, artistic skill, or great poems and plays.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why do we wish to know how the Greeks lived?</p>
+<p>2. What was an Acropolis? How does the Acropolis at Athens
+look?</p>
+<p>3. On the picture of the Parthenon point out the pediment.
+Show where the frieze was placed. Find on a <a name="2092"></a><a
+href="#4350">map[5]</a> Paestum.</p>
+<p>4. What did the Greeks first mean by a <i>scene</i>? Why do we
+still study Greek plays? What is left of the Greek theaters?</p>
+<p>5. What was a stadium, a portico, a gymnasium? Do we have such
+buildings?</p>
+<p>6. How do we know that the Greeks made beautiful statues?</p>
+<p>7. What games for Greek boys were like our games? Tell about
+the great public games of the Greeks.</p>
+<p>8. How were the Greek rolls or books made?</p>
+<p>9. Tell the story of Socrates.</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Are there any buildings in your town which are like Greek
+buildings?</p>
+<p>2. Find in your town Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.</p>
+<p>3. Get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a
+papered room.</p>
+<p>4. What is the difference between the government of Athens and
+the government of your town?</p>
+<p>5. What is the difference between the courts at Athens and the
+courts in your town?</p>
+<p>6. Are Olympic games held now? Where?<br>
+</p>
+<p>7. Which prizes would you prefer, the prizes given to winners
+at Greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic
+games?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="3618"></a><a href="#1808">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>GREEK EMIGRANTS OR COLONISTS</p>
+<p><b>When the Atlantic was unknown</b>. One of the most
+important things done by the men of Ancient Times was to explore
+the coasts and lands of Europe and to make settlements wherever
+they went. At first they knew little of the western and northern
+parts of Europe. Herodotus, a Greek whom we call the "Father of
+History," and who was a great traveler, said, "Though I have
+taken vast pains, I have never been able to get an assurance from
+any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side of
+Europe." By the "further side" he meant "western," and his remark
+shows that he did not know of the Atlantic Ocean. He understood
+that tin and amber came from the "Tin Islands," which he called
+the "ends of the earth." As tin came from England, it is plain
+that he had heard a little of that island.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="037.gif" src=
+"images/037.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF THE WORLD AS DESCRIBED<br>
+BY THE GREEK HISTORIAN HERODOTUS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Greek Emigrants.</b> Long before Athens became a great and
+beautiful city the Greeks had begun to make settlements on
+distant shores. Those who lived on the western coast of Asia
+Minor, as well as those who lived where the kingdom of Greece is
+now, sent out colonists or emigrants. The Greek colonies were
+very important, because by them the ancient civilized world was
+made larger, just as by the settlement of America the modern
+world was doubled in size. The colonists sailed away from home
+for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave England
+and Europe for America. They either hoped to find it easier in a
+new land to make a living and obtain property, or they did not
+like the way their city was ruled, and being unable to change
+this, resolved to build elsewhere a city which they could manage
+as they pleased.</p>
+<p><b>How they located a New City.</b> There were several
+different lands to which they could go, just as the European of
+to-day may sail for the United States or South America or
+Australia. They could attempt to settle on the shores of the
+Black Sea, or cross over to northern Africa, or try to reach
+Italy and the more distant coasts of what are now France and
+Spain. In order to choose wisely, they generally asked the advice
+of the priests of their god Apollo at his temple at Delphi. These
+priests knew more about good places for settlements than most
+other persons, because travelers from everywhere came to Delphi
+and the priests were wise enough to inquire about all parts of
+the world.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="4350"><img alt="039.gif" src=
+"images/039.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><i>The territory occupied by the Greeks<br>
+is indicated by solid black</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>     <a href="#4761">[1]</a>      <a href=
+"#1897">[2]</a>      <a href="#1921">[3]</a>      <a href=
+"#1416">[4]</a>      <a href="#2092">[5]</a>      <a href=
+"#1974">[6]</a>      <a href="#2910">[7]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to
+locate their new colony opposite the "city of the blind." They
+discovered that these words meant that an earlier band of
+emigrants had passed by the wonderful harbor of the present city
+of Constantinople and had settled instead on the other shore of
+the Bosphorus. Taught by the oracle they chose the better place
+and began to build the city of Byzantium, which later became
+Constantinople.</p>
+<p><b>Mother and Daughter Cities.</b> Solemn ceremonies took
+place when colonists departed. They carried with them fire from
+the hearth of the mother city in order to light a similar fire on
+their new hearth, for every city had its hearthstone and on it a
+fire that was never quenched. The ties between the mother and the
+daughter city were close, and the enemies of one were the enemies
+of the other. He who wished to visit the colony usually went to
+the mother city to find a ship bound thither.</p>
+<p><b>Where the Settlements were made.</b> When the Greek sailors
+first entered the Black Sea, they thought it a boundless ocean,
+and called it the Pontus, a word which means "The Main." Until
+that time they had been accustomed to sail only from island to
+island in the Aegean Sea. After a while they made settlements all
+around the shores of the Black Sea, and in later times Athens
+drew from this region her supply of grain. Still more important
+settlements were made in Sicily and southern Italy, for it was
+through these settlements that some of the things the Greeks
+knew, like the art of writing, were taught to the Italian tribes
+and to the Romans.</p>
+<p><b>Dangers of the Voyage.</b> At first Greek sailors feared
+the dangers of the western Mediterranean as much as those of the
+Black Sea. They imagined that the huge, misshapen, and dreadful
+monsters Scylla and Charybdis lurked in the Straits of Messina
+waiting to seize and swallow the unlucky passer-by. On the slopes
+of Mount Aetna dwelt, they thought, hideous, one-eyed giants, the
+Cyclops, who fed their fierce appetites with the quivering flesh
+of many captives.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="2229"></a><img alt="041.gif" src=
+"images/041.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a href="#1547">GREEK RUINS AT PAESTUM IN
+ITALY</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Greeks in the West</b>.<a name="1660"></a><a href=
+"#3255">(See map[7a].)</a> The earliest settlement of the Greeks
+in Italy was at Cumae, on a headland at the entrance of the Bay
+of Naples. Later these colonists entered the bay and founded the
+"new city," or Neapolis, which we call Naples. Finally there were
+so many Greek cities in southern Italy that it was named "Great
+Greece." The Greeks also made settlements in what is now southern
+France and eastern Spain. The principal one was Massilia, or
+Marseilles. Through the traders of this city the ancient world
+obtained a supply of tin from Britain, a country which is now
+called England.</p>
+<p><b>Greek Colonies as Centers of Civilization.</b> The Greeks
+in these colonies traded with the natives whose villages were
+near by, and many of the natives learned to live like the Greeks.
+In this way the Greeks became teachers of civilization, and the
+Greek world, which at first was made up of cities on the shores
+of the Aegean Sea, was spread from place to place along the
+coasts of the Mediterranean Sea.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="042.gif" src=
+"images/042.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A GREEK TRIREME</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Greek Ships.</b> The ships of the Greeks were very
+different from modern vessels. Of course they were not driven by
+steam, nor did they rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships
+do. They had sails, but were driven forward mostly by their oars.
+The trireme, or ordinary war-ship, had its oars arranged in three
+banks, fifty men rowing at once. After these had rowed several
+hours, or a "watch," another fifty took their places, and finally
+a third fifty, so that the ships could be rowed at high speed all
+the time. With the aid of its two sails a trireme is said to have
+gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a night. These
+boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and fifteen
+feet wide. They could be rowed in shallow water, but were not
+high enough to ride heavy seas safely. They had a sharp beak,
+which, driven against an enemy's ship, would break in its sides.
+The Greek grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more
+capable of enduring rough weather.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="043.gif" src=
+"images/043.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ALEXANDER THE GREAT<br>
+After the bust in the Capitoline Museum, Rome</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Alexander the Great, King of Macedon from 336 to 323
+B.C.</b> Greek ways of living were also carried eastward as well
+as westward. The enlargement of the Greek world in this direction
+was due to Alexander the Great, the most skilful soldier and the
+ablest leader of men among all the Greeks. Alexander was king of
+Macedon, and like the earlier Greeks he regarded the Persians as
+his enemies, and made war upon them. After conquering the
+Persians he marched across western Asia until he had reached the
+Indus River in India. He was a builder of cities as well as a
+conqueror. He founded seventy cities, and sixteen of them were
+named for him. The most important was the Alexandria which is
+still the chief seaport of Egypt. Greek became the language
+commonly spoken throughout the lands near the eastern
+Mediterranean. This is the reason why in later times the New
+Testament was written in Greek.</p>
+<p><b>Alexandria</b>. Of this Greek world Athens ceased to be the
+center and Alexandria took its place. At Alexandria there was a
+great library which contained over five hundred thousand volumes
+or rolls. There also was the museum or university, in which many
+learned men were at work. The best known of these men was Euclid,
+who perfected the mathematics which we call geometry, and
+Ptolemy, whose ideas about geography and the shape and size of
+the globe Columbus carefully studied before he set out on his
+great voyage. Alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce.
+From Alexandria, because its ships were the first foreign ships
+to be admitted to a Roman port, the Romans gained their liking
+for many of the beautiful things which the Greeks made.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why were the Greek colonies important? Why did the Greeks
+emigrate to the colonies?</p>
+<p>2. Point out on the <a name="4761"></a><a href=
+"#4350">map[1]</a>, the lands to which they might go. Name
+several cities which they built.</p>
+<p>3. What were the ties between the daughter and the mother
+city?</p>
+<p>4. Why was a part of southern Italy called Great Greece?</p>
+<p>5. Describe a Greek trireme and the way it was managed.</p>
+<p>6. Of what country was Alexander the Great king? When did he
+reign? How far east did he march? What did he do besides winning
+victories?</p>
+<p>7. Why was the city of Alexandria famous in Ancient Times?</p>
+<p>8. Of what help was Ptolemy to Columbus?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Find out the colonies we have. For what purpose do
+Americans go to these colonies? Is it as hard to reach them as it
+was for the Greeks to reach their colonies?</p>
+<p>2. What country now has the most colonies?</p>
+<p>3. Learn and tell the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops.</p>
+<p>4. Find out what is meant at Constantinople by "the Golden
+Horn?" Who now live at Constantinople, at Naples, at
+Marseilles?</p>
+<p>5. Collect pictures of these cities.</p>
+<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
+<p>(Chapters II, III, and IV)</p>
+<p><i>Ten things we owe to the Greeks</i>:</p>
+<p>1. Many useful words.</p>
+<p>2. Many interesting tales.</p>
+<p>3. Many examples of heroism.</p>
+<p>4. Knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings.</p>
+<p>5. How to carve beautiful statues, reliefs, and friezes.</p>
+<p>6. How to write great plays.</p>
+<p>7. How to speak before large audiences.</p>
+<p>8. Wise sayings of men like Socrates and Plato.</p>
+<p>9. Knowledge of geography and mathematics.</p>
+<p>10. Their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live,
+and think and act as they did.</p>
+<p><i>Two important dates</i>:</p>
+<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Death of Alexander the Great, 323
+B.C.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1080"></a><a href="#4930">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>NEW RIVALS OF THE GREEKS</p>
+<p><b>The Greek Colonies and the Carthaginians</b>. The Greek
+colonies were sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native
+tribes whose lands they had seized or by the wilder tribes that
+dwelt further from the coast. In Sicily their most dangerous
+neighbors were the Carthaginians at the western end of the
+island. The chief town of these people was Carthage, situated
+opposite Sicily in northern Africa in what is now Tunis. The
+Carthaginians were emigrants from Tyre and other cities of
+Phoenicia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and because
+of their many ships held control of a large part of the western
+Mediterranean. They had colonies even in Spain, where in very
+early times Phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and
+silver.</p>
+<p><b>The Greeks and the Romans</b>. In Italy the most dangerous
+neighbors of the Greek colonists were the Romans, who lived
+half-way up the western side of the peninsula along the river
+Tiber. The history of the Romans, like the history of the Greeks,
+is full of interesting and wonderful tales. Some of them are
+legends, such as every people likes to tell about its early
+history. They relate how the city was founded by two brothers,
+Romulus and Remus; how Horatius defended the bridge across the
+Tiber against the hosts of the exiled Tarquin king; how the
+farmer Cincinnatus, having been made leader or dictator, in
+sixteen days drove off the neighboring tribes which were
+attacking the Romans and then went back to his plough.</p>
+<p><b>The Gauls burn Rome, 390 B.C.</b> The Romans told stories
+of their defeats as well as of their victories. One of these
+tells how hosts of Gauls, a people of the same race as the
+forefathers of the French, streamed southward from the valley of
+the Po. The Romans were alarmed by such tall men, with fierce
+eyes, and fair, flowing hair, whose swords crashed through the
+frail Roman helmets. They sent a large army to stop the invaders,
+but in the battle, which was fought only twelve miles from Rome,
+this army was destroyed.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="047.gif" src=
+"images/047.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CLIFF OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The few defenders that were left withdrew to the Capitoline,
+the steepest of the hills over which the city had spread. Some of
+the older senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge
+from the fury of the barbarians, and took their seats quietly in
+ivory chairs in the market place or Forum at the foot of the
+Capitoline hill. The Gauls at first gazed in wonder at the
+strange sight of the motionless figures. When one of them
+attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator, the senator
+struck him with his staff; then the Gauls fell upon senators and
+priests and slew them.</p>
+<p>The sides of the Capitoline hill were so steep that for a long
+time the Gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it. At
+last they discovered a path, and one dark night were on the point
+of scaling the height when some geese, sacred to the goddess
+Juno, cackled and flapped their wings until the garrison was
+aroused and the Gauls hurled headlong down the precipice. The
+garrison was saved, but the city was burned. This happened in
+Rome just one hundred years after the battle of Marathon in
+Greece.</p>
+<p><b>The Caudine Forks.</b> Another adventure did not have so
+happy an ending. The Romans were at war with the Samnites, a
+tribe living on the slopes of the Apennines, who were continually
+attacking the Greek cities on the coast. The war was caused by
+the attempt of the Romans to protect one of the Greek cities. The
+Roman generals, with a large army, in making their way into the
+Samnite country attempted to march through a narrow gorge which
+broadened out into a plain and then was closed again at the
+farther end by another gorge. When they reached this second gorge
+they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones.
+They also saw Samnites on the heights above them. In alarm they
+hastened to retrace their steps, only to find the other entrance
+closed in the same way. After vain attempts to force a passage or
+to scale the surrounding heights they were obliged to
+surrender.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="048.gif" src=
+"images/048.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE REGION OF THE CAUDINE FORKS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The Samnites compelled the Roman army, both generals and
+soldiers, each clad in a single garment, to pass "under the yoke"
+made of two spears set upright with one laid across, while they
+stood by and jeered. If any Roman looked angry or sullen at his
+disgrace, they struck or even killed him. This was called the
+disaster of the Caudine Forks, from the pass where the Romans
+were caught.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="3255"><img alt="049.gif" src=
+"images/049.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ITALY BEFORE THE GROWTH OF ROMAN POWER</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>     <a href="#1660">[7a]</a>      <a href=
+"#3449">[8]</a>      <a href="#2799">[9]</a>      <a href=
+"#1828">[10]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Romans and the Greek Cities.</b> Not many years after
+this the Romans quarreled with the Greek cities of southern
+Italy. The Greeks of Tarentum, situated where Taranto is now,
+called to their aid Pyrrhus, who ruled a part of Alexander's old
+kingdom. Pyrrhus was a skilful general, and he had with him,
+besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen, many trained elephants. A
+charge of these elephants was too much for the Romans, who were
+already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers of
+Pyrrhus. But the Romans were ready for another battle, and in
+this they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the Greek
+soldiers that Pyrrhus cried out, "Another victory like this and
+we are ruined." In a third battle, which took place 275 B.C., he
+was defeated, and returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters
+of the Greek cities in Italy.</p>
+<p><b>The Romans Conquerors of Italy.</b> By this time there were
+few tribes south of the river Po which did not own the Romans as
+their masters. All Italy was united under their rule. This was
+the first step in the conquest of the world that lay about the
+Mediterranean Sea and in the extension of that ancient world to
+the shores of the Atlantic and to England. Before we read the
+story of the other conquests we must inquire who the Roman people
+were and how they lived.</p>
+<p><b>How the Romans lived.</b> In early times most of the Romans
+were farmers or cattle raisers. A man's wealth was reckoned
+according to the number of cattle he owned. Their manner of
+living was simple and frugal. Like the Greek, the Roman had his
+games. He enjoyed chariot-races, but used slaves or freedmen as
+drivers. He also went to the theater, although he thought it
+unworthy of a Roman to be an actor. Such an occupation was for
+foreigners or slaves.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="051.gif" src=
+"images/051.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ROMAN WEARING A TOGA</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Roman Boys at School.</b> The boys at school did not learn
+poems, as did the Greek boys, but studied the first set of laws
+made by the Romans, called the Twelve Tables. This they read,
+copied, and learned by heart. Their interest in laws was the
+first sign that they were to become the world's greatest
+lawmakers.</p>
+<p><b>Roman Women.</b> In their respect for women the Romans were
+superior to the Greeks. The Roman mother did not remain in the
+women's apartments of the house, as she was expected to do at
+Athens, but was her husband's companion, received his guests,
+directed her household, and went in and out as she chose.</p>
+<p><b>Patricians and Plebeians</b>. The men of the families which
+first ruled Rome were called patricians or nobles, while the rest
+were plebeians or common people. There were also many slaves, but
+they had no rights. At first only the patricians knew exactly
+what the laws were, because the laws were not written in a book.
+When disputes arose between patricians and plebeians about
+property, the plebeians believed the patricians changed the laws
+in order to gain an advantage over their poorer neighbors.</p>
+<p>The story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the
+city and refused to return until their wrongs were removed. Then
+they compelled the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called
+the <a name="1656"></a><a href="#2126">Twelve Tables.</a> At this
+time messengers were sent to Athens to examine the laws of the
+Greeks. The richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all
+the offices of the Roman republic, and so became nobles
+themselves.</p>
+<p><b>Government at Rome</b>. The Romans had once been ruled by
+kings, but now their chief officers were consuls. Two consuls
+were chosen each year because the Romans feared that a single
+consul might make himself a king, or, at least, gain too much
+power. The real rulers of Rome, however, were the senators, the
+men who had held the prominent offices. There were assemblies of
+the people, but these generally did what the senators or other
+officers told them to do.</p>
+<p>Among the interesting officers of Rome was the censor, who
+drew up a list or census of the citizens and of their property.
+Another officer was the tribune, chosen in the beginning by the
+plebeians to protect them against the patricians. The tribune was
+not at first a member of the senate, but he was given a seat
+outside the door, and if a law was proposed that would injure the
+plebeians, he cried out, "Veto," which means "I forbid," and the
+law had to be dropped. This is the origin of our word "veto."</p>
+<p><b>How the Romans treated the Italians</b>. The Romans were
+wise in their dealings with the cities or tribes which they
+conquered. They not only sent out colonies of their
+fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands they had seized,
+but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in their
+government, and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of
+Rome. These new Roman citizens helped the older Romans in their
+wars with other tribes. In this way Roman towns gradually spread
+over Italy.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="053.gif" src=
+"images/053.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ROMAN MILITARY STANDARD</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks
+in Sicily? Find Carthage on the <a name="3449"></a><a href=
+"#3255">map[8]</a>. Where did the Carthaginians come from
+originally? Find Phoenicia on the <a name="1974"></a><a href=
+"#4350">map[6]</a></p>
+<p> </p>
+<p>2. Who were the dangerous neighbors of the Greeks in Italy?
+Find the Tiber and Rome on the <a name="2799"></a><a href=
+"#3255">map[9]</a>.</p>
+<p>3. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls. How
+long was this after the battle of Marathon? How long after the
+death of Socrates? How long before Alexander became king of
+Macedon?</p>
+<p>4. Find the land of the Samnites on the <a name="1828"></a><a
+href="#3255">map[10]</a>. Tell the story of the Caudine
+Forks.</p>
+<p>5. What Greek king did the people of Tarentum call to Italy to
+help them against the Romans? What did he say after his second
+battle with the Romans?</p>
+<p>6. After the defeat of Pyrrhus how much of Italy owned the
+Romans as masters? How did the Romans treat the Italians?</p>
+<p>7. Explain how the early Roman ways of living differed from
+the ways of the Greeks.</p>
+<p>8. How differently did the Romans and the Greeks govern
+themselves?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Read the story of Horatius in Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient
+Rome."</p>
+<p>2. Collect pictures of Rome and Italy.</p>
+<p>3. Is there a modern city of Carthage? What country rules over
+Tunis? Are there now any Phoenicians?</p>
+<p>4. Read the description of Tyre in the Bible, Ezekiel xxvii.
+3-25, and tell what is said there about the riches of the
+Tyrians. Find out who destroyed Tyre.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="054.gif" src=
+"images/054.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AN EARLY ROMAN COIN</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="3538"></a><a href="#3582">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>THE MEDITERRANEAN A ROMAN LAKE</p>
+<p><b>Rome in Peril</b>. The conquest of Italy by the Romans took
+about two hundred and fifty years. The conquest of the peoples
+living in the other lands on the shores of the Mediterranean took
+nearly as long again. Only twice in these four or five hundred
+years was Rome in serious danger of destruction. Once it was by
+the Gauls, as we have read, who captured all the city except the
+citadel. The second time it was by the Carthaginians, who lived
+on the northern coast of Africa. The Romans were finally
+victorious over all their enemies because they were patient and
+courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that they could
+be conquered.</p>
+<p><b>Cause of War with Carthage</b>. The Carthaginians were
+angry at the way the Romans treated them. They watched with alarm
+the steady growth of the Roman power, and feared that the Romans,
+if masters of Italy, would attack their trade with the cities of
+the western Mediterranean. A quarrel broke out over a city in
+Sicily. At first the Carthaginians seemed to have the best of it,
+because they had a strong war fleet while the Romans had only a
+few small vessels. But the Romans hurriedly built ships and
+placed upon each a kind of drawbridge, fitted with great hooks
+called grappling-irons. These they let down upon the enemy's
+decks as soon as the ships came close enough, and over these
+drawbridges the Roman soldiers rushed and captured the
+Carthaginian ships.</p>
+<p>When the Carthaginians asked for peace, the Romans demanded a
+great sum of money and a promise that the Carthaginians would
+leave the cities in Sicily which they occupied. Soon afterward
+the Romans took advantage of a mutiny in the Carthaginian army to
+demand more money and to seize Sardinia and Corsica. No wonder
+the Carthaginians were angry. The result was a new and more
+terrible war.</p>
+<p><b>Hannibal</b>. The Carthaginians in the new war were led by
+Hannibal, who understood how to fight battles better than any of
+the generals whom the Romans sent against him. The story is told
+that when he was a boy his father made him promise, at the altar
+of his city's gods, undying hatred to Rome. Even the Romans
+thought him a wonderful man. Their historians said that toil did
+not wear out his body or exhaust his energy. Cold or heat were
+alike to him. He never ate or drank more than he needed. He slept
+when he had time, whether it was day or night, wrapping himself
+in a military cloak and lying on the ground in the midst of his
+soldiers. He did not dress better than the other officers, but
+his weapons and his horses were the best in the army.</p>
+<p><b>War carried into Italy, 218 B.C</b>. Hannibal decided that
+the war should be carried into Italy to the very gates of Rome.
+He started from Spain, half of which the Carthaginians ruled,
+marched across southern Gaul, and came to the foot-hills of the
+Alps. To climb the Alps was the most difficult part of his long
+journey.</p>
+<p><b>Crossing the Alps</b>. There were no roads across the
+mountains, only rough paths used by the mountaineers, who
+constantly attacked Hannibal's soldiers, bursting out suddenly
+upon them from behind a turn in the trail, or rolling huge rocks
+upon them from above. The elephants, the horses, and the baggage
+animals of the army were frightened, and in the tumult many of
+them slipped over the precipices and were dashed on the rocks
+below. For five days the army toiled upward, and then rested two
+days on the summit of the pass.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="057.gif" src=
+"images/057.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ALPS THAT HANNIBAL HAD TO CROSS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Although the road down into Italy was short, it was steep, and
+the paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush
+by thousands of men and animals. In one place there had been a
+landslide, and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a
+thousand feet. In order to build a new road it was necessary to
+crack the rocks. This the soldiers did by making huge fires and
+pouring wine over the heated surface. At last, worn out, ragged,
+and half starved, the army reached the plains of Italy, but with
+a loss of half its men.</p>
+<p><b>How Hannibal won a Victory</b>. The first great battle with
+the Romans was fought on the river Trebia in northern Italy, and
+in it Hannibal showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a
+Roman army. It was a winter's day and the river was swollen by
+rains. The two camps lay on opposite banks. In the early morning
+Hannibal sent across the river a body of horsemen to attack the
+Roman camp and draw the Romans into a battle. At the same time he
+ordered his other soldiers to eat breakfast, to build fires
+before their tents to warm themselves, and to rub their bodies
+with oil, so that they might be strong for the coming fight.</p>
+<p>The Romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the
+Carthaginian horsemen, and, without waiting for food, moved out
+of camp, chasing the horsemen toward the river. Into its icy
+waters the Romans waded breast-high, and when they came up on the
+opposite bank they were benumbed with cold. As soon as Hannibal
+knew that the Romans had crossed the river he attacked them
+fiercely with all his troops. Two thousand men whom he had placed
+in ambush fell upon the rear of their line. Their allies were
+frightened by a charge of elephants. Seeing that destruction was
+certain, ten thousand of the best soldiers broke through the
+Carthaginian line and marched away. All the rest of the army was
+destroyed.</p>
+<p><b>Roman Endurance</b>. This was not the last of the Roman
+defeats. Two other armies were destroyed by Hannibal during the
+next two years. In the battle of Cannae nearly seventy thousand
+Romans, including eighty senators, were slain. The news filled
+the city with weeping women, but the senate did not think of
+yielding. When their allies deserted them, they besieged the
+faithless cities, took them, beheaded the rulers, and sold the
+inhabitants into slavery.</p>
+<p>They did not dare to fight Hannibal in the open field, but
+tried to wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his
+troops and by making it difficult for him to get food for his
+army. They carried the war into Spain and finally into Africa,
+and when, with a weakened army, Hannibal faced them there, they
+defeated him. His defeat was the ruin of Carthage, for the
+unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet destroyed, to pay the
+Romans a huge sum of money, and to give up Spain to them.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="059.gif" src=
+"images/059.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ROMAN SOLDIER</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Other Roman Triumphs</b>. The war with Carthage ended two
+hundred and two years before the birth of Christ. In the wars
+that followed, Roman armies fought not only in Spain and Africa,
+but also in Greece and Asia. Carthage was destroyed; as was also
+Corinth, a Greek city. Roman generals enriched themselves and
+sent great treasures back to Rome. Roman merchants grew rich
+because their rivals in Carthage and Corinth were ruined or
+because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade with any
+city but Rome. All this took a long time and many wars, but in
+the end the Romans became masters of every land along the shores
+of the Mediterranean. This was not wholly a misfortune, for the
+Romans had learned that the Greeks were superior to them in some
+things and they took the Greeks as their teachers in most of the
+arts of living. The ancient world became a sort of partnership,
+and we call its civilization Graeco-Roman, that is, both Greek
+and Roman.</p>
+<p><b>The Romans as Rulers</b>. The Romans at first treated the
+lands in Sicily, Spain, Africa, Greece, and Asia as conquered
+territories, or provinces, sending to rule over them officers who
+were to act both as governors and judges. With these men went
+many tax-collectors or "publicans." The Romans were obliged to
+leave in most provinces a large body of soldiers to put down any
+attempt at rebellion. Often the officers and the publicans robbed
+the country instead of ruling it justly.</p>
+<p><b>Evil Results of Conquest</b>. During the wars the Romans
+had lost many of their simple ways of living. Some had grown rich
+in the business of providing for the armies and navies, and they
+were eager for new wars in order to make still bigger fortunes.
+Hannibal's marches up and down Italy had driven thousands of
+farmers from their homes, and they had wandered to Rome for
+safety and food. When the war was over many of them did not go
+back to their homes. Those who did found that they could no
+longer get fair prices for their crops because great quantities
+of wheat were shipped to Rome from the conquered lands. Wealthy
+men bought the little farms and joined them, making great estates
+where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and
+olive groves. There was not much work for free men in Rome, for
+slaves were very cheap. One army of prisoners was sold at about
+eight cents apiece. In this way the poor were made idle, while
+the rich sent everywhere for new luxuries.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="061.gif" src=
+"images/061.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GLADIATORS<br>
+After carvings on the tomb of Scaurus</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Cruel Sports</b>. To amuse the idle crowds, office-seekers
+and victorious generals provided cruel sports. Savage animals
+were turned loose to tear one another to pieces. What was worse,
+human prisoners were compelled to fight, armed with swords or
+spears. These men were called gladiators, and often were
+specially trained to fight with one another or with wild
+beasts.</p>
+<p><b>Some Things the Romans learned</b>. But the successes of
+the Romans brought them other things which were good. They took
+the buildings of the Greeks as models and built similar temples
+and porticoes in Rome, especially about the old market place or
+Forum. Their own houses, which in earlier times were nothing but
+cabins, they enlarged, and if they were rich enough, built
+palaces, adorned with paintings and with statues. Unfortunately
+many of these came from the plunder of Greek cities, for the
+Romans were great robbers of other peoples. The poorer Romans
+continued to live in wretched hovels.</p>
+<p><b>The Theater</b>. The Romans learned more about the theaters
+of the Greeks. Their plays were either translated into Latin from
+Greek or retold in a different manner from the original Greek.
+The Romans did not succeed in writing any plays of their own
+which were as good as the plays of the Greeks.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="062.gif" src=
+"images/062.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATER AT ORANGE,
+FRANCE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The New Education of the Romans</b>. The Greeks also taught
+the Romans how to write poems and histories. The first histories
+were written in Greek, but later the Romans learned how to write
+in Latin prose and poetry as good as much that had been written
+by the Greeks. Greek became the second language of every educated
+Roman, and thus he could enjoy the books of the Greeks as well as
+those written by Romans. The education of the Roman boy now began
+with the poems of Homer, and the young man's education was not
+thought to be finished until he had traveled in Greece and the
+lands along the eastern Mediterranean.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. How long did it take the Romans to conquer Italy? How long
+to conquer the lands about the Mediterranean? In what "Times" did
+all this happen?</p>
+<p>2. Why did the Carthaginians and the Romans fight? What did
+Hannibal promise his father? What sort of a leader was
+Hannibal?</p>
+<p>3. How did Hannibal reach Italy? How did he win the battle of
+the Trebia?</p>
+<p>4. Why was he unable to force the Romans to yield?</p>
+<p>5. How long before the beginning of the Christian Era did this
+war with Hannibal close? How long after the battle of Marathon,
+and after the death of Alexander the Great?</p>
+<p>6. What other lands did the Romans conquer? How did they rule
+these colonies?</p>
+<p>7. Were they better for the wealth and power they gained? What
+became of many of the Italian farmers? Where did the Romans get
+their slaves?</p>
+<p>8. What good things did they learn from the Greeks? What was
+the Graeco-Roman world?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. On an outline map of the lands around the Mediterranean
+mark on each land, Spain, Greece, northern Africa, Asia Minor,
+and Egypt, the dates at which the Romans conquered each, finding
+these dates in any brief Roman or Ancient History--Botsford,
+Myers, Morey, West, Wolfson.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4038"></a><a href="#3165">CHAPTER VII</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>THE ANCIENT WORLD EXTENDED TO THE SHORES OF THE ATLANTIC</p>
+<p><b>New Conquests of the Romans.</b> The Romans had as yet
+conquered only civilized peoples like themselves, with the
+exception of the tribes in Spain and southern Gaul. Now the Roman
+armies were to push northward over the plains and through the
+forests of Gaul, across the Rhine into unknown Germany, and over
+the Channel into Britain, equally unknown. They were to be
+explorers as well as conquerors. In this way they were to carry
+their civilization to the Rhine and the Atlantic, and so increase
+greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as the
+Romans did and as the Greeks had before them. The ancient
+civilized world was beginning to move from its older center, the
+Mediterranean, toward the shore of the Atlantic.</p>
+<p><b>Ancestors of the French and the Germans.</b> The tribes
+living in Gaul were not at that time called French, but Gallic.
+The Gauls were like the Britons who lived across the Channel in
+Britain. The German ancestors of the English had not yet crossed
+the North Sea to that land. Beyond the Rhine lived the Germans,
+who had but little to do with the Romans and the Greeks and were
+still barbarians. The Gauls living farthest away from the Roman
+settlements were not much more civilized.</p>
+<p>The principal difference between the Germans and the Gauls was
+that the Gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the
+land or dug in mines or traded along the rivers, while the
+Germans had no towns and dwelt in clearings of the forest. Their
+wealth, like that of the early Romans, was their cattle. The land
+they cultivated was divided between them year after year, so that
+a German owned only his hut and the plot of ground or garden
+about it. Some of the towns of the Gauls were placed on high
+hills and were protected by strong walls.</p>
+<p><b>The Terrible Germans.</b> The Romans had at first been
+afraid of the Gauls, because they had never forgotten how
+terribly these people had once defeated them. But since that time
+they had fought the Gauls so often that they were losing this
+fear. They now dreaded more to meet the Germans, who seemed like
+giants because they were taller even than the Gauls.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="065.gif" src=
+"images/065.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GALLIC WARRIORS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Gallic and German Warriors.</b> The leaders of the Germans
+were sometimes kings and sometimes nobles whom the Romans called
+<i>duces</i>, from which comes our word duke. The Gallic
+chieftains were adorned with gold necklaces, bracelets, and
+rings. When they went out to battle, they wore helmets shaped
+like the head of some ravenous beast, and their bodies were
+protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings. Their
+principal weapon was a long, heavy sword. Both German and Gallic
+nobles were accompanied by bands of young men, their devoted
+followers, who shared the joys of victory or died with them in
+case of defeat. It was a disgrace to lose one's sword or to
+survive if the leader was killed.</p>
+<p><b>How the Germans lived.</b> When the Germans were not
+fighting they were idle, for all work was done by women and
+slaves. They were great drinkers and gamblers, and often in their
+games a man would stake his freedom upon the result. If he lost,
+he became the slave of the winner. The Germans respected their
+wives, even if they compelled them to do the hard work. The women
+sometimes went with the men to battle, and their cries encouraged
+the warriors, or if the warriors wavered, the fierce reproaches
+of the women drove them back to the fight.</p>
+<p><b>Religion of the Germans.</b> We remember the religion of
+the Germans because four days of the week are named for their
+gods or the gods of their neighbors across the Baltic. Their
+principal god was Wodan, or Odin, god of the sun and the tempest.
+Wodan's day is Wednesday. Thursday is named for Thor, the
+Northmen's god of thunder. The god of war, Tiw, gave a name to
+Tuesday, and Frigu, the goddess of love, to Friday. The German,
+like his northern neighbors, thought of heaven as the place where
+brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days in
+feasting.</p>
+<p><b>Julius Caesar.</b> Julius Caesar was the great Roman
+general who conquered the Gauls and led the first expeditions
+across the Rhine into Germany and over the Channel into Britain.
+He was a wealthy noble who, like other nobles, held one office
+after another until he became consul. He was also a great
+political leader, and with two other men controlled Rome. We
+should call them "bosses," but the Romans called them
+"triumvirs."</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="067.gif" src=
+"images/067.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">JULIUS CAESAR<br>
+<b>After the bust in the Museum at Naples</b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Caesar in Gaul.</b> As soon as Caesar became governor of
+the province of southern Gaul, he showed that he was a skilful
+general as well as a successful politician. He interfered in the
+wars between the Gauls, taking sides with the friends of the
+Romans. When a large army of Germans entered Gaul, he defeated it
+and drove it back across the Rhine. One war led to another until
+all the tribes from the country now called Belgium to the
+Mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the Roman people.
+His campaigns lasted from 58 B.C. for nine years. Two or three
+times Caesar was very close to ruin, but by his courage and
+energy he always succeeded in gaining the victory.</p>
+<p><b>Vercingetorix, Gallic Hero.</b> The great hero of the Gauls
+in their struggle with the Romans was Vercingetorix. He was a
+young noble who lived in a mountain town of central Gaul. His
+father had been killed in an attempt to make himself king of his
+native city. Vercingetorix believed that if the Gauls did not
+unite against the Romans they would soon see their lands become
+Roman provinces. As he knew his army was no match for the Romans
+in open fight, he persuaded the Gauls to try to starve the Romans
+out of the country. He planned to destroy all village stores of
+grain, and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which
+wandered from the main army in search of food.</p>
+<p><b>Caesar and Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix found the work
+of conquering Caesar in this way too difficult. He was finally
+driven to take refuge in Alesia, on a hilltop in eastern Gaul.
+Here the Romans prepared to starve him into surrender. They dug
+miles of deep trenches about the fortress so that the imprisoned
+Gauls could not break through. They dug other trenches to protect
+themselves from the attacks of a great army of Gauls which came
+to rescue Vercingetorix. These trenches were fifteen or twenty
+feet wide; they were strengthened by palisades and ramparts, and
+filled with water where this was possible. Several times the
+Gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through, but the quickness and
+stubborn courage of Caesar always saved the day.</p>
+<p><b>Death of Vercingetorix</b>. Vercingetorix now proved that
+he was a real hero. He offered to give himself up to Caesar, if
+this would save the town. But Caesar demanded the submission of
+all the chiefs. When they had laid down their arms before the
+conqueror, Vercingetorix appeared on a gaily decorated horse. He
+rode around the throne where Caesar sat, dismounted in front,
+took off his armor, and bowed to the ground. His fate was hard.
+He was sent to Rome a prisoner, was shown in the triumphal
+procession of the victorious Caesar, and was then put to death in
+a dungeon. On the site of Alesia stands a monument erected by the
+French to the memory of the brave Gallic hero. The defeat of
+Vercingetorix ended the resistance of the Gauls, and not many
+years afterward their country was added to the long list of Roman
+provinces.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="069.gif" src=
+"images/069.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE BRIDGE ON WHICH CAESAR'S ARMY CROSSED THE
+RHINE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Caesar in Germany</b>. Caesar crossed the Rhine into
+Germany on a bridge which his engineers built in ten days. He
+laid waste the fields of the tribes near the river in order to
+make the name of Rome feared, and then returned to Gaul and
+destroyed the bridge. Twice he sailed over to Britain, the last
+time marching a few miles north of where London now stands. His
+purpose was to keep the Britons from stirring up the Gauls to
+attack him. Other generals many years later conquered Britain as
+far as the hills of Scotland.</p>
+<p><b>The German Hero Hermann</b>. The Romans were not fortunate
+in their later attempts to conquer a part of Germany. When
+Caesar's grandnephew Augustus was master of Rome, he sent an army
+under Varus into the forests far from the Rhine. Hermann, a
+leader of the Germans, gathered the tribes together and utterly
+destroyed the army of Varus. Whenever Augustus thought of this
+dreadful disaster, he would cry out, "O Varus, give me back my
+legions!" The Rhine and the Danube became the northern boundaries
+of the Roman conquests.</p>
+<p><b>Gauls and Britons become Roman</b>. Although the Gauls had
+fought stubbornly against Caesar they soon became as Roman as the
+Italians themselves. They ceased to speak their own language and
+began to use Latin. They mastered Latin so thoroughly that their
+schools were sometimes regarded as better than the schools in
+Italy, and Roman youths were sent to Gaul to learn how best to
+speak their own language. The Britons also became very good
+Romans. Even the Germans frequently crossed the Rhine and
+enlisted in the Roman armies. When they returned to their own
+country they carried Roman ideas and customs with them.</p>
+<p><b>The Interest of Americans in Roman Successes</b>. For
+Americans the influence the Romans exerted in Spain, Gaul,
+Germany, and Britain is more important than their work in the
+eastern Mediterranean, because from those countries came the
+early settlers of America. The civilization which the Romans
+taught the peoples of western Europe was to become a valuable
+part of the civilization of our forefathers.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="1634"><img alt="071.gif" src=
+"images/071.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT IN 395
+A.D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>     <a href="#4829">[12]</a>      <a href=
+"#3355">[13]</a>      <a href="#2495">[14]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Size of the Roman World.</b> We may realize how large the
+world of the Romans was by observing on a modern map that within
+its limits lay modern England, France, Spain, Portugal, the
+southern part of Austria-Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, the
+Turkish Empire both in Europe and Asia, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis,
+Algeria, and Morocco. For a time they also ruled north of the
+Danube, and the Rumanians boast that they are descended from
+Roman colonists. The peoples in southern Russia were influenced
+by the Greeks and by the Romans, although the Romans did not try
+to bring them under their rule.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="072.gif" src=
+"images/072.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF THE ANCIENT GAULS AT CARNAC, IN
+BRITTANY, FRANCE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>No modern empire has included so many important countries. If
+we compare this vast territory with, the scattered colonies of
+the Greeks, we shall understand how useful it was that the Romans
+adopted much of the Greek civilization, for they could carry it
+to places that the Greeks never reached.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. After the Romans had conquered the lands about the
+Mediterranean, into what other countries did they march?</p>
+<p>2. Who once lived where the French now live? Tell how the
+Gauls lived.</p>
+<p>3. How did the manner of living of the Germans differ from
+that of the Gauls? Were the Britons similar to the Germans or to
+the Gauls?</p>
+<p>4. What names do we get from the names of the German gods?</p>
+<p>5. Who was Julius Caesar? Why did he go among the Gauls? What
+was the result of his wars with the Gauls? Tell the story of
+Vercingetorix.</p>
+<p>6. After the conquest of the Gauls, into what countries did
+Caesar go?</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="073.gif" src=
+"images/073.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ROMAN COIN WITH THE HEAD OF JULIUS
+CAESAR</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>7. What was the fate of the Roman army in Germany in the time
+of Augustus?</p>
+<p>8. In which of these countries did the peoples become much
+like the Romans?</p>
+<p>9. Why have Americans a special interest in the Roman conquest
+of Gaul and Britain?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Caesar and Alexander were two of the greatest generals who
+ever lived. How many years after Alexander died did Caesar begin
+his wars in Gaul? What difference was there between what these
+two generals did? Whose work is the more important for us?</p>
+<p>2. Plan a large map of the Graeco-Roman world, pasting on each
+country a picture of some interesting Greek or Roman ruin. This
+will take a long time, but many pictures may be found in
+advertising folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies.</p>
+<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
+<p>(Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII)</p>
+<p><i>How the Graeco-Roman world was built up</i>:</p>
+<p>1. The Greeks drive back the Persians.</p>
+<p>2. The Greeks settle in many places on the shores of the
+Mediterranean and Black Seas.</p>
+<p>3. Alexander conquers the countries about the eastern
+Mediterranean.</p>
+<p>4. The Romans conquer the Greeks in Italy, but learn their
+ways of living.</p>
+<p>5. The Romans conquer the Carthaginians and seize their
+colonies.</p>
+<p>6. The Romans conquer all the lands around the
+Mediterranean.</p>
+<p>7. The Romans conquer Gaul and Britain.</p>
+<p><i>Important dates in this work of building a Graeco-Roman
+world</i>:</p>
+<p>Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C. Work of Alexander ended, 323 B.C.
+Romans become masters of Italy, 275 B.C. Romans conquer Hannibal,
+202 B.C. Caesar's conquest of Gaul complete, 49 B.C.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="074.gif" src=
+"images/074.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1461"></a><a href="#1050">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p class="c3">THE CIVILIZATION OF THE ROMAN WORLD</p>
+<p><b>Strife at Rome.</b> While the Romans were conquering the
+ancient world they had begun to quarrel among themselves. Certain
+men resolved that Rome should not be managed any longer by the
+noble senators for their own benefit or for the benefit of rich
+contractors and merchants. They wished to have the idle crowds of
+men who packed the shows and circuses settled as free farmers on
+the unused lands of Italy.</p>
+<p>Among these new leaders were two brothers, Tiberius and Caius
+Gracchus, sons of one of Rome's noblest families. The other
+nobles looked upon them with hatred and killed them, first
+Tiberius and afterward Caius. These murders did not end the
+trouble. The leaders on both sides armed their followers, and
+bloody battles were fought in the streets. Generals led their
+armies to Rome, although, according to the laws, to bring an army
+into Italy south of the Rubicon River was to make war on the
+republic and be guilty of treason. Once in the city these
+generals put to death hundreds of their enemies.</p>
+<p><b>Caesar rules Rome.</b> The strife in the city had ceased
+for a time when Pompey, a famous general, who had once shared
+power with Caesar as a "triumvir," joined the senators in
+planning his ruin. Caesar led his army into Italy to the borders
+of the Rubicon. Exclaiming, "The die is cast,'" he crossed the
+sacred boundary and marched straight to Rome. Pompey and his
+party fled, and civil war divided the Roman world into those who
+followed Caesar and those who followed Pompey, Caesar was
+everywhere victorious, in Italy, Africa, Spain, and the East. He
+brought back order into the government of the city and of the
+provinces, but in the year 44 B.C. he was murdered in the
+senate-house by several senators, one of whom, Marcus Brutus, had
+been his friend.</p>
+<p><b>Origin of the Title "Emperor."</b> Caesar had not been
+called "emperor," though the chief power had been his. One of his
+titles was "imperator," or commander of the army, a word from
+which our word "emperor" comes. He was really the first emperor
+of Rome. In later times the very word Caesar became an imperial
+title, not only in the Roman Empire, but also in modern Germany,
+for "Kaiser" is another form of the word "Caesar."</p>
+<p><b>Beginnings of the Empire.</b> Caesar's successor was his
+grandnephew Octavius, usually called Augustus, which was one of
+his titles. Augustus carried out many of Caesar's plans for
+improving the government in Rome and in the provinces. The people
+in the provinces were no longer robbed by Roman officers. Many of
+them became Roman citizens. After a time all children born within
+the empire were considered Romans, just as if they had been born
+in Rome.</p>
+<p><b>The Roman Empire.</b> The Roman Empire carried on the work
+which the republic had begun. It did some things better than the
+republic had done them. Within its frontiers there was peace for
+two or three hundred years. Many people had an opportunity to
+share in all the best that the Greeks and Romans had learned.
+Unfortunately the peoples imitated the bad as well as the
+good.</p>
+<p><b>Roman Roads.</b> As builders the Romans taught much to
+those who lived after them. Their great roads leading out from
+Rome have never been excelled. In Gaul these roads served,
+centuries later, to mark out the present French system of
+highroads and showed many a route to the builders of railroads.
+They were made so solid that parts of them still remain after two
+thousand years.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="077.gif" src=
+"images/077.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">Augustus Caesar After the statue in the
+Vatican</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>How these Roads were built.</b> In planning their roads the
+Romans did not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep
+valleys or marshy lands. They often pierced the hills with
+tunnels and bridged the valleys or swamps. In building a road
+they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide and pounded the earth
+at the bottom until it was hard. Upon this bottom was placed a
+layer of rough stones, over which were put nine inches of broken
+stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete. This was
+covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken
+tiles, which when pounded down offered a hard, smooth surface. On
+the top were laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that
+there need be no jar when a wagon rolled over the road.</p>
+<p>Such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and
+fro throughout the empire, but especially for troops or
+government messengers sent with all speed to regions where there
+was danger of revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by
+the barbarians.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="078.gif" src=
+"images/078.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CROSS-SECTION OF A ROMAN ROAD</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Aqueducts.</b> Next to their roads the most remarkable
+Roman structures were the aqueducts which brought water to the
+city from rivers or springs, some of them many miles away. Had
+they known, as we do, how to make heavy iron pipes, their
+aqueducts would have been laid underground, except where they
+crossed deep valleys. The lead pipes which they used were not
+strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water,
+and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which
+stretches from the eastern hills to the walls of Rome, the
+streams of flowing water were carried in stone channels resting
+upon arches which sometimes reached the height of over ninety
+feet.</p>
+<p><b>The Claudian Aqueduct.</b> The Claudian aqueduct, which is
+the most magnificent ever built, is carried on such arches for
+about seven miles and a half. Although broken in many places, and
+though the water has not flowed through its lofty channels for
+sixteen hundred years, it is one of the grandest sights in the
+neighborhood of Rome. If we add together the lengths of the
+aqueducts, underground or carried on arches, which provided Rome
+with her water supply, the total is over three hundred miles.
+They could furnish Rome with a hundred million gallons of water a
+day.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="079.gif" src=
+"images/079.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT<br>
+Completed by the Roman Emperor Claudian in 52 A.D.<br>
+The structure was nearly a hundred feet high</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Public Baths</b>. The Romans used great quantities of water
+for their public baths, which were large buildings with rooms
+especially made for bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges.
+They were also, like the Greek gymnasiums, places for exercise,
+conversation, and reading. Many were built as monuments by
+wealthy men and by emperors. A very small fee was charged for
+entrance, and the money was used to pay for repairs and the wages
+of those who managed the baths.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="080.gif" src=
+"images/080.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Two Famous Buildings</b>. Many of the Roman temples,
+porticoes, and theaters were copied from Greek buildings, but the
+Romans used the arch more than did the Greeks, and in this the
+builders of later times imitated them. Among their greatest
+buildings were the amphitheaters, from the benches of which
+crowds watched gladiators fighting one another or struggling with
+wild beasts. The largest of these amphitheaters was the
+Colosseum, the ruins of which still exist. Its outer walls were
+one hundred and sixty feet high. In one direction it measured six
+hundred and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and
+twelve. There were seats enough for forty-five thousand persons.
+The lowest seats were raised fifteen feet above the arena or
+central space where men or wild beasts fought. Through an
+arrangement of underground pipes the arena could be flooded so
+that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a real naval
+battle.</p>
+<p>Another great building was the Circus Maximus, built to hold
+the crowds that watched the chariot-races, and at one time having
+seats for two hundred thousand persons. In their amusements the
+Romans became more and more vulgar, excitable, and cruel. Some
+equally splendid buildings were used for better things.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="081.gif" src=
+"images/081.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE PANTHEON</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Pantheon.</b> One of these was the Pantheon, a temple
+which was afterward a Christian church. It still stands, and is
+now used as the burial-place of the Italian kings. The most
+remarkable part of it is the dome, which has a width of a little
+over one hundred and forty-two feet. No other dome in the world
+is so wide. The Romans were very successful in covering large
+spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings. All later builders of
+domes and arches are their pupils.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="082.gif" src=
+"images/082.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ARCH OF TITUS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Basilicas</b>. The Romans had other large buildings called
+basilicas. These were porticoes or promenades, with the space in
+the center covered by a great roof. They were used as places for
+public meetings. One of them had one hundred and eight pillars
+arranged in a double row around the sides and ends of this
+central space. The name basilica is Greek and means "royal." Some
+of these basilicas were used as Christian churches when the
+Romans accepted the Christian religion. The central space was
+then called the "nave," and the spaces between the columns the
+aisles.</p>
+<p><b>Triumphal Arches.</b> The Romans built beautiful arches to
+celebrate their victories. Several of these still remain, with
+sentences cut into their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of
+their builders. Modern people have taken them as models for
+similar memorial arches.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="083.gif" src=
+"images/083.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ROMAN AQUEDUCT Still in good repair, the
+Pont du Gard, near N&icirc;mes, France</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Roman Law.</b> The Romans did much for the world by their
+laws. They showed little regard for the rights of men captured in
+war and were cruel in their treatment of slaves, but they
+considered carefully the rights of free men and women. Under the
+emperors the lawyers and judges worked to make the laws clearer
+and fairer to all. Finally the Emperor Justinian, who ruled at
+the time when the empire was already half ruined by the attacks
+of barbarian enemies, ordered the lawyer Tribonian to gather into
+a single code all the statutes and decrees. These laws lasted
+long after the empire was destroyed, and out of them grew many of
+the laws used in Europe to-day. They have also influenced our
+laws in America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="084.gif" src=
+"images/084.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">PAVEMENT OF A ROMAN VILLA IN ENGLAND<br>
+Unearthed not many years ago at Aldborough.<br>
+ Such stones laid in the form of designs or pictures are called
+Mosaics</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. In the political strife at Rome what did the brothers
+Tiberius and Caius Gracchus try to do?</p>
+<p>2. What did Julius Caesar do when a party of senators tried to
+ruin him? What was the result of his war with the other Roman
+leaders?</p>
+<p>3. From what Roman word does "Emperor" come? What is the
+origin of the word "Kaiser"? How did Caesar die?</p>
+<p>4. Who was Caesar's successor and the first one who organized
+the Roman Empire?</p>
+<p>5. Why were the Romans such great builders of roads? How were
+their roads built? Do any traces of them still remain?</p>
+<p>6. How did the Romans provide the city with a supply of pure
+water?</p>
+<p>7. What was a Roman bath?</p>
+<p>8. Were the Romans as famous as the Greeks for their
+buildings? Name the largest buildings in Rome. What was a
+basilica? Of what use were basilicas to the Christians later?</p>
+<p>9. Do you remember the earliest form of the <a name=
+"2126"></a> <a href="#1656">Roman law?</a> What did Justinian do
+with the laws in his day? Are these laws important to us?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. What emperors are there now? Are they like Caesar and
+Augustus?</p>
+<p>2. Find out if our roads are built as carefully as the Roman
+roads and if they are likely to last as long. What different
+kinds of roads do we have? Can any one in the room construct a
+small model of a Roman road?</p>
+<p>3. Find out how water is now carried to cities. Are cities
+provided with great public baths like those of the Romans?</p>
+<p>4. Ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the
+revised statutes of your state. This is a code somewhat like the
+code of Justinian, only not so brief.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="085.gif" src=
+"images/085.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">TEMPLUM JOVIS CAPITOLINI (Medallion)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4119"></a><a href="#3639">CHAPTER IX</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE</p>
+<p><b>The Religion of the Jews.</b> Among the cities captured by
+the Romans was Jerusalem, about which cluster so many stories
+from the Old Testament. There, hundreds of years before, lived
+David, the shepherd boy who, after wonderful adventures, became
+king of his people. There his son Solomon built a temple of
+dazzling splendor. Among this people had arisen great
+preachers,--Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah,--who declared that religion
+did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats, but in
+justice, in mercy, and in humility. They had a genius for
+religion, just as the Greeks had a genius for art, and the Romans
+a genius for government.</p>
+<p><b>The Jews conquered by the Romans.</b> When the Jews first
+heard of the Romans they admired these citizens of a republic who
+made and unmade kings. In later years they learned that the
+Romans were hard masters and they feared and hated them. The
+Jewish kingdom was one of the last countries along the shores of
+the Mediterranean which the Romans conquered, but like all the
+others it finally became a Roman province.</p>
+<p><b>Jesus of Nazareth.</b> A few years before the Jewish
+kingdom became a Roman province there was born in a village near
+Jerusalem a child named Jesus. After he had grown to manhood in
+Nazareth he gathered about him followers or disciples whom he
+taught to live and act as is told in the books of the New
+Testament.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="087.gif" src=
+"images/087.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A VIEW OF JERUSALEM Showing the Mount of
+Olives in the distance</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>This was the beginning of the Christian religion. It was first
+held by a little band of Jews, but Paul, a Jew born in Tarsus, a
+city of Asia whose inhabitants had received the rights of Roman
+citizenship, believed that the message of the new religion was
+meant for all nations. He taught it in many cities of Asia Minor
+and Greece, and even went as far west as Rome. Several of the
+epistles or letters in the New Testament were written by Paul to
+churches which he had founded or where he had taught. So it
+happens that from Palestine came religious teachings which
+multitudes consider even more important than the art and
+literature of the Greeks or the laws and political methods of the
+Romans.</p>
+<p><b>Why the Christians were persecuted.</b> The Romans at first
+refused to permit any one in their empire to call himself a
+Christian. They disliked the Jews because the Jews denied that
+the Roman gods were real gods, asserting that these gods were
+mere images in wood and stone. The Christians did this also, but
+in the eyes of the Roman rulers the worst offense of the
+Christians was that they appeared to form a sort of secret
+society and held meetings to which other persons were not
+admitted. The emperor had forbidden such societies.</p>
+<p>The Romans also disliked the Christians because of their
+refusal to join in the public ceremonies which honored the
+emperor as if he were a god who had given peace and order to the
+world and who was able to reward the good and punish the evil.
+The Christians believed it to be wrong to join in the worship of
+an emperor, whether he were alive or dead.</p>
+<p><b>Christians put to Death.</b> The Romans were cruel in their
+manner of punishing disobedience, and many Christians suffered
+death in its most horrible forms. Some were burned, others were
+tortured, others were torn to pieces by wild animals in the great
+amphitheaters to satisfy the fierce Roman crowd. Nero, the worst
+of the Roman emperors, who, many thought, set Rome on fire in
+order that he might enjoy the sight of the burning city, tried to
+turn suspicion from himself by accusing the Christians of the
+crime. He punished them by tying them to poles, smearing their
+bodies with pitch, and burning them at night as torches.</p>
+<p><b>The Christians allowed to Worship.</b> The new religion
+spread rapidly from province to province in spite of these
+persecutions. At first the Christians worshiped secretly, but
+later they ventured to build churches. Finally, three centuries
+after the birth of Christ, the emperors promised that the
+persecutions should cease and that the Christians might worship
+undisturbed.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="089.gif" src=
+"images/089.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Roman Empire becomes Christian about 325 A.D.</b>
+Constantine was the first emperor to become Christian. He was the
+one who made the Greek city Byzantium the capital of the empire
+and for whom it was renamed Constantinople. For a time both the
+old Roman religion and the Christian religion were favored by the
+emperors, but before the fourth century closed the old religion
+was forbidden. In later days worshipers of the Roman gods were
+mostly country people, called in Latin <i>pagani</i>, and
+therefore their religion was called "paganism."</p>
+<p><b>How the Church was ruled.</b> One of the reasons why the
+Christians had been successful in their struggle with the Roman
+emperors was that they were united under wise and brave leaders.
+The Christians in each large city were ruled by a bishop, and the
+bishops of several cities were directed by an archbishop. In the
+western part of the empire the bishop of Rome, who was called the
+pope, was honored as the chief of the bishops and archbishops,
+and the successor of the Apostle Peter. In the eastern part the
+archbishops or patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria and
+Jerusalem honored the pope, but claimed to be equal in authority
+with him.</p>
+<p>There were also two kinds of clergy, parish priests and monks.
+The priests were pastors of ordinary parishes, but the monks
+lived in groups in buildings called monasteries. Sometimes their
+purpose was to dwell far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary
+life and give themselves to prayer and fasting; sometimes they
+acted as a brotherhood of teachers in barbarous communities,
+teaching the people better methods of farming, and carrying the
+arts of civilized life beyond the borders of the empire.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Where did the Jews live in Ancient Times?</p>
+<p>2. Do you remember any of the stories of David?</p>
+<p>3. What finally became of the kingdom over which David
+ruled?</p>
+<p>4. What era in the history of the world begins with the birth
+of Jesus Christ?</p>
+<p>5. Why did the Romans forbid the Christians to worship? How
+did the Romans punish them? How long after the birth of Christ
+before the emperors allowed the Christians to worship
+undisturbed?</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="091.gif" src=
+"images/091.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A MONASTERY IN THE MIDDLE AGES<br>
+Abbey of Saint-Germain des Pr&eacute;s<br>
+as it appeared in 1361 with wall, towers, and moat or ditch</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>6. What is the name of the first Roman emperor who became a
+Christian? What name was soon given to the worshipers of the old
+Roman gods?</p>
+<p>7. By what titles were the leaders of the Christians named?
+What two kinds of clergy were there?</p>
+<p><i>Important date</i>: 325 A.D., when the Roman Empire became
+Christian.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="3638"></a><a href="#2725">CHAPTER X</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>EMIGRANTS A THOUSAND YEARS AGO</p>
+<p><b>The Middle Ages.</b> It was more than a thousand years from
+the time of Constantine to the time of Columbus. This period is
+called "Mediaeval," or the "Middle Ages." During these long
+centuries the ancient civilized world of the Roman Empire was
+much changed. The Roman or Greek cities on the southern shores of
+the Mediterranean were captured by Arabs or Moors. The Moors
+conquered the larger part of Spain. The eastern lands of
+Palestine and Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Turks. The
+Turks, the Moors, and the Arabs were followers of the "prophet"
+Mohammed, who died in the year 632. The Mohammedans were enemies
+of the Christians.</p>
+<p><b>Western Europe.</b> The other part of the European world
+was also changed. The countries on the shores of the Atlantic
+were now more important than those on the shores of the
+Mediterranean. The names of the different countries were changed.
+Instead of Gallia or Gaul, there was France; instead of
+Britannia, England; for Hispania, Spain; for Germania,
+Deutschland or Germany. Italy, the center of the old empire, was
+finally divided into several states--city republics like Genoa
+and Venice, provinces ruled by the pope, and other territories
+ruled by dukes, princes, or kings.</p>
+<p><b>Fate of Civilization.</b> The most important question to
+ask is, How much of the manner of living or civilization of the
+Greeks and the Romans did the later Europeans still retain? The
+answer is found in the history of the Middle Ages. In this
+history is also found what men added to that which they had
+learned from the Greeks and the Romans. The emigrants to America
+were to carry with them knowledge which not even the wisest men
+of the ancient world had possessed.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="093.gif" src=
+"images/093.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">WALL OF AURELIAN<br>
+This wall enclosed the ancient city of Rome.<br>
+It was about thirteen miles in circumference, fifty-five feet
+high, and had three hundred towers</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Mediaeval German Emigrants.</b> The first part of the
+history of the Middle Ages explains how the German peoples from
+whom most of our forefathers were descended began to move from
+the northern forests towards the borders of the Roman Empire.
+Many thousand men had already crossed the Rhine and the Danube to
+serve in the Roman armies. Sometimes an unusually strong and
+skilful warrior would be made a general. Germans had also crossed
+the Rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich Gallic
+nobles. Other Germans, called Goths, worked in Constantinople and
+the cities of the East as masons, porters, and water-carriers.
+The Romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit
+of work and were glad to hire these foreigners.</p>
+<p><b>Story of Ulfilas.</b> Many of the Goths who lived north of
+the Danube had forsaken their old gods and become Christians.
+They were taught by Bishop Ulfilas, once a captive among them,
+afterward a missionary. He translated the Bible into the Gothic
+language, and this translation is the most ancient specimen of
+German that we possess. Many of the other German tribes learned
+about Christianity from the Goths, and although they might be
+enemies of the Roman government, they were not enemies of the
+Church.</p>
+<p><b>The Goths invade the Roman Empire.</b> The Roman emperors
+tried to prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier
+in great numbers, because, once across, if they did not find work
+and food, they became plunderers. Not many years after
+Constantine's death, a million Goths had passed the Danube and
+had plundered the country almost to the walls of Constantinople.
+This was not like the invasion of a regular army, which comes to
+fight battles and to arrange terms of peace.</p>
+<p>The Goths, and the Germans who soon followed their example,
+moved as a whole people, with their wives and children, their
+cattle, and the few household goods they owned. Wherever they
+wished to settle they demanded of the Romans one third, sometimes
+two thirds, of the land. They soon learned to be good neighbors
+of the older inhabitants, although at first they were little
+better than robbers. Alaric, one of the leaders of the Goths, led
+them into Italy and in the year 410 captured Rome. Alaric did not
+injure the buildings much, and he kept his men from robbing the
+churches. Some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about
+plundering villages and attacking cities did far greater damage.
+The Roman government grew weaker and weaker, until one by one the
+provinces fell into the hands of German kings.</p>
+<p><b>Beginnings of England, France, and Germany.</b> Britain was
+attacked by the Angles and Saxons from the shores of Germany
+across the North Sea. (See map<a name="4829"></a><a href=
+"#1634">[12]</a>) They drove away the inhabitants or made slaves
+of them and settled upon the lands they had seized. The country
+was then called Angle-land or England, and the people
+Anglo-Saxons or Englishmen.</p>
+<p>The Roman provinces in Gaul were gradually conquered by the
+Franks from the borders of the Rhine, and they gave the name
+France to the land.</p>
+<p>At about the same time the other German tribes that had
+remained in Germany united under one king.</p>
+<p><b>The Result of Barbarian Attacks.</b> The part of the
+ancient world which lay about Constantinople was less changed
+than the rest during the Middle Ages. The walls of Constantinople
+were high and thick, and they withstood attack after attack until
+1453. Within their shelter men continued to live much as they had
+lived in Ancient Times. A few delighted to study the writings of
+the ancient Greeks. In Italy and the other countries of western
+Europe most of the cities were in ruins. The ancient baths,
+amphitheaters, aqueducts, and palaces of Rome crumbled and fell.
+The mediaeval Romans also used huge buildings like the Colosseum
+as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime. This was
+done in every country where Roman buildings existed.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="096.gif" src=
+"images/096.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The amphitheater at Arles in southern France had a still
+stranger fortune. It was used at one time as a citadel, at
+another as a prison and gradually became the home of hundreds of
+the criminals and the poor of the city. "Every archway held its
+nest of human outcasts. From stone to stone they cast their
+rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the very entrails of
+the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the pursuit
+of the officers of the law."</p>
+<p>Few persons traveled from Constantinople to Italy or France,
+and few from western Europe visited Constantinople. The men of
+Italy and France and England did not know how to read Greek. Many
+of them also ceased to read the writings of the ancient
+Romans.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="097.gif" src=
+"images/097.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY, ENGLAND This
+church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century. Its
+walls show some of the bricks of the original chapel</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The English become Christians, 597 A.D.</b> Christianity
+had spread throughout the Roman Empire, and it became the
+religion of all the tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon
+the ruins of the Empire. The Angles and Saxons, when they invaded
+Britain, were still worshipers of the gods Wodan and Thor. They
+had never learned from the Goths of Ulfilas anything about
+Christianity.</p>
+<p>One day in the slave market at Rome three fair-haired boys
+were offered for sale. Gregory, a noble Roman, who had become a
+monk and was the abbot of his monastery, happened to be passing
+and asked who they were. He was told they were Angles. "Angels,"
+he cried, "yes, they have faces like angels, and should become
+companions of the angels in heaven." When this good abbot became
+pope, he sent missionaries to Angle-land and they established
+themselves at Canterbury.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="098.gif" src=
+"images/098.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GREGORY AND THE LITTLE ENGLISH SLAVES</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Missionaries to the Germans and the Slavs</b>. The
+conversion of the English helped in the spread of Christianity on
+the Continent, for Boniface, an English monk, was the greatest
+missionary to the Germans. He won thousands from the worship of
+their ancient gods and founded many churches. The Slavs, who
+lived east of the Germans, were taught by missionaries from
+Constantinople instead of from Rome.</p>
+<p><b>The Educated Men of the Middle Ages.</b> The missionaries
+and teachers of the Church had been educated like the older
+Romans. They read Roman books, and tried to preserve the
+knowledge which both Greeks and Romans had gathered. Influenced
+by them, the emigrants and conquerors from the north also tried
+to be like the Romans. Educated men, and especially the priests
+of the Church, used Latin as their language. In this way some
+parts of the old Roman and Greek civilization were preserved,
+although the Roman government had fallen and many beautiful
+cities were mere heaps of ruins.</p>
+<p><b>The Vikings.</b> The emigration of whole peoples from one
+part of Europe to another did not stop when the Roman Empire was
+overrun. New peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out
+the tribes which had already settled within its boundaries and
+were learning the ways of civilization.</p>
+<p>One of these peoples came from the regions now known as
+Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They were called Danes by the
+English, and Northmen or Normans by other Europeans. They had
+another name, Vikings, which was their word for sea-rovers.</p>
+<p>It was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than
+march on the land. They were a hardy and daring people, who liked
+nothing better than to fight and conquer and rob in other
+countries. There was not a land in western Europe, even as far
+south as Sicily, that they did not visit. Wherever they went they
+plundered and burned and murdered, leaving a blackened trail.</p>
+<p><b>The Danes in England.</b> The Danes ravaged the eastern and
+southern shores of England, and after they were tired of robbery,
+partly because there was little left to take, they began to
+settle in the land. Alfred, the greatest of the early English
+kings, was driven by them into the swamps for a while, but in the
+year 878 A.D. he conquered an army of them in battle and
+persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a Christian.
+Alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion of
+England, a region called Danelaw, because the law of the Danes
+was obeyed there.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="100.gif" src=
+"images/100.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A VIKING SHIP AT SEA</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Danes become Normans</b>. No more Danes or Northmen
+came to trouble England for a time, but instead they crossed the
+Channel to France and rowed up the Seine and tried to capture
+Paris. A few years later a Frankish king gave them the city of
+Rouen, further down the Seine, and the region about it which was
+called Normandy. These Normans also accepted Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>The Vikings become Discoverers.</b> Before another hundred
+years had passed the Northmen performed a feat more difficult
+than sailing up rivers and burning towns. They were the first to
+venture far out of sight of land, though their ships were no
+larger than our fishing boats. These bold sailors visited the
+Orkney and the Shetland Islands, north of Scotland, and finally
+reached Iceland. In Iceland their sheep and cattle flourished,
+and a lively trade in fish, oil, butter, and skins sprang up with
+the old homeland and with the British islands.</p>
+<p>Before long one of the settlers, named Eric the Red, led a
+colony to Greenland, the larger and more desolate island further
+west. He called it Greenland because, he said, men would be more
+easily persuaded to go there if the land had a good name. This
+was probably in the year 985.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="101.gif" src=
+"images/101.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">LEIF ERICSON From the statue in Boston</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Discovery of Vinland.</b> Eric had a son, called Leif
+Ericson, or Leif the Lucky, who visited Norway and was well
+received at the court of King Olaf. Not long before missionaries
+had persuaded Olaf and his people to give up their old gods and
+accept Christianity, and Leif followed their example. Leif set
+out in the early summer of the year 1000 to carry the new
+religion to his father, Eric the Red, to his father's people, and
+to his neighbors. The voyage was a long one, lasting all the
+summer, for on the way his ship was driven out of its course and
+came upon strange lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large
+trees grew. The milder climate and stories of large trees useful
+for building ships aroused the curiosity of the Greenlanders.</p>
+<p>They sent exploring expeditions, and found the coast of North
+America at places which they called Helluland, that is, the land
+of flat stones; Markland, the land of forests; and Vinland, where
+the grape-vines grow. Helluland was probably on the coast of
+Labrador, Markland somewhere on the shores of Newfoundland, and
+Vinland in Nova Scotia.</p>
+<p><b>The Settlement in Vinland.</b> Thornfinn Karlsefni, a
+successful trader between Iceland and Greenland, attempted to
+plant a colony in the new lands. Karlsefni and his friends, to
+the number of one hundred and sixty men and several women, set
+out in 1007 with three or four ships, loaded with supplies and
+many cattle. They built huts and remained three or four winters
+in Vinland, but all trace of any settlement disappeared long
+ago.</p>
+<p>They found, their stories tell us, swarthy, rough-looking
+Indians, with coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks, with
+whom they traded red cloth for furs. Trouble broke out between
+the Northmen and the Indians, who outnumbered them. So many
+Northmen were killed that the survivors became alarmed and
+returned to Greenland.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="103.gif" src=
+"images/103.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN<br>
+The American lands they found are marked with diagonal lines</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Vinland forgotten.</b> The voyages to Vinland soon ceased
+and the discoveries of Leif and his followers were only
+remembered in the songs or "sagas" of the people. They thought of
+Vinland mainly as a land of flat stones, great trees, and fierce
+natives. Nor did the wise men of Europe who heard the Northmen's
+story guess that a New World had been discovered. It was probably
+fortunate that five hundred years were to go by before Europeans
+settled in America, for within that time they were to learn a
+great deal and to find again many things which the Romans had
+left but which in the year 1000 were hidden away, either in the
+ruins of the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses,
+where few knew of them. The more Europeans possessed before they
+set out, the more Americans would have to start with.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="104.gif" src=
+"images/104.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">FACSIMILE OF A BIT OF AN OLD SAGA
+MANUSCRIPT</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What is meant by the "Middle Ages" or the "Mediaeval"
+period?</p>
+<p>2. Show on the <a name="3355"></a><a href="#1634">map[13]</a>,
+what part of the Roman Empire was conquered by the
+Mohammedans.</p>
+<p>3. Mention the Roman names of England, France, Germany, and
+Spain, Why were they changed to what they are now?</p>
+<p>4. What people early in the Middle Ages began to emigrate from
+their homes to the Roman Empire? What did they do for a
+living?</p>
+<p>5. Where did the Goths live? Who taught them the Christian
+religion? When the Goths entered the Roman Empire what did they
+ask of the inhabitants? Did they destroy much? How many years
+separated the capture of Rome by Alaric from its capture by the
+Gauls?</p>
+<p>6. What tribes conquered England or Britain? What tribes
+conquered Roman Gaul or France? How long before Constantinople
+was captured?</p>
+<p>7. What was the effect of these raids and wars upon many
+cities? Who tried to keep fresh the memory of what the Greeks and
+the Romans had done? Who used the language of the Romans?</p>
+<p>8. Tell the story of the way the English became Christians.
+Who taught the Christian religion to many Germans? From what city
+did the Slavs receive missionaries?</p>
+<p>9. What different names are given to the inhabitants of
+Denmark, Norway, and Sweden who became rovers over the seas?
+Where did they make settlements?</p>
+<p>10. Tell the story of how Leif the Lucky discovered America.
+Why did the Northmen leave Vinland?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Point out on the map all the places mentioned in this
+chapter.</p>
+<p>2. On an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned
+in the chapter on the countries where they settled.</p>
+<p>3. Ask children in school who know some other language than
+English what are their names for England, Germany, France, Spain,
+and Italy.</p>
+<p><i>Important dates</i>:</p>
+<p>Alaric's capture of Rome, 410 A.D.</p>
+<p>Discovery of America by the Northmen, 1000 A.D.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1175"></a><a href="#3319">CHAPTER XI</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>HOW ENGLISHMEN LEARNED TO GOVERN THEMSELVES</p>
+<p><b>Heroes of the Middle Ages.</b> The Middle Ages, like
+Ancient Times, are recalled by many interesting tales. Some of
+them, such as the stories of King Arthur and his Knights, the
+story of Roland, and the Song of the Niebelungs, are only tales
+and not history. Others tell us about great kings, Charlemagne
+and St. Louis of France, Frederick the Redbeard of Germany, or
+St. Stephen of Hungary. The hero-king for England was Alfred, who
+fought bravely against the pirate Danes and finally conquered and
+persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule.</p>
+<p><b>King Alfred began to reign in 871.</b> King Alfred was a
+skilful warrior, but he was also an excellent ruler in time of
+peace. When he was a boy he had shown his love of books. His
+mother once offered a beautifully written Saxon poem as a prize
+to the one of her sons who should be the first to learn it.
+Alfred could not yet read, but he had a ready memory, and with
+the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and won the prize.</p>
+<p>At that time almost all books were written in Latin and few
+even of the clergy could read. During the long wars with the
+Danes many books had been destroyed. Men found battle-axes more
+useful than books and ceased to care about reading. King Alfred
+feared that the Saxons would soon become ignorant barbarians, and
+sent for priests and monks who were learned and were able to
+teach his clergy. He sent even into France for such men.</p>
+<p><b>Early English Books.</b> As it would be easier for people
+to learn to read books written in the language they spoke rather
+than in Latin, Alfred helped to translate several famous Latin
+books into English. Among these was a history written by a Roman
+before the Germans had overthrown the Roman Empire. This history
+told about the world of the Greeks and the Romans.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="107.gif" src=
+"images/107.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">EXTRACT FROM THE SAXON CHRONICLE<br>
+From a copy in the British Museum</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year
+to year of things which happened in his kingdom. This record was
+called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and was the first history
+written in the English language. It was carefully kept for many
+years after Alfred's death. Another wise thing Alfred did was to
+collect the laws or "dooms" of the earlier kings, so that every
+one might know what the law required.</p>
+<p><b>The Beginning of a Navy.</b> Alfred has been called the
+creator of the English navy. He thought that the only way to keep
+the Danes from plundering his shores was to fight them on the
+sea. He built several ships which were bigger than the Danish
+ships, but they were not always victorious, for they could not
+follow the Danish ships into shallow water. Nevertheless, the
+Danes could not plunder England as easily as before.</p>
+<p><b>The New Army.</b> Alfred organized his fighting men in a
+better way. In times past the men had been called upon to fight
+only when the Danes were near, but now he kept a third of his men
+ready all the time, and another third he placed in forts, so the
+rest were able to work in the fields in safety. There are good
+reasons why Englishmen regard Alfred as a hero.</p>
+<p><b>William the Conqueror began to rule England in 1066.</b>
+About a hundred and fifty years after Alfred died, William, duke
+of Normandy, crossed the Channel with an army, killed the English
+king in battle, and seized the throne. This was not altogether a
+misfortune to the English, for they came under the same ruler as
+the Normans and they shared in all that the men of the Continent
+were beginning to learn. For one thing, builders from the
+Continent taught the English to construct the great Norman
+churches or cathedrals which every traveler in England sees.
+Besides, William the Conqueror was a strong king and put down the
+chiefs or lords that were inclined to oppress the common
+people.</p>
+<p><b>Henry II.</b> Henry II, one of William's successors, ruled
+over most of western France as well as over England. His officers
+and nobles were tired out by his endless traveling in his lands,
+which extended from the banks of the river Loire in France to the
+borders of Scotland. All Englishmen and Americans should remember
+him with gratitude because of the improvements he made in the
+ways of discovering the truth when disputes arose and were
+carried into courts.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="109.gif" src=
+"images/109.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE NORMANS CROSSING THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br>
+From the Bayeux Tapestry, embroidered in the time of William the
+Conqueror. The figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred
+and thirty feet long, and twenty inches wide. Worsteds of eight
+colors are used</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Ordeals and Trials by Battle.</b> Before Henry's reign it
+was the custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the
+truth by arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals.
+The two most common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the
+ordeal by water. In the ordeal by fire an iron was heated
+red-hot, and after it had been blessed by a priest it was put
+into the hand of the man the truth of whose word was being
+tested, and he had to carry it a certain number of feet. His hand
+was then bound up and left for three days. If at the end of that
+time the wound was healing, men believed he was innocent, for
+they thought God would keep an innocent man from being
+punished.</p>
+<p>In the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water
+which had been blessed by the priest. If he was guilty, the
+people thought the water would not receive him. If he sank at
+once, he was pulled out and treated as if he had told the
+truth.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="110.gif" src=
+"images/110.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">TRIAL BY BATTLE<br>
+After a drawing in an old manuscript</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>A wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose
+dispute was to be settled, or between a man and his accuser. Each
+was armed with a hammer or a small battle-axe, and the one who
+gave up lost his case.</p>
+<p><b>Trial by Jury.</b> King Henry introduced a better way of
+finding out the truth. He called upon twelve men from a
+neighborhood to come before the judges, to promise solemnly to
+tell what they knew about a matter, and then to decide which
+person was in the right. They were supposed to know about the
+facts, and they were allowed to talk the matter over with one
+another before they made a decision.</p>
+<p>Later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two
+groups, one to tell what they knew and the other to listen and
+decide what was true. Those who told what they knew were called
+the witnesses, and those who listened and decided were called
+jurors. The name jurors came from a Latin word meaning to take an
+oath.</p>
+<p><b>Richard the Lionhearted.</b> King Henry had two sons,
+Richard and John. Richard was the boldest and most skilful
+fighter of his time. When the news was brought to England that
+Jerusalem had been captured by the Mohammedans, he led an army to
+Palestine to recapture it. He failed to take the city, but he
+became famous throughout the East as a fearless warrior and was
+ever afterwards called the "Lionhearted." At his death his
+brother John became king. He was as cowardly and wicked as
+Richard was brave and generous.</p>
+<p><b>The Great Charter.</b> The leaders of the people, the
+nobles and the clergy, soon grew tired of John's wickedness. In
+1215 they raised an army and threatened to take the kingdom from
+John and crown another prince as king. John was soon ready to
+promise anything in order to obtain power once more, and the
+nobles and bishops met him at Runnymede on the river Thames, a
+few miles west of London, and compelled him to sign a list of
+promises. As the list contained sixty-three separate promises, it
+was called the Great Charter or Magna Charta. If John did not
+keep these promises, the lords and clergy agreed to make war on
+him, and he even said that this would be their duty.</p>
+<p><b>Promises of the Charter.</b> Many of the articles of the
+Great Charter were important only to the men of King John's day,
+but others are as important to us as to them. In these the king
+promised that every one should be treated justly. He said he
+would not refuse to listen to the complaints of those who thought
+they were wronged. The king also promised that he would not
+decide in favor of a rich man just because the rich man might
+offer him money. He would put no one in prison who had not been
+tried and found guilty by a jury. By another important promise
+the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of
+the chief men of the kingdom. This opened the way for the people
+to have something to say about how their money should be spent.
+This right is a very important part of what we call
+self-government.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="112.gif" src=
+"images/112.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Promises of the Great Charter renewed.</b> In after times
+whenever the English thought a king was doing them a wrong they
+reminded him of the promises made by King John in the Great
+Charter and demanded that the promises be solemnly renewed.</p>
+<p>In 1265 a great noble named Simon de Montfort asked many towns
+to send a number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and
+clergy to talk over the conduct of the king. Others, even kings,
+soon followed Simon's example by asking the townsmen for advice
+about matters of government. After a while this became the
+custom. Occasionally the king wanted the advice of the clergy,
+the nobles, and the townsmen at the same time and called them
+together. The meeting was called a parliament, that is, an
+assembly in which talking or discussion goes on.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="113.gif" src=
+"images/113.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">Parliament House Westminster Hall Westminster
+Abbey<br>
+WHERE PARLIAMENT MET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The English Parliament.</b> Only the most important nobles
+or lords could go in person to the assemblies, otherwise the
+meeting would be too large to do any business. The other lords
+chose certain ones from their number to go in place of all the
+rest. We call such men representatives. In this way, besides the
+men who represented the towns, there were present these nobles
+who represented the landowners of the counties. Gradually these
+nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own, while
+the greater lords, the bishops, and abbots sat together in
+another assembly. The two assemblies were called the House of
+Commons and the House of Lords, and the two made up the
+parliament.</p>
+<p><b>An Assembly of Representatives.</b> This parliament was a
+great invention. The English had discovered a better way of
+governing themselves than either the Greeks or the Romans. We
+call it the representative system. If a Roman citizen who lived
+far from Rome wanted to take part in the elections, he was
+obliged to leave his farm or his business and travel to Rome, for
+only the citizens who were at Rome could have a share in making
+the laws. It never occurred to the Romans that the citizens
+outside of Rome could send some of their number as
+representatives to Rome. The formation of the English parliament
+was an important step towards what we mean in America by
+"government of the people, for the people, and by the
+people."</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the Middle
+Ages. What stories have you learned about these heroes?</p>
+<p>2. Who was the hero-king of the English? How did he early show
+his love of books? What did he do to help his people to a
+knowledge of books?</p>
+<p>3. How did he succeed better than other kings in driving back
+the Danes? Why has he been called the creator of the English
+navy?</p>
+<p>4. What was the name of the Norman duke who conquered the
+English and ruled over them? Did this conquest hinder or help
+them?</p>
+<p>5. Why should we remember Henry II gratefully? Explain an
+ordeal and a trial by battle. How were the first juries formed
+and what did they do? How were they afterwards divided?</p>
+<p>6. For what was King Richard most celebrated? What sort of a
+king was his brother John?</p>
+<p>7. Why was the Charter which John was forced to grant called
+"Great"? Repeat some of its promises. Did the English soon forget
+these promises?</p>
+<p>8. Who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to
+talk over affairs with the clergy and the nobles? What was this
+body finally called? Into what two bodies was it divided?</p>
+<p>9. What is a "representative system"? Why was it an invention?
+What did the Romans do when they lived in towns distant from Rome
+and wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Learn and tell one of the King Arthur stories and a part of
+the story of the Niebelungs. Find a story about Charlemagne,
+Frederick the Redbeard, St. Louis, or St. Stephen.</p>
+<p>2. Collect pictures of war vessels, those of old times and
+those of to-day, and explain their differences.</p>
+<p>3. Find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is
+guilty.</p>
+<p>4. What is the name of the assembly in your state which makes
+the laws? What assembly at Washington makes the laws for the
+whole country?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4072"></a><a href="#3039">CHAPTER XII</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES</p>
+<p><b>What the English owed to their European Neighbors</b>. If
+the English succeeded better than other Europeans in learning how
+to govern themselves, one reason was that the Channel protected
+them from attack, and they could quarrel with their king without
+running much risk that their enemies in other countries would
+take advantage of the quarrel to seize their lands or attempt to
+conquer them.</p>
+<p>The French were not so well placed. France also was not united
+like England, and whole districts called counties or duchies were
+almost independent of the king, being ruled by their counts and
+dukes. In France it would not have been wise for the people to
+quarrel with the king, for he was their natural protector against
+cruel lords. Germany and Italy were even more divided, with not
+only counties and duchies, but also cities nearly as independent
+as the ancient cities of Greece.</p>
+<p>The Europeans on the Continent did many things which the
+English were doing, and some of these were so well done that the
+English were ready to accept these Europeans as their teachers.
+The memory of what the Greeks and the Romans had done remained
+longer in southern France and Italy because so many buildings
+were still standing which reminded Frenchmen and Italians of the
+people who built them.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="117.gif" src=
+"images/117.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A MONK COPYING MANUSCRIPT BOOKS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Classes of People.</b> The people of Europe, as well as of
+England, were divided into two classes, nobles and peasants. The
+clergy seemed to form another class because there were so many of
+them. Besides the parish priests and the bishops there were
+thousands of monks, who were persons who chose to dwell together
+in monasteries under the rule of an abbot or a prior, rather than
+live among ordinary people where men were so often tempted to do
+wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others. The monks worked
+on the farms of the monasteries, or studied in the libraries, or
+prayed and fasted. For a long time the men who knew how to read
+were nearly always monks or priests. Outside of the monasteries
+or the bishops' houses there were few books.</p>
+<p><b>The Nobles.</b> The nobles were either knights, barons,
+counts, or dukes. In England there were also earls. Many
+mediaeval nobles ruled like kings, but over a smaller territory.
+They gained their power because they were rich in land and could
+support many men who were ready to follow them in battle, or
+because in the constant wars they proved themselves able to keep
+anything they took, whether it was a hilltop or a town. Timid and
+peaceable people were often glad to put themselves under the
+protection of such a fighter, who saved them from being robbed by
+other fighting nobles.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="118.gif" src=
+"images/118.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">PLAN OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE<br>
+1. The Donjon-keep. 2. Chapel. 3. Stables. 4. Inner Court.<br>
+5. Outer Court. 6. Outworks. 7. Mount, where justice was
+executed. 8. Soldiers' Lodgings</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings,
+who were at first only very successful nobles, were able to bring
+nobles as well as peasants under their own rule and to compel
+every one to obey the same laws. After this the nobles became
+what we call an aristocracy, proud of their family history,
+generally living in better houses and owning more land than their
+neighbors, but with little power over others.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="119.gif" src=
+"images/119.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">PIERREFONDS--ONE OF THE GREAT CASTLES OF
+FRANCE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Castles</b>. For safety, kings and nobles in the Middle
+Ages were obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses
+called castles. They were often placed on a hilltop or on an
+island or in a spot where approach to the walls could be made
+difficult by a broad canal, or moat, filled with water. At
+different places along the walls were towers, and within the
+outer ring of walls a great tower, or keep, which was hard to
+capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the
+enemy. These castles were gloomy places to live in until,
+centuries later, their inner walls were pierced with windows.
+Many are still standing, others are interesting heaps of
+ruins.</p>
+<p><b>Knighthood</b>. The lords of the castles were occupied
+mostly in hunting or fighting. They fought to keep other lords
+from interfering with them or to win for themselves more lands
+and power. They hunted that they might have meat for their
+tables. In later times, when it was not so necessary to kill
+animals for food, they hunted as a sport. Fighting also ceased to
+be the chief occupation, although the nobles were expected to
+accompany the king in his wars.</p>
+<p>From boyhood the sons of nobles, unless they entered the
+Church as priests or monks, were taught the art of fighting. A
+boy was sent to the castle of another lord, where he served as a
+page, waiting on the lord at table or running errands. He was
+trained to ride a horse boldly and to be skilful with the sword
+and the lance. When his education was finished he was usually
+made a knight, an event which took place with many interesting
+ceremonies.</p>
+<p>The young man bathed, as a sign that he was pure. The weapons
+and arms for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the
+altar of the church, and near them he knelt and prayed all night.
+In the final ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received
+a slight blow on the neck from the sword of some knight, or
+perhaps of the king. His armor covered him from head to foot in
+metal, and sometimes his horse was also covered with metal
+plates. When he was fully armed, he was expected to show his
+skill to the lords and ladies who were present.</p>
+<p><b>The Duties of a Knight.</b> The duties of the knight were
+to defend the weak, to protect women from wrong, to be faithful
+to his lord and king, and to be courteous even to an enemy. A
+knight true to these duties was called "chivalrous," a word which
+means very much what we mean by the word "gentlemanly." There
+were many wicked knights, but we must not forget that the good
+knights taught courtesy, faithfulness in keeping promises,
+respect for women, courage, self-sacrifice, and honor.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="121.gif" src=
+"images/121.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A Knight in Armor Thirteenth century</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Peasants.</b> Most of the people were peasants or
+townsmen. There were few towns, because many had been burned by
+the barbarian tribes which broke into the Roman Empire, or had
+been destroyed in the later wars. The peasants were crowded in
+villages close to the walls of some castle or monastery. They
+paid dearly for the protection which the lord of the castle or
+the abbot of the monastery gave them, for they were obliged to
+work on his lands three days or more each week, and to bring him
+eggs, chickens, and a little money several times a year. They
+also gave him a part of their harvest.</p>
+<p><b>The Townsmen</b>. At first the towns belonged to lords, or
+abbots, or bishops, but many towns drove out their lords and
+ruled themselves or received officers from the king. When they
+ruled themselves, their towns were called communes. The citizens
+agreed that whenever the town bell was rung they would gather
+together. Any one who was absent was fined. For them "eternal
+vigilance was the price of liberty." Some of the belfries of
+these mediaeval towns are still standing, and remind the citizens
+of to-day of the struggles of the early days.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="122.gif" src=
+"images/122.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">VIEW OF CARCASSONNE<br>
+This is an ancient city in France founded by the Romans</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The men of each occupation or trade were organized into
+societies or guilds, with masters, journeymen, and apprentices.
+There were guilds of goldsmiths, ironmongers, and fishmongers,
+that is, workers in gold and iron and sellers of fish. The
+merchants also had their guilds. In many towns no one was allowed
+to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was not a member of a
+guild.</p>
+<p><b>Old Cities which still exist.</b> Many of the towns which
+grew up in the Middle Ages are now the great cities of England
+and Europe. Their citizens can look back a thousand years and
+more over the history of their city, can point to churches, to
+town halls, and sometimes to private houses, that have stood all
+this time. They can often show the remains of mediaeval walls or
+broad streets where once these walls stood, and the moats that
+surrounded them. The traveler in York or London, in Paris, in
+Nuremburg, in Florence, or in Rome eagerly searches for the
+relics about which so many interesting stories of the past are
+told.</p>
+<p><b>Venice and Genoa.</b> One of the most fascinating of these
+old cities is Venice, built upon low-lying islands two miles from
+the shore of Italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of
+the Adriatic. Venice was founded by men and women who fled from a
+Roman city on the mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in
+the fifth century after Christ. In many places piles had to be
+driven into the loose sands to furnish a foundation for houses.
+The Venetians did not try to keep out the water but used it as
+streets, and instead of driving in wagons they went about in
+boats. They grew rich in trade on the sea, as the Greeks had done
+in those same waters hundreds of years before.</p>
+<p>Farther down the coast of Italy were the cities Brindisi and
+Taranto, the Brundusium and Tarentum of the Romans. Across the
+peninsula to the west was another trading city called Genoa,
+which was the birthplace of Columbus.</p>
+<p><b>Modern Languages</b>. While the people of mediaeval times
+were building city walls and towers to protect themselves they
+were also doing other things. Almost without knowing it they
+formed the languages which we now speak and write--English,
+German, French, Italian, and Spanish.</p>
+<p>The English and German languages are closely related because
+the forefathers of the English emigrated to England from Germany,
+taking their language with them. This older language was
+gradually changed, but it still remained like German. Dutch is
+another language like both English and German.</p>
+<p>There are many words in these languages borrowed from other
+peoples. Englishmen, because of their long union with western
+France, borrowed many words from the French. The French did not
+invent these words, for the French language grew out of the Latin
+language which the French learned from the Romans.</p>
+<p><b>How Modern Languages were formed</b>. In English we have
+two sets of words and phrases: one is used in writing books or
+speeches, the other in conversation. When the Gauls learned
+Latin, the language of Rome, most of them learned the words used
+in conversation and did not learn the words of Roman books.
+Before long spoken words differed so much from the older written
+words that only scholars understood that the two had belonged to
+the same language. This new language was French. In the same way
+Italian and Spanish grew out of the ordinary Latin spoken in
+Italy and Spain.</p>
+<p>When men began to write books in the new languages, the
+changes went on more slowly because the use of words in books
+kept the spelling the same. Men wrote less in Latin, but it was
+still used in the religious services of the Church and in the
+schools and universities.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="125.gif" src=
+"images/125.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">VENICE AND THE GRAND CANAL</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Schools in the Middle Ages.</b> In the Middle Ages most
+boys and girls did not go to school. Education was principally
+for those who expected to become priests or monks. The schools
+were in the monasteries or in the houses or palaces of the
+bishops. The students were taught a little Latin grammar, to
+write or speak Latin, and to debate. They also learned
+arithmetic; enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the
+festivals of the Church should come; and music, so much as was
+then known of it. Printing had not been invented, so there were
+no text-books for them to study, and written books or manuscripts
+were too costly. Students listened to the teacher as he read from
+his manuscripts and copied the words or tried to remember
+them.</p>
+<p><b>The Beginning of Universities.</b> If students remained in
+the schools after these things had been learned, they studied the
+laws of the Romans, or the practise of medicine, or the religious
+questions which are called theology. Some teachers talked in such
+an interesting way about such questions that hundreds of students
+came to listen. Like other kinds of workers, who were organized
+in societies or guilds, the teachers and students formed a guild
+called a university. The teachers were the master-workmen, and
+the students were the apprentices.</p>
+<p><b>Where the Students lived.</b> In the beginning the
+universities had no buildings of their own, and the teachers
+taught in hired halls, the students boarding wherever they could
+find lodgings. Partly to help students who were too poor to pay
+for good lodgings, and partly to bring the students under the
+direct rule of teachers, colleges were built. These were not
+separate institutions like the American colleges, but simply
+houses for residence, although later some teaching was done in
+them.</p>
+<p><b>Some Famous Universities.</b> The oldest university was in
+Bologna in Italy, and teachers began to explain the laws of the
+Romans to its students eight hundred years ago. The University of
+Paris was called the greatest university in the Middle Ages. Its
+students numbered sometimes between six and seven thousand. About
+the same time the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge
+were formed, and there, many years later, a large number of the
+men who settled in America were educated.</p>
+<p><b>The Wisdom of the Arabs.</b> Students in these universities
+obtained several of the writings of the Greeks through the Arabs,
+the followers of Mohammed, who had conquered most of Spain. Long
+before Europeans thought of founding universities the Arabs had
+flourishing schools and universities in Spain. The capital of the
+Mohammedan Empire was first at Bagdad on the Euphrates, where
+once ruled Haroun-al-Raschid, the hero of the tales of the
+Arabian Nights.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="127.gif" src=
+"images/127.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">VIEW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD Built in the
+fourteenth century</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>What Europeans borrowed from the Arabs.</b> The Arabs had
+learned much of geography and mathematics from the Greeks, and
+they also found out much for themselves. The numerals which we
+use are Arabic; and algebra, one of our principal studies in
+mathematics, was thought out by the Arabs. Their learned men were
+deeply interested in the books of Aristotle, an ancient Greek,
+who had been a teacher of Alexander the Great. They translated
+his books into Arabic, and Christian students in Spain translated
+the Arabic into Latin. The great scholars at the University of
+Paris believed that Aristotle reasoned better than other
+thinkers, and took as their model the methods of reasoning found
+in this Latin translation of an Arabic translation of what
+Aristotle had written in Greek.</p>
+<p>[Illustration 128: THE ALCAZAR AT SEVILLE Built by the Moors
+in the twelfth century. Note the elaborate decoration of the
+Moorish architecture.]</p>
+<p><b>Builders in the Middle Ages.</b> The Greeks and the Romans
+had been great builders, but the men of the Middle Ages succeeded
+in building churches, town halls, and palaces or castles which
+equaled in grandeur and beauty the best that the ancient builders
+had made. The large churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because
+their builders were able to place masses of stone high in the air
+and to cover immense spaces with beautiful vaulted roofs.
+Builders nowadays imitate, but not often, if ever, equal them.
+Fortunately the original buildings are still standing in many
+English and European cities: in Canterbury, Durham, and
+Winchester; in Paris, Chartres, and Rheims; in Cologne, Erfurt,
+and Strasbourg; in Barcelona and Toledo; in Milan, Venice, and
+Rome.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="129.gif" src=
+"images/129.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">NOTRE DAME IN PARIS View from the rear,
+showing the arches and buttresses</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Church Building.</b> The Italians began by building
+churches like Roman basilicas. Roman arches and domes, supported
+by heavy walls, were also used north of the Alps, and the method
+of building was named Romanesque, or in England, Norman. The
+architects or builders of western France discovered a way of
+roofing over just as large spaces without using such heavy walls,
+so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows. Instead
+of having rounded arches they used pointed arches. The walls
+between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called
+buttresses. The peak of the roof of these cathedrals was
+sometimes more than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor.
+The glass of the windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from
+the Bible or from lives of sainted men and women. The outer
+walls, especially the western front, the doorways and the towers,
+were richly carved and adorned with statues, and often with the
+figures of strange birds and beasts which lived only in the
+imagination of the builders. This method of building was named
+Gothic, and it was used not only for churches but for town halls
+and private houses. Architects use similar methods of building
+nowadays.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="130.gif" src=
+"images/130.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS A typical Gothic
+interior</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Renaissance.</b> Men who could build and adorn great
+churches and town halls and who were eager to study in the new
+universities should be called civilized. The barbarous days were
+gone, but men still had much to learn from the ancient Greeks and
+Romans. Many of the ancient buildings were in ruins, the statues
+half buried or broken, the paintings destroyed, and the books
+lost. Men began to search for what was left of these things and
+to study them carefully to learn what the Graeco-Roman world had
+been like. After a while students could think of nothing else,
+and tried to imitate, if they could not surpass, what the Romans
+and the Greeks had done. The age in which men were first
+interested in these things is called the Renaissance or
+"rebirth," because men were so unlike what they had been that
+they seemed born again. With the beginning of the Renaissance the
+Middle Ages came to an end.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="131.gif" src=
+"images/131.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ST. PETER'S AT ROME</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Petrarch.</b> One of the earliest of these "new" men was
+Petrarch, an Italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century, a
+hundred years before Columbus. He wished above all things to
+read, copy, and possess the writings of the Romans, and
+especially of Cicero, an orator and writer who lived in the days
+of Julius Caesar. Petrarch and his friends searched for the
+manuscripts of Roman authors which had been preserved, hidden
+away in monastery libraries.</p>
+<p>The same love of Roman books seized others, and princes spent
+large sums of money in collecting and copying ancient writings.
+At this time a beginning of the great libraries of Europe was
+made, Petrarch tried to learn Greek, but could find no one in
+Italy able to teach him.</p>
+<p><b>Greek Books brought again to Italy.</b> Shortly after
+Petrarch died some Greeks came from Constantinople seeking the
+aid of the pope and the kings of the West in an attempt to drive
+back the Turks, who had already crossed into Europe and settled
+in the lands which they now occupy. Unless help should be sent to
+Constantinople, the city would certainly fall into their hands.
+With these Greeks was one of those men who still loved to read
+the writings of the ancient authors. He was persuaded to remain a
+few years in Florence and other Italian cities and teach Greek to
+the eager Italian scholars. He was also persuaded to write a
+grammar of the Greek language, in order that after he had
+returned to Constantinople others might be able to continue his
+teaching.</p>
+<p>Collectors of books now searched for Greek writings as eagerly
+as they had searched for Latin writings. Merchants sent their
+agents to Constantinople to buy books. One traveler and scholar
+brought back to Italy over two hundred. Soon Italy was the land
+to which students from Germany, France, and England went to learn
+Greek and to obtain copies of Greek books. It was fortunate that
+so many books had been brought from Constantinople, for at last,
+in 1453, the Turks captured that city and no place in the East
+was left where the books of the Greeks were studied as they had
+been at Constantinople.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="133.gif" src=
+"images/133.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A PRINTING OFFICE IN THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Invention of Printing.</b> After collectors of Greek
+and Roman writings had made several good libraries, partly by
+purchase, partly by copying manuscripts belonging to others, a
+great invention was made which enabled these writings to be
+spread far and wide and placed in the hands of every student.
+This invention was the method of printing with movable types. It
+is not quite certain who made the invention, although John
+Gutenberg, of Mainz, in Germany, has generally been called the
+inventor. Probably several men thought of the method at about the
+same time, that is, about 1450.</p>
+<p><b>Different Kinds of Type.</b> In forming their type the
+German printers imitated the lettering made by copyists with a
+quill. Their type is called Gothic, and it is still widely used
+in German books. The Italian printers made their letters more
+round and simple in shape, imitating the handwriting of the best
+Italian copyists. This is the Roman type, in which many European
+peoples, as also the English and the Americans, print their
+books. The Italians also prepared a kind of lettering which,
+because they were the inventors, is named <i>italic</i>.</p>
+<p><b>The Aldine Press.</b> One of the most famous printers of
+this early time was a Venetian named Aldus Manutius or Manucci.
+He gathered about him a number of Greeks and planned to print all
+the Greek manuscripts that had been discovered. This he did in
+beautiful type, imitated from the handwriting of one of his Greek
+friends. He sold the books for a price per volume about equal to
+our fifty cents, so that few scholars were too poor to buy.</p>
+<p><b>Some Early Printed Books.</b> Another great printer was the
+Englishman William Caxton, who learned the art in the
+Netherlands. Among the books he printed was Chaucer's Canterbury
+Tales. The first book printed by Gutenberg was the Bible in
+Latin. Early in the sixteenth century, through the labors of a
+Dutch scholar, Erasmus, and of his printer, the German Froben,
+the New Testament in Greek was printed.</p>
+<p><b>Architecture and Sculpture.</b> The artists and the
+architects of this time began to imitate the buildings they found
+or that they unearthed. They used round arches and domes more
+than the pointed arches and vaulted roofs of the Gothic builders.
+Sculptors pictured in stone the stories of the Greek and Roman
+gods and heroes. Statues long buried in ancient ruins were dug
+up, and great artists like the Italian Michel Angelo studied them
+and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut. On every hand
+men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of the
+founders of the civilized world.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="135.gif" src="images/135.gif"
+border="1"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"> </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why did the memory of the Greeks and Romans remain longer
+in France and Italy than in Germany and England?</p>
+<p>2. What different classes of people were there in the Middle
+Ages? What was the difference between a parish priest and a
+monk?</p>
+<p>3. How did the nobles gain a living? Were they useful? In what
+sorts of houses did they live? Describe a castle. What was the
+"keep"?</p>
+<p>4. How were the sons of nobles trained? What was a page? How
+was a young man made a knight? What were the duties of a
+knight?</p>
+<p>5. Were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the
+Middle Ages? How did the townsmen learn to protect themselves?
+What was a guild? Why are many Europeans proud of their
+cities?</p>
+<p>6. Why is Venice especially interesting? Why do we remember
+Genoa?</p>
+<p>7. From what language did French, Italian, and Spanish grow?
+How were the changes made in the old language? Where did the
+English get their language? Was it just like the English we
+speak?</p>
+<p>8. What did the boys study in the Middle Ages? What did the
+word "university" mean then? Name two or three universities
+founded then which still exist. What did the Arabs teach
+Christian students?</p>
+<p>9. What sort of buildings did men in the Middle Ages
+especially like to build? Are these buildings still standing? Why
+do we admire these great churches?</p>
+<p>10. What do we call the time when men began to study once more
+Roman and Greek books, and began to imitate the ways of living
+and thinking common in the Graeco-Roman world? Who was the first
+of these "new" men? Where especially did men search for Greek
+books?</p>
+<p>11. What invention helped men spread far and wide this new
+knowledge? How do the Germans come to have "Gothic" type? Where
+do we get our Roman and <i>italic</i> type? What books did the
+Venetian printer Aldus print? Name a famous English and a famous
+German printer.</p>
+<p>12. What besides ancient books did the men of the Renaissance
+like to study and imitate?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different
+European countries. In what country are men often knighted? Why
+are they knighted? What title shows that a man is a knight?</p>
+<p>2. Collect pictures of armor and of castles, especially of
+castles still standing. Collect pictures of old town walls.</p>
+<p>3. Collect pictures of Venice and Genoa, especially from
+advertising folders.</p>
+<p>4. Find the names of several large American universities. Do
+the students live in "colleges" as students did in the Middle
+Ages?</p>
+<p>5. Tell one or two stories from the Arabian Nights. Collect
+pictures of Arabian costumes and of Arabian buildings in Spain,
+or Africa, or Asia.</p>
+<p>6. Collect pictures of English and European cathedrals. Find
+pictures of churches in America which resemble them.</p>
+<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
+<p class="c4">How ancient civilization was preserved</p>
+<p>1. What ruined so many ancient cities?</p>
+<p>2. Who tried to preserve the memory of what the Greeks and the
+Romans had done?</p>
+<p>3. What language did the churchmen continue to use?</p>
+<p>4. How did the missionaries help?</p>
+<p>5. How did Alfred teach the English some of the things the
+Romans had known?</p>
+<p>6. What did the Arabs teach the Christians which the Greeks
+had known?</p>
+<p>7. What was studied at Bologna? How did the universities help
+in preserving the ancient knowledge?</p>
+<p>8. What did Petrarch do to find lost books? What did other men
+of Petrarch's time do?</p>
+<p>9. What help came from the invention of printing?</p>
+<p>10. From what besides books did the men of the Renaissance
+learn about the Greeks and the Romans?</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="137.gif" src=
+"images/137.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">HUSBANDMAN AND COUNTRY WOMAN OF FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4657"></a><a href="#3986">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>TRADERS, TRAVELERS, AND EXPLORERS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES</p>
+<p><b>The Perils of Traders.</b> There was a time in the Middle
+Ages when merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to
+another for fear of being plundered by some robber lord or common
+thief. If they traveled by sea they might also be attacked by
+robbers. Some of these robbers, like the Northmen, came from
+afar, but others were ordinary sailors who put out from near-by
+ports when there seemed nothing better to do.</p>
+<p>This state of things gradually changed. The kings or great
+lords succeeded in protecting merchants on land, and the
+merchants armed vessels of their own to drive the pirates from
+the sea. As trade grew greater the towns became richer and
+stronger and the robbers and pirates fewer, so that the number of
+merchant ships increased rapidly and long voyages were
+attempted.</p>
+<p><b>Fairs.</b> At first trade was carried on at great fairs,
+held in places convenient for the merchants of England and
+western Europe. The fairs lasted about six weeks, and one fair
+followed another. As soon as the first was over the merchants
+packed their unsold wares and journeyed to the next. At the fairs
+were found drugs and spices, cottons and silks from the East,
+skins and furs from the North, wool from England, and other
+products from Germany, Italy, France, and Spain.</p>
+<p><b>The Treasures of the East.</b> Men in the Middle Ages were
+dependent for luxuries upon the lands of Asia which are commonly
+called the East. By this name we may mean Persia, Arabia, India,
+China, or the Molucca Islands, where the choicest spices still
+grow. Spices were a great luxury, and were needed to flavor the
+food, because the manner of cooking was poor and there was little
+variety in the kinds of food. Most of the cotton cloth, the
+silks, the drugs, and the dyes were also procured from the
+East.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="139.gif" src=
+"images/139.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">TRADER'S CARAVAN CROSSING THE DESERT</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Routes to the East.</b> No one knew that it was possible to
+reach Asia by sailing around the southern point of Africa or
+through what is called the Strait of Magellan. The products of
+the East were brought to Europe by several routes, two reaching
+the Mediterranean at Alexandria, in Egypt, a third at Antioch, in
+Syria, and a fourth on the southeastern shore of the Black
+Sea.</p>
+<p>The loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the
+deserts from the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, or from northern
+India. Ships from the Italian cities of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice
+struggled with one another for the right to bring back these
+precious wares and sell them to the merchants of Europe, who were
+ready to pay high prices.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="140.gif" src=
+"images/140.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF THE TRADE ROUTES IN THE MIDDLE
+AGES</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Venetian Traders.</b> Merchants from Germany came to Venice
+to trade the products of the North for spices, drugs, dyes, and
+silks, which they carried back across the Alps. Once a year the
+Venetians sent a fleet of vessels westward through the straits of
+Gibraltar and along the Atlantic shore as far as Bruges and
+London. The voyage was long and dangerous, and the Venetians
+traded in ports on the way. Spices in Bruges sold for two or
+three times what they cost in Venice.</p>
+<p><b>The Crusades.</b> One event that brought to the Venetians
+an opportunity to enrich themselves was the Crusades. The
+Mohammedans had long held a large part of Spain, and towards the
+end of the eleventh century they threatened France and Italy.
+They also attacked what was left of the Roman Empire in the East,
+and the emperors sent to the pope and the western kings frantic
+appeals for help. Thousands of Frenchmen, Germans, Englishmen,
+and Italians were suddenly seized with the desire to go to
+Palestine and drive the Mohammedans from Jerusalem, the Holy
+City, and from the tomb of Christ. For the next two centuries
+large armies were sent there, sometimes gaining victories,
+sometimes being defeated in battle or overcome by disease.</p>
+<p><b>What the Venetians gained from the Crusades.</b> Most of
+the Crusaders went to the Holy Land by sea, and when they had no
+ships of their own they often took passage in Venetian ships. The
+Venetians asked large sums for this, and also succeeded in
+obtaining all the rights of trade in many of the seaports which
+were captured. Sometimes the Venetians undertook to govern
+islands like Cyprus and Crete, or territories along the coasts,
+but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than to
+build up an empire.</p>
+<p><b>The new Venetian Ships</b>. The Crusaders who returned to
+Europe brought back a liking for the luxuries of the East, and
+their tales made other men eager for them. For this reason more
+ships were built to sail in the Mediterranean. The shipowners
+attempted to make their ships larger and stronger. They were
+larger than those built by the English or by other peoples along
+the Atlantic coast, but they would seem small to us. There is an
+account of Venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells
+us that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews
+of one thousand men. They relied mainly upon the use of oars, but
+had a mast, sometimes two masts, rigged with sails, which they
+could use if the wind was favorable.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="142.gif" src=
+"images/142.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">VENETIAN SHIPS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Dangers of the Sea.</b> One difficulty about sailing was
+the lack of any means in cloudy weather, and especially at night,
+of telling the direction in which they were going. The sailors
+did not like to venture far from shore, although the open sea is
+safer during a storm than a wind-swept and rocky coast. At the
+time when the sailors of the Mediterranean were building up their
+trade to Alexandria, Antioch, and the Black Sea, two instruments
+came into use which enabled them to tell just where they
+were.</p>
+<p><b>The Compass.</b> One of these instruments was the compass,
+which the Chinese had long used, and which was known to the Arabs
+before the Europeans heard of it. If a boy will take a needle,
+rub its point with a magnet, and lay the needle on a cork
+floating in water, he will have a rough sort of compass. The
+point of the needle wherever it may be turned will swing back
+towards the north, thus guiding the sailors.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="143a.gif" src=
+"images/143a.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MARINER'S COMPASS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The compass was known in Europe about 1200. There is a story
+that at first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused
+to sail under a captain who used it. But a century later it was
+in general use, and had been so much improved that even in the
+severest storms the needle remained level and pointed steadily
+towards the north.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="143b.gif" src=
+"images/143b.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AN ASTROLABE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Astrolabe.</b> The other instrument, called the
+astrolabe, was a brass circle marked off into 360 degrees. To
+this circle were fastened two movable bars, at the ends of which
+were sights, or projecting pieces pierced by a hole. The
+astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that one bar was
+horizontal and the other could be moved until through its sights
+some known star could be seen. The number of degrees marked on
+the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above
+the horizon, and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the
+place where they were. In a similar way their longitude could be
+found out.</p>
+<p>The astrolabe was not so useful as the compass, for it could
+be used only on clear days or nights. With these two instruments
+it was possible to sail far out into the Atlantic. By the middle
+of the fourteenth century ships from Genoa and Portugal had
+visited the Madeira and the Canary Islands, and even the Azores
+which are a thousand miles from the mainland.</p>
+<p><b>What Men thought about a Sea Route to the East.</b> Men
+learned more about other strange lands through a Venetian
+traveler, Marco Polo, who wrote an account of his wonderful
+journey to the court of the Grand Khan, or Emperor of the
+Mongols, of his travels through China, and of his return to
+Persia by sea.</p>
+<p>Many men in the Middle Ages had believed that east of Asia was
+a great marsh, and that because of it even if they succeeded in
+sailing around Africa it would be impossible to reach the region
+of the spices and silks and jewels which they so much desired.
+They also thought that the heat in the tropics was so intense
+that at a certain distance down the coast of Africa they would
+find the water of the ocean boiling. These things and the tales
+of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had terrified
+them. The news which Marco Polo brought changed this feeling.</p>
+<p><b>The Mongols</b>. The way Marco Polo happened to visit the
+court of the Mongol emperor was this. The Mongol Tartars were
+great conquerors, and they not only subdued the Chinese but
+marched westward, overrunning most of Russia and stopping only
+when they were on the frontiers of Italy. For a long time
+southern Russia remained under their rule. Their capital was just
+north of the Great Wall of China.</p>
+<p>The Mongol emperor did not hate Europeans, and even sent to
+the pope for missionaries to teach his people. Marco Polo's
+father and uncle while on a trading expedition had found their
+way to his court, and on a second journey, in 1271, they took
+with them Marco, a lad of seventeen years. The emperor was much
+interested in his western visitors and took young Marco into his
+service.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="145.gif" src=
+"images/145.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE MONGOL EMPEROR OF MARCO POLO'S TIME After
+an old Chinese manuscript</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Marco Polo's Travels.</b> Marco Polo traveled over China on
+official errands, while his father and uncle were gathering
+wealth by trade. After many years they desired to return to
+Italy, but the emperor was unwilling to lose such able servants.
+It happened, however, that the emperor wished to send a princess
+as a bride to the Khan or Emperor of Persia, also a Mongol
+sovereign, and the three Polos, who were known to be trustworthy
+seamen, were selected to escort the princess to her royal
+husband. After doing this they did not return to China, but went
+on to Italy.</p>
+<p>They had been absent twenty-four years, and they found that
+their relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize
+them. It was like the old story of Ulysses, who, when he returned
+to his native Ithaca after his wanderings, was recognized by
+nobody. The Polos proved the truth of what they said by showing
+the great treasures which they had sewed into the dresses of
+coarse stuff of a Tartar pattern which they wore. They displayed
+jewels of the greatest value, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and
+sapphires.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="2613"><img alt="146.gif" src=
+"images/146.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS<br>
+The known world is in white, the undiscovered in black,<br>
+and that first described by Marco Polo is dotted</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>      <a href="#4070">[16]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>What Marco Polo told</b>. In the account Marco Polo wrote
+of his travels and of the countries he had visited he described a
+wonderful palace of the Great Emperor. Its walls were covered
+with gold and silver, the dining hall seated six thousand people,
+and its ceiling was inlaid with gold. This palace seemed to Marco
+Polo so large, so rich, and so beautiful that no man on earth
+could design anything to equal it. The robes of the emperor and
+his twelve thousand nobles and knights were of silk and beaten
+gold, each having a girdle of gold decorated with precious
+stones.</p>
+<p>Marco Polo told of great cities in China where men traded in
+the costly wares of the East, and where silk was abundant and
+cheap. He described from hearsay Japan as an island fifteen
+hundred miles from the mainland. Its people, he said, were white,
+civilized, and wondrously rich. The palace of the emperor of
+Japan was roofed with gold, its pavements and floors were of
+solid gold, laid in plates two fingers thick.</p>
+<p><b>Reasons for finding a Sea Route to the East</b>. Tales of
+such great wealth made Europeans more eager than ever to reach
+the East. Marco Polo had shown that it was possible to sail past
+India, through the islands, to the eastern coast of Asia. When
+printing was invented his account was printed, and the copy of
+that book which Columbus owned is still preserved. Upon its
+margins Columbus wrote his own opinions about geography.</p>
+<p>Other travelers besides the Polos returned with similar tales
+of the East. Soon, however, all chance to go there by way of the
+land was lost, because the Mongol emperors were driven out of
+China and the new rulers would not permit Europeans to enter the
+country. The ordinary caravan routes to the East were also closed
+not long afterwards. In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople,
+drove away the Italian merchants, and prevented European sailors
+from reaching the Black Sea. Fifty years later the Turks seized
+Egypt and closed that route also. Fortunately before this
+happened a better route had been discovered.</p>
+<p><b>The Portuguese Sailors</b>. During the Middle Ages the
+Portuguese princes fought to recover Portugal from the Moors.
+When this was done they were eager to cross the straits and
+attack the Moors in Africa. Prince Henry of Portugal made an
+expedition to Africa and returned with the desire to know more
+about the coast south of the point beyond which European sailors
+dared not venture. Sailors were afraid of being lost in the Sea
+of Darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="148.gif" src=
+"images/148.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">DANGERS OF THE "SEA OF DARKNESS" From an old
+picture</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>From his love of exploring the seas Prince Henry has been
+called "The Navigator." He took up his residence on a lonely
+promontory in southern Portugal, and gathered about him learned
+men of all peoples, Arabian and Jewish mathematicians, and
+Italian mapmakers. Captains trained in this new school of
+seamanship were sent into the southern seas. Each was to sail
+farther down the western coast of Africa than other captains had
+gone. Before Prince Henry died in 1460 his captains had passed
+Cape Verde, and ten years later they crossed the equator without
+suffering the fate which men had once feared. But they were
+discouraged when they found that beyond the Gulf of Guinea the
+coast turned southward again, for they had hoped to sail eastward
+to Asia.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="149.gif" src=
+"images/149.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE PORTUGUESE ROUTE TO INDIA<br>
+The broken lines show the old trade routes to the East.<br>
+The solid line shows the new Portuguese route</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Cape of Good Hope discovered</b>. At last in 1487 the end
+of what seemed to be an endless coast was reached. The fortunate
+captain who accomplished this was Bartholomew Diaz, who came of a
+family of daring seamen. He had been sailing southward along the
+coast for nearly eight months, when a northerly gale drove him
+before it for thirteen days. The weather cleared and Diaz turned
+eastward to find the coast. As he did not see land he turned
+northward and soon discovered land to the west. This showed that
+he had passed the southern point of Africa. His crew were
+unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the
+western side again. The southern point he called the Cape of
+Storms, but the king of Portugal, when the voyagers returned,
+named it the Cape of Good Hope, for now he knew that an
+expedition could be sent directly to the Indies.</p>
+<p>Diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles, and his voyage was
+the most wonderful that Europeans had ever heard about.</p>
+<p><b>The Sea Route to India.</b> Eleven years later the
+Portuguese king sent Vasco da Gama, another captain, to attempt
+to reach the coast of India by sailing around the Cape of Good
+Hope which Diaz had discovered. Da Gama was successful and landed
+at Calicut on the south-western coast of India. He returned to
+Portugal in 1499, and his cargo was worth sixty times the cost of
+the voyage. This was the beginning of a trade with the East which
+enriched Portugal and especially the merchants of Lisbon.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+ <b>QUESTIONS</b></p>
+<p>1. What dangers threatened traders in the Middle Ages who
+traveled by sea or land? What was a fair?</p>
+<p>2. What products were brought from the East? By what routes?
+Point these out on a map. What rival trading cities were in
+Italy? How did the Venetians get their wares to London?</p>
+<p>3. Who were the Crusaders? Why did they attack the
+Mohammedans? What did the Venetian traders gain by these wars?
+Describe a large Venetian ship of this time.</p>
+<p>4. When was the compass invented? Why was it dangerous to sail
+great seas and oceans without a compass? Tell how an astrolabe
+was made.</p>
+<p>5. What at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern
+Asia? Who was Marco Polo? Describe his adventures. How did he
+return to Venice? How did people learn about the lands he had
+visited?</p>
+<p>6. Why after 1453 was it necessary to find a sea route to
+Asia? What did Prince Henry the Navigator succeed in doing? How
+was the Cape of Good Hope discovered? Who went with Diaz on this
+voyage?</p>
+<p>7. Who first sailed to India by the Cape of Good Hope? Was the
+voyage profitable? What city was made rich by the new trade?</p>
+<p><br>
+ <b>EXERCISES</b></p>
+<p>1. Find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must
+have been carried to reach Venice from Persia, India, the
+Moluccas, or China. How far is it from Venice by sea to Bruges or
+London?</p>
+<p>2. Where and how do we now obtain cinnamon, nutmeg, and
+cloves?</p>
+<p>3. What line of emperors has been recently ruling over China?
+Where has been their capital? Find out about the present Mongols.
+Collect pictures of China and Japan.</p>
+<p>4. Read a longer account of Marco Polo.</p>
+<p>5. Study the geography of Portugal. Collect pictures of
+Portugal. Find out if many Portuguese are living in the United
+States.</p>
+<p><br>
+ <b>REVIEW</b></p>
+<p>STEPS TOWARDS THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA</p>
+<p>Greek colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Spain.</p>
+<p>Roman conquest of Gaul, Spain, and Britain.</p>
+<p>Viking voyages to Greenland and Vinland.</p>
+<p>Venetian trade in spices with the East, and Venetian voyages
+to London and Bruges.</p>
+<p>Marco Polo's travels in China and the East.</p>
+<p>Portuguese voyages down the coast of Africa and about the Cape
+of Good Hope.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="2209"></a><a href="#2963">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>THE DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD</p>
+<p><b>Christopher Columbus</b>. Six years before Vasco da Gama
+made his famous voyage to India around Africa and opened a new
+trade route for the Portuguese merchants, another seaman had
+formed and carried out a much bolder plan. This was Christopher
+Columbus, and his plan was to sail directly west from Europe into
+the unknown ocean in search of new islands and the coast of Asia.
+Columbus, who was a native of Genoa in Italy, had followed his
+younger brother to Portugal. Both were probably led there by the
+fame of Prince Henry's explorations.</p>
+<p>The brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for
+the Portuguese. They also frequently sailed with them on their
+expeditions along the coast of Africa. All the early associations
+of Columbus were with men interested in voyages of discovery, and
+particularly with those engaged in the daring search for a sea
+route to India.</p>
+<p><b>How Columbus formed his Plan</b>. Columbus gathered all the
+information on geography which he could from ancient writers and
+from modern discoverers. Many of them believed that the world was
+shaped like a ball. If such were its shape, Columbus reasoned,
+why might not a ship sail around it from east to west? Or,
+better, why not sail directly west to India, and perhaps find
+many wonderful islands between Europe and Asia? His imagination
+was also fired by Marco Polo's description of the marvelous
+riches of China, Japan, and the Spice Islands. But the idea of
+going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly
+boundless waste of water, and on and on to Asia, appeared to most
+men of the fifteenth century to be madness.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="153.gif" src=
+"images/153.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS<br>
+ The oldest known picture of Columbus,<br>
+in the National Library, Madrid</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>His Notion of the Distance to Asia.</b> Columbus made two
+fortunate errors in reckoning the distance to the Indies. He
+imagined that Asia extended much farther eastward than it
+actually does, making it nearer Europe, and estimated the earth
+to be smaller than it is. His figures placed Japan less than
+3,000 miles west of the Canary Islands, instead of the 12,000
+miles which is the real distance. He accordingly thought Japan
+would be found about where Mexico or Florida is situated.</p>
+<p><b>How he secured Help.</b> Even so, many years passed before
+Columbus was able to undertake a voyage. He was too poor himself,
+and needed the help of some government to fit out such an
+expedition. He may have tried to get his native city, Genoa, to
+help him. There is such a story. If he did, it was without
+success. He tried to obtain the help of Portugal, where he lived
+a long time, and whose princes were greatly interested in the
+discovery of new trade routes. His brother visited England in the
+same cause. Neither of these countries, however, was willing to
+undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise.</p>
+<p>The King and Queen of Spain, to whom Columbus turned, kept him
+waiting many years for an answer. They thought that they had more
+important work in hand. There was another king in Spain at the
+time, the king of the Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella, the
+Christian king and queen, were trying to conquer the Moors, and
+thus to end the struggle between Christians and Mohammedans for
+the possession of Spain, which had lasted nearly eight centuries.
+This war required all the strength and revenue of Spain.</p>
+<p>Fortunately, just as Columbus was becoming thoroughly
+discouraged, the war with the Moors came to an end. Granada, the
+seat of their former power, was finally taken in January, 1492.
+Now was a good time to ask favors of the sovereigns of Spain, and
+to plan large enterprises for the future. Powerful friends aided
+Columbus to renew his petition, and Queen Isabella was persuaded
+to promise him all the help that he needed.</p>
+<p><b>The Ships of Columbus</b>. Three ships, or caravels as they
+were called, were fitted out. The <i>Santa Maria</i> was the
+largest of the three, but it was not much larger than the small
+sailing yachts which we see to-day. It was about ninety feet long
+by twenty feet broad, and had a single deck. This was Columbus's
+principal ship or flagship. The second caravel, the <i>Pinta</i>,
+was much swifter, built high at the prow and stern, and furnished
+with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the officers, but
+without a deck in the center. The third and smallest caravel,
+called the <i>Ni&ntilde;a</i>, the Spanish word for baby, was
+built much like the <i>Pinta</i>. Ninety persons made up the
+three crews.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="1790"><img alt="155.gif" src=
+"images/155.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">COLUMBUS'S IDEAS OF THE ATLANTIC<br>
+The shaded portions represent the land as Columbus expected to
+find it.<br>
+The light outline of the Americas shows the actual position of
+the land</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>      <a href="#1871">[15]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the
+shores of Europe in the fifteenth century. Expeditions had never
+gone far out into the ocean. Columbus preferred the smaller
+vessels in a voyage of discovery, because they would be able to
+run close to the shores and into the smaller harbors and up the
+rivers.</p>
+<p><b>Beginning of the Voyage</b>. The expedition set sail from
+Palos in Spain, August 3, 1492. It went directly to the Canary
+Islands. These were owned by Spain, and were selected by Columbus
+as the most convenient starting-point. The little fleet was
+delayed three weeks at the islands making repairs. On September 6
+Columbus was off again. He struck due west from the Canaries.</p>
+<p><b>The Terrors of the Voyage</b>. While the little fleet was
+still in sight of the Canary Islands a volcanic eruption nearly
+frightened the sailors out of their wits. They deemed such an
+event an omen of evil. But the expedition had fine weather day
+after day. Steady, gentle, easterly winds, the trade winds of the
+tropics, wafted them slowly westward. But the timid sailors began
+to wonder how they would ever be able to return against winds
+which seemed never to change from the east.</p>
+<p>Then they came to an immense field of seaweed, larger in area
+than the whole of Spain. This terrified the sailors, who feared
+they might be driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in
+quicksands. They imagined, too, that great sea-monsters were
+lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to devour them.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="157.gif" src=
+"images/157.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A CARAVEL OF COLUMBUS<br>
+After the reconstructed model<br>
+exhibited at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The first Signs of a New Land.</b> In spite of fears and
+complaints, and threats of resistance, Columbus kept a westward
+course for more than four weeks. Then as he began to see so many
+birds flying to the southwest, he concluded that land must be
+nearer in that direction. He had heard that most of the islands
+held by the Portuguese were discovered by following the flight of
+birds. So on October 7 the westward course was changed to one
+slightly southwest.</p>
+<p>From this time on the signs of land grew frequent. Floating
+branches, occasionally covered with berries, pieces of wood, bits
+of cane, were encouraging signs. Birds like ducks and sandpipers
+became common sights. The Queen had promised a small pension to
+the one who should first see land. Columbus had offered to give a
+silken doublet in addition. With what eagerness the sailors must
+have kept on the lookout!</p>
+<p><b>The great Discovery.</b> At last as the fleet was sailing
+onward in the bright moonlight Columbus saw a light moving as if
+carried by hand along a shore. A few hours later, about two
+o'clock on the morning of October 12, a sailor on the
+<i>Pinta</i> saw land distinctly, and soon all beheld, a few
+miles away, a long, low beach. The vessels hove to and waited for
+daylight. Early the same day, Friday, October 12, 1492, they
+approached the land, which proved to be a small island. Columbus
+named it San Salvador, which means Holy Saviour. We do not know
+which one of the Bahama islands he first saw, but we believe it
+was the one now called Watling Island. Columbus went ashore with
+the royal standard and banners flying to take possession of the
+land in the name of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.</p>
+<p><b>Where Columbus thought he was.</b> The astonished
+inhabitants of the island soon gathered to see the strange
+sight--the landing of white men in the West Indies. They looked
+upon the ships as sea-monsters, and the white men as gods. Nor
+was Columbus less puzzled by what he saw. The people were a
+strange race--cinnamon colored, naked, greased, and painted to
+suit each one's fancy. They had only the rudest means of
+self-defense, and were almost as poor as the parrots that
+chattered in the trees above them. Such savages bore little
+resemblance to the people whom Marco Polo said inhabited the
+Spice Islands.</p>
+<p>Columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not
+far from Japan. A cruise of a few days among the Bahamas
+satisfied him that he was in the ocean near the coast of Asia,
+for had not Marco Polo described it as studded with thousands of
+spice-bearing islands? He had not found any spices, but the air
+was full of fragrance and the trees and herbs were strange in
+appearance. Of course if the islands were the Indies, the people
+must be Indians. Columbus called them Indians, and this name
+clung to the red men, although their islands were not the true
+Indies.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="159.gif" src=
+"images/159.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">WATLING ISLAND, WHERE COLUMBUS FIRST
+LANDED</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Search for the Golden East.</b> Columbus thought that
+the natives meant to tell him in their sign language of a great
+land to the south where gold abounded. He set off in search of
+this, and came upon a land the natives called Cuba. Its large
+size convinced him that he had at last found the Asiatic
+mainland, and he sent two messengers, one a Jew knowing many
+languages, in search of the Emperor of China. They found neither
+cities nor kingdoms, neither gold nor spices. This was a great
+disappointment to Columbus, but he patiently kept up his search
+for the riches which he expected to find.</p>
+<p><b>The Misfortunes of Columbus.</b> While on the coast of
+Cuba, Pinzon, the commander of the <i>Pinta</i>, deserted him.
+Pinzon, whose ship was swifter than the others, probably wished
+to be the first to get home, in order to tell a story which would
+gain him the credit of the discovery of the Indies. A few days
+later Columbus discovered a large island which the natives called
+Hayti, and which he called Espa&ntilde;ola or "Spanish Land." At
+every island he searched for the spices and gold which Marco Polo
+had given him reason to expect. In a storm off Espa&ntilde;ola
+Columbus's own ship, the <i>Santa Maria</i>, was totally wrecked.
+Such disasters convinced him that it was high time to return to
+Spain with the news of his discovery.</p>
+<p><b>Preparations for Return to Spain.</b> As there was not room
+for both crews on the tiny <i>Ni&ntilde;a</i>, his one remaining
+ship, it became necessary to leave about forty sailors in
+Espa&ntilde;ola. A fort was built, and supplies were left for a
+year. Columbus with the rest set off on the return to Spain. Ten
+Indians were captured and taken with them to show to his friends
+in Europe. Besides, Columbus hoped that they would learn the
+language of Spain, and carry Christianity back to their
+people.</p>
+<p><b>The Search for China renewed.</b> There was rejoicing in
+Palos when the voyagers returned. Great honors were bestowed upon
+Columbus. It was now easy to get men and money for another
+voyage. In September, 1493, Columbus started to return to his
+islands, this time with seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men,
+all confident that they would soon see the marble palaces of
+China, and secure a share in the wealth of the Spice Islands. No
+one yet realized that a new world--two great continents--lay
+between them and their coveted goal in Asia. Columbus went
+directly to Espa&ntilde;ola, where he found that his colony of
+the previous year had been murdered by the Indians. A new
+settlement was quickly started. A little town called Isabella was
+built, with a fort, a church, a market place, public granary, and
+dwelling-houses. Isabella was the first real settlement in the
+New World.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><a name="2414"><img alt="161.gif" src=
+"images/161.gif"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><b>     <a href="#3037">[17]</a></b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Other Voyages to the New World.</b> Columbus made two other
+voyages. He continued to search for the coast of Asia, which he
+believed to be near. He made a third voyage from Spain to the
+West Indies in 1498. He sailed farther south, and came upon the
+mainland which later was called South America. A fourth
+expedition in 1502 touched on the coast that we call Central
+America. He died soon after this voyage, still believing that he
+had discovered a new route to the Indies and new lands on the
+coast of Asia.</p>
+<p><b>The sad End of Columbus's Life.</b> The close of his life
+was a sad one. The lands he had found did not yield the riches
+which he had expected. The colonists whom he had sent out to the
+islands had rebelled, and jealous enemies had accused him falsely
+before the king and queen of misgovernment in his territories.
+Once his opponents had him carried to Spain chained like a common
+prisoner. He was given his liberty on reaching Spain, but the
+people had become prejudiced against him.</p>
+<p>Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, tells us that as he and his
+brother Diego, who were pages in the queen's service, happened to
+pass a crowd of his father's enemies, the latter greeted them
+with hoots: "There go the sons of the Admiral of Mosquitoland,
+the man who has discovered a land of vanity and deceit, the grave
+of Spanish gentlemen." Hardships and disappointments broke down
+the great discoverer, and he died neglected and almost forgotten
+by the people of Spain.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="163.gif" src=
+"images/163.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE COLUMBUS MONUMENT AT GENOA</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What plan did Columbus form? Why was it bolder than the
+plan Diaz had carried out in 1487, or even than that Da Gama
+carried out a few years later? Why did men like Columbus and Diaz
+desire to find a sea route to India? Had anybody before Columbus
+believed the earth round?</p>
+<p>2. What mistake did Columbus make in estimating the size of
+the earth? Why was this a fortunate error?</p>
+<p>3. From what countries did Columbus try to obtain help? Why
+did he find it so hard to secure this? What event in Spain
+finally favored his cause? Who were the Moors?</p>
+<p>4. Why was Columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the
+West Indies? Why were the Indians on their side surprised?</p>
+<p>5. What islands did Columbus find and claim for Spain on his
+first voyage? How many other voyages did he make? What new lands
+did he find on his later voyages? What did he think he had
+found?</p>
+<p>6. Why did the enemies of Columbus in Spain call him the
+Admiral of Mosquitoland, the man who discovered a land of vanity
+and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen? What did they mean by
+this?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Find pictures of the ships of Columbus or of the sailing
+ships of other explorers of that day. How does the deck
+arrangement on those differ from the ocean steamships of to-day?
+What advantage would ships like those of Columbus have over
+present steamships in exploring strange coasts? What
+disadvantages?</p>
+<p>2. Draw up a list of reasons why Columbus's sailors were
+afraid to go on and wished to turn back to Spain.</p>
+<p>3. Trace on an outline map the voyage of Columbus. Mark where
+Columbus found land, and where he expected to find Japan and
+China. What great mass of land was really very near the island he
+first discovered? <a name="1871"></a><a href="#1790">(See
+map[15].)</a></p>
+<p>4. Find from the maps on <a name="2910"></a><a href=
+"#4350">(Greek World)[7]</a>, <a name="2495"></a><a href=
+"#1634">(Roman World)[14]</a>, <a name="4070"></a><a href=
+"#2613">(The world after Polo's journey[16])</a>, and <a name=
+"3037"></a><a href="#2414">(The world as known after
+Columbus[17])</a>, how much more the Romans knew of the world
+than the Greeks had known, the Europeans after Marco Polo's
+journey than the Romans, and the Europeans after Columbus's
+voyage than after Marco Polo's journey.</p>
+<p><i>Important Date</i>--1492. The discovery of America by
+Columbus.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4968"></a><a href="#2434">CHAPTER XV</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>OTHERS HELP IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD</p>
+<p><b>The Race to the Indies.</b> The discovery of all the lands
+which make what we call the New World came very slowly. It was
+the work of many different explorers. Most of the expeditions
+sent out to the new islands went in search of a passage to India.
+It was a fine race. Each nation was eager to see its ships the
+first to reach India by the westward route. All were disappointed
+at finding so much land between Europe and Asia. It seemed to
+them to be of little value and to block the way to the richer
+countries of the East. Gradually, however, they discovered the
+great continents which we know as North and South America.
+Columbus had done more than he dreamed, and his discovery was a
+turning-point in history.</p>
+<p><b>John Cabot.</b> John Cabot, an Italian mariner at this time
+in the service of England, left Bristol in 1497 on a voyage of
+discovery. This was five years after Columbus discovered the West
+Indies. Cabot had heard that the sailors of Portugal and of Spain
+had occupied unknown islands. He planned to do the same for King
+Henry VII of England. For his voyage he had a single vessel no
+larger than the <i>Ni&ntilde;a</i>, the smallest ship in the
+fleet of Columbus. Eighteen men made up his crew. He passed
+around the southern end of Ireland, and sailed north and west
+until he came to land, which proved to be the coast of North
+America somewhere between the northern part of Labrador and the
+southern end of Nova Scotia.</p>
+<p><b>Cabot's Discovery.</b> John Cabot saw no inhabitants, but
+he found notched trees, snares for game, and needles for making
+nets, which showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human
+beings. Like Columbus, Cabot thought he was off the coast of
+China.</p>
+<p><b>The Cabot Voyages forgotten.</b> Before the end of 1497
+John Cabot was back in Bristol. It is almost certain that he and
+his son, Sebastian Cabot, made a second voyage to the new found
+lands in the following year. The Cabot voyages, however, were
+soon almost forgotten by the people of England.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="166.gif" src=
+"images/166.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SEBASTIAN CABOT<br>
+After the picture ascribed to Holbein</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Naming of the New Lands.</b> Why was our country named
+America rather than Columbia or New India? Both the southern and
+northern continents which we call the Americas were named for
+Americus Vespucius rather than for Christopher Columbus. This
+seems the more strange since we know so little about the life of
+Americus. Americus Vespucius was born in Florence, Italy, and
+like many other young Italians of that day entered the service of
+neighboring countries. He went to Spain and accompanied several
+Spanish expeditions sent to explore the new continent which
+Columbus had discovered on his third voyage.</p>
+<p>Perhaps Americus went as a pilot; he certainly was not the
+leader in any expedition. But he seems to have written to his
+friends interesting accounts of what he had seen. In one of these
+letters Americus seems to have written boastfully of how he had
+found lands which might be called a new world. He said that the
+new continent was more populous and more full of animals than
+Europe, or Asia, or Africa, and that the climate was even more
+temperate and pleasant than any other region. This was clearly a
+new world.</p>
+<p><b>Why Americus was regarded as the Discoverer of America.</b>
+The statement of Americus was scattered widely by the help of the
+newly invented printing press. It was written in Latin, and so
+could be read by the learned of all countries. They were
+impressed by the belief of Americus that he had seen a new world
+and not simply the Indies. This was especially true of men living
+outside of Spain who had heard little of Columbus or his
+discovery.</p>
+<p>Columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery
+was a way to the Indies and the finding of islands on the way
+thither less important. Besides, when he saw what we call South
+America he had no idea that it was a new world. The people of
+Europe either never knew that he had discovered the mainland or
+had forgotten it altogether. But they heard a great deal about
+Americus and his doings. It is not strange that Americus rather
+than Columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer of
+America.</p>
+<p><b>Two Names for the New Lands.</b> Even then the new
+continent might not have been called America but for the
+suggestion of a young scholar of the time. Martin
+Waldseem&uuml;ller, a professor of geography at the college of
+St. Di&eacute;, now in eastern France, wrote a book on geography.
+In his description of the parts of the world unknown to the
+ancients, he suggested naming the continent stretching to the
+south for Americus.</p>
+<p> </p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="168.gif" src="images/168.gif"
+border="1"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">FACSIMILE Of the passage in the
+<i>Cosmographia Introductio</i> (1507),<br>
+by Martin Waldseem&uuml;ller, in which the name of America<br>
+is proposed for the New World.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+<b>The facsimile's transcription reads as follows:</b><br>
+<br>
+ Nunc Vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae, et alia quarta
+pars per Americum Vesputium (ut in sequentibus audietur) inventa
+est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab Americo inventore
+sagacis ingenii viro Amerigen quasi Americi terram, sive Americam
+dicendam: cum et Europa et Asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint
+nomina. Ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis Americi
+navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Waldseem&uuml;ller thought Americus had been the real
+discoverer of this continent. He said, "Now, indeed, as these
+regions are more widely explored, and another fourth part has
+been discovered by Americus Vespucius, I do not see why any one
+may justly forbid it to be named Amerige--that is, Americ's Land,
+from Americus, the discoverer."</p>
+<p>Others adopted Waldseem&uuml;ller's suggestion and the name
+America came into general use outside of Spain. But the Spaniards
+continued to call all the new lands by the name which Columbus
+had given them--the Indies. America was at first the name for
+South America only, but later was also used by writers for the
+other continent which was soon found to the north. It was natural
+to distinguish the two continents as South and North America.</p>
+<p><b>Balboa.</b> The successors of Columbus kept up a ceaseless
+search for the real Indies, but the more they explored the more
+they saw that a great continental barrier was lying across the
+sea passage to Asia. A few began to suspect that after all
+America was not a part of Asia. Vasco Nu&ntilde;ez Balboa was one
+of these. Balboa was a planter who had settled in
+Espa&ntilde;ola. He fell deeply into debt, and to escape his
+creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a
+vessel bound for the northern coast of South America. From there
+he went to the eastern border of Panama with a party of gold
+seekers. The Indians told him of a great sea and of an abundance
+of gold on its shores to be found a short distance across the
+isthmus. It is probable that the Indians wished to get rid of the
+Spaniards as neighbors.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="169.gif" src=
+"images/169.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">VASCO NU&Ntilde;EZ BALBOA</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Balboa's Discovery of the Pacific.</b> Balboa resolved to
+make a name for himself and to be the discoverer of the other
+sea. He set off in 1513. The land is not more than forty-five
+miles wide at Panama, but it is almost impassable even to this
+day. For twenty-two days the hardy adventurers advanced through a
+forest, dense with thickets and tangled swamps and interlacing
+vines--so thick that for days the sun could not be seen--and over
+rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to an open sea
+stretching off to the south and west. Balboa called it the South
+Sea, but it is usually called the Pacific Ocean, the name given
+it afterward.</p>
+<p>Balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of
+land was comparatively narrow. This gave the impression that
+North America, too, was narrower than it proved to be, and the
+search for the passage to the Indies was pushed with greater
+vigor.</p>
+<p><b>Magellan.</b> A Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, had
+really won the race begun by Prince Henry's navigators and
+Columbus for India, the land of cloves, pepper, and nutmegs. He
+had won in 1497 by going around the Cape of Good Hope. Another
+explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, finally, reached the Indies in a
+long westward voyage lasting two years, from 1519 to 1521.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="170.gif" src=
+"images/170.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">FERDINAND MAGELLAN</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Beginning of Magellan's Voyage.</b> Magellan, himself a
+Portuguese, tried in vain like Columbus to persuade the king of
+Portugal to aid him in his project. He succeeded better in Spain,
+and sailed from there in 1519 with a small fleet given him by the
+young king Charles. The five ships in his fleet were old and in
+bad repair, and the crews had been brought together from every
+nation. They sailed directly to South America, and spent the
+first year searching every inlet along the coast for a
+passage.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="171.gif" src=
+"images/171.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>They found that the natives of South America used for food
+vegetables that "looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts."
+The Indians called them "patatas." In this way the potato, one of
+the great foods of to-day, was found by Europeans. A whole winter
+was passed on the cold and barren coast of Patagonia. Magellan
+called the natives "Patagones," the word in his language meaning
+big feet, from the large foot-prints which they left on the
+sand.</p>
+<p><b>The Strait of Magellan.</b> Magellan finally found a
+strait, since named for him the Strait of Magellan, and sailed
+his ships through it amid the greatest dangers. The change from
+the rough waters of the strait to the calm sea beyond made the
+word Pacific or Peaceful Sea seem the most suitable name for the
+vast body of water which they had entered.</p>
+<p><b>The First Voyage across the Pacific.</b> From the western
+coast of South America Magellan struck boldly out into the
+Pacific Ocean on his way to Asia. The crews suffered untold
+hardships. The very rats which overran the rotten ships became a
+luxurious article of food which only the more fortunate members
+of the crews could afford. The poorer seamen lived for days on
+the ox-hide strips which protected the masts. These were soaked
+in sea-water and roasted over the fire.</p>
+<p>Magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the Isle of Guam,
+where plentiful supplies were obtained. He called the group of
+small islands, of which Guam is one, the Ladrones. This was his
+word for robbers, used because the natives were such robbers. The
+expedition discovered a group of islands afterwards called the
+Philippines. There Magellan fell in with traders from the Indies
+and knew that the remainder of the voyage would be through
+well-known seas and over a route frequently followed. Poor
+Magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage. He was
+killed in the Philippine Islands in a battle with the
+natives.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="173.gif" src=
+"images/173.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AN OLD MAP OF THE NEW WORLD--1523<br>
+After Magellan's voyage, but before<br>
+the exploration of North America had gone far</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Only one of the five ships found its way through the Spice
+Islands, across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope,
+and so back to Spain; but this one carried home twenty-six tons
+of cloves, worth more than enough to pay the whole cost of the
+expedition. Such was the value of the trade Europe was so eagerly
+seeking.</p>
+<p><b>What Magellan had shown the People of Europe.</b>
+Magellan's voyage had, however, been a great event. Historians
+are agreed that it was the greatest voyage in the history of
+mankind. It had shown in a practical way that the earth is a
+globe, just as Columbus and other wise men had long taught, for a
+ship had sailed completely around it.</p>
+<p>But Magellan had also proved some things that they had not
+dreamed. He had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay
+between Europe and Asia; he had made clear that the Indies which
+the Spanish explorers had found, and which other people were
+beginning to call the Americas, were really a new world entirely
+separate from Asia, and not a part of Asia as Columbus had
+thought.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why were the early American explorers disappointed at
+finding two continents between Europe and Asia?</p>
+<p>2. What land did John Cabot discover? Where did he think this
+land was? Why did the English people take little interest in this
+voyage?</p>
+<p>3. Why was our country named America? Do you think that
+Americus Vespucius deserved so great an honor? By what name did
+the Spaniards continue to call the new region? Why did the
+Spaniards have one name and the other Europeans another name for
+a long time?</p>
+<p>4. How did Balboa come to find the Pacific Ocean? Why did men
+search for a passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific more
+vigorously after Balboa's expedition?</p>
+<p>5. Why has Magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in
+history? What three things had Magellan shown the European
+world?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter
+who helped in the discovery of the New World, and place opposite
+the name of each the name of the land he discovered.</p>
+<p>2. Trace Magellan's voyage on the map,[173.gif], and make a
+list of the lands or countries he passed. Look at the map of
+North America on this old map, and at the one on [229.gif]. How
+do you account for the queer shape of North America on the old
+map?</p>
+<p class="c4">Important date</p>
+<p>1519-21. Magellan's ship made the first voyage around the
+world.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="2556"></a><a href="#3614">CHAPTER XVI</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS AND CONQUERORS ON THE MAINLAND</p>
+<p><b>The Civilization of the Mexican Indians.</b> Early Spanish
+explorers on the coast of Mexico found the Indians of the
+mainland more highly civilized than the natives of the West
+Indies. Some of these, especially the Aztecs, lived in large
+villages or cities and were ruled by powerful chiefs or kings.
+They built to their gods huge stone temples with towers several
+stories in height.</p>
+<p>Their houses, quite unlike those of the other Indians the
+Spanish had seen, were made of stone or sun-dried brick and
+coated with hard white plaster. Some of them were of immense size
+and could hold many families. Doors had not been invented, but
+hangings of woven grass or matting of cotton served instead.
+Strings of shells which a visitor could rattle answered for
+door-bells.</p>
+<p>The streets of the towns were narrow, but were often paved
+with a sort of cement. Aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like
+the old Roman aqueducts, although not so large, carried water
+from the neighboring hills for fountains and rude public
+baths.</p>
+<p>The women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their
+families. Workmen made ornaments of gold and copper, and utensils
+and dishes of pottery for every-day use. The people cultivated
+the fields around the cities, raising a great variety of foods,
+and even built ditches to carry water for irrigating the fields.
+All this was in striking contrast with the simple habits of the
+West Indians.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="177.gif" src=
+"images/177.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AZTEC SACRIFICIAL STONE<br>
+Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Cruel Customs of the Aztecs.</b> With all the good features
+of Mexican life, with all the superiority of the Mexicans over
+the other Indians, there was much that was hideous and cruel. The
+Aztecs, the most powerful tribes, were continually at war with
+their neighbors. They lived mainly upon the plunder of their
+enemies and the tribute which they took from those they had
+conquered. Like all Mexicans, they worshiped great ugly idols as
+gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives
+taken in war as human sacrifices.</p>
+<p><b>Spanish Ideas of Mexico.</b> The reports of the Aztec
+civilization and of the treasures of gold, mostly untrue, excited
+the interest and greed of the Spaniards. Mexico seemed like the
+China which Marco Polo had described, and might offer a chance of
+immense wealth for those who should conquer it. In truth, Mexican
+civilization did resemble that of Asia more than anything that
+the Spaniards had seen. Montezuma, a powerful chief or king of
+the Aztecs, lived somewhat like a Mongol Emperor of Persia or
+China.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="178.gif" src=
+"images/178.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MONTEZUMA,<br>
+THE LAST KING OF MEXICO<br>
+After Montanus and Ogilby</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Cort&eacute;s.</b> In 1519 the governor of Cuba sent
+Hernando Cort&eacute;s to explore and conquer Mexico. The
+expedition landed where Vera Cruz is now situated. The ships were
+then sunk in order to cut off all hope of retreat for the
+soldiers. "For whom but cowards," said Cort&eacute;s, "were means
+of retreat necessary!" Cort&eacute;s, with great skill, worked up
+the zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade. All
+thought it a duty to destroy the idols they saw, to end the
+practice of offering human sacrifices, and to force the Christian
+religion upon the natives.</p>
+<p>The small army marched slowly inland towards the City of
+Mexico, which was the capital of Montezuma's kingdom.
+Cort&eacute;s and his men had learned the Indian mode of fighting
+from ambush, and also how successfully to match cunning and
+treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent his invasion
+of their country.</p>
+<p><b>How the Spaniards and the Aztecs fought.</b> The Mexican
+warriors, though they fought fiercely, were no match for the
+Spaniards. The Mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow,
+using arrows pointed with a hard kind of stone. They carried for
+hand-to-hand fighting a narrow club set with a double edge of
+razor-like stones, and wore a crude kind of armor made from
+quilted cotton. But such things were useless against Spanish
+bullets shot from afar.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="179.gif" src=
+"images/179.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ARMOR OF CORT&Eacute;S<br>
+After an engraving of the original in the National Museum,
+Madrid</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The roaring cannon, the glittering steel swords, the thick
+armor and shining helmets, the prancing horses on which the
+Spanish leaders were mounted, gave the whole a strange, unearthly
+appearance to the simple-minded Indians. The story is told that
+the Mexicans believed that one of their gods had once floated out
+to sea, saying that, in the fulness of time, he would return with
+fair-skinned companions to begin again his rule over his people.
+Many Aztecs looked upon the coming of the white men as the return
+of this god and thought that resistance would be useless. Such
+natives sent presents, made their peace with Cort&eacute;s, and
+so weakened the opposition to the conquerors.</p>
+<p><b>Cort&eacute;s in Peril.</b> Cort&eacute;s easily entered
+the City of Mexico, and forced Montezuma to resign. But here the
+natives attacked his army in such numbers that he had to retreat
+to escape capture. The Spaniards fled from the city at night amid
+the onslaught of the inhabitants fighting for their religion and
+their homes.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="180.gif" src=
+"images/180.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CANNON OF THE TIME OF CORT&Eacute;S<br>
+After Van Menken.<br>
+ There are in the naval museum at Annapolis<br>
+guns captured in the Mexican War supposed to be those used by
+Cort&eacute;s</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The retreat cost the Spaniards terrible losses. Cort&eacute;s
+started in the evening on the retreat with 1,250 soldiers, 6,000
+Indian allies, and 80 horses. There were left in the morning 500
+soldiers, 2,000 allies, and 20 horses. Cort&eacute;s is said to
+have buried his face in his hands and wept for his lost
+followers, but he never wavered in his purpose of taking Mexico.
+He was able to defeat the Indians in the open country, and to
+return to the attack on the capital city.</p>
+<p><b>Capture of the City of Mexico.</b> The siege which
+followed, lasting nearly three months, has rarely been matched in
+history for the bravery and suffering of the natives. The
+fighting was constant and terrible. The fresh water supply was
+cut off from the inhabitants in the city, and famine aided the
+invaders. At length the defenders were exhausted and
+Cort&eacute;s entered. It had taken him two years to conquer the
+Aztecs. A greater task remained for him to do. He was to cleanse
+and rebuild the City of Mexico, make it a center of Spanish
+civilization, and Mexico a New Spain. By such work Cort&eacute;s
+showed that he could be not only a great conqueror, but also an
+able ruler in time of peace.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="181.gif" src=
+"images/181.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE CITY OF MEXICO UNDER THE CONQUERORS<br>
+From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Pizarro.</b> A few years after Cort&eacute;s conquered
+Mexico a second army conquered another famous Indian kingdom.
+Francisco Pizarro commanded this expedition, which set out from
+Panama in 1531. Pizarro had been with Balboa at the discovery of
+the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and, like his master, had become
+interested in the stories the Indians told of a rich kingdom far
+to the south. The golden kingdom which the Indians described was
+that of the Incas, who lived much as the Aztecs. The Spaniards
+called the region of the Incas the Biru country or, by softening
+the first letter, the Peru country, from Biru, who was a native
+Indian chieftain.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="182.gif" src=
+"images/182.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A STONE IDOL OF THE AZTEC'S<br>
+It is more than eight feet high and five feet across,<br>
+and was dug up in the central square of the City of Mexico<br>
+more than one hundred years ago</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Conquest of Peru.</b> Pizarro found the Incas divided as
+usual by civil wars and incapable of much resistance. One of
+their rival chiefs was outwitted when he tried to capture Pizarro
+by a trick, and was himself made a prisoner instead. He offered
+to give Pizarro in return for his freedom as much gold as would
+fill his prison room as high as he could reach. The offer was
+accepted, and gold, mainly in the shape of vases, plates, images,
+and other ornaments from the temples for the Indian idols, was
+gathered together.</p>
+<p>The Spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost
+$7,000,000 worth of gold, besides a vast quantity of silver. As
+much more was taken from the Indians by force. The whole was
+divided among the conquerors. Pizarro's share was worth nearly a
+million dollars. But the poor chief who had made them suddenly
+rich was suspected of plotting to have his warriors ambush them
+as they left the country, was tried by his conquerors, and put to
+death. The bloody work of conquest was soon over. Peru, like
+Mexico, rapidly became a center of Spanish settlement. Emigrants,
+instead of stopping in the West Indies, had the choice of going
+on into the newer regions which Cort&eacute;s and Pizarro had
+won.</p>
+<p><b>Emigrants to Spanish America.</b> It was much harder in the
+sixteenth century to leave Spain and settle in America than it is
+today. The first and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in
+getting permission to leave Spain. No one could go who had not
+secured the king's consent. The emigrant must show that neither
+he nor his father nor his grandfather had ever been guilty of
+heresy, that is, that he and his forefathers had been steadfast
+Catholic Christians. His wife, if he had one, must give her
+consent. His debts must all be paid. The Moors and the Jews of
+Spain could not secure permits to move to the New World.
+Foreigners of whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and
+were usually kept out. Spain tried to keep its colonies wholly
+for Spaniards.</p>
+<p><b>Hardships of the Sea Voyage.</b> Those who did go to the
+colonies found the voyage dangerous and costly. One traveler has
+related that it cost him about one hundred and eighty dollars for
+the passage, and that he provided his own chickens and bread. The
+danger to sailing ships from storms was much greater than it is
+today for steamships. The voyage required three or four weeks and
+not uncommonly as many months.</p>
+<p><b>The Need of Laborers.</b> The hardships and dangers of the
+voyage and the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept
+most people from going to the New World. Emigration was slow,
+amounting to about a thousand a year. There were always fewer
+capable white laborers than the landowners in the colonies needed
+for their work, for there was much to do in clearing the land and
+preparing it for use. The landowners were usually well-to-do
+Spaniards who did not like to work in the fields themselves. A
+great many of the laborers who migrated to America served in the
+army or went to the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. The
+craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm
+laborers. The landowners in the islands of the West Indies,
+during the early history of the colonies, made slaves of the
+Indians and compelled them to take the place of the laborers they
+needed and could not obtain.</p>
+<p><b>Indian Slavery.</b> The people of Europe thought that the
+whole world belonged to the followers of Christ. Non-Christians,
+whether Indian or negro, had the choice of accepting Christianity
+or of being made slaves. The choice of Christianity did not
+always save them from the fate of slavery. In this the Spaniards
+were no more cruel than their neighbors the English or the
+French. The Spanish planters from the beginning forced the
+Indians to work their farms. The gold seekers made them work in
+their mines.</p>
+<p>The labor in every case was hard, and specially hard for the
+Indian unused to work. The overseers were brutal when the slaves
+did not do the tasks set for them. Hard usage and the unhealthful
+quarters rapidly broke down the natives. The white men also
+brought into the island diseases which they, with their greater
+experience, could resist, but from which, one writer says, the
+Indians died like sheep with a distemper.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="185.gif" src=
+"images/185.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A SPANISH GALLEON<br>
+Ships like this carried the Spanish emigrants to America</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Slavery destroys the West Indians.</b> When the number of
+the Indians in Espa&ntilde;ola and Cuba had decreased so much
+that there were not enough left to meet the needs of the
+planters, slave-hunters searched the neighboring islands for
+others. Finally, when the Indians were nearly gone, and the
+planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves, the king
+of Spain forbade making slaves of the Indians. Unfortunately he
+did not forbid them to capture negroes in Africa for the same
+purpose, and the change merely meant that negroes took the place
+of Indians as slaves. The story of the change is in great part
+the story of the life of Bartholomew de Las Casas.</p>
+<p><b>Las Casas.</b> The father of Las Casas was a companion of
+Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. He returned to Spain,
+taking with him a young Indian slave whom he gave to his son.
+This youth became greatly interested in the race to which his
+young slave belonged. In 1502 he went to Espa&ntilde;ola to take
+possession of his father's estate. The planter's life did not
+long satisfy him and finally he became a priest. He moved from
+Espa&ntilde;ola to Cuba, the newer colony.</p>
+<p>Las Casas became convinced that Indian slavery was wrong, and
+gave his own slaves their freedom. In his sermons he attacked the
+abuses of slavery. He visited Spain in order to help the slaves,
+and secured many reforms which lessened the hardships of their
+lot. Since the planters demanded more laborers and Las Casas
+thought the negro would be hardier than the Indian, he advocated
+negro slavery in place of Indian slavery as the less of two
+evils. Finally, in 1542, Las Casas persuaded his king, Charles V,
+to put an end to Indian slavery of every form.</p>
+<p>His success came too late to benefit the natives of the West
+Indies. They had decreased until almost none were left. It is
+said that there were two hundred thousand Indians in
+Espa&ntilde;ola in 1492, and that in 1548 there were barely five
+hundred survivors. The same decrease had taken place in the other
+islands. But the work of Las Casas came in time to save the
+Indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless
+islanders.</p>
+<p><b>Negro Slavery.</b> Las Casas later regretted that he had
+advised the planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the
+Indians. Some negroes had been captured by the Portuguese on the
+coast of Africa during their explorations and taken to Europe as
+slaves. Columbus carried a few of these to the West Indies with
+him, and others had followed his example, but negro slavery had
+grown very slowly until after Las Casas stopped Indian slavery,
+when it increased rapidly in Spanish America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="187.gif" src=
+"images/187.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">LAS CASAS After the picture by Felix Parra in
+the Academy, Mexico.<br>
+Las Casas is supposed to be imploring Providence to shield the
+natives from Spanish cruelty</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Missions of the Mainland.</b> Las Casas became at one
+time a missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors
+located on the southern border of Mexico, in a region called by
+the Spaniards the "Land of War." Three times a Spanish army had
+invaded the country, and three times it had been driven back by
+the native defenders. Las Casas wished to show the Spaniards that
+more could be accomplished by treating the Indians kindly than by
+bloody warfare and conquest.</p>
+<p>He and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of
+the Indians, and went among them not as conquerors but as
+Christian teachers. Their gentle manners and endless patience won
+the friendship of the Indians in time and changed the land of
+constant warfare into one of peace. They led the natives to
+destroy their idols and to give up cannibalism. The mission
+established among them and kept up by the monks who were
+attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up on
+the mainland.</p>
+<p><b>The Work of the Missions.</b> Influenced by the work of Las
+Casas against Indian slavery and for Indian missions, the
+Spaniards bent their efforts to preserve and Christianize the
+natives wherever they came upon them in America. Catholic priests
+gathered the Indians into permanent villages, which were called
+missions. Within about one hundred years after the death of
+Columbus, or by 1600, there were more then 5,000,000 Indians in
+such villages under Spanish rule. Priests taught them to build
+better houses, checked their native vices, and suppressed heathen
+practices.</p>
+<p>Every mission became a little industrial school for children
+and parents alike, where all might learn the simpler arts and
+trades and the customs and language of their teachers. Each
+Indian cultivated his own plot of land and worked two hours a day
+on the farm belonging to the village. The produce of the village
+farm supported the church. The monks or friars who had charge of
+the mission cared for the poor, taught in the schools, preserved
+the peace and order of the village, and looked after the
+religious welfare of all.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="189.gif" src=
+"images/189.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">RUINS OF A SPANISH MISSION HOUSE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Gradually Spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations,
+and planters established farms around them, and they became
+Spanish villages in every respect like those in the islands or in
+the Old World, except that many inhabitants in the towns on the
+mainland were Indians. The emigrants freely intermarried with the
+Indians and a mixed race took the place of the old inhabitants.
+The customs, language, religion, and rule of Spain prevailed in
+this New Spain, though in some ways the new civilization was not
+so good as that of the Old World.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. In what ways did the Aztecs resemble the Europeans? How did
+they differ from them? Why were the Spaniards particularly
+anxious to conquer Mexico?</p>
+<p>2. Why did many of the Mexicans refuse to fight the Spaniards?
+How many soldiers and Indian allies did Cort&eacute;s lose in one
+battle? How long did it take Cort&eacute;s to conquer Mexico?</p>
+<p>3. What other Indian people was conquered a few years later?
+By whom? What seemed to be the main object of these conquerors,
+Cort&eacute;s and Pizarro, in their expeditions?</p>
+<p>4. Why did the Spaniards make slaves of the Indians in the
+West Indies? Why did they later cease making slaves of Indians
+and begin making slaves of negroes? What share had Las Casas in
+this change?</p>
+<p>5. What good work did the priests and monks in the Spanish
+Missions accomplish? What became of the Aztecs or other Indian
+tribes in Mexico?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Find all you can about the houses, food, clothing, and
+occupations of any Indians living in your part of the United
+States, or if none are there now, learn this from your parents or
+from some neighbor who knew the Indians. Did they resemble the
+Aztecs in these respects or the West Indians?</p>
+<p>2. Review the account of emigrating to Spanish America four
+hundred years ago. Who could not go to Spanish America then? Find
+out who may not come into the United States to-day. What did it
+cost one traveler to get to America in the sixteenth century?
+Find out the cost of a voyage from Europe to America to-day. How
+long did it take to make such a voyage? Find out the usual length
+of a voyage from Europe to-day.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4514"></a><a href="#2459">CHAPTER XVII</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>THE SPANISH EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA</p>
+<p><b>Ponce de Leon.</b> While men like Cort&eacute;s were
+exploring and conquering the countries on the west shore of the
+Gulf of Mexico, others began to search the vast regions to the
+north. One of these explorers was Ponce de Leon, who had come to
+Espa&ntilde;ola with Columbus in 1493. He afterwards spent many
+years in the West Indies capturing Indians, and understood from
+something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond
+the Bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor, if
+he bathed in it.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="191.gif" src=
+"images/191.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">PONCE DE LEON</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>As Ponce de Leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search
+of this wondrous fountain, but he found instead a coast where
+flowers grew in great abundance. It was the Easter season in
+1513. Since the Spanish call this season <i>Pascua Florida</i> or
+Flowery Easter, Ponce called the new flowery country Florida. He
+went ashore near the present site of St. Augustine, and later,
+while trying to establish a settlement, lost his life in a battle
+with the Indians.</p>
+<p><b>Explorations of North American Coast.</b> Other Spanish
+explorers between 1513 and 1525 followed the whole Gulf coast
+from Florida to Vera Cruz, and the Atlantic coast from Florida to
+Labrador. They sought continually for a passage to India. Every
+large inlet was entered, for it might prove to be the
+long-looked-for strait. Slowly the coast of North America took
+shape on the maps of that time. Two famous expeditions into the
+interior of the country did much to enlarge this knowledge. One
+was made by De Soto through the region which now forms seven
+southern states of the United States, and the other was by
+Coronado through the great southwest.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="192.gif" src=
+"images/192.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">HERNANDO DE SOTO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>De Soto.</b> Hernando de Soto, a noble from Seville in
+Spain, had won fame and fortune with Pizarro in Peru. The King of
+Spain, to reward his bravery and skill in conquering Indians,
+made him Governor of Cuba. In those days the Governor of Cuba
+controlled Florida. It was a larger Florida than the present
+state of that name, for Spanish Florida included the whole north
+coast of the Gulf of Mexico running back into the continent
+without any definite boundary.</p>
+<p><b>The Story of the Gilded Man.</b> De Soto had heard a
+fanciful story of a country so rich in gold that its king was
+smeared every morning with gum and then thickly sprinkled with
+powdered gold, which was washed off at night. De Soto thought
+this country might be somewhere in Florida, and prepared to
+search for the Gilded Man, or in the Spanish language <i>El
+Dorado.</i></p>
+<p><b>The Comrades of De Soto.</b> More than six hundred men,
+some of them from the oldest families of the nobility of Spain
+and Portugal, flocked to De Soto's banner. They sold their
+possessions at home and ventured all their wealth in the hope of
+obtaining great riches in Florida.</p>
+<p><b>De Soto's Route through the South of North America.</b> De
+Soto crossed from Cuba to the west coast of Florida in 1539, and
+advanced northward by land to an Indian village near Apalachee
+Bay. Here he spent the first winter. A white man, whom the
+Indians had taken captive twelve years before and finally
+adopted, joined De Soto and became very useful as an
+interpreter.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="193.gif" src=
+"images/193.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SPANISH KNIGHT OF 16TH CENTURY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In the spring De Soto renewed his explorations. It was like a
+journey into the interior of Africa. The expedition passed
+northeasterly through the country now within Georgia and South
+Carolina, as far, perhaps, as the border of North Carolina. From
+here it passed through the mountains, and turned southwesterly
+through Tennessee and Alabama until a large Indian village called
+Mauvilla was reached. This was near the head of Mobile Bay.
+Mobile was named from the Indian village Mauvilla. The Alabama
+Indians, whose name means "the thicket clearers," were near by.
+Here again De Soto changed his course to the northwest into the
+unknown interior.</p>
+<p><b>The Hardships of the Journey.</b> His army was almost
+exhausted by the difficulties of the journey. A road had to be
+cut and broken through thickets and forest, paths had to be made
+through the many swamps, and fords found across the rivers. It
+frequently became necessary to stop for months at a time, to let
+the horses, worn out from travel and starving because of the
+scarcity of fodder, fatten on the grass. The stores which the
+army brought with them soon gave out. The men were forced to live
+like Indians, and were often reduced to using the roots of wild
+plants for food. Where they could, they robbed the Indians of
+their scanty stores of corn and beans.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="194.gif" src=
+"images/194.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">INDIANS BROILING FISH</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Indians.</b> De Soto was cruel in
+his treatment of the conquered natives along his route. Many of
+his officers came with him really for the purpose of obtaining
+Indian slaves for their plantations in Cuba. Indian women were
+made to do the work of the camp. Indian men were chained together
+and forced to carry the baggage. The chiefs were held as hostages
+for the good behavior of the whole tribe. The Indians who tried
+to shirk work or offered resistance were killed without
+mercy.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="195.gif" src=
+"images/195.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF DE SOTO'S ROUTE--1539-1542</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>De Soto's cruelties made the Indian of the South hate the
+white men, and left him the enemy of any who should come to those
+regions in after-years. More than once De Soto narrowly escaped
+destruction at the hands of the enraged savages. They attacked
+the Spaniards with all their strength at Mauvilla, and again
+while they were in camp in northern Mississippi for the winter of
+1540-1541. These two battles with the Indians cost the Spaniards
+their baggage, which was destroyed in the burning villages. New
+clothing, however, was soon made from the skins of wild animals.
+Deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks, jackets, shirts,
+stockings, and even for shoes. The great army must have looked
+much like a band of Robinson Crusoes.</p>
+<p><b>The Discovery of the Mississippi.</b> De Soto marched on
+northwesterly until May 8, 1541, when he was somewhere near the
+site of the present city of Memphis. There he came upon a great
+river. One of his officers tells us that the river was so wide at
+this point that if a man on the other side stood still, it could
+not be known whether he were a man or not; that the river was of
+great depth, and of a strong current; and that the water was
+always muddy.</p>
+<p>De Soto called it, in his own language, the Rio Grande or
+Great River, but the Indians called it the Mississippi. Americans
+have adopted the Indian name. Other Spanish explorers had
+probably passed the mouth of the Mississippi River before De
+Soto, and wondered at its mighty size, but De Soto was the first
+white man to approach it from the land and to appreciate the
+importance of his discovery.</p>
+<p><b>Wanderings west of the Mississippi.</b> The Spaniards cut
+down trees, made them into planks and built barges on which they
+crossed the Mississippi. Then they wandered for another year
+through the endless woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now
+within the state of Arkansas. They probably went as far west as
+the open plains of Oklahoma or Texas. In these border regions
+between the forests and the prairies they met Indians who used
+the skins of the buffalo for clothing.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="197.gif" src=
+"images/197.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Death and Burial of De Soto.</b> The severe winter of
+1541-1542 discouraged the hardy travelers, who had now spent
+nearly three years in a vain search. The natives whom they had
+found made clothing from the fiber in the bark of mulberry trees
+and from the hides of buffaloes, and stored beans and corn for
+food, but such things seemed of little value to the seekers for
+the Gilded Man.</p>
+<p>De Soto returned to the Mississippi and prepared to establish
+a colony somewhere near the mouth of the Red River. It was his
+purpose to send to Cuba for supplies, and, with this settlement
+as a base, make a farther search in the plains of the great West.
+He did not live to carry out his plan. Long exposure and anxiety
+had weakened him. The malaria of the swamps attacked him, and he
+died within a few days. His body was wrapped in mantles weighted
+with sand, carried in a canoe, and secretly lowered in the midst
+of the great river he had discovered.</p>
+<p>His successor tried to conceal De Soto's death from the
+Indians. The Spaniards had called their leader the Child of the
+Sun, and now he had died like any other mortal. They were afraid
+if the Indians found his body they would cease to believe that
+the strangers were immortal and would massacre them all. The
+Indians were told that the great leader had gone to Heaven, as he
+had often done before, and that he would return in a few
+days.</p>
+<p><b>Results of De Soto's Journey.</b> The weary survivors built
+boats, floated down the Mississippi into the Gulf, and sailed
+cautiously along the coasts to Mexico. They had been gone four
+years and three months, and half of the army which set out had
+perished. However, the expedition of De Soto will always remain
+one of the most remarkable journeys in the history of North
+America. It had extended the Spanish claims far into the
+interior. With it had begun the written history of the country
+now composing at least eight states in the United States,
+Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama,
+Mississippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas. It had perhaps reached the
+present Oklahoma and Texas, and had certainly passed down the
+Mississippi River through Louisiana.</p>
+<p><b>The Story of the Seven Cities.</b> While De Soto was
+exploring the southeastern part of North America a second
+expedition searched the southwest. Both were looking for rich
+Indian kingdoms like Mexico and Peru. The second expedition came
+about in this manner. Some of the Indians from northern Mexico
+told the Spaniards a strange tale of how in the distant past
+their ancestors came forth from seven caves.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="199.gif" src=
+"images/199.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AN INDIAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The Spaniards, however, confused the tale with a story of
+their own about Seven Cities. They believed that at the time
+Spain was overrun by the Moors in the eighth century, seven
+bishops, flying from persecution, had taken refuge, with a great
+company of followers, on an island or group of islands far out in
+the Atlantic Ocean, and that they had built Seven Cities.
+Wonderful stories were told in Spain of these cities, of their
+wealth and splendor, though nobody ever pretended to have
+actually seen them. The Spaniards thought the Indians meant to
+tell them of these Seven Cities instead of seven caves.</p>
+<p>The mistake was natural, as the Spanish explorers had much
+trouble in understanding the Indian languages. They had long
+expected to find the Seven Cities in America. Indeed there was
+rumor that white travelers had seen them north of Mexico.</p>
+<p><b>The Journey of Friar Marcos.</b> In 1539 the Viceroy of
+Mexico sent a frontier missionary, Friar Marcos by name, together
+with a negro, Stephen, and some Christianized Indians to look for
+them. Friar Marcos traveled far to the north. He inquired his way
+of the Indians, always asking them about Seven Cities. He
+described them as large cities with houses made of stone and
+mortar. The Indians, half-understanding him, directed him to
+seven Zu&ntilde;i villages or pueblos. The first of these they
+called Cibola. Friar Marcos henceforth spoke of them as the Seven
+Cities of Cibola.</p>
+<p>The good friar himself never entered even the first of them.
+His negro, Stephen, had been sent on in advance to prepare the
+way, but this rough, greedy fellow offended the Indians, who
+promptly murdered him. When the friar approached he found the
+Indians so excited and hostile that he dared not enter their
+village. He did, however, venture to climb a hill at a distance,
+from which he had a view of one of the cities of Cibola. The
+houses, built of light stone and whitish adobe, glistened in the
+wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region, and
+gave him the idea of a much larger and richer city than really
+existed. Friar Marcos, by this time thoroughly frightened,
+hurriedly retraced his steps.</p>
+<p><b>Coronado.</b> There was great excitement in Mexico over the
+story Friar Marcos told. The account of what had been seen grew,
+as such stories always do, in the telling and retelling. Nothing
+else was thought of in all New Spain. The Viceroy of Mexico made
+ready a great army for the conquest of the Seven Cities of
+Cibola. He gave the command to his intimate friend, Francisco de
+Coronado. Everybody wanted to accompany him, but it was necessary
+to have the consent of the viceroy. Sons of nobles, eager to go,
+traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the viceroy's
+permit. Some men who secured these sold them as special favors to
+their friends. Whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as
+a title of nobility. So high were the expectations of great
+wealth when the Seven Cities should be discovered!</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="201.gif" src=
+"images/201.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ZU&Ntilde;I PUEBLO FROM A DISTANCE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Army of Coronado.</b> In the early part of 1540,
+Coronado set forth from his home in western Mexico near the Gulf
+of California. He had an army of three hundred Spaniards, nearly
+all the younger sons of nobles. They were fitted out with
+polished coats of mail and gilded armor, carried lances and
+swords, and were mounted on the choicest horses from the large
+stock-farms of the viceroy. There were in the army a few footmen
+armed with crossbows and harquebuses. A thousand negroes and
+Indians were taken along, mainly as servants for the white
+masters. Some led the spare horses. Others carried the baggage,
+or drove the oxen and cows, the sheep and swine which would be
+needed on the journey. A small fleet carried part of the baggage
+by way of the Gulf of California, prepared also to help Coronado
+in other ways, and to explore the Gulf to its head.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="202.gif" src=
+"images/202.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE ROUTE OF CORONADO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Route of Coronado to Cibola.</b> The large army marched
+slowly through the wild regions of the Gulf coast. Coronado soon
+became impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small
+following of picked horsemen. They went through the mountainous
+wilderness of northern Mexico and across the desert plains of
+southeastern Arizona. After a march lasting five months, over a
+distance equal to that from New York to Omaha, Coronado came upon
+the Seven Cities of Cibola; but the real Seven Cities of Cibola
+as Coronado found them bore little resemblance to what he had
+expected.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="203.gif" src=
+"images/203.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A ZU&Ntilde;I PUEBLO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The real Seven Cities of Cibola.</b> The first city of
+Cibola was an Indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed
+houses, built of stone and sun-dried clay. The houses were
+entered by climbing ladders to the top and then passing down into
+the rooms as we enter ships through hatches. The people wore only
+such clothes as could be woven from the coarse fiber of native
+plants, or patched together from the tanned skins of the cat or
+the deer. They cultivated certain plants for food, but only small
+and poor varieties of corn, beans, and melons. They had some
+skill in making small things for house and personal decoration,
+mainly in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green
+stone.</p>
+<p>The kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of
+poor villages inhabited by an unwarlike people. We know now that
+Coronado had found the Zu&ntilde;i pueblos in the western part of
+New Mexico. The conquest of these was a wofully small thing for
+so grand and costly an expedition. No gold or silver or precious
+jewels had been found.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="204.gif" src=
+"images/204.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CANYON OF THE COLORADO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Canyon of the Colorado.</b> Yet the wonders of the
+natural world about them astonished and interested the Spaniards.
+Some of their number found the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River
+and vividly described it to their comrades. As they looked into
+its depths it seemed as if the water was six feet across,
+although in reality it was many hundred feet wide. Some tried
+without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream below or
+to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side. Those who
+staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the
+cliff were about as tall as a man, but those who went down as far
+as they could swore that when they reached these rocks they found
+them bigger than the great tower of Seville, which is two hundred
+and seventy-five feet high.</p>
+<p><b>Coronado in New Mexico.</b> Coronado marched from the
+Cities of Cibola eastward to the valley of the Rio Grande River,
+and settled for the winter in an Indian village a short distance
+south of the present city of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The
+Spaniards drove the natives out, only allowing them to take the
+clothes they wore.</p>
+<p><b>A Winter in an Indian Village.</b> The soldiers passed the
+severe winter of 1540-1541 comfortably quartered in the best
+houses of the Indian village. A plentiful supply of corn and
+beans had been left by the unfortunate owners. The live stock
+brought from Mexico furnished an abundance of fresh meat.
+Coronado required the Indians to furnish three hundred pieces of
+cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men, to take the place of
+their own, now worn out. Nor did the officers give the Indians
+time to secure the cloth that was demanded, but forced them to
+take their own cloaks and blankets off their backs. When a
+soldier came upon an Indian whose blanket was better than his, he
+compelled the unlucky fellow to exchange with him without more
+ado.</p>
+<p>Coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts
+of his men made him much loved by them, but much hated by the
+Indians. It is no wonder that such treatment drove the Indians
+into rebellion, and that Coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel
+war of reconquest and revenge.</p>
+<p><b>The Tale of Quivira.</b> An Indian slave in one of the
+villages cheered Coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale
+about a wonderful city, many days' journey across the plains to
+the northeast, which he called Quivira. The king of Quivira, he
+said, took his nap under a large tree, on which were hung little
+gold bells, which put him to sleep as they swung in the air.
+Every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of wrought gold.
+The slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his hearers to
+make his tale bigger. He perhaps made it as enticing as he could
+in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless
+plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown.</p>
+<p><b>The Search for Quivira.</b> The slave's story deceived the
+Spaniards. Coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of
+finding a rich country and marched away in search of Quivira. He
+traveled to the northeast for seventy-seven days. There were no
+guiding land marks. Soldiers measured the distance traveled each
+day by counting the footsteps. The plains were flat, save for an
+occasional channel cut by some river half buried in the sand;
+they were barren, except for a short wiry grass and a small rim
+of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses.</p>
+<p><b>Quivira.</b> The most marvelous sight of the long journey
+was the herds of buffaloes in countless numbers. The Indians
+guided Coronado in the end to a cluster of Indian villages which
+they called Quivira. This was somewhere in what is now central
+Kansas near Junction City. The Indians were in all probability
+the Wichitas. Here again the great explorer met with a bitter
+disappointment.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="207.gif" src=
+"images/207.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">INDIAN TEPEES</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>Instead of a fine city of stone and mortar, he found scattered
+Indian villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening
+grass or straw or buffalo skins to poles. The people were the
+poorest and most barbarous which he had met. Coronado was,
+however, fortunate in securing a supply of corn and buffalo meat
+in Quivira for his long return journey.</p>
+<p><b>Coronado's Opinion of the West.</b> A year later a
+crestfallen army of half-starved men clad in the skins of animals
+stumbled back homeward through Mexico in straggling groups. Great
+sadness prevailed in Mexico, for many had lost their fortunes
+besides friends and relatives in the enterprise. Coronado seemed
+to the people of the time to have led a costly army on a
+wild-goose chase. He himself thought that the regions he had
+crossed were valueless. He said they were cold and too far away
+from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony, and the country
+was neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth
+keeping.</p>
+<p><b>Results of Coronado's Explorations.</b> We know better
+to-day the value of Coronado's great discoveries. He had solved
+the age-long mystery of the Seven Cities, and explored the
+southwest of the United States of our day. The rich region now
+included in the great states of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
+Oklahoma, and Kansas had been seen, and it was soon after
+described for the European world. His men had explored the Gulf
+of California to its head, and the Colorado River toward its
+source for two hundred miles. They had proved that lower
+California was not an island but a part of the mainland. Others
+soon explored the entire coast of California to the limits of the
+present state of Oregon.</p>
+<p><b>How De Soto and Coronado came near meeting.</b> De Soto and
+Coronado together pushed the Spanish frontier far northward to
+the center of North America. A story which was told by De Soto's
+men shows how close together the two great explorers were at one
+time. While Coronado was in Quivira, De Soto was wandering along
+the borders of the plains west of the Mississippi River, though
+neither knew of the nearness of the other. An Indian woman who
+ran away from Coronado's army fell in with De Soto's, nine days
+later. If De Soto and Coronado had met on the plains there would
+have been a finer story to tell, almost as dramatic as the
+meeting of Stanley and Livingstone in central Africa. One cannot
+refrain from wondering how different would have been the ending
+with the two great armies united and encouraged to continue their
+explorations.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What story had Ponce de Leon heard in the West Indies? What
+did he find? Why did he call the new country which he discovered
+Florida? What was included in Florida as the Spaniards understood
+it?</p>
+<p>2. What was De Soto looking for in North America? How long did
+he search? What did he find? Was he disappointed? What was he
+planning to do when he died? Why was his journey very remarkable?
+Through what present states of the United States did he pass?</p>
+<p>3. Where did the Spaniards expect to find the Seven Cities?
+Why did he expect to find them there? What was the story of the
+Seven Cities? Of the Seven Caves?</p>
+<p>4. What did Coronado expect to find at the Seven Cities of
+Cibola? What did he find there? Why did he go far on into North
+America in search of Quivira? What did he find on the way to
+Quivira? What did he find Quivira to be?</p>
+<p>5. What did Coronado think of his own discoveries? What had he
+found out of interest or value to the rest of the world? Which of
+the present states of the United States did his route touch?</p>
+<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
+<p>1. Review the effect of the discoveries of Columbus (map,
+161.gif), Magellan (map, 173.gif), De Soto (map, 195.gif),
+Coronado (map, 202.gif), on the knowledge of the new world.</p>
+<p><i>Important date</i>--1541. The discovery of the Mississippi
+by De Soto.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4361"></a><a href="#3853">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h2>
+<p>RIVALRY AND STRIFE IN EUROPE</p>
+<p><b>The Rivals of Spain</b>. When the early voyages to America
+and Asia were ended, the French, the English, and the other
+northern peoples of Europe seemed to be beaten in the race for
+new lands and for new routes to old lands. The French had sent a
+few fishermen to the Banks of Newfoundland, and that was all. The
+English had made one or two voyages and appeared to be no longer
+interested. (See 166.gif, Cabot) The Dutch seemed to be only
+sturdy fishermen, thrifty farmers, or keen traders, occupied much
+of the time in the struggle against the North Sea, which
+threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and cities.</p>
+<p><b>The Trade-Winds</b>. The Portuguese and the Spaniards had a
+great advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for
+such voyages. To go to Asia ships went by way of the Cape of Good
+Hope. To go to America a southern route was taken, for in the
+North Atlantic the prevailing winds are from the southwest, while
+south of Spain the trade-winds blow towards the southwest, making
+it easy to sail to America. To take the northern route, which was
+the natural one for French and English sailors, would be to
+battle against head winds and heavy seas.</p>
+<p><b>The Spaniards and the Portuguese divide the World</b>. The
+Spaniards and the Portuguese believed that their discoveries gave
+them the right to all new lands which should be found and to all
+trade by sea with the Golden East. Two years after the first
+voyage of Columbus the Spaniards agreed with the Portuguese that
+a line running 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should
+separate the regions claimed by each. The Spaniards were to hold
+all lands discovered west of that line, and the Portuguese all
+east of it. This left Brazil within the region claimed by the
+Portuguese. The rest of North and South America lay within the
+Spanish claims. It is the future history of this region that
+especially interests us as students of American history.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="211.gif" src=
+"images/211.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER Erected at Bristol,
+England, in memory of the first sailor from England to visit
+America</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Main Question.</b> Were the Spaniards to keep what they
+claimed and continue to outstrip their northern rivals? The
+answer to this question is found in the history of Europe during
+the sixteenth century. Unfortunately for the Spaniards they were
+drawn into quarrels in Europe which cost them many men and much
+money. The consequence was that they were unable to make full use
+of their discoveries, even if they had known how. Before the
+century was ended their rivals, the English and the French, were
+stronger than they; and the Dutch, their own subjects, had
+rebelled against them.</p>
+<p><b>The English and the French desire a Share</b>. Men had such
+great ideas of the immense wealth of the Indies that the
+successes of one nation made the other nations eager for some
+part of the spoil. Englishmen and Frenchmen were not likely to
+allow the Portuguese to take all they could find by sailing
+eastward around the Cape of Good Hope, and the Spaniards to keep
+whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by
+following the route marked out by Magellan. Both would search for
+new routes to the East, and both would lay claim to lands they
+saw by the way, regardless of any other nation. Many quarrels
+came from this rivalry, but quarrels arose also from other
+causes.</p>
+<p><b>King Charles and King Francis</b>. About the time
+Cort&eacute;s conquered Mexico, his master, King Charles of
+Spain, began a war against Francis, the king of France. As long
+as these two kings lived they were either fighting or preparing
+to fight. Had Charles been king of Spain only, there might have
+been no trouble, but he ruled lands in Italy and claimed others
+which the French king ruled. He also ruled all the region north
+of France which is now Belgium and Holland, and he owned a
+district which forms part of eastern France near Switzerland. As
+he was the German emperor besides, the French king thought him
+too dangerous to be left in peace. These wars have little to do
+with American history, except that they helped to weaken the king
+of Spain and to prevent the Spaniards from making the most of
+their early successes in colonizing.</p>
+<p><b>Religion a Cause of Strife.</b> Religion was the most
+serious cause of quarrel in the sixteenth century, and the king
+of Spain was the prince most injured by the struggle. At the time
+of Prince Henry of Portugal and of Columbus all peoples in
+western Europe worshiped in the same manner, taught their
+children the same beliefs, and in religious matters they all
+obeyed the pope. But by 1521 this had changed. The troubles began
+in Germany when Charles V was emperor. Before they were over
+Philip II, son of Charles, lost control of the Dutch, who
+rebelled and founded a republic of their own. The English finally
+became the principal enemies of Spain. The French, most of whom
+were of the same religion as the Spaniards, came to hate Spanish
+methods of defending religion, especially after the Spaniards had
+massacred a band of French settlers in America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="213.gif" src=
+"images/213.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">EMPEROR CHARLES V</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The "Reformers."</b> Many men became discontented at the
+way the Church was managed. At first all were agreed that the
+evils of which they complained could be removed if priests,
+bishops, and pope worked together to that end. After a while some
+teachers in different countries not only complained of evils, but
+refused to believe as the Church had taught and as most people
+still believed. They did not mean to divide the Christian Church
+into several churches, but they thought they understood the words
+of the Bible better than the teachers of the Church.</p>
+<p><b>The Reformation.</b> At that time people who were not
+agreed in their religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the
+same countries. The princes and kings who were faithful to the
+Church ordered that the new teachers and their followers should
+be punished. Other princes accepted the views of the "reformers,"
+and soon began to punish those of their subjects who continued to
+believe as the Church taught. In Germany these princes were
+called "Protestants," because they protested against the efforts
+of the Emperor Charles and his advisers to stop the spread of the
+new religion. This name was afterwards given to all who refused
+to remain in the older Church, subject to the bishops and the
+pope.</p>
+<p><b>Catholic and Protestant Leaders.</b> The most famous
+leaders of the Roman Catholics at this time were Ignatius Loyola,
+a Spaniard, Reginald Pole, an Englishman, and Carlo Borromeo, an
+Italian. Loyola had been a soldier in his youth, but while
+recovering from a serious wound, resolved to be a missionary.
+With several other young men of the same purpose he founded the
+Society of Jesus or the Jesuit Order. Of the Protestants the
+greatest leaders were Martin Luther, a German, and John Calvin, a
+Frenchman. Luther was a professor in the university at Wittenberg
+in Saxony, which was ruled by the Elector Frederick the Wise.
+Calvin had lived as a student in Paris, but when King Francis
+resolved to allow no Protestants in his kingdom, Calvin was
+obliged to leave the country. He settled in the Swiss city of
+Geneva.</p>
+<p><b>The Lutheran Church.</b> Luther's teachings were accepted
+by many Germans, especially in northern Germany. He translated
+the Bible into German. After a while his followers formed a
+Church of their own which was called Lutheran. It differed from
+the Roman Catholic Church in the way it was governed as well as
+in what it taught.</p>
+<p><b>The French Huguenots.</b> Calvin lived in Geneva, but most
+of those who accepted his teachings continued to live in France.
+The nickname Huguenots, or confederates, was given to them. They
+were not permitted by the French king to worship as Calvin
+taught, but by 1562 so many nobles had joined them that it was no
+longer possible to treat them as criminals. They were permitted
+to hold their meetings outside the walled towns. The leader whom
+they most honored was Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Both he and
+they, as we shall see, soon had reason to fear and hate the
+Spaniards. But we must first understand the difficulties which
+the king of Spain had in dealing with his Dutch subjects.</p>
+<p><b>The King of Spain and the Netherlands.</b> Philip II
+inherited from his father Charles seventeen duchies, counties,
+and other districts north of France in what is now Belgium and
+Holland. Charles had known how to manage these people, because he
+was brought up among them. The task of managing them was not
+easy. Each district or city had its own special rights and its
+people demanded that these should be respected by the ruling
+prince. Charles had remembered this, but Philip wished to rule
+the Netherlanders, as these people were called, just as he ruled
+the people of Spain.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="216.gif" src=
+"images/216.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE DIKES ALONG THE YSSEL IN THE
+NETHERLANDS</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Protestants in the Netherlands.</b> The trouble was made
+worse because many of the Netherlanders became followers of
+Luther or Calvin, and brought their books into the country. Now
+Philip, like his father Charles, was faithful to the teachings of
+the Church, and thought it was his duty to punish such persons.
+The result was that Philip soon had two kinds of enemies in his
+Netherland provinces, those who did not like the way he ruled and
+those who refused to believe as the Church taught, and the two
+united against him. After a while most of the Lutherans were
+driven away, but the Calvinists kept coming in over the border
+from France.</p>
+<p><b>The Netherlands.</b> The Netherlands, or Low Countries, are
+well named, especially the northern part where the Dutch live,
+because much of the land is below the level of the sea at high
+tide, and some of it at low tide. For several hundred years the
+Dutch built dikes to keep back the sea, or pumped it out where it
+flowed in and covered the lower lands. Occasionally great storms
+broke through the dikes and caused the Dutch months or years of
+labor. A people so brave and industrious were not likely to
+submit to the will of Philip II. The chances that they would
+rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views,
+which the Dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors, the
+southern Netherlanders. The southern Netherlanders who became
+Calvinists generally emigrated to the northern cities, like
+Amsterdam, where they were safer.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="217.gif" src=
+"images/217.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">Map Of The Netherlands</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>William of Orange</b>. William, Prince of Orange, was the
+leader of the Dutch against Philip II. He had been trusted by
+Charles, Philip's father, who had leaned on his shoulder at the
+great ceremony held in Brussels when Charles gave up his throne
+to Philip. William was called the "Silent," because he was
+careful not to tell his plans to any except his nearest friends.
+When Philip returned to Spain, William was made governor or
+<i>stadtholder</i> of three of the Dutch provinces--Holland,
+Zealand, and Utrecht. Philip was angry because William and other
+great nobles in the Netherlands opposed his way of dealing with
+the heretics and of ruling the Netherlands. In this both the
+southern Netherlanders and the northern Netherlanders were
+united, although the southern Netherlanders remained faithful to
+the Roman Catholic religion.</p>
+<p><b>Spain and England</b>. The English at first had no reason
+to quarrel with the king of Spain. They were friendly to the
+Netherlanders, who were his subjects. During the Middle Ages they
+sold great quantities of wool to the Netherland cities of Bruges,
+Brussels, and Ghent, and bought fine cloth woven in those towns.
+The friendship of the ruler of the Netherlands seemed necessary,
+if this trade was to prosper. It was the trouble about religion
+which finally made the English and the Spaniards enemies.</p>
+<p><b>Henry VIII</b>. During the reign of Henry VIII, King of
+England, the king, the parliament, and the clergy decided to
+refuse obedience to the pope. The king called himself the head of
+the Church in England. Lutheran views crept into the country as
+they had done into the Netherlands, but King Henry at first
+disliked the Lutherans quite as much as he grew to dislike the
+pope.</p>
+<p><b>The English Church</b>. So long as Henry lived not much
+change was made in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the
+Church. During the short reign of his son, the English Church
+became more like the Protestant Churches on the Continent, except
+that in England there were still archbishops and bishops, and the
+government of the Church went on much as before. When Henry's
+daughter Mary was made queen she tried to stop these changes, and
+for a few years her subjects were again obedient to the pope, but
+she died in 1558 and her half-sister, Elizabeth, became
+queen.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="219.gif" src=
+"images/219.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The English Church and the Catholics</b>. In religious
+matters Queen Elizabeth did much as her father and her brother
+had done. All persons were forced to attend the religious
+services carried on in the manner ordered in the prayer-book.
+Roman Catholics could not hold any government office. They were
+punished if they tried to persuade others to remain faithful to
+the older Church. Philip did not like this, but for a time he
+preferred to be on friendly terms with the English.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="220.gif" src=
+"images/220.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">COSTUMES AT THE TIME OF ELIZABETH</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Queen Elizabeth</b>. Queen Elizabeth ruled England for
+forty-five years. The English regard her reign as the most
+glorious in their history. Before it was over they proved
+themselves more than a match for the Spaniards on the sea. They
+also began to seek for routes to the East and to attempt
+settlements in America. Their trade was increasing. The Greek and
+Roman writers were studied by English scholars at Oxford and
+Cambridge. Books and poems and plays were written which were to
+make the English language the rival of the languages of Greece
+and Rome. This was the time when Shakespeare wrote his first
+plays.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why was it easier to sail toward America from Spain or
+Portugal than from England?</p>
+<p>2. What peoples divided the new world between them? Where did
+they draw the line of division?</p>
+<p>3. Why were the kings of France and Spain rivals? Over what
+countries did King Charles rule?</p>
+<p>4. When did religion become a cause of strife? What king was
+chiefly injured by such struggles?</p>
+<p>5. Who were called "reformers?" By what other names were they
+called?</p>
+<p>6. Who were the leaders of the Catholics? of the Protestants?
+Who were the Huguenots? What was their leader's name?</p>
+<p>7. Why did Philip II and his subjects in the Netherlands
+quarrel?</p>
+<p>8. What was strange about the land in which the Dutch lived?
+Who was the hero of the Dutch?</p>
+<p>9. Why were the English and the Spaniards at first friendly?
+What king of England refused to obey the pope?</p>
+<p>10. Why do Englishmen think Queen Elizabeth a great ruler? How
+did Elizabeth settle the question of religion?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>Collect pictures of the Dutch, of their canals, dikes, and
+towns.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1511"></a><a href="#2317">CHAPTER XIX</a></h2>
+<p class="c3">FIRST FRENCH ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA</p>
+<p><b>Cartier</b>. During the reign of Francis I, the French made
+the first serious attempts to find a westward route to the Far
+East and to settle the new lands that seemed to lie directly
+across the pathway. In 1534 Jacques Cartier was sent with two
+ships in search of a strait beyond the regions controlled by
+Spain or Portugal which would lead into the Pacific Ocean.
+Cartier passed around the northern side of Newfoundland and into
+the broad expanse of water west of it. This he called the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence.</p>
+<p><b>Cartier at Montreal</b>. Cartier made a second voyage in
+the following year, exploring the great river which he called the
+St. Lawrence. He went up the river until the heights of Mount
+Royal or Montreal, as he called them, appeared on his right hand,
+and swift rapids in the river blocked his way in front. The name
+Lachine rapids, or the China rapids, which was afterwards given
+to these, remains to remind us that Cartier was searching for a
+passage to China.</p>
+<p><b>The First Winter in Canada</b>. Cartier spent the severe
+winter which followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the
+site of the modern city of Quebec. The expedition returned to
+France with the coming of spring.</p>
+<p><b>Attempts to plant a Colony at Quebec.</b> Several years
+later, in 1541, Cartier and others attempted to establish a
+permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence. As it was hard to get
+good colonists to settle in the cold climate so far north, the
+leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons for debtors and
+criminals to make up the necessary numbers. They selected the
+neighborhood of the cliffs where Cartier had wintered in 1535,
+where Quebec now stands, as the most suitable place for their
+colony. But the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a
+new settlement in so cold and barren a country. Diseases and the
+hostility of the Indians completely discouraged them, and all
+gladly returned to France.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="223.gif" src=
+"images/223.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"> </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The zeal of the French for American discovery and settlement
+on the St. Lawrence ceased with Cartier. His hope that the St.
+Lawrence would prove the long-sought passage to China had to be
+given up, but the river which he had discovered and so thoroughly
+explored proved to be a great highway into the center of North
+America.</p>
+<p><b>Coligny's Plan for a Huguenot Colony.</b> Nearly thirty
+years later the French Protestant leader, Coligny, formed the
+plan of establishing a colony in America, which would be a refuge
+for the Huguenots if their enemies got the upper hand in France.
+An expedition left France in 1564, and selected a site for a
+settlement near the mouth of the St. Johns river in Florida. It
+seemed a good place. A fort, called Fort Caroline, was quickly
+built. But the first colonists were not well chosen. They were
+chiefly younger nobles, soldiers unused to labor, or discontented
+tradesmen and artisans. There were few farmers among them.</p>
+<p><b>The Misdeeds of the Colonists.</b> They spent their time
+visiting distant Indian tribes in a vain search for gold and
+silver, or plundering Spanish villages and ships in the West
+Indies. No one thought of preparing the soil and planting seeds
+for a food supply. It seemed easier to rob neighbors. The
+provisions which they had brought with them gave out. Game and
+fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them, but they were
+without skill in hunting and fishing. Before the first year had
+passed the miserable inhabitants of Fort Caroline were reduced to
+digging roots in the forest for food. Starvation and the revenge
+of angry Indians confronted them.</p>
+<p><b>Relief sent to the Colony.</b> In August, 1565, just as the
+half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country, an
+expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers, a few
+young nobles, and some mechanics with their families, three
+hundred in all--arrived in the harbor. It brought an abundance of
+supplies and other things needed by a colony in a new country. It
+looked then as though these Frenchmen would succeed in their plan
+and establish a permanent colony in America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="225.gif" src=
+"images/225.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT IN
+FLORIDA From De Bry's Voyages</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Fort Caroline and the Spaniards.</b> The French had,
+however, settled in Florida. Indeed, it would have been difficult
+to settle in America at any place along the Atlantic coast
+without doing so. The Spaniards regarded all North America from
+Mexico to Labrador as lying within Florida. The attempt of the
+French to settle on the lands claimed by the king of Spain was
+sure to bring on a war, sooner or later. The conduct of the
+French at Fort Caroline in plundering the Spanish colonies in the
+West Indies made all Spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest
+of robbers and murderers. Besides, the Spaniards hated Coligny's
+followers more than ordinary Frenchmen, because they were
+Huguenots.</p>
+<p><b>Menendez.</b> At the time the news reached Spain of
+Coligny's settlement at Fort Caroline, a Spanish nobleman, Pedro
+Menendez, was preparing to establish a colony in Florida, and
+thus after a long delay carry out the task which De Soto had
+vainly attempted. Menendez was naturally as eager as the king to
+drive out the French intruders. So an expedition larger than was
+planned at first was hurried off. Menendez was to do three
+things: drive the French out, conquer and Christianize the
+Indians, and establish Spanish settlements in Florida.</p>
+<p><b>The Defeat of the French Fleet.</b> Menendez with a part of
+his fleet arrived before Fort Caroline just one week after the
+relief expedition which Coligny had sent over came into harbor.
+His ships attacked and scattered those of the French. The vessels
+of the French for the most part sought refuge on the high seas.
+They were too swift to be overtaken, but no match for the Spanish
+in battle. Menendez decided to wait for the rest of his ships
+before making another attack on Fort Caroline. Meanwhile he
+sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles till he came to
+an inlet. He called the place St. Augustine.</p>
+<p><b>St. Augustine founded.</b> A friendly Indian chief readily
+gave his dwelling to the Spaniards. It was a huge, barn-like
+structure, made of the entire trunks of trees, and thatched with
+palmetto leaves. Soldiers quickly dug a ditch around it and threw
+up a breastwork of earth and small sticks. The colonists who came
+with Menendez landed and set about the usual work of founding a
+settlement. Such was the beginning of the Spanish town of St.
+Augustine, founded in 1565, and the oldest town in the United
+States.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="227.gif" src=
+"images/227.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA, AS FOUNDED BY
+MENENDEZ<br>
+Pagus Hispanorum as given in Montanus and Ogilby</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>French sail to attack St. Augustine.</b> Both sides
+prepared for a terrible struggle, the French at Fort Caroline and
+the Spaniards in their new quarters at St. Augustine. The French
+struck the first blow. A few of the weaker and the sick soldiers
+were left at Fort Caroline to stand guard with the women and
+children. The main body aboard the ships advanced by sea to
+attack St. Augustine, but a furious tempest scattered and wrecked
+the French fleet before it arrived.</p>
+<p><b>Menendez destroys Fort Caroline</b>. Menendez now took
+advantage of the storm to march overland to Fort Caroline, wading
+through swamps and fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale.
+His drenched and hungry followers fell like wild beasts upon the
+few French left in the fort. About fifty of the women and
+children were spared to become captives. As many men escaped in
+the forests around the fort, but the greater part were
+killed.</p>
+<p><b>Capture of the shipwrecked French</b>. The French fleet had
+been wrecked off the coast of Florida a dozen miles south of St.
+Augustine. A few days later Menendez discovered some survivors
+wandering along the coast, half starved, trying to live on the
+shell-fish they found on the beach, and slowly and painfully
+working their way back toward Fort Caroline. The Frenchmen begged
+Menendez to be allowed to remain in the country till ships could
+be sent to take them off, but he was unwilling to make any terms
+with them.</p>
+<p><b>Murder of the Captives</b>. The unhappy Frenchmen were
+taken prisoners, and, a few hours later, put to death. Other
+shipwrecked refugees were captured a few days later, and these
+suffered the same fate. Nearly three hundred perished in this
+cold-blooded manner. It was a merciless deed, and yet such was
+the character of all warfare at the time. Menendez believed that
+he was doing his duty. Nor did the king of Spain think Menendez
+unduly cruel, for when he heard the story of the fate of the
+Frenchmen of Fort Caroline he sent this message to Menendez: "Say
+to him that, as to those he has killed, he has done well; and as
+to those he has saved, they shall be sent to the galleys."</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="229.gif" src=
+"images/229.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">NORTH AMERICA AS KNOWN AFTER THE EXPLORATIONS
+OF DE SOTO CORONADO AND CARTIER</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p> </p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="230.gif" src=
+"images/230.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">Spanish clash with French over Colonization
+attempts</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Who was the leader in the first French efforts to explore
+and settle in North America? Find as many reasons as possible why
+France had not tried to settle in America before. What parts of
+the continent did Cartier become interested in? Why was he
+specially interested in St. Lawrence region?</p>
+<p>2. How did Montreal get its name? Why was the name, Lachine
+rapids, given to the rapids above Montreal on the St. Lawrence
+river?</p>
+<p>3. Why did Cartier fail in his attempts to plant a French
+colony in North America? How much had he and his friends
+accomplished for France in North America?</p>
+<p>4. Why did Coligny later wish to establish a colony in
+America? Where did his people try to settle? Find the place on
+the map on 230.gif. Give several reasons why they soon got into
+trouble with the Spaniards.</p>
+<p>5. What did the king of Spain send Menendez to Florida to do?
+What things did he accomplish? Why do we specially remember St.
+Augustine? Find it on the map, 230.gif.</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. Examine the map of North America in 1541 on 229.gif. What
+parts of North America were known? What parts were unknown? Can
+you see why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great
+river?</p>
+<p>2. Find how far into the continent of North America the French
+explored the St. Lawrence river, that is, the distance from
+Newfoundland to Montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in
+one of your geographies.</p>
+<p><i>Important Date</i>: 1565. The founding of St.
+Augustine.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4788"></a><a href="#1276">CHAPTER XX</a></h2>
+<p>THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH TRIUMPH OVER SPAIN</p>
+<p><b>Cruel Treatment of the Netherlanders.</b> Two years after
+the cruel massacre of the Huguenot colony in Florida, Philip II,
+the King of Spain, decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the
+Netherlanders, and sent an army from Spain commanded by the Duke
+of Alva, who was as pitiless as Menendez. Alva began by seizing
+prominent nobles, and he would have arrested the Prince of
+Orange, but he escaped into Germany. A court was set up which
+condemned many persons to death, including the greatest nobles of
+the land. The people nicknamed it the Council of Blood. Alva also
+turned the merchants against him by compelling them to pay the
+"tenth penny," that is, one tenth of the price of the goods every
+time these were either bought or sold. Alva made himself so
+thoroughly hated that even Philip decided to call him back to
+Spain.</p>
+<p><b>The Beggars of the Sea.</b> Just then something happened
+which gave Coligny and the Huguenots their chance for vengeance.
+The men who were resisting the king's officers in the Netherlands
+had been nicknamed the "Beggars." When they were driven from the
+cities they took to the sea. The "Beggars of the Sea" sometimes
+found a port of refuge in La Rochelle, a Huguenot town on the
+western coast of France, and sometimes they put into friendly
+English harbors. From these places they would sail out and attack
+Spanish vessels. When Queen Elizabeth in 1572 ordered a fleet of
+these "Beggars" to leave, they crossed over to their own shores
+and drove the Spanish garrison out of Brille. This success
+encouraged the Dutch and many of the southern Netherlanders to
+rise and expel the Spanish soldiers from their towns.</p>
+<p><b>The French promise Aid</b>. As soon as Coligny heard the
+news he urged the French king to send an army into the
+Netherlands and take vengeance not only for the massacre at Fort
+Caroline, but also for all the wrongs that he and his father and
+his grandfather had ever received at the hands of the Spaniards.
+The French king agreed and wrote a letter to the Netherlanders
+promising aid.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="233.gif" src=
+"images/233.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">GASPARD DE COLIGNY<br>
+After the portrait in the Public Library, Geneva</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Massacre of Huguenots in Paris</b>. The plan was never
+carried out. While Coligny and many other Huguenots were in
+Paris, his enemies attempted to kill him. When the attempt failed
+these enemies, including the king's mother, persuaded the king
+that Coligny and the Huguenots were plotting against him, and
+goaded the king into ordering the murder of all the Huguenots in
+Paris and the other cities of France. Thousands of Huguenots
+perished. When the Netherlanders heard of what had befallen
+Coligny and his followers, they were crushed with grief. Coligny
+had missed the chance of vengeance. But the Spanish king was soon
+to have other enemies besides the Huguenots who were ready to
+help the Dutch. These new enemies were the English.</p>
+<p><b>The English drawn into the Conflict</b>. The religious
+troubles in England had been growing more serious. Two or three
+plots were made to assassinate Elizabeth in order to put on the
+throne Queen Mary of Scotland, who was the next heir. Philip
+began to encourage these plotters, especially after the pope in
+1570 had excommunicated Elizabeth and forbidden her subjects to
+obey her as queen. She was sure to be dragged into the struggle
+in the Netherlands sooner or later. We have seen that she had
+once sheltered the "Beggars of the Sea." The murder of Coligny
+and his followers frightened the English and made many of them
+anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the
+Continent, the French Huguenots and the Dutch Calvinists, were
+utterly destroyed.</p>
+<p><b>Growth of English Trade</b>. If England should be drawn
+into war, her safety would depend mainly upon her ships.
+Englishmen had always taken to the sea, as was natural for men
+whose shores were washed by the Atlantic, the Channel and the
+North Sea, but they were slow in building fleets of ships either
+for trade or for war. The trade of the country with other peoples
+in the Middle Ages was carried on mostly by foreigners. Yet since
+the days of Elizabeth's father and grandfather a change had taken
+place. English merchants found their way to all markets. They
+also made new things to sell. Refugees driven by the religious
+troubles from France and the Netherlands brought their skill to
+England and taught the English how to weave fine woolens and
+silks.</p>
+<p><b>The new English Navy</b>. The English navy was growing. One
+of the new ships, <i>The Triumph</i>, carried 450 seamen, 50
+gunners, and 200 soldiers. Besides harquebuses for the soldiers,
+there were many kinds of cannon with strange names, such as
+culverins, falconets, sakers, serpentines, and rabinets. Four of
+the cannon were large enough to shoot a cannon-ball eight inches
+in diameter. But it was on the skill and courage of her men
+rather than upon the size of her ships that England relied for
+victory.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="235.gif" src=
+"images/235.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE<br>
+After the painting at Buckland Abby, England</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Sir Francis Drake</b>. One of these men was Francis Drake.
+He was son of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the
+rigging of the great ships-of-war, as other boys play in the
+streets. In time young Drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a
+small trading vessel. Fortune smiled on the lad early in life.
+His master died, and out of love for the apprentice who had
+served him so well, left him the vessel. Francis Drake became
+thus a shipmaster on his own account, and in time the most
+popular of Queen Elizabeth's sea-captains.</p>
+<p><b>Slave-Traders</b>. He often went with his cousin, John
+Hawkins, on voyages to Africa. They bought negro slaves from
+slave-traders along the coast, or kidnaped negroes whom they
+found, and carried them to the Spanish planters of the West
+Indies. Hawkins and Drake were as devout and humane as other men
+of their time. They simply could not see any wrong in enslaving
+the heathen black men in Africa. Besides, they enjoyed the wild
+life of the slave-trader with its dangers and rich rewards.</p>
+<p><b>Why Drake hated the Spaniards</b>. The king of Spain tried
+to keep the trade in slaves for his own merchants, and attempted
+to prevent the trade of the English slavers with the West Indies.
+Spanish ships-of-war ruined one of the voyages from which Hawkins
+and Drake hoped for large profits. The Spaniards won thereby the
+undying hatred of Drake.</p>
+<p><b>The Dragon of the Seas</b>. It was a time, too, when
+Drake's countrymen at home shared his intense hatred of the
+Spaniard. While England and Spain were not at war with one
+another, English and Spanish traders fought whenever they met on
+the high seas. The English made the Spanish settlements in
+America their special prey. At certain times of the year Spanish
+ships, called government ships, carried to Spain gold and
+silver--the royal share of the products of America. Drake, like
+many another of his countrymen, lay in wait to rob these ships of
+their precious cargoes. He managed to gather a fortune by his
+cunning and courage. More than once he was forced to bury his
+treasures in the sand to lighten his ships that they might sail
+the faster, and escape his pursuers. The Spaniards came to know
+and to fear Drake as the Dragon of the Seas.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="237.gif" src=
+"images/237.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SPANISH TREASURE SHIP</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Drake's Venture</b>. Drake once formed the plan to take a
+fleet into the Pacific Ocean in order to plunder the treasure
+ships where they would be less on their guard. A fleet of five
+ships was made ready. Contributions from wealthy merchants and
+powerful nobles, perhaps a gift from Queen Elizabeth herself,
+gave him the means for unusual luxuries in the equipment of his
+fleet. Skilful musicians and rich furniture were taken on board
+Drake's own ship, the <i>Pelican</i>, or the <i>Golden Hind</i>
+as he afterwards christened it. The brilliant little fleet left
+Plymouth in 1577. One after another of the ships turned back or
+was destroyed on the long voyage of twelve months across the
+Atlantic and through the Strait of Magellan.</p>
+<p><b>Beyond the Strait of Magellan</b>. The <i>Golden Hind</i>
+alone remained to carry out the original project. As it entered
+the Pacific Ocean a furious storm drove the little vessel
+southward beyond Cape Horn to the regions where the oceans meet.
+No one before had sailed so far south.</p>
+<p><b>The first Prizes</b>. Drake regained control of his ship
+when the storm had passed, and sailed northward along the coast,
+plundering and robbing as he went. Once, as a land-party was
+searching along the shore for fresh water, it came upon a
+Spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver beside him. His nap
+was disturbed long enough to take away his burden. Further on
+they met another Spaniard and an Indian boy driving a train of
+Peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver. The
+Englishmen took their place, and merrily drove the sheep to their
+boats. A treasure ship, nicknamed the <i>Spitfire</i>, on the way
+to Panama, was captured after a long chase of nearly eight
+hundred miles. Drake obtained from it unknown quantities of gold
+and silver. With such a rich load, his thoughts turned to the
+homeward voyage.</p>
+<p><b>Drake's Voyage around the World</b>. By this time a host of
+Spanish war-ships were on Drake's track. They expected to capture
+him on his return through the Strait of Magellan. Drake, now
+confronted with real danger, cunningly outwitted his enemies. He
+and many other Englishmen of his day were sure a passage would be
+found somewhere through North America between the Atlantic and
+the Pacific. Spanish, French, and English explorers had all
+carried on the search for this passage. Drake decided to return
+by such a route, if it were possible. He followed the coast of
+California, and probably passed that of Oregon and Washington as
+far as Vancouver.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="239.gif" src=
+"images/239.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF DRAKE'S VOYAGE</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>When it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward, he
+gave up the search.</p>
+<p>After making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles
+above the modern San Francisco, Drake set out boldly across the
+Pacific to return home, as Magellan's men had done before him, by
+going around the world. He touched at the Philippines, visited
+the Spice Islands, and slowly worked his way around the Cape of
+Good Hope. The <i>Golden Hind</i>, long since given up as lost,
+reached England in the fall of 1580, after nearly three years'
+absence. For a second time a ship had sailed around the world.
+Drake was the first Englishman to gain the honor.</p>
+<p><b>Drake's Reward</b>. Queen Elizabeth liked the story Drake
+told of outwitting and plundering Spaniards. Arrayed in her most
+gorgeous robes she visited his ship, where a banquet had been
+prepared. While Drake knelt at her feet she made him a knight.
+And so it was that the man whom the Spaniards called with good
+reason the Master Thief of the Seas, the English called by a new
+title, Sir Francis Drake, and praised as the greatest sea-captain
+of the age. His ship, the <i>Golden Hind</i>, was ordered to be
+preserved forever.</p>
+<p><b>The Dutch Struggle against Spain</b>. A few years after
+Drake returned the English took a deeper interest in the struggle
+between Philip and the Dutch. Although the Dutch had lost hope of
+help from the French Huguenots, they resisted Philip's generals
+more boldly than ever. The Spanish soldiers treated the towns
+which surrendered so savagely that the other towns decided it was
+better to die fighting than to yield. The siege of Leyden became
+famous because, after food had given out and the inhabitants were
+starving their friends cut the great dikes in order that the
+boats of the "Beggars of the Sea" loaded with provisions might be
+floated up to the very walls of the city. This unexpected flood
+also drove away the Spaniards. Fortunately after the rescue of
+the city a strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the
+dikes could again be replaced.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="241.gif" src=
+"images/241.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A KNIGHT</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Death of William of Orange</b>. King Philip had come to
+the conclusion that unless William of Orange were killed the
+Dutch could not be conquered, and so he put a price on Prince
+William's head, offering a large sum of money to any one who
+should kill him. The first attempts failed, but finally in 1584
+he was shot.</p>
+<p><b>Sir Philip Sidney</b>. The murder of William alarmed the
+English for Elizabeth's life, especially as Philip had already
+aided men who were plotting against her. She sent an army into
+the Netherlands to aid the Dutch, although she had not made up
+her mind to attack Philip directly. The army did not give much
+help to the Dutch, but it is remembered because a noble English
+poet, Sir Philip Sidney, was mortally wounded in one of the
+battles. The story is told that while Sidney was riding back,
+tortured by his wound, he became very thirsty, as wounded men
+always do, and begged for a drink of water. Looking up when it
+was brought to him he saw on the ground a common soldier more
+sorely wounded than he. He immediately sent the water to the
+soldier saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine."</p>
+<p><b>The Invincible Armada</b>. The king of Spain now decided
+that he could not subdue the Dutch until he had thoroughly
+punished the English. He even planned to put himself upon the
+English throne, claiming that he was the heir of one of the early
+kings of England. Months were spent in preparing a great fleet,
+an "Invincible Armada" which was to sail up the Channel, take on
+board the Spanish army in the Netherlands, and cross over to
+England. While these preparations were being made with Philip's
+usual care, Sir Francis Drake swooped down on Cadiz and burnt so
+much shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had
+to be postponed a year. This Drake called "singeing the king of
+Spain's beard."</p>
+<p><b>The Armada in the Channel</b>. It was July, 1588, before
+the "Invincible Armada" appeared off Plymouth in the English
+Channel. Many of the Spanish ships were larger than the English
+ships, but they were so clumsy that the English could outsail
+them and attack them from any direction they chose. Moreover, the
+Spaniards needed to fight close at hand in order that the
+soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in the fray. The
+English kept out of range of these guns and used their heavy
+cannon.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="243.gif" src=
+"images/243.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">THE SPANISH ARMADA IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL<br>
+After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians<br>
+following a tapestry in the House of Lords</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Destruction of the Armada</b>. With the English ships
+clinging to the flanks and rear of the Armada, the Spaniards
+moved heavily up the Channel. In the narrower waters between
+Dover and Calais the English attacked more fiercely, and sank
+several Spanish vessels. Soon the others were fleeing into the
+North Sea, driven by a furious gale. Many sought to reach Spain
+by sailing around Scotland and Ireland, and some of these ships
+were dashed on the rocky shores. Only a third of Philip's proud
+fleet returned to Spain.</p>
+<p><b>Effect of the Defeat of the Armada on Spain</b>. This was
+the last attempt Philip made to attack the English, because Spain
+had been exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies
+for the Invincible Armada. The war dragged on for many years, and
+the English attacked and plundered Spanish vessels wherever they
+found them.</p>
+<p><b>The Independence of the Dutch</b>. The ruin of the Armada
+also meant that the Dutch would succeed in becoming independent
+of the Spanish king. Seven of the northern provinces had already
+formed a union and had begun to call themselves the United
+Netherlands. They were growing richer while their neighboring
+provinces on the south, which had decided to return to their
+allegiance to Spain, grew poorer.</p>
+<p><b>First Voyage of the Dutch to the East</b>. Even while the
+fight was going on the Dutch traded in places where Philip had
+not permitted them to trade while he could control them. One of
+these places was Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Here the Dutch
+obtained spices which the Portuguese brought from the East
+Indies. But in 1580 Philip seized Portugal, and the Dutch could
+no longer go to Lisbon. This made them anxious to find their way
+to the East. In 1595 the first fleet set out. This voyage was
+unsuccessful, but other fleets followed, until soon the Dutch had
+almost driven the Portuguese, now subjects of the king of Spain,
+from the Spice Islands. Soon also Dutch sailors ventured across
+the Atlantic to the shores of America.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. What country in northern Europe did Spain rule? What name
+was given to those who resisted the Spanish officers in the
+Netherlands? Why were they given this name?</p>
+<p>2. What promise did Coligny make to the people of the
+Netherlands? Why was he unable to carry it out? What other people
+were ready to help the Dutch? Can you give one reason at least
+why the English were willing to help the Dutch against Spain?</p>
+<p>3. Why had English trade grown important? Did this help to
+make a navy?</p>
+<p>4. Why did English sailors like Drake specially hate the
+Spaniards? What was Drake's method of making a living? How did he
+come to go around the world in 1577-1580? How long was it since
+Magellan made his voyage?</p>
+<p>5. What did the English think of Drake? What did the Spaniards
+think of him? Why did each people think as it did?</p>
+<p>6. Why did Philip of Spain have William of Orange killed? Why
+did this make the conquest of the Dutch even harder?</p>
+<p>7. Why did Philip, king of Spain, try to conquer England and
+make himself king of that country? How did he try to carry out
+his plan? Why were the English victorious in the great battle
+with the Armada? Where was the battle fought?</p>
+<p>8. How did the defeat of the Armada affect Spain's war in the
+Netherlands? Did all of the Netherlands become independent of
+Spain?</p>
+<p>9. What trade did the Dutch begin to carry on before their war
+with Spain ended?</p>
+<p>10. What new people became rivals of the Spaniards and French
+for trade and settlements in America?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. What parts of North America did Drake visit on his famous
+voyage around the world? See the map on 239.gif.</p>
+<p>2. What effect did the quarrels in Europe described in
+Chapters 19 and 20 have upon the progress in exploring and
+settling America?</p>
+<p>3. Find out whether the people of the northern Netherlands and
+the southern Netherlands are still separate countries to-day.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="1568"></a><a href="#2767">CHAPTER XXI</a></h2>
+<p>THE ENGLISH PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO SETTLE AMERICA</p>
+<p><b>English Interest in America Awakened</b>. Voyages like
+those made by Sir Francis Drake awakened a desire throughout
+England to learn more about the New World. Until this time even
+the great discoveries of Columbus and the Cabots had failed to
+stir the English people to take part in the exploration and
+settlement of the Americas. The principal reason was because
+their attention was occupied by the struggle between their
+monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should
+govern the English Church. This continued until Queen Elizabeth
+had been on the throne some years.</p>
+<p>Other sea-captains, hearing of Drake's success, now turned
+their ships toward the Americas. Many went to the West Indies, as
+he had done, mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on
+board the ships of Spain bound homeward. Some of them explored
+the coast of North America, hoping to find valuable regions that
+had not fallen into the possession of the Spaniards.</p>
+<p><b>The Northwest Passage</b>. Martin Frobisher made three
+voyages, the last in 1578, in search of a passage through North
+America to China. He entered the bay which bears his name, and
+the strait which was later called after Hudson, but failed to
+find a passage. Drake attempted to find the western entrance to
+such a passage in 1579 as a short cut homeward when he tried to
+avoid his Spanish pursuers.</p>
+<p><b>Gilbert</b>. A grander scheme was planned by Humphrey
+Gilbert. He wished to build up another England across the sea,
+just as the people of Spain were building up another Spain. He
+planned to do this by establishing farms to which he and others
+might send laborers who could not find work at home. Queen
+Elizabeth liked this plan, and to encourage him, and to repay him
+for the expense of carrying the emigrants over, she promised him
+the land for six hundred miles on each side of his
+settlements.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="247.gif" src=
+"images/247.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">CHARLCOTE HALL<br>
+An English Manor House of the time of Queen Elizabeth</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Failure of Gilbert's Expedition</b>. Gilbert tried twice to
+plant a colony in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+Sir Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, was one of his captains in
+the expedition of 1578. He would have been in the disastrous
+second attempt in 1583 had not Queen Elizabeth, full of
+forebodings of danger to her favorite, refused to let him go. As
+it was he sent a ship at his own cost. Gilbert took a large
+supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please the
+savages. Mishap, desertion, and shipwreck pursued the luckless
+commander.</p>
+<p>The second expedition left Plymouth with five vessels in 1583.
+The ship that Raleigh sent, the best in the fleet, deserted
+before they were out of sight of England. One was left in
+Newfoundland. The wreck of the largest ship, with most of the
+provisions, off Cape Breton, so discouraged the crews that they
+prevailed upon Gilbert to abandon the plan to settle on such
+barren and stormy shores, Gilbert attempted to return on the
+<i>Squirrel</i>, the smaller of the two remaining vessels. This
+was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden. What was left of
+the little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way, and ran
+into a fearful storm as it approached the Azores.</p>
+<p>Although Gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel, he
+refused to desert his companions, with whom he had passed through
+so many storms and perils, and tried to calm the fears of all by
+his reply, "Do not fear, Heaven is as near by water as by land."
+One night the <i>Squirrel</i> suddenly sank. All on board were
+lost. Such was the sad ending of the first efforts to establish
+an English colony in North America.</p>
+<p><b>Raleigh</b> Sir Walter Raleigh took up the interesting plan
+which his kinsman, Gilbert, had at heart. Raleigh was now at the
+height of his favor with Queen Elizabeth. She had made him
+wealthy, especially by the gift of large estates which she had
+taken from others. She readily promised him the same privileges
+in America which she had offered to Gilbert. Raleigh doubtless
+thought that he might increase his fortune and win glory for
+himself and for his country by planting English colonies in the
+New World. No man of the age was better fitted for the
+undertaking. He had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able
+commander in the war against Spain in the Netherlands. He had
+fortune, skill, and powerful friends. Like Gilbert, he was a
+friend of poets and scholars and a student of books; like Drake,
+he was a natural leader of men.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="249.gif" src=
+"images/249.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND HIS SON</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>Virginia</b>. Raleigh began in 1584 by sending an
+expedition to explore the coast for a suitable site for a colony.
+His men sailed by way of the Canaries, and came upon North
+America in the neighborhood of Pamlico Sound, avoiding the stormy
+route directly across the Atlantic which Gilbert had followed.
+They found, therefore, instead of the bleak shore of Newfoundland
+and Prince Edward Island, the genial climate of North Carolina
+and Virginia.</p>
+<p>They carried home glowing reports of the country. They were
+particularly pleased with an island in Pamlico Sound called by
+the Indians Roanoke Island. They noted with wonder the
+overhanging grape-vines loaded with fruit, the fine cedar trees
+which seemed to them the highest and reddest in the world, the
+great flocks of noisy white cranes, and the numberless deer in
+the forests. The Indians appeared gentle and friendly, Elizabeth
+was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed
+it to be called Virginia after herself, the Virgin Queen, and
+made Raleigh a knight.</p>
+<p><b>The first English Colonists</b>. Raleigh made several
+attempts to plant a colony in Virginia. The most famous one was
+led by John White in 1587. White had visited Virginia on an
+earlier voyage, and painted more than seventy pictures of Indian
+life, representing their dress and their manner of living. These
+may still be seen in the British Museum in London. His interest
+in the country and its Indian population made his appointment as
+governor seem a wise choice. Care was taken in the selection of
+colonists in order to secure farmers rather than gold-seekers.
+Twenty-five women and children were included in the colony of
+about one hundred and fifty persons.</p>
+<p><b>Roanoke</b>. White and his followers settled on Roanoke
+Island. They found that the fort, which one of Raleigh's officers
+had built some years earlier, was leveled to the ground. Several
+huts were still standing, but they were falling to pieces. The
+first task was to rebuild the huts and move into them from their
+ships. A baby girl was born a few days after the landing, the
+first child born of English parents in the New World. Her father,
+Ananias Dare, was one of White's councilors; her mother, Eleanor
+Dare, was the daughter of Governor White. The baby was given the
+name Virginia, the name of the country which was to be her
+home.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="251.gif" src=
+"images/251.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">MAP OF RALEIGH'S COLONIES</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b>The Colonists in Danger</b>. The little colony must have
+foreseen the hostility of the Indians and a scarcity of food, for
+before Governor White had been in America two months, he was sent
+back to England to obtain more provisions, White, from his own
+account, did not wish to leave his daughter and
+granddaughter.</p>
+<p><b>White's Search for Aid</b>. White returned to England in
+the fall of 1587 at the wrong moment to ask for aid. All England
+was alarmed by the rumor that a great Spanish fleet was about to
+land an invading army. The friends of Virginia in England were
+too busy protecting their own homes from the invader to give heed
+to the needs of the farmer colonists across the sea. White
+traveled through England, seeking aid for his friends and family,
+but was disappointed everywhere.</p>
+<p><b>Why Raleigh gave no Help</b>. Raleigh had by no means
+forgotten his colonists, but his queen and his country had the
+first claim on him through the long war with Spain. Twice during
+this period, he found time and means to prepare relief
+expeditions for Virginia. The queen stopped the first one just as
+it was ready to sail, because all the ships were needed at that
+moment for service in the war. A second expedition was attacked
+by the Spaniards and forced to return.</p>
+<p><b>The lost Colony</b>. White finally secured passage for
+himself on a fleet going to the West Indies, not with a fleet and
+relief supplies of his own, but as a passenger on another man's
+ship. It was the summer of 1591 when he arrived at Roanoke, four
+years after his departure. The colonists were not to be found.
+Their houses were torn down. The chests which they had evidently
+buried in order to hide them from the Indians had been dug up and
+ransacked of everything of value. White's own papers which he had
+left behind were strewn about. His pictures and maps were torn
+and rotten with the rain. His armor was almost eaten through with
+rust.</p>
+<p>One trace of the fate of the settlers was left. The large
+letters CROATOAN were carved on a tree near the entrance to the
+old fort. White recalled the agreement made when he left four
+years before. If the colonists should find it necessary to leave
+Roanoke, they were to carve on a tree the name of the place to
+which they were going. If they were in danger or distress when
+they left, they were to carve a cross over the name of the place.
+White found no cross. The word Croatoan was the name of a small
+island lying south of Cape Hatteras, where Indians lived who were
+known to be friendly. White believed his friends to be safe among
+the Indians at Croatoan, but he could not go farther in search
+for them because the captains of the ships which brought him over
+refused to delay longer. They gave many excuses, but were
+evidently more eager to attack the Spaniards than to find a few
+luckless emigrants.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="253.gif" src=
+"images/253.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">AN INDIAN VILLAGE IN 1589<br>
+After a drawing by John White, now in the British Museum</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The fate of Raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history.
+It is believed that they took refuge with friendly Indians, and
+lived with them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted
+the ways of their protectors.</p>
+<p><b>Value of the Efforts of the English and the French</b>.
+Raleigh had failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new
+England in America, but he had awakened in his countrymen an
+interest in America, and made known the advantages of its soil
+and climate. The French had apparently made no greater headway.
+Cartier's colony on the St. Lawrence had broken up, and the
+Spaniards had driven the French colony from Florida. The history
+of Coligny's colony at Fort Caroline, Cartier's at Quebec,
+Gilbert's on the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Raleigh's
+at Roanoke, had shown how useless were attempts to settle in
+America which were not strongly supported by friends or by the
+home government. These attempts to plant colonies in America were
+not, however, as bad failures as they appeared. Both nations had
+learned much about the country and about the preparations needed
+for permanent settlements.</p>
+<p><b>What the Spanish had accomplished</b>. In 1600 Spain seemed
+to have achieved much more than either of her rivals. The map of
+that time shows Spain in possession of vast territories in North
+and South America. The English had a small tract, Virginia, in
+which they had some interest but no colonists. The French
+regarded the St. Lawrence valley as theirs by right of discovery,
+but they could point to no settlements to clinch that claim.</p>
+<p>The Spaniards, on the other hand, counted more than two
+hundred cities and towns which they had planted in their
+territories. About two hundred thousand Spaniards, farmers,
+miners, traders, soldiers, and nobles, had either migrated from
+Spain to America or had been born there of emigrants since
+Columbus's discovery. Five million Indians had come under their
+rule, and most of them were living as civilized men, and called
+themselves Christians. One hundred and forty thousand negro
+slaves had been carried from Africa to the plantations and mines
+in Spanish America.</p>
+<table align="center" summary="Picture">
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><img alt="255.gif" src=
+"images/255.gif"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center"><b>Regions in the New World and the East
+claimed by the Countries of Europe after a century of
+exploration</b>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The City of Mexico, the largest in all America, was much like
+the cities of Spain. Well-built houses of wood, stone, and
+mason-work abounded. Churches, monasteries, a university, higher
+schools for boys and girls, four hospitals, of which one was for
+Indians, and public buildings, similar to those in the cities of
+old Spain, already existed. Spanish life and Spanish culture had
+spread over a large area in the New World, and the most
+remarkable fact was that the Old World civilization had been
+bestowed on the Indian population. As Roman culture went into
+Spain and Gaul, so Spanish culture went into a New Spain in a new
+world.</p>
+<p><b>The Prospects of the Spanish Colonies</b>. But the outlook
+for Spain in America was not wholly bright. Her struggle with her
+Dutch subjects and the war with England, which grew out of that
+quarrel, left her completely worn out. She no longer had the
+people to spare for American settlements. These ceased to grow as
+they once had. Negroes and Indians outnumbered the Spaniards in
+most of them. The three races mingled together and intermarried
+until a new people, the Spanish American, differing in color and
+blood from either of the old races, was formed.</p>
+<p><b>The later Story of Colonization</b>. Spain's rivals--the
+Dutch, the English, and the French--were just reaching the height
+of their power. They had settled their most serious religious
+differences. Their merchants were eagerly looking about for
+commercial opportunities. A considerable population in each of
+them, but more especially in England, was discontented and ready
+to try its fortunes in a new world. The Spaniards had passed by
+the best parts of North America as worthless. The people and the
+unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of colonies on
+a larger scale. In many ways a greater story of American
+colonization remains to be told. This will be the story of the
+Dutch, the French, and the English colonization of North
+America.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p class="c3">QUESTIONS</p>
+<p>1. Why had the English people not taken more interest in
+America before Drake's time? What finally, made the English
+sea-captains turn to American adventure and exploration?</p>
+<p>2. What did Gilbert attempt to do? How many reasons can you
+find for his failure?</p>
+<p>3. Why was Raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of
+planting English colonies in America? What part of North America
+did his men select for a settlement? Why did it seem a suitable
+place? What name was given to the country?</p>
+<p>4. Why did Raleigh fail to help his colony at Roanoke? What
+did White think had happened to them? Why didn't he go in search
+of them?</p>
+<p>5. Why had the French and the English been unsuccessful in
+their efforts to settle North America? Had they really gained
+anything from all their efforts?</p>
+<p>6. What had Spain accomplished since the voyage by Columbus?
+Why were the prospects of Spain not so bright as they had been?
+What rivals were ready to begin colonies in America?</p>
+<p class="c3">EXERCISES</p>
+<p>1. How much territory was Queen Elizabeth willing to give
+Gilbert for his plan in North America? Was there this much
+(twelve hundred miles) of the Atlantic coast of North America
+unclaimed by the French and the Spaniards?</p>
+<p>2. Find Roanoke Island on the map, 251.gif.</p>
+<p>3. Name the regions in the New World and the East claimed by
+the English, French, Portuguese, and Spaniards after a century of
+discovery and exploration (1492-1600). See the map, 255.gif. What
+parts of North America were still unknown? With the use of some
+map of the world to-day make a list of the colonies of the same
+countries now.</p>
+<p class="c3">REVIEW</p>
+<p>1. Prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in
+discovering the New World, and give for each the name of the
+region he found.</p>
+<p>2. What had the Greeks learned to do, the knowledge of which
+they carried into Italy? What more had the Romans learned to do,
+the knowledge of which they carried into Spain and Gaul and
+Britain? What more had the Spaniards, the French, and the English
+learned to do, the knowledge of which they either were already,
+as in the case of Spain, carrying into Spanish America, or, in
+the case of England and France, were prepared to carry into North
+America?</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4410"></a><a href="#1597">REFERENCES FOR
+TEACHERS</a></h2>
+<p>The following references are given in the hope that they will
+be helpful to the teacher. The list is by no means exhaustive,
+but enough are given so that one or more books for each subject
+should be found in any fairly equipped school or public library.
+Some of these books may be assigned to the brighter or more
+ambitious members of the class for home readings. Extracts from
+others may be read to the class directly. Still others will
+furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller statements of
+fact upon matters treated briefly in the text. A Bibliography of
+History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, Gambrill and Tail
+(Longmans, 1911), will give many more references and further
+information regarding those that are given here.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+ A. ANCIENT TIMES. THE GREEK PEOPLE. (For use with chapters ii,
+iii, and iv.)<br>
+<br>
+ (a) <i>Histories of the Greeks</i>.<br>
+ Holm, History of the Greeks, 4 volumes, is the most trustworthy
+history of the Greeks. Bury, A History of Greece, 2 volumes;
+Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of the
+Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
+Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, have brief accounts of
+the Greeks.<br>
+<br>
+ (b) <i>Versions of some famous old Greek stories</i>, especially
+the story of Hercules and his Labors, the Search for the Golden
+Fleece, the Trojan War, and the Wanderings of Ulysses.<br>
+ A. J. Church, Stories from Homer; C. M. Gayley, Classical Myths;
+H. A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; and the same author's
+The Story of the Greeks; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece;
+C. H. and S. B. Harding, Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes and Men;
+Charles Kingsley, Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales. Hawthorne, in
+Tanglewood Tales, has retold the story of the Search for the
+Golden Fleece in a specially interesting manner. Bryant's
+translation of the Odyssey is one of the best known versions of
+that story and may generally be found in public libraries.<br>
+<br>
+ (c) <i>Short Biographies of some Greek Heroes</i>. Short
+accounts of the lives of such heroes as Miltiades, Themistocles,
+Socrates, Alexander, and Demosthenes will be found in Cox, Lives
+of Greek Statesmen; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Greece;
+Jennie Hall, Men of Old Greece; Harding, Stories of Greek Gods,
+Heroes and Men; E.M. Tappan, The Story of the Greek People; and
+Plutarch's Lives. There are several abridged editions of the
+latter, but those by C.E. Byles, Greek Lives from Plutarch, and
+Edwin Ginn, Plutarch's Lives, are best adapted to the use of
+schools.<br>
+<br>
+ (d) <i>Various features of Greek Life</i>, as the home, the
+schools, food, clothing, occupations, amusements, or government
+have been described in the books on Greek Life.<br>
+ Among these are Bl&uuml;mner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks
+(translated by Alice Zimmern); C.B. Gulick, The Life of the
+Ancient Greeks; Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece; and T.G. Tucker,
+Life in Ancient Athens.<br>
+<br>
+ (e) <i>Descriptions of Athens and Alexandria</i>. Descriptions
+of these great centers of Greek civilization will be found in any
+history of Greece; that in Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks,
+ch. 2, or Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, for Athens, and in
+Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, 1. pp. 187-204, for
+Alexandria, will serve the purpose.<br>
+<br>
+ (f) <i>A description of the battle of Marathon</i>, abridged
+from the History of the World by Herodotus, will be found in F.M.
+Fling's Source Book of Greek History. This little book gives many
+incidents in Greek History as the Greek writers told them.<br>
+<br>
+ (g) <i>A description of the materials</i>, methods of building,
+decoration of public buildings, and the uses of the temples,
+theaters, gymnasia, and stadia in Fowler and Wheeler's Greek
+Archaeology, ch. 2; and Tarbell's History of Greek Art.<br>
+<br>
+ (h) <i>Some may wish to read the careful statement in Holm's
+History of the Greeks</i>, Vol. I, pp. 103-121, on the Truth
+about the Old Greek Legends, or the same author's account, Vol.
+I, pp. 272-295, of Emigration to the Colonies in the Olden
+Day.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+ B. ANCIENT TIMES. THE ROMAN PEOPLE. (For use with chapters v,
+vi, vii, viii and ix.)<br>
+<br>
+ (a) <i>Histories of the Romans</i>.<br>
+ Either Botsford, History of Rome; Pelham, Outlines of Roman
+History; How and Leigh, History of Rome; or Schuckburgh, History
+of Rome; though the last two do not cover the entire period of
+Roman history. Duruy, History of Rome, 8 volumes, is attractive
+in style and supplied with a great variety of pictures and other
+illustrative matter.<br>
+ Botsford, History of the Ancient World; Goodspeed, History of
+the Ancient World; Myers, Ancient History; Wolfson, Essentials in
+Ancient History; and West, Ancient World, give short accounts of
+the chief events in Roman history.<br>
+<br>
+ (b) <i>Versions of famous old Roman stories</i>, especially the
+wanderings of Aeneas, the Story of Romulus and Remus, of the
+Sabine Women, Horatius at the Bridge, and Cincinnatus.<br>
+ A.J. Church, Stories from Virgil; C.M. Gayley, Classical Myths;
+H.A. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome; the same author's Story
+of the Romans; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Rome; and
+Harding, City of Seven Hills. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome,
+gives the story of Horatius at the Bridge, together with several
+other stories from early Roman history.<br>
+<br>
+ (c) <i>Versions of the German myths about Odin (Wodan), Thor,
+Freya, and Tyr (Tiw).</i> C.M. Gayley. Classical Myths; Guerber,
+Myths of Northern Lands; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of the
+Middle Ages; Mary E. Litchfield, The Nine Worlds; H.W. Mabie,
+Norse Stories; Eva March Tappan, European Hero Stories; Alice
+Zimmern, Gods and Heroes of the North.<br>
+<br>
+ (d) <i>The Story of Hermann</i> (or the struggle between the
+Romans and Germans) is told by Arthur Gilman, Magna Charta
+Stories, pp. 139-155; and by Maude B. Dutton, Little Stories of
+Germany.<br>
+<br>
+ (e) <i>Short Biographies of some famous Romans</i>. Short
+accounts of the lives of Romulus, the Gracchi, Caesar, Cicero,
+and Constantine are given in Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of
+Rome; Harding, The City of Seven Hills; and several of them in
+Plutarch's Lives. A simple account of the Life of Hannibal, the
+Carthaginian enemy of Rome, will also be found in these
+books.<br>
+<br>
+ (f) <i>Interesting phases of Roman Life</i>: for example, the
+Roman boy, country life in Italy, the Roman house, traveling,
+amusements, etc. See W.W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age
+of Cicero; H.W. Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans; S.B.
+Platner, Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome; T.G. Tucker,
+Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul. Many phases of
+Roman life are described in F.M. Crawford's Ave Roma.<br>
+<br>
+ (g) <i>For descriptions of incidents in Roman history</i> and
+phases of Roman life as the Greek and Roman writers told them,
+see Botsford, Story of Rome, and Munro, Source Book of Roman
+History.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+ C. THE MIDDLE AGES. (For use with chapters x, xi, xii, and
+xiii.)<br>
+<br>
+ (a) <i>Histories of the people of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>.
+G.B. Adams, Growth of the French Nation; U.R. Burke, A History of
+Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the
+Catholic; J.R. Green, Short History of the English People;
+E.F. Henderson, A Short History of German; H.D. Sedgwick, A Short
+History of Italy.<br>
+<br>
+ (b) <i>Collection of stories adapted to children of the
+grades</i>: The Story of Beowulf, King Arthur and the Knights of
+the Round Table, the Treasure of the Niebelungs, and of Roland.
+These stories have all been written many times, and any librarian
+can give the reader copies of them as told by several writers.
+The following is a partial list only:<br>
+ A.J. Church, Heroes and Romances; E.G. Crommelin, Famous Legends
+Adapted for Children; H.A. Guerber, Legends of the Middle Ages;
+Louise Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry; and Eva March Tappan,
+European Hero Stories; James Baldwin, The Story of Roland;
+Frances N. Greene, Legends of King Arthur and His Court; Florence
+Holbrook, Northland Heroes (Beowulf); Sidney Lanier, The Boy's
+King Arthur; Stevens and Allen, King Arthur Stories from
+Malory.<br>
+<br>
+ (c) <i>Famous Men of the Middle Ages</i>; for example,
+Charlemagne, King Alfred, Rollo the Viking, William the
+Conqueror, Frederick Barbarossa, Richard the Lion-Hearted, King
+John, Saint Louis of France, Marco Polo, and Gutenberg.<br>
+ See A.F. Blaisdell, Stories from English History; Louise
+Creighton, Stories from English History; Maude B. Dutton, Little
+Stories of Germany; H.A. Guerber, The Story of the English; Haaren
+and Poland, Famous Men of the Middle Ages; Harding, The Story of
+the Middle Ages; S.B. Harding and W.F. Harding, The Story of
+England; M.F. Lansing, Barbarian and Noble; A.M. Mowry, First Steps
+in the History of England; L.N. Pitman, Stories of Old France; Eva
+March Tappan, European Hero Stories; H.P. Warren, Stories from
+English History; Bates and Coman, English History as told by the
+Poets. Edward Atherton, The Adventures of Marco Polo, the Great
+Traveler, is a convenient modernized version of Polo's own story
+of his travels. Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java has
+been reprinted in Old South Leaflets, Vol. II, No. 32.<br>
+<br>
+ (d) <i>Viking Tales</i>. The interesting stories of the Northern
+discoveries and explorations have been told many times. Jennie
+Hall, Viking Tales, includes the story of Eric the Red, Leif the
+Lucky, and the attempt to settle in Vinland (Wineland).<br>
+<br>
+ (e) <i>The Trial of Criminals in the Middle Ages--Ordeals</i>.
+Other kinds of Ordeals than those described in this book will be
+obtained in Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 196-202;
+Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. pp. 7-16;
+or in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 401-412. See Emerton,
+Introduction to the Middle Ages, pp. 79-81, for excellent
+explanation of mediaeval methods of trial.<br>
+<br>
+ (f) <i>Famous accounts of how the People of England won the
+Magna Charta</i>.<br>
+ Use either Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 179-181;
+Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 72-78; Robinson,
+Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 231-333; or Ogg, Source
+Book of Mediaeval History, pp. 297-303.<br>
+<br>
+ (g) <i>Simple descriptions of Mediaeval Life</i>. Maude B.
+Dutton, Little Stories of Germany; for example, the chapters on
+How a Page became a Knight, and A Mediaeval Town. S.B. Harding,
+The Story of the Middle Ages, especially the chapters describing
+life in castle, life in village, and life in monastery. Eva March
+Tappan, European Hero Stories, especially the topic, Life in
+Middle Ages, p. 118, the Crusades, p. 136, and Winning the Magna
+Charta, p. 111.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote>
+<p><br>
+ D. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN TIMES. The Discovery of America.
+(For use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive.)<br>
+<br>
+ (a) <i>Histories of American Discoveries and Explorations</i>.
+E.G. Bourne, Spain in America; Fiske, Discovery of America, 2
+volumes; and Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World.<br>
+<br>
+ (b) <i>Short, easy biographies of famous explorers</i>. (Da
+Gama, Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cartier, Drake, and
+Raleigh.)<br>
+ Foote and Skinner, Explorers and Founders of America; W.F.
+Gordy, Stories of American Explorers; W.E. Griffis, The Romance
+of Discovery; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of Modern Times;
+Higginson, Young Folks' Book of American Explorers; Jeannette B.
+Hodgdon, A First Course in American History, Book I; W.H.
+Johnson, The World's Discoverers, 2 volumes; Lawyer, The Story of
+Columbus and Magellan; Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers; Mara L.
+Pratt, America's Story for America's Children, Book 2; Gertrude
+V.D. Southworth, Builders of our Country, Book I; Rosa V.
+Winterburn, The Spanish in the Southwest.<br>
+<br>
+ (c) <i>Stories of explorations as told by the explorers
+themselves</i>.<br>
+ Columbus' own account of his discovery of America is in Hart,
+Source Readers in American History, No. 1, pp. 4-7. Early
+accounts of John Cabot's discovery and of Drake's Voyage in Hart,
+Source Readers, No. 1, pp. 7-10, 23-25. The Death and Burial of
+De Soto as described by one of his followers, in Hart, Source
+Readers, pp. 16-19. The Old South Leaflets, No. 20, Coronado;
+Nos. 29 and 31, Columbus; No. 31, the Voyages to Vinland; No. 35,
+Cort&eacute;s' Account of the City of Mexico; No. 36, The Death
+of De Soto; Nos. 37 and 115, the Voyages of the Cabots; No. 89,
+The Founding of St. Augustine; No. 92, The First Voyage to
+Roanoke; No. 102, Columbus' Account of Cuba; No. 116, Sir Francis
+Drake on the Coast of California; No. 118, Gilbert's Expedition;
+No. 119, Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke.<br>
+<br>
+ (d) <i>The Stories of Indian Life in Spanish America,</i> of
+Cort&eacute;s, Coronado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola, and of
+the Missions. (See Rosa V. Winterburn, The Spanish in the
+Southwest.)</p>
+</blockquote>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<h2><a name="4994"></a><a href="#1510">INDEX</a></h2>
+<br>
+
+<p><br>
+ Acropolis,<br>
+ Africa, explored,<br>
+ Aldine Press,<br>
+ Alexander the Great,<br>
+ Alexandria,<br>
+   founded,<br>
+   end of trade route,<br>
+ Alfred, King,<br>
+ Alps,<br>
+   Hannibal crosses,<br>
+ Alva, in Netherlands,<br>
+ America,<br>
+   discovered by Columbus,<br>
+   origin of name,<br>
+ Amphitheater,<br>
+   at Rome,<br>
+   Arles,<br>
+ Anglo-Saxons,<br>
+ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,<br>
+ Apollo,<br>
+ Aqueducts,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   Aztec,<br>
+ Arabic numerals,<br>
+ Arabs,<br>
+   see Mohammedans,<br>
+ Arches,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   triumphal,<br>
+   Gothic,<br>
+   in Renaissance,<br>
+ Architecture,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   early Church,<br>
+   Mediaeval,<br>
+   Renaissance,<br>
+ Aristocracy,<br>
+   origin of,<br>
+ Armada (ar-ma'da),<br>
+   expedition of,<br>
+ Arms, Athenian,<br>
+   Gallic,<br>
+   Mediaeval,<br>
+   Aztec,<br>
+ Arthur, King,<br>
+ Astrolabe,<br>
+ Athens,<br>
+ Augustus, Emperor,<br>
+ Azores,<br>
+ Aztecs,<br>
+<br>
+ Bahama Islands,<br>
+ Balboa (balbo'a),<br>
+ Basilicas,<br>
+ Bayeux tapestry (ba-yu),<br>
+ Beggars of the Sea,<br>
+ Black Sea,<br>
+ Bologna (bo-lon'ya),<br>
+   University of,<br>
+ Boniface,<br>
+ Books,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   carried to Italy,<br>
+   see printing,<br>
+ Borromeo (bor-ro-me'o),<br>
+ Boxing, Greek,<br>
+ Britain,<br>
+   name changed to England,<br>
+ Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-um),<br>
+   founded,<br>
+   named Constantinople,<br>
+<br>
+ Cabot, John,<br>
+ Cabot, Sebastian,<br>
+ Caesar, Julius,<br>
+ Calvin, John,<br>
+ Cambridge, University of,<br>
+ Canary Islands,<br>
+ Cannae, battle of,<br>
+ Canterbury,<br>
+ Cape of Good Hope,<br>
+ Cape Horn,<br>
+ Caroline, Fort,<br>
+   settlement,<br>
+   destroyed,<br>
+ Carthaginians,<br>
+ Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya),<br>
+ Castles,<br>
+ Cathedrals,<br>
+ Caudine Forks,<br>
+ Caxton, William,<br>
+ Census, Roman,<br>
+ Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain),<br>
+ Charybdis (ka-rib'dis),<br>
+ China,<br>
+ Christianity,<br>
+ Cibola,<br>
+   see Seven Cities Cincinnatus,<br>
+ Clergy,<br>
+ Coligny (ko'len'ye),<br>
+ Colonies, Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   Spanish,<br>
+   French,<br>
+   English,<br>
+ Colorado, Canyon of,<br>
+ Colosseum,<br>
+ Columbus, Christopher.<br>
+   discoveries of,<br>
+ Compass, origin of,<br>
+ Constantine,<br>
+ Constantinople,<br>
+   founded,<br>
+   renamed,<br>
+   educated men of,<br>
+   taken by Turks,<br>
+ Consuls, at Rome,<br>
+ Corinth,<br>
+ Corinthian pillars,<br>
+ Coronado, Francisco,<br>
+ Cortes, Hernando,<br>
+   conquest of Mexico,<br>
+ Courts,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   English,<br>
+ Crusades,<br>
+ Cuba,<br>
+ Cumae,<br>
+<br>
+ Danes,<br>
+   see Northmen,<br>
+   Normans,<br>
+ Dare, Virginia,<br>
+ Delphi,<br>
+ Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez),<br>
+ De Soto, Fernando,<br>
+ Diaz, Bartholomew,<br>
+ Discus thrower,<br>
+ Doric pillars,<br>
+ Drake, Sir Francis,<br>
+   adventures in America,<br>
+   voyage around world,<br>
+   attack on Spain,<br>
+ Duke, origin of word,<br>
+ Dutch, war for independence,<br>
+<br>
+ East, The,<br>
+   defined,<br>
+   search for sea routes,<br>
+ Education,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   Mediaeval,<br>
+ Egyptians,<br>
+ Elizabeth, Queen,<br>
+ England,<br>
+   first known,<br>
+   inhabited by Britons,<br>
+   conquered by Romans,<br>
+   name,<br>
+   christianized,<br>
+   Danes in,<br>
+   in Middle Ages,<br>
+   aids Dutch,<br>
+   navy,<br>
+   war with Spain,<br>
+ English explorations and colonies,<br>
+ English language, origin,<br>
+ Erasmus,<br>
+ Eric the Red,<br>
+ Espa&ntilde;ol&agrave; (es-pan-yo'la)<br>
+ Euclid,<br>
+<br>
+ Fairs, Mediaeval,<br>
+ Ferdinand, King,<br>
+ Florida,<br>
+   origin of name,<br>
+   exploration,<br>
+   St. Augustine in,<br>
+ France,<br>
+   see Gauls,<br>
+   name,<br>
+   Danes in,<br>
+   in Middle Ages,<br>
+   sailors of,<br>
+   colonies in America,<br>
+ Francis I, King,<br>
+ French language,<br>
+ Friar Marcos,<br>
+ Friday, origin of name,<br>
+ Frieze,<br>
+ Frobisher, Martin,<br>
+<br>
+ Gama, Vasco da,<br>
+ Games,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+ Gauls,<br>
+ Genoa,<br>
+ Germany,<br>
+   language,<br>
+   early,<br>
+   name,<br>
+   early emigrants from,<br>
+   missionaries to,<br>
+ Gilbert, Humphrey,<br>
+ Girgenti (jer-jen'te),<br>
+   temple at,<br>
+ Gladiators,<br>
+ Gothic architecture,<br>
+ Goths,<br>
+ Government,<br>
+   at Athens,<br>
+   at Rome,<br>
+   in England,<br>
+ Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius,<br>
+ Great Charter,<br>
+ Greece,<br>
+   language of,<br>
+   early history,<br>
+   manner of living in,<br>
+   colonies,<br>
+   rivals,<br>
+   conquered by Rome,<br>
+   and the Renaissance,<br>
+ Greenland,<br>
+ Gregory, Pope,<br>
+ Guam,<br>
+ Guilds,<br>
+ Gutenberg. John,(goo'ten-berk),<br>
+ Gymnasium, Greek,<br>
+<br>
+ Hannibal,<br>
+ Hawkins, John,<br>
+ Hayti, see Espa&ntilde;ola,<br>
+ Henry, Prince, the Navigator,<br>
+ Henry II, of England,<br>
+ Henry VIII, of England,<br>
+ Hercules,<br>
+ Hermann,<br>
+ Hermes,<br>
+ Herodotus (herod'otus),<br>
+ Homer,<br>
+ Horatius,<br>
+ House of Commons,<br>
+ House of Lords,<br>
+ Houses,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   Aztec,<br>
+   in Cibola,<br>
+ Huguenots (hu'ge-nots),<br>
+   origin of,<br>
+   in America,<br>
+   and Dutch,<br>
+<br>
+ Iceland,<br>
+ Incas,<br>
+ India,<br>
+ Indians,<br>
+   origin of name,<br>
+   of Mexico,<br>
+   of Peru,<br>
+   as slaves,<br>
+   missions to,<br>
+   and De Soto,<br>
+   in Cibola,<br>
+   in Quivira,<br>
+   at Roanoke,<br>
+ Indies,<br>
+ Ionic pillars,<br>
+ Isabella, Queen of Spain,<br>
+ Isabella, town in Espa&ntilde;ola,<br>
+ Italy,<br>
+   Greeks in,<br>
+   Romans masters of,<br>
+   farmers in,<br>
+   Goths invade,<br>
+   Mediaeval,<br>
+   Renaissance in,<br>
+<br>
+ Japan,<br>
+ Jerusalem,<br>
+ Jews,<br>
+ John, King of England,<br>
+ Jury, origin of,<br>
+ Justice,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   English,<br>
+ Justinian,<br>
+<br>
+ Karlsefni (karl'sef-ne)<br>
+ Knights,<br>
+<br>
+ Las Casas (ca'sas),<br>
+ Latin,<br>
+   words,<br>
+   literature,<br>
+   learned by the Gauls,<br>
+   in Middle Ages,<br>
+   in Renaissance,<br>
+ Law,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   English,<br>
+ Leif Ericson,<br>
+ London,<br>
+ Loyola, Ignatius (lo-yo'la)<br>
+ Luther, Martin,<br>
+<br>
+ Madeira Islands (madei'ra),<br>
+ Magellan,<br>
+ Magellan, Strait of,<br>
+ Magna Charta,<br>
+ Marathon,<br>
+ Marco Polo,<br>
+ Marseilles (mar-salz),<br>
+ Mary, Queen of England,<br>
+ Menendez, Pedro (ma-nen'dath)<br>
+ Mexico, conquest of,<br>
+ Michel Angelo (mi'kel-an'je-lo),<br>
+ Middle Ages,<br>
+   defined,<br>
+   close,<br>
+ Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez)<br>
+ Missionaries,<br>
+ Missions, Spanish,<br>
+ Mississippi River,   discovery of,<br>
+ Modern Times, defined,<br>
+ Mohammedans,<br>
+ Moluccas,<br>
+ Monasteries,<br>
+ Mongol Tartars,<br>
+ Montezuma, King of Aztecs,<br>
+ Montreal,<br>
+ Moors,<br>
+ Mosaics,<br>
+<br>
+ Naples,<br>
+ Navy,<br>
+   English,<br>
+   in battle against the Armada,<br>
+ Netherlands, revolt of,<br>
+ New Testament,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   first printed,<br>
+ Nobles,<br>
+ Norman architecture,<br>
+ Norman Conquest,<br>
+ Normans,<br>
+ Northmen,<br>
+ Notre Dame (no'tr'dam)<br>
+   in Paris,<br>
+<br>
+ Odin,<br>
+ Olympia,<br>
+ Olympic games,<br>
+ Ordeals,<br>
+ Oxford, University of,<br>
+<br>
+ Pacific Ocean,<br>
+ Paestum (pes'tum),<br>
+ Paintings, Greek,<br>
+ Panama,<br>
+ Pantheon (Pan'theon),<br>
+ Papyrus (pa-pi'rus),<br>
+ Paris,<br>
+ Parliament, English, origin of,<br>
+ Parthenon (par'thenon),<br>
+ Patagonia,<br>
+ Patricians,<br>
+ Paul, the Apostle,<br>
+ Peasants,<br>
+ Pediment,<br>
+ Persia,<br>
+ Peru, conquest of,<br>
+ Petrarch (pe'trark),<br>
+ Pheidippides (fi-dip'e-dez),<br>
+ Philip II,<br>
+ Philippines,<br>
+ Phoenicia,<br>
+ Pizarro, Francisco (pi-zar'ro),<br>
+   conquest of Peru,<br>
+ Plataeans,<br>
+ Plato,<br>
+ Plebeians,<br>
+ Pompeii (pom-pa'ye),<br>
+ Pompey,<br>
+ Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on),<br>
+ Pope, the Bishop of Rome,<br>
+ Porticoes,<br>
+ Portugal,<br>
+   sailors of,<br>
+   and the New World,<br>
+ Potato, found by Magellan,<br>
+ Pottery,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Aztec,<br>
+   Zu&ntilde;i,<br>
+ Printing, invented,<br>
+ Ptolemy (tol'e-mi),<br>
+ Pyrrhus (pir'us),<br>
+<br>
+ Quebec,<br>
+ Quivira,<br>
+<br>
+ Raleigh, Sir Walter,<br>
+ Renaissance (ren'e-sans),<br>
+ Richard, the Lionhearted,<br>
+ Roads, Roman,<br>
+ Roanoke,<br>
+ Roman Empire,<br>
+   size,<br>
+   origin,<br>
+ Roman type,<br>
+ Romans,<br>
+   language,<br>
+   see Latin, early,<br>
+   contact with Greeks,<br>
+   wars in Italy,<br>
+   early manner of living,<br>
+   war with Carthage,<br>
+   conquer Gaul and Britain,<br>
+   Empire of,<br>
+   civilization of,<br>
+   Christianized,<br>
+   empire ruined,<br>
+   literature of,<br>
+   influence,<br>
+ Romanesque architecture,<br>
+ Romulus,<br>
+<br>
+ Salamis,<br>
+ Samnites,<br>
+ San Salvador,<br>
+ St. Augustine,<br>
+ Sardinia,<br>
+ Saxons,<br>
+ Sculpture, Greek,<br>
+ Scylla (sil'a),<br>
+ Senators, at Rome,<br>
+ Seven Cities of Cibola,<br>
+ Shakespeare,<br>
+ Ships,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   early English,<br>
+   Venetian,<br>
+   of Columbus,<br>
+   of English navy,<br>
+ Sicily,<br>
+ Sidney, Sir Philip,<br>
+ Simon de Montfort,<br>
+ Slaves,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   Roman,<br>
+   Indians as,<br>
+   Negroes as,<br>
+ Slave-trade,<br>
+   Spanish,<br>
+   English,<br>
+ Socrates (sok'ra-tez),<br>
+ Spain, early settlements in,<br>
+   Romans capture,<br>
+   name,<br>
+   Arabs in,<br>
+   Columbus and,<br>
+   claim to New World,<br>
+   colonies of,<br>
+   war with Netherlands,<br>
+   war with England,<br>
+ Sparta,<br>
+ Spice Islands,<br>
+ Spice trade,<br>
+ Stadium,<br>
+ Statues, Greek,<br>
+<br>
+ Temples, Greek,<br>
+ Theater,<br>
+   Greek,<br>
+   early Roman,<br>
+   later,<br>
+ Thebes,<br>
+ Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez),<br>
+ Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le),<br>
+ Theseum (these'um),<br>
+ Thor,<br>
+ Thursday, origin of name,<br>
+ "Tin Islands,"<br>
+ Towns, in Middle Ages,<br>
+ Trade, Mediaeval,<br>
+ Trade-winds,<br>
+ Trebia, battle of,<br>
+ Trial by battle,<br>
+ Tribune, Roman,<br>
+ Trireme,<br>
+ Troy,<br>
+ Turks,<br>
+ "Twelve Tables," Tyre,<br>
+<br>
+ Ulfilas,<br>
+ Ulysses,<br>
+ Universities,<br>
+<br>
+ Venice,<br>
+ Venus of Melos,<br>
+ Vercingetorix (vercinget'orix),<br>
+ Vespucius, Americus,<br>
+ Veto, at Rome,<br>
+ Vikings,<br>
+ Vinland,<br>
+ Virginia,<br>
+   origin of name,<br>
+   colony in,<br>
+<br>
+ Watling Island,<br>
+ Wednesday, origin of name,<br>
+ West Indies,<br>
+ White, John,<br>
+ William the Conqueror,<br>
+ William of Orange,<br>
+ Wodan,<br>
+ Women, Roman,<br>
+ Words,<br>
+ Writing, art of,<br>
+<br>
+ Xerxes (zurk'zez),<br>
+<br>
+ Zu&ntilde;i,<br>
+</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr class="c1">
+<br>
+<br>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Introductory American History, by 
+Henry Eldridge Bourne and Elbert Jay Benton
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 05:33:58 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 05:33:58 -0700
commit	9f42c04c459214fc6266702776b5a9dfaf290f2f (patch)
tree	0a89d1fdd7c930b1f1bb6453428fd2d0fa5f71fb /9897-h