diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:16:15 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:16:15 -0700 |
| commit | 0a83584f9ca576c35f2903d33fb4e2089b250a43 (patch) | |
| tree | f31da885dc8afcf105acb3b02bdecb0cb7d383af /989-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '989-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 989-h/989-h.htm | 3894 |
1 files changed, 3894 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/989-h/989-h.htm b/989-h/989-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af75987 --- /dev/null +++ b/989-h/989-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3894 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Theologico-Political Treatise—Part 1, +by Benedict of Spinoza +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +body { color: black; + background: white; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; + text-align: justify } + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +p {text-indent: 0% } + +p.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +p.t2 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 150%; + text-align: center } + +p.t3 {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 100%; + text-align: center } + +p.t3b {text-indent: 0% ; + font-size: 100%; + font-weight: bold; + text-align: center } + +h1 { text-align: center } +h2 { text-align: center } +h3 { text-align: center } +h4 { text-align: center } +h5 { text-align: center } + +p.bullet { text-indent: -10% ; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +</style> + +</head> + +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold;'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Theological-Political Treatise [Part I], by +Benedict of Spinoza</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Theological-Political Treatise [Part I]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Benedict of Spinoza</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: R. H. M. Elwes</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 16, 1997 [eBook #989] <br /> +[Most recently updated: January 6, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Joseph B. Yesselman. HTML version by Al Haines.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THEOLOGICAL-POLITICAL TREATISE, 1 ***</div> + +<p class="t3"> +<br /><br /> +Sentence Numbers, shown thus (1), have been added by volunteer. +</p> + +<h1> +<br /><br /><br /> +A Theologico-Political Treatise +</h1> + +<p class="t3b"> +Part 1 - Chapters I to V +</p> + +<p class="t3"> +Baruch Spinoza +</p> + +<p><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="t3"> +A Theologico-Political Treatise +</p> + +<p class="t3"> +Part 1 - Chapters I to V +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +TABLE OF CONTENTS: +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#preface">PREFACE.</a> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Origin and consequences of superstition. +<br /><br /> +Causes that have led the author to write. +<br /><br /> +Course of his investigation. +<br /><br /> +For what readers the treatise is designed. Submission of author +to the rulers of his country. +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#chap01">CHAPTER I</a> - Of Prophecy. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Definition of prophecy. +<br /><br /> +Distinction between revelation to Moses and to the other prophets. +<br /><br /> +Between Christ and other recipients of revelation. +<br /><br /> +Ambiguity of the word "Spirit." +<br /><br /> +The different senses in which things may be referred to God. +<br /><br /> +Different senses of "Spirit of God." +<br /><br /> +Prophets perceived revelation by imagination. +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#chap02">CHAPTER II</a> - Of Prophets. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +A mistake to suppose that prophecy can give knowledge of phenomena +<br /><br /> +Certainty of prophecy based on:<br /> +(1) Vividness of imagination,<br /> +(2) A Sign,<br /> +(3) Goodness of the Prophet.<br /> +<br /> +Variation of prophecy with the temperament and opinions of the individual. +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#chap03">CHAPTER III</a> - Of the Vocation of the Hebrews, <br /> +and whether the Gift of Prophecy was peculiar to them. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Happiness of Hebrews did not consist in the inferiority of the Gentile. +<br /><br /> +Nor in philosophic knowledge or virtue. +<br /><br /> +But in their conduct of affairs of state and escape from political dangers. +<br /><br /> +Even this Distinction did not exist in the time of Abraham. +<br /><br /> +Testimony from the Old Testament itself to the share of the Gentiles +in the law and favour of God. +<br /><br /> +Explanation of apparent discrepancy of the Epistle to the Romans. +<br /><br /> +Answer to the arguments for the eternal election of the Jews. +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#chap04">CHAPTER IV</a> - Of the Divine Law. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Laws either depend on natural necessity or on human decree. The existence +of the latter not inconsistent with the former class of laws. +<br /><br /> +Divine law a kind of law founded on human decree: +called Divine from its object. +<br /><br /> +Divine law:<br /> +(1) universal;<br /> +(2) independent of the truth of any historical narrative;<br /> +(3) independent of rites and ceremonies;<br /> +(4) its own reward.<br /> +<br /> +Reason does not present God as a law-giver for men. +<br /><br /> +Such a conception a proof of ignorance - in Adam - in the Israelites - +in Christians. +<br /><br /> +Testimony of the Scriptures in favour of reason and the +rational view of the Divine. +</p> + +<p><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#chap05">CHAPTER V</a> - Of the Ceremonial Law. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Ceremonial law of the Old Testament no part of the Divine universal law, +but partial and temporary. Testimony of the prophets themselves to this +Testimony of the New Testament. +<br /><br /> +How the ceremonial law tended to preserve the Hebrew kingdom. +<br /><br /> +Christian rites on a similar footing. +<br /><br /> +What part of the Scripture narratives is one bound to believe? +</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="t3b"> +<a href="#endnotes">Author's Endnotes to the Treatise.</a> +</p> + +<p><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="t2"> +A Theologico-Political Treatise +</p> + +<p class="t3b"> +Part 1 - Chapters I to V +</p> + +<p><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<h3> +<a id="preface"></a> +PREFACE. +</h3> + +<p> +(1)Men would never be superstitious, if they could govern all their +circumstances by set rules, or if they were always favoured by fortune: but +being frequently driven into straits where rules are useless, and being +often kept fluctuating pitiably between hope and fear by the uncertainty +of fortune's greedily coveted favours, they are consequently, for the most +part, very prone to credulity. (2) The human mind is readily swayed this way +or that in times of doubt, especially when hope and fear are struggling for +the mastery, though usually it is boastful, over - confident, and vain. +</p> + +<p> +(3) This as a general fact I suppose everyone knows, though few, I believe, +know their own nature; no one can have lived in the world without observing +that most people, when in prosperity, are so over-brimming with wisdom +(however inexperienced they may be), that they take every offer of advice as +a personal insult, whereas in adversity they know not where to turn, but beg +and pray for counsel from every passer-by. (4) No plan is then too futile, +too absurd, or too fatuous for their adoption; the most frivolous causes +will raise them to hope, or plunge them into despair - if anything happens +during their fright which reminds them of some past good or ill, they think +it portends a happy or unhappy issue, and therefore (though it may have +proved abortive a hundred times before) style it a lucky or unlucky omen. +(5) Anything which excites their astonishment they believe to be a portent +signifying the anger of the gods or of the Supreme Being, and, mistaking +superstition for religion, account it impious not to avert the evil with +prayer and sacrifice. (6) Signs and wonders of this sort they conjure up +perpetually, till one might think Nature as mad as themselves, they +interpret her so fantastically. +</p> + +<p> +(7) Thus it is brought prominently before us, that superstition's chief +victims are those persons who greedily covet temporal advantages; they it +is, who (especially when they are in danger, and cannot help themselves) are +wont with Prayers and womanish tears to implore help from God: upbraiding +Reason as blind, because she cannot show a sure path to the shadows they +pursue, and rejecting human wisdom as vain; but believing the phantoms of +imagination, dreams, and other childish absurdities, to be the very oracles +of Heaven. (8) As though God had turned away from the wise, and written His +decrees, not in the mind of man but in the entrails of beasts, or left them +to be proclaimed by the inspiration and instinct of fools, madmen, and +birds. Such is the unreason to which terror can drive mankind! +</p> + +<p> +(9) Superstition, then, is engendered, preserved, and fostered by fear. If +anyone desire an example, let him take Alexander, who only began +superstitiously to seek guidance from seers, when he first learnt to fear +fortune in the passes of Sysis (Curtius, v. 4); whereas after he had +conquered Darius he consulted prophets no more, till a second time +frightened by reverses. (10) When the Scythians were provoking a battle, the +Bactrians had deserted, and he himself was lying sick of his wounds, "he +once more turned to superstition, the mockery of human wisdom, and bade +Aristander, to whom he confided his credulity, inquire the issue of affairs +with sacrificed victims." (11) Very numerous examples of a like nature might +be cited, clearly showing the fact, that only while under the dominion of +fear do men fall a prey to superstition; that all the portents ever invested +with the reverence of misguided religion are mere phantoms of dejected and +fearful minds; and lastly, that prophets have most power among the people, +and are most formidable to rulers, precisely at those times when the state +is in most peril. (12) I think this is sufficiently plain to all, and will +therefore say no more on the subject. +</p> + +<p> +(13) The origin of superstition above given affords us a clear reason for +the fact, that it comes to all men naturally, though some refer its rise to +a dim notion of God, universal to mankind, and also tends to show, that it +is no less inconsistent and variable than other mental hallucinations and +emotional impulses, and further that it can only be maintained by hope, +hatred, anger, and deceit; since it springs, not from reason, but solely +from the more powerful phases of emotion. (14) Furthermore, we may readily +understand how difficult it is, to maintain in the same course men prone to +every form of credulity. (15) For, as the mass of mankind remains always at +about the same pitch of misery, it never assents long to any one remedy, but +is always best pleased by a novelty which has not yet proved illusive. +</p> + +<p> +(16) This element of inconsistency has been the cause of many terrible wars +and revolutions; for, as Curtius well says (lib. iv. chap. 10): "The mob has +no ruler more potent than superstition," and is easily led, on the plea of +religion, at one moment to adore its kings as gods, and anon to execrate and +abjure them as humanity's common bane. (17) Immense pains have therefore +been taken to counteract this evil by investing religion, whether true or +false, with such pomp and ceremony, that it may rise superior to every +shock, and be always observed with studious reverence by the whole people—a +system which has been brought to great perfection by the Turks, for they +consider even controversy impious, and so clog men's minds with dogmatic +formulas, that they leave no room for sound reason, not even enough to doubt +with. +</p> + +<p> +(18) But if, in despotic statecraft, the supreme and essential mystery be to +hoodwink the subjects, and to mask the fear, which keeps them clown, with +the specious garb of religion, so that men may fight as bravely for slavery +as for safety, and count it not shame but highest honour to risk their blood +and their lives for the vainglory of a tyrant; yet in a free state no more +mischievous expedient could be planned or attempted. (19) Wholly repugnant +to the general freedom are such devices as enthralling men's minds with +prejudices, forcing their judgment, or employing any of the weapons of +quasi-religious sedition; indeed, such seditions only spring up, when law +enters the domain of speculative thought, and opinions are put on trial and +condemned on the same footing as crimes, while those who defend and follow +them are sacrificed, not to public safety, but to their opponents' +hatred and cruelty. (20) If deeds only could be made the grounds of +criminal charges, and words were always allowed to pass free, such seditions +would be divested of every semblance of justification, and would be +separated from mere controversies by a hard and fast line. +</p> + +<p> +(20) Now, seeing that we have the rare happiness of living in a republic, +where everyone's judgment is free and unshackled, where each may worship God +as his conscience dictates, and where freedom is esteemed before all things +dear and precious, I have believed that I should be undertaking no +ungrateful or unprofitable task, in demonstrating that not only can +such freedom be granted without prejudice to the public peace, but also, +that without such freedom, piety cannot flourish nor the public peace be +secure. +</p> + +<p> +(21) Such is the chief conclusion I seek to establish in this treatise; but, +in order to reach it, I must first point out the misconceptions which, like +scars of our former bondage, still disfigure our notion of religion, and +must expose the false views about the civil authority which many have most +impudently advocated, endeavouring to turn the mind of the people, still +prone to heathen superstition, away from its legitimate rulers, and so bring +us again into slavery. (22) As to the order of my treatise I will speak +presently, but first I will recount the causes which led me to write. +</p> + +<p> +(23) I have often wondered, that persons who make a boast of professing the +Christian religion, namely, love, joy, peace, temperance, and charity to all +men, should quarrel with such rancorous animosity, and display daily towards +one another such bitter hatred, that this, rather than the virtues they +claim, is the readiest criterion of their faith. (24) Matters have long +since come to such a pass, that one can only pronounce a man Christian, +Turk, Jew, or Heathen, by his general appearance and attire, by his +frequenting this or that place of worship, or employing the phraseology of a +particular sect - as for manner of life, it is in all cases the same. (25) +Inquiry into the cause of this anomaly leads me unhesitatingly to ascribe it +to the fact, that the ministries of the Church are regarded by the masses +merely as dignities, her offices as posts of emolument - in short, popular +religion may be summed up as respect for ecclesiastics. (26) The spread of +this misconception inflamed every worthless fellow with an intense desire to +enter holy orders, and thus the love of diffusing God's religion degenerated +into sordid avarice and ambition. (27) Every church became a theatre, where +orators, instead of church teachers, harangued, caring not to instruct the +people, but striving to attract admiration, to bring opponents to public +scorn, and to preach only novelties and paradoxes, such as would tickle +the ears of their congregation. (28) This state of things necessarily +stirred up an amount of controversy, envy, and hatred, which no lapse of +time could appease; so that we can scarcely wonder that of the old religion +nothing survives but its outward forms (even these, in the mouth of the +multitude, seem rather adulation than adoration of the Deity), and that +faith has become a mere compound of credulity and prejudices - aye, +prejudices too, which degrade man from rational being to beast, which +completely stifle the power of judgment between true and false, which seem, +in fact, carefully fostered for the purpose of extinguishing the last spark +of reason! (29) Piety, great God! and religion are become a tissue of +ridiculous mysteries; men, who flatly despise reason, who reject and turn +away from understanding as naturally corrupt, these, I say, these of all +men, are thought, O lie most horrible! to possess light from on High. (30) +Verily, if they had but one spark of light from on High, they would not +insolently rave, but would learn to worship God more wisely, and would be as +marked among their fellows for mercy as they now are for malice; if they +were concerned for their opponents' souls, instead of for their own +reputations, they would no longer fiercely persecute, but rather be filled +with pity and compassion. +</p> + +<p> +(31) Furthermore, if any Divine light were in them, it would appear from +their doctrine. (32) I grant that they are never tired of professing their +wonder at the profound mysteries of Holy Writ; still I cannot discover that +they teach anything but speculations of Platonists and Aristotelians, to +which (in order to save their credit for Christianity) they have made Holy +Writ conform; not content to rave with the Greeks themselves, they want to +make the prophets rave also; showing conclusively, that never even in sleep +have they caught a glimpse of Scripture's Divine nature. (33) The very +vehemence of their admiration for the mysteries plainly attests, that +their belief in the Bible is a formal assent rather than a living faith: and +the fact is made still more apparent by their laying down beforehand, as a +foundation for the study and true interpretation of Scripture, the principle +that it is in every passage true and divine. (34) Such a doctrine should be +reached only after strict scrutiny and thorough comprehension of the Sacred +Books (which would teach it much better, for they stand in need no human +factions), and not be set up on the threshold, as it were, of inquiry. +</p> + +<p> +(35) As I pondered over the facts that the light of reason is not only +despised, but by many even execrated as a source of impiety, that human +commentaries are accepted as divine records, and that credulity is extolled +as faith; as I marked the fierce controversies of philosophers raging in +Church and State, the source of bitter hatred and dissension, the ready +instruments of sedition and other ills innumerable, I determined to examine +the Bible afresh in a careful, impartial, and unfettered spirit, making no +assumptions concerning it, and attributing to it no doctrines, which I do +not find clearly therein set down. (36) With these precautions I constructed +a method of Scriptural interpretation, and thus equipped proceeded to +inquire - what is prophecy? (37) In what sense did God reveal himself to the +prophets, and why were these particular men - chosen by him? (38) Was it on +account of the sublimity of their thoughts about the Deity and nature, or +was it solely on account of their piety? (39) These questions being +answered, I was easily able to conclude, that the authority of the prophets +has weight only in matters of morality, and that their speculative doctrines +affect us little. +</p> + +<p> +(40) Next I inquired, why the Hebrews were called God's chosen people, and +discovering that it was only because God had chosen for them a certain strip of +territory, where they might live peaceably and at ease, I learnt that the Law +revealed by God to Moses was merely the law of the individual Hebrew state, +therefore that it was binding on none but Hebrews, and not even on Hebrews +after the downfall of their nation. (41) Further, in order to ascertain, +whether it could be concluded from Scripture, that the human understanding is +naturally corrupt, I inquired whether the Universal Religion, the Divine Law +revealed through the Prophets and Apostles to the whole human race, differs +from that which is taught by the light of natural reason, whether miracles can +take place in violation of the laws of nature, and if so, whether they imply +the existence of God more surely and clearly than events, which we understand +plainly and distinctly through their immediate natural causes. +</p> + +<p> +(42) Now, as in the whole course of my investigation I found nothing taught +expressly by Scripture, which does not agree with our understanding, or +which is repugnant thereto, and as I saw that the prophets taught nothing, +which is not very simple and easily to be grasped by all, and further, that +they clothed their teaching in the style, and confirmed it with the reasons, +which would most deeply move the mind of the masses to devotion towards God, +I became thoroughly convinced, that the Bible leaves reason absolutely free, +that it has nothing in common with philosophy, in fact, that Revelation and +Philosophy stand on different footings. In order to set this forth +categorically and exhaust the whole question, I point out the way in which +the Bible should be interpreted, and show that all of spiritual questions +should be sought from it alone, and not from the objects of ordinary +knowledge. (43) Thence I pass on to indicate the false notions, which have +from the fact that the multitude - ever prone to superstition, and caring +more for the shreds of antiquity for eternal truths - pays homage to the +Books of the Bible, rather than to the Word of God. (44) I show that the +Word of God has not been revealed as a certain number of books, was +displayed to the prophets as a simple idea of the mind, namely, obedience to +God in singleness of heart, and in the practice of justice and charity; and +I further point out, that this doctrine is set forth in Scripture in +accordance with the opinions and understandings of those, among whom the +Apostles and Prophets preached, to the end that men might receive it +willingly, and with their whole heart. +</p> + +<p> +(45) Having thus laid bare the bases of belief, I draw the conclusion that +Revelation has obedience for its sole object, therefore, in purpose no less +than in foundation and method, stands entirely aloof from ordinary +knowledge; each has its separate province, neither can be called the +handmaid of the other. +</p> + +<p> +(46) Furthermore, as men's habits of mind differ, so that some more readily +embrace one form of faith, some another, for what moves one to pray may move +another only to scoff, I conclude, in accordance with what has gone before, +that everyone should be free to choose for himself the foundations of his +creed, and that faith should be judged only by its fruits; each would then +obey God freely with his whole heart, while nothing would be publicly +honoured save justice and charity. +</p> + +<p> +(47) Having thus drawn attention to the liberty conceded to everyone by the +revealed law of God, I pass on to another part of my subject, and prove that +this same liberty can and should be accorded with safety to the state and +the magisterial authority - in fact, that it cannot be withheld without +great danger to peace and detriment to the community. +</p> + +<p> +(48) In order to establish my point, I start from the natural rights of the +individual, which are co-extensive with his desires and power, and from the +fact that no one is bound to live as another pleases, but is the guardian of +his own liberty. (49) I show that these rights can only be transferred to +those whom we depute to defend us, who acquire with the duties of defence +the power of ordering our lives, and I thence infer that rulers possess +rights only limited by their power, that they are the sole guardians of +justice and liberty, and that their subjects should act in all things as +they dictate: nevertheless, since no one can so utterly abdicate his own +power of self-defence as to cease to be a man, I conclude that no one can be +deprived of his natural rights absolutely, but that subjects, either by +tacit agreement, or by social contract, retain a certain number, which +cannot be taken from them without great danger to the state. +</p> + +<p> +(50) From these considerations I pass on to the Hebrew State, which I +describe at some length, in order to trace the manner in which Religion +acquired the force of law, and to touch on other noteworthy points. (51) I +then prove, that the holders of sovereign power are the depositories and +interpreters of religious no less than of civil ordinances, and that they +alone have the right to decide what is just or unjust, pious or impious; +lastly, I conclude by showing, that they best retain this right and secure +safety to their state by allowing every man to think what he likes, and say +what he thinks. +</p> + +<p> +(52) Such, Philosophical Reader, are the questions I submit to your notice, +counting on your approval, for the subject matter of the whole book and of +the several chapters is important and profitable. (53) I would say more, but +I do not want my preface to extend to a volume, especially as I know that +its leading propositions are to Philosophers but common places. (54) To the +rest of mankind I care not to commend my treatise, for I cannot expect that +it contains anything to please them: I know how deeply rooted are the +prejudices embraced under the name of religion; I am aware that in the mind +of the masses superstition is no less deeply rooted than fear; I recognize +that their constancy is mere obstinacy, and that they are led to praise or +blame by impulse rather than reason. (55) Therefore the multitude, and those +of like passions with the multitude, I ask not to read my book; nay, I would +rather that they should utterly neglect it, than that they should +misinterpret it after their wont. (56) They would gain no good themselves, +and might prove a stumbling-block to others, whose philosophy is hampered by +the belief that Reason is a mere handmaid to Theology, and whom I seek in +this work especially to benefit. (57) But as there will be many who have +neither the leisure, nor, perhaps, the inclination to read through all I +have written, I feel bound here, as at the end of my treatise, to declare +that I have written nothing, which I do not most willingly submit to the +examination and judgment of my country's rulers, and that I am ready to +retract anything, which they shall decide to be repugnant to the laws or +prejudicial to the public good. (58) I know that I am a man and, as a +man, liable to error, but against error I have taken scrupulous care, and +striven to keep in entire accordance with the laws of my country, with +loyalty, and with morality. +</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a id="chap01"></a> +CHAPTER I. - Of Prophecy +</h2> + +<p> +(1) Prophecy, or revelation is sure knowledge revealed by God to man. (2) A +prophet is one who interprets the revelations of God to those who are unable to +attain to sure knowledge of the matters revealed, and therefore can only +apprehend them by simple faith. +</p> + +<p> +(3) The Hebrew word for prophet is "<i>nabi</i>,"[Endnote 1] i.e. speaker or +interpreter, but in Scripture its meaning is restricted to interpreter of God, +as we may learn from Exodus vii:1, where God says to Moses, "See, I have made +thee a god to Pharaoh, and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet;" implying +that, since in interpreting Moses' words to Pharaoh, Aaron acted the part of a +prophet, Moses would be to Pharaoh as a god, or in the attitude of a god. +</p> + +<p> +(4) Prophets I will treat of in the next chapter, and at present consider +prophecy. +</p> + +<p> +(5) Now it is evident, from the definition above given, that prophecy really +includes ordinary knowledge; for the knowledge which we acquire by our +natural faculties depends on knowledge of God and His eternal laws; but +ordinary knowledge is common to all men as men, and rests on foundations +which all share, whereas the multitude always strains after rarities +and exceptions, and thinks little of the gifts of nature; so that, when +prophecy is talked of, ordinary knowledge is not supposed to be included. +(6) Nevertheless it has as much right as any other to be called Divine, for +God's nature, in so far as we share therein, and God's laws, dictate it to +us; nor does it suffer from that to which we give the preeminence, except in +so far as the latter transcends its limits and cannot be accounted for by +natural laws taken in themselves. (7) In respect to the certainty it +involves, and the source from which it is derived, i.e. God, ordinary +knowledge is no whit inferior to prophetic, unless indeed we believe, or +rather dream, that the prophets had human bodies but superhuman minds, and +therefore that their sensations and consciousness were entirely different +from our own. +</p> + +<p> +(8) But, although ordinary knowledge is Divine, its professors cannot be +called prophets [Endnote 2], for they teach what the rest of mankind could +perceive and apprehend, not merely by simple faith, but as surely and +honourably as themselves. +</p> + +<p> +(9) Seeing then that our mind subjectively contains in itself and partakes +of the nature of God, and solely from this cause is enabled to form notions +explaining natural phenomena and inculcating morality, it follows that we +may rightly assert the nature of the human mind (in so far as it is thus +conceived) to be a primary cause of Divine revelation. (10) All that we +clearly and distinctly understand is dictated to us, as I have just pointed +out, by the idea and nature of God; not indeed through words, but in a way +far more excellent and agreeing perfectly with the nature of the mind, as +all who have enjoyed intellectual certainty will doubtless attest. (11) +Here, however, my chief purpose is to speak of matters having reference to +Scripture, so these few words on the light of reason will suffice. +</p> + +<p> +(12) I will now pass on to, and treat more fully, the other ways and means +by which God makes revelations to mankind, both of that which transcends +ordinary knowledge, and of that within its scope; for there is no reason why +God should not employ other means to communicate what we know already by the +power of reason. +</p> + +<p> +(13) Our conclusions on the subject must be drawn solely from Scripture; for +what can we affirm about matters transcending our knowledge except what is +told us by the words or writings of prophets? (14) And since there are, so +far as I know, no prophets now alive, we have no alternative but to read the +books of prophets departed, taking care the while not to reason from +metaphor or to ascribe anything to our authors which they do not themselves +distinctly state. (15) I must further premise that the Jews never make any +mention or account of secondary, or particular causes, but in a spirit of +religion, piety, and what is commonly called godliness, refer all things +directly to the Deity. (16) For instance if they make money by a +transaction, they say God gave it to them; if they desire anything, they say +God has disposed their hearts towards it; if they think anything, they say +God told them. (17) Hence we must not suppose that everything is prophecy or +revelation which is described in Scripture as told by God to anyone, but +only such things as are expressly announced as prophecy or revelation, or +are plainly pointed to as such by the context. +</p> + +<p> +(18) A perusal of the sacred books will show us that all God's revelations +to the prophets were made through words or appearances, or a combination of +the two. (19) These words and appearances were of two kinds; 1.- real when +external to the mind of the prophet who heard or saw them, 2.- imaginary +when the imagination of the prophet was in a state which led him distinctly +to suppose that he heard or saw them. +</p> + +<p> +(20) With a real voice God revealed to Moses the laws which He wished to be +transmitted to the Hebrews, as we may see from Exodus xxv:22, where God +says, "And there I will meet with thee and I will commune with thee from the +mercy seat which is between the Cherubim." (21) Some sort of real voice must +necessarily have been employed, for Moses found God ready to commune with +him at any time. This, as I shall shortly show, is the only instance of a +real voice. +</p> + +<p> +(22) We might, perhaps, suppose that the voice with which God called Samuel +was real, for in 1 Sam. iii:21, we read, "And the Lord appeared again in +Shiloh, for the Lord revealed Himself to Samuel in Shiloh by the word of the +Lord;" implying that the appearance of the Lord consisted in His making +Himself known to Samuel through a voice; in other words, that Samuel heard +the Lord speaking. (23) But we are compelled to distinguish between the +prophecies of Moses and those of other prophets, and therefore must decide +that this voice was imaginary, a conclusion further supported by the voice's +resemblance to the voice of Eli, which Samuel was in the habit of hearing, +and therefore might easily imagine; when thrice called by the Lord, Samuel +supposed it to have been Eli. +</p> + +<p> +(24) The voice which Abimelech heard was imaginary, for it is written, +Gen. xx:6, "And God said unto him in a dream." (25) So that the will of God +was manifest to him, not in waking, but only in sleep, that is, when the +imagination is most active and uncontrolled. (26) Some of the Jews believe +that the actual words of the Decalogue were not spoken by God, but that the +Israelites heard a noise only, without any distinct words, and during its +continuance apprehended the Ten Commandments by pure intuition; to this +opinion I myself once inclined, seeing that the words of the Decalogue in +Exodus are different from the words of the Decalogue in Deuteronomy, for the +discrepancy seemed to imply (since God only spoke once) that the Ten +Commandments were not intended to convey the actual words of the Lord, but +only His meaning. (27) However, unless we would do violence to Scripture, we +must certainly admit that the Israelites heard a real voice, for Scripture +expressly says, Deut. v:4, "God spake with you face to face," i.e. as two +men ordinarily interchange ideas through the instrumentality of their two +bodies; and therefore it seems more consonant with Holy Writ to suppose that +God really did create a voice of some kind with which the Decalogue was +revealed. (28) The discrepancy of the two versions is treated of in +Chap. VIII. +</p> + +<p> +(29) Yet not even thus is all difficulty removed, for it seems scarcely +reasonable to affirm that a created thing, depending on God in the same +manner as other created things, would be able to express or explain the +nature of God either verbally or really by means of its individual +organism: for instance, by declaring in the first person, "I am the Lord +your God." +</p> + +<p> +(30) Certainly when anyone says with his mouth, "I understand," we do not +attribute the understanding to the mouth, but to the mind of the speaker; +yet this is because the mouth is the natural organ of a man speaking, and +the hearer, knowing what understanding is, easily comprehends, by a +comparison with himself, that the speaker's mind is meant; but if we knew +nothing of God beyond the mere name and wished to commune with Him, and be +assured of His existence, I fail to see how our wish would be satisfied by +the declaration of a created thing (depending on God neither more nor less +than ourselves), "I am the Lord." (31) If God contorted the lips of Moses, +or, I will not say Moses, but some beast, till they pronounced the words, +"I am the Lord," should we apprehend the Lord's existence therefrom? +</p> + +<p> +(32) Scripture seems clearly to point to the belief that God spoke Himself, +having descended from heaven to Mount Sinai for the purpose - and not only +that the Israelites heard Him speaking, but that their chief men beheld Him +(Ex:xxiv.) (33) Further the law of Moses, which might neither be added to +nor curtailed, and which was set up as a national standard of right, nowhere +prescribed the belief that God is without body, or even without form or +figure, but only ordained that the Jews should believe in His existence and +worship Him alone: it forbade them to invent or fashion any likeness of the +Deity, but this was to insure purity of service; because, never having seen +God, they could not by means of images recall the likeness of God, but only +the likeness of some created thing which might thus gradually take the place +of God as the object of their adoration. (34) Nevertheless, the Bible +clearly implies that God has a form, and that Moses when he heard God +speaking was permitted to behold it, or at least its hinder parts. +</p> + +<p> +(35) Doubtless some mystery lurks in this question which we will discuss +more fully below. (36) For the present I will call attention to the passages +in Scripture indicating the means by which God has revealed His laws to man. +</p> + +<p> +(37) Revelation may be through figures only, as in I Chron:xxii., where God +displays his anger to David by means of an angel bearing a sword, and also +in the story of Balaam. +</p> + +<p> +(38) Maimonides and others do indeed maintain that these and every other +instance of angelic apparitions (e.g. to Manoah and to Abraham offering up +Isaac) occurred during sleep, for that no one with his eyes open ever could +see an angel, but this is mere nonsense. (39) The sole object of such +commentators seems to be to extort from Scripture confirmations of +Aristotelian quibbles and their own inventions, a proceeding which I regard +as the acme of absurdity. +</p> + +<p> +(40) In figures, not real but existing only in the prophet's imagination, +God revealed to Joseph his future lordship, and in words and figures He +revealed to Joshua that He would fight for the Hebrews, causing to appear an +angel, as it were the Captain of the Lord's host, bearing a sword, and by +this means communicating verbally. (41) The forsaking of Israel by +Providence was portrayed to Isaiah by a vision of the Lord, the thrice Holy, +sitting on a very lofty throne, and the Hebrews, stained with the mire of +their sins, sunk as it were in uncleanness, and thus as far as possible +distant from God. (42) The wretchedness of the people at the time was thus +revealed, while future calamities were foretold in words. I could cite from +Holy Writ many similar examples, but I think they are sufficiently well +known already. +</p> + +<p> +(43) However, we get a still more clear confirmation of our position in Num +xii:6,7, as follows: "If there be any prophet among you, I the Lord will +make myself known unto him in a vision" (i.e. by appearances and signs, for +God says of the prophecy of Moses that it was a vision without signs), "and +will speak unto him in a dream" (i.e. not with actual words and an actual +voice). (44) "My servant Moses is not so; with him will I speak mouth to +mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches, and the similitude of the +Lord he shall behold," i.e. looking on me as a friend and not afraid, he +speaks with me (cf. Ex xxxiii:17). +</p> + +<p> +(45) This makes it indisputable that the other prophets did not hear a real +voice, and we gather as much from Deut. xxxiv:10: "And there arose not a +prophet since in Israel like unto Moses whom the Lord knew face to face," +which must mean that the Lord spoke with none other; for not even Moses saw +the Lord's face. (46) These are the only media of communication between +God and man which I find mentioned in Scripture, and therefore the only ones +which may be supposed or invented. (47) We may be able quite to comprehend +that God can communicate immediately with man, for without the intervention +of bodily means He communicates to our minds His essence; still, a man who +can by pure intuition comprehend ideas which are neither contained in nor +deducible from the foundations of our natural knowledge, must necessarily +possess a mind far superior to those of his fellow men, nor do I believe +that any have been so endowed save Christ. (48) To Him the ordinances of God +leading men to salvation were revealed directly without words or visions, so +that God manifested Himself to the Apostles through the mind of Christ as He +formerly did to Moses through the supernatural voice. (49) In this sense the +voice of Christ, like the voice which Moses heard, may be called the voice +of God, and it may be said that the wisdom of God (i.e. wisdom more than +human) took upon itself in Christ human nature, and that Christ was the way +of salvation. (50) I must at this juncture declare that those doctrines +which certain churches put forward concerning Christ, I neither affirm nor +deny, for I freely confess that I do not understand them. (51) What I have +just stated I gather from Scripture, where I never read that God appeared to +Christ, or spoke to Christ, but that God was revealed to the Apostles +through Christ; that Christ was the Way of Life, and that the old law was +given through an angel, and not immediately by God; whence it follows that +if Moses spoke with God face to face as a man speaks with his friend (i.e. +by means of their two bodies) Christ communed with God mind to mind. +</p> + +<p> +(52) Thus we may conclude that no one except Christ received the revelations +of God without the aid of imagination, whether in words or vision. (53) +Therefore the power of prophecy implies not a peculiarly perfect mind, but a +peculiarly vivid imagination, as I will show more clearly in the next +chapter. (54) We will now inquire what is meant in the Bible by the +Spirit of God breathed into the prophets, or by the prophets speaking with +the Spirit of God; to that end we must determine the exact signification of +the Hebrew word <i>ruagh</i>, commonly translated spirit. +</p> + +<p> +(55) The word <i>ruagh</i> literally means a wind, <i>e.g.</i> the south +wind, but it is frequently employed in other derivative significations. +It is used as equivalent to, +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(56) (1.) Breath: "Neither is there any spirit in his mouth," Ps. cxxxv:17. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(57) (2.) Life, or breathing: "And his spirit returned to him" + 1 Sam. xxx:12; i.e. he breathed again. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(58) (3.) Courage and strength: "Neither did there remain any more spirit + in any man," Josh. ii:11; "And the spirit entered into me, and + made me stand on my feet," Ezek. ii:2. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(59) (4.) Virtue and fitness: "Days should speak, and multitudes of years + should teach wisdom; but there is a spirit in man," Job xxxii:7; + i.e. wisdom is not always found among old men for I now discover + that it depends on individual virtue and capacity. So, "A man in + whom is the Spirit," Numbers xxvii:18. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(60) (5.) Habit of mind: "Because he had another spirit with him," + Numbers xiv:24; i.e. another habit of mind. "Behold I will pour + out My Spirit unto you," Prov. i:23. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(61) (6.) Will, purpose, desire, impulse: "Whither the spirit was to go, + they went," Ezek. 1:12; "That cover with a covering, but not of My + Spirit," Is. xxx:1; "For the Lord hath poured out on you the + spirit of deep sleep," Is. xxix:10; "Then was their spirit + softened," Judges viii:3; "He that ruleth his spirit, is better + than he that taketh a city," Prov. xvi:32; "He that hath no ru + over his own spirit," Prov. xxv:28; "Your spirit as fire shall + devour you," Isaiah xxxiii:1.<br /> +</p> + +<p> +From the meaning of disposition we get - +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(62) (7.) Passions and faculties. A lofty spirit means pride, a lowly spirit + humility, an evil spirit hatred and melancholy. So, too, the + expressions spirits of jealousy, fornication, wisdom, counsel, + bravery, stand for a jealous, lascivious, wise, prudent, or brave + mind (for we Hebrews use substantives in preference to + adjectives), or these various qualities. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(63) (8.) The mind itself, or the life: "Yea, they have all one spirit," + Eccles. iii:19 "The spirit shall return to God Who gave it." +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(64) (9.) The quarters of the world (from the winds which blow thence), or + even the side of anything turned towards a particular quarter - + Ezek. xxxvii:9; xlii:16, 17, 18, 19, &c. +</p> + +<p> +(65) I have already alluded to the way in which things are referred to God, +and said to be of God. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(66) (1.) As belonging to His nature, and being, as it were, part of Him; + e.g. the power of God, the eyes of God. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(67) (2.) As under His dominion, and depending on His pleasure; thus the + heavens are called the heavens of the Lord, as being His chariot + and habitation. So Nebuchadnezzar is called the servant of God, + Assyria the scourge of God, &c. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(68) (3.) As dedicated to Him, e.g. the Temple of God, a Nazarene of God, + the Bread of God. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(69) (4.) As revealed through the prophets and not through our natural + faculties. In this sense the Mosaic law is called the law of God. +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(70) (5.) As being in the superlative degree. Very high mountains are styled + the mountains of God, a very deep sleep, the sleep of God, &c. In + this sense we must explain Amos iv:11: "I have overthrown you as + the overthrow of the Lord came upon Sodom and Gomorrah," i.e. that + memorable overthrow, for since God Himself is the Speaker, the + passage cannot well be taken otherwise. The wisdom of Solomon is + called the wisdom of God, or extraordinary. The size of the cedars + of Lebanon is alluded to in the Psalmist's expression, "the cedars + of the Lord."<br /> +</p> + +<p> +(71) Similarly, if the Jews were at a loss to understand any phenomenon, or +were ignorant of its cause, they referred it to God. (72) Thus a storm was +termed the chiding of God, thunder and lightning the arrows of God, for it +was thought that God kept the winds confined in caves, His treasuries; thus +differing merely in name from the Greek wind-god Eolus. (73) In like manner +miracles were called works of God, as being especially marvellous; though in +reality, of course, all natural events are the works of God, and take place +solely by His power. (74) The Psalmist calls the miracles in Egypt the works +of God, because the Hebrews found in them a way of safety which they had not +looked for, and therefore especially marvelled at. +</p> + +<p> +(75) As, then, unusual natural phenomena are called works of God, and trees +of unusual size are called trees of God, we cannot wonder that very strong +and tall men, though impious robbers and whoremongers, are in Genesis called +sons of God. +</p> + +<p> +(76) This reference of things wonderful to God was not peculiar to the Jews. +</p> + +<p> +(77) Pharaoh, on hearing the interpretation of his dream, exclaimed that the +mind of the gods was in Joseph. (78) Nebuchadnezzar told Daniel that he +possessed the mind of the holy gods; so also in Latin anything well made is +often said to be wrought with Divine hands, which is equivalent to the +Hebrew phrase, wrought with the hand of God. +</p> + +<p> +(80) We can now very easily understand and explain those passages of +Scripture which speak of the Spirit of God. (81) In some places the +expression merely means a very strong, dry, and deadly wind, as in +Isaiah xl:7, "The grass withereth, the flower fadeth, because the Spirit of +the Lord bloweth upon it." (82) Similarly in Gen. i:2: "The Spirit of the +Lord moved over the face of the waters." (83) At other times it is used as +equivalent to a high courage, thus the spirit of Gideon and of Samson is +called the Spirit of the Lord, as being very bold, and prepared for any +emergency. (84) Any unusual virtue or power is called the Spirit or Virtue +of the Lord, Ex. xxxi:3: "I will fill him (Bezaleel) with the Spirit of the +Lord," i.e., as the Bible itself explains, with talent above man's usual +endowment. (85) So Isa. xi:2: "And the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon +him," is explained afterwards in the text to mean the spirit of wisdom and +understanding, of counsel and might. +</p> + +<p> +(86) The melancholy of Saul is called the melancholy of the Lord, or a very +deep melancholy, the persons who applied the term showing that they +understood by it nothing supernatural, in that they sent for a musician to +assuage it by harp-playing. (87) Again, the "Spirit of the Lord" is used +as equivalent to the mind of man, for instance, Job xxvii:3: "And the Spirit +of the Lord in my nostrils," the allusion being to Gen. ii:7: "And God +breathed into man's nostrils the breath of life." (88) Ezekiel also, +prophesying to the dead, says (xxvii:14), "And I will give to you My Spirit, +and ye shall live;" i.e. I will restore you to life. (89) In Job xxxiv:14, +we read: "If He gather unto Himself His Spirit and breath;" in Gen. vi:3: +"My Spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is flesh," +i.e. since man acts on the dictates of his body, and not the spirit which I +gave him to discern the good, I will let him alone. (90) So, too, Ps. li:12: +"Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me; cast +me not away from Thy presence, and take not Thy Holy Spirit from me." (91) +It was supposed that sin originated only from the body, and that good +impulses come from the mind; therefore the Psalmist invokes the aid of God +against the bodily appetites, but prays that the spirit which the Lord, the +Holy One, had given him might be renewed. (92) Again, inasmuch as the Bible, +in concession to popular ignorance, describes God as having a mind, a heart, +emotions - nay, even a body and breath - the expression Spirit of the Lord +is used for God's mind, disposition, emotion, strength, or breath. +(93) Thus, Isa. xl:13: "Who hath disposed the Spirit of the Lord?" i.e. who, +save Himself, hath caused the mind of the Lord to will anything,? and +Isa. lxiii:10: "But they rebelled, and vexed the Holy Spirit." +</p> + +<p> +(94) The phrase comes to be used of the law of Moses, which in a sense +expounds God's will, Is. lxiii. 11, "Where is He that put His Holy Spirit +within him?" meaning, as we clearly gather from the context, the law of +Moses. (95) Nehemiah, speaking of the giving of the law, says, i:20, +"Thou gavest also thy good Spirit to instruct them." (96) This is referred +to in Deut. iv:6, "This is your wisdom and understanding," and in +Ps. cxliii:10, "Thy good Spirit will lead me into the land of uprightness." +(97) The Spirit of the Lord may mean the breath of the Lord, for breath, no +less than a mind, a heart, and a body are attributed to God in Scripture, as +in Ps. xxxiii:6. (98) Hence it gets to mean the power, strength, or faculty +of God, as in Job xxxiii:4, "The Spirit of the Lord made me," i.e. the +power, or, if you prefer, the decree of the Lord. (99) So the Psalmist in +poetic language declares, xxxiii:6, "By the word of the Lord were the +heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of His mouth," i.e. by +a mandate issued, as it were, in one breath. (100) Also Ps. cxxxix:7, +"Whither shall I go from Thy Spirit, or whither shall I flee from Thy +presence?" i.e. whither shall I go so as to be beyond Thy power and Thy +presence? +</p> + +<p> +(101) Lastly, the Spirit of the Lord is used in Scripture to express the +emotions of God, e.g. His kindness and mercy, Micah ii:7, "Is the Spirit +[i.e. the mercy] of the Lord straitened? (102) Are these cruelties His +doings?" (103) Zech. iv:6, "Not by might or by power, but My Spirit [i.e. +mercy], saith the Lord of hosts." (104) The twelfth verse of the seventh +chapter of the same prophet must, I think, be interpreted in like manner: +"Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the +law, and the words which the Lord of hosts hath sent in His Spirit [i.e. in +His mercy] by the former prophets." (105) So also Haggai ii:5: "So My Spirit +remaineth among you: fear not." +</p> + +<p> +(106) The passage in Isaiah xlviii:16, "And now the Lord and His Spirit hath +sent me," may be taken to refer to God's mercy or His revealed law; for the +prophet says, "From the beginning" (i.e. from the time when I first came to +you, to preach God's anger and His sentence forth against you) "I spoke not +in secret; from the time that it was, there am I," and now I am sent by +the mercy of God as a joyful messenger to preach your restoration. (107) Or +we may understand him to mean by the revealed law that he had before come to +warn them by the command of the law (Levit. xix:17) in the same manner under +the same conditions as Moses had warned them, that now, like Moses, he ends +by preaching their restoration. (108) But the first explanation seems to me +the best. +</p> + +<p> +(109) Returning, then, to the main object of our discussion, we find that +the Scriptural phrases, "The Spirit of the Lord was upon a prophet," "The +Lord breathed His Spirit into men," "Men were filled with the Spirit of God, +with the Holy Spirit," &c., are quite clear to us, and mean that prophets +were endowed with a peculiar and extraordinary power, and devoted themselves +to piety with especial constancy(3); that thus they perceived the mind or +the thought of God, for we have shown that God's Spirit signifies in Hebrew +God's mind or thought, and that the law which shows His mind and thought is +called His Spirit; hence that the imagination of the prophets, inasmuch as +through it were revealed the decrees of God, may equally be called the mind +of God, and the prophets be said to have possessed the mind of God. (110) On +our minds also the mind of God and His eternal thoughts are impressed; but +this being the same for all men is less taken into account, especially by +the Hebrews, who claimed a pre-eminence, and despised other men and other +men's knowledge. +</p> + +<p> +(111) Lastly, the prophets were said to possess the Spirit of God because +men knew not the cause of prophetic knowledge, and in their wonder referred +it with other marvels directly to the Deity, styling it Divine knowledge. +</p> + +<p> +(112) We need no longer scruple to affirm that the prophets only +perceived God's revelation by the aid of imagination, that is, by words and +figures either real or imaginary. (113) We find no other means mentioned in +Scripture, and therefore must not invent any. (114) As to the particular law +of Nature by which the communications took place, I confess my ignorance. +(115) I might, indeed, say as others do, that they took place by the power +of God; but this would be mere trifling, and no better than explaining some +unique specimen by a transcendental term. (116) Everything takes place by +the power of God. (117) Nature herself is the power of God under another +name, and our ignorance of the power of God is co-extensive with our +ignorance of Nature. (118) It is absolute folly, therefore, to ascribe an +event to the power of God when we know not its natural cause, which is the +power of God. +</p> + +<p> +(119) However, we are not now inquiring into the causes of prophetic +knowledge. (120) We are only attempting, as I have said, to examine the +Scriptural documents, and to draw our conclusions from them as from ultimate +natural facts; the causes of the documents do not concern us. +</p> + +<p> +(121) As the prophets perceived the revelations of God by the aid of +imagination, they could indisputably perceive much that is beyond the +boundary of the intellect, for many more ideas can be constructed from words +and figures than from the principles and notions on which the whole fabric +of reasoned knowledge is reared. +</p> + +<p> +(122) Thus we have a clue to the fact that the prophets perceived nearly +everything in parables and allegories, and clothed spiritual truths in +bodily forms, for such is the usual method of imagination. (122) We need no +longer wonder that Scripture and the prophets speak so strangely and +obscurely of God's Spirit or Mind (cf. Numbers xi:17, 1 Kings xxii:21, &c.), +that the Lord was seen by Micah as sitting, by Daniel as an old man clothed +in white, by Ezekiel as a fire, that the Holy Spirit appeared to those with +Christ as a descending dove, to the apostles as fiery tongues, to Paul on +his conversion as a great light. (124) All these expressions are plainly in +harmony with the current ideas of God and spirits. +</p> + +<p> +(125) Inasmuch as imagination is fleeting and inconstant, we find that the +power of prophecy did not remain with a prophet for long, nor manifest +itself frequently, but was very rare; manifesting itself only in a few men, +and in them not often. +</p> + +<p> +(126) We must necessarily inquire how the prophets became assured of the +truth of what they perceived by imagination, and not by sure mental laws; +but our investigation must be confined to Scripture, for the subject is one +on which we cannot acquire certain knowledge, and which we cannot explain by +the immediate causes. (127) Scripture teaching about the assurance of +prophets I will treat of in the next chapter. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a id="chap02"></a> +CHAPTER II. - OF PROPHETS. +</h2> + +<p> +(1) It follows from the last chapter that, as I have said, the prophets were +endowed with unusually vivid imaginations, and not with unusually perfect +minds. (2) This conclusion is amply sustained by Scripture, for we are told +that Solomon was the wisest of men, but had no special faculty of prophecy. +(3) Heman, Calcol, and Dara, though men of great talent, were not prophets, +whereas uneducated countrymen, nay, even women, such as Hagar, Abraham's +handmaid, were thus gifted. (4) Nor is this contrary to ordinary experience +and reason. (5) Men of great imaginative power are less fitted for abstract +reasoning, whereas those who excel in intellect and its use keep their +imagination more restrained and controlled, holding it in subjection, so to +speak, lest it should usurp the place of reason. +</p> + +<p> +(6) Thus to suppose that knowledge of natural and spiritual phenomena can be +gained from the prophetic books, is an utter mistake, which I shall +endeavour to expose, as I think philosophy, the age, and the question itself +demand. (7) I care not for the girdings of superstition, for superstition is +the bitter enemy, of all true knowledge and true morality. (8) Yes; it has +come to this! (9) Men who openly confess that they can form no idea of God, +and only know Him through created things, of which they know not the causes, +can unblushingly accuse philosophers of Atheism. +</p> + +<p> +(10) Treating the question methodically, I will show that prophecies +varied, not only according to the imagination and physical temperament +of the prophet, but also according to his particular opinions; and +further that prophecy never rendered the prophet wiser than he was +before. (11) But I will first discuss the assurance of truth which the +prophets received, for this is akin to the subject-matter of the +chapter, and will serve to elucidate somewhat our present point. +</p> + +<p> +(12) Imagination does not, in its own nature, involve any certainty of +truth, such as is implied in every clear and distinct idea, but requires +some extrinsic reason to assure us of its objective reality: hence prophecy +cannot afford certainty, and the prophets were assured of God's revelation +by some sign, and not by the fact of revelation, as we may see from Abraham, +who, when he had heard the promise of God, demanded a sign, not because he +did not believe in God, but because he wished to be sure that it was God Who +made the promise. (13) The fact is still more evident in the case of Gideon: +"Show me," he says to God, "show me a sign, that I may know that it is Thou +that talkest with me." (14) God also says to Moses: "And let this be a +sign that I have sent thee." (15) Hezekiah, though he had long known Isaiah +to be a prophet, none the less demanded a sign of the cure which he +predicted. (15) It is thus quite evident that the prophets always received +some sign to certify them of their prophetic imaginings; and for this reason +Moses bids the Jews (Deut. xviii.) ask of the prophets a sign, namely, the +prediction of some coming event. (16) In this respect, prophetic knowledge +is inferior to natural knowledge, which needs no sign, and in itself implies +certitude. (17) Moreover, Scripture warrants the statement that the +certitude of the prophets was not mathematical, but moral. (18) Moses lays +down the punishment of death for the prophet who preaches new gods, even +though he confirm his doctrine by signs and wonders (Deut. xiii.); "For," he +says, "the Lord also worketh signs and wonders to try His people." (19) And +Jesus Christ warns His disciples of the same thing (Matt. xxiv:24). (20) +Furthermore, Ezekiel (xiv:9) plainly states that God sometimes deceives +men with false revelations; and Micaiah bears like witness in the case of +the prophets of Ahab. +</p> + +<p> +(21) Although these instances go to prove that revelation is open to doubt, +it nevertheless contains, as we have said, a considerable element of +certainty, for God never deceives the good, nor His chosen, but (according +to the ancient proverb, and as appears in the history of Abigail and her +speech), God uses the good as instruments of goodness, and the wicked as +means to execute His wrath. (22) This may be seen from the case of Micaiah +above quoted; for although God had determined to deceive Ahab, through +prophets, He made use of lying prophets; to the good prophet He revealed the +truth, and did not forbid his proclaiming it. +</p> + +<p> +(23) Still the certitude of prophecy, remains, as I have said, merely, +moral; for no one can justify himself before God, nor boast that he is an +instrument for God's goodness. (24) Scripture itself teaches and shows that +God led away David to number the people, though it bears ample +witness to David's piety. +</p> + +<p> +(25) The whole question of the certitude of prophecy, was based on these +three considerations: +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> + 1. That the things revealed were imagined very vividly, affecting the + prophets in the same way as things seen when awake; +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> + 2. The presence of a sign; +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> + 3. Lastly, and chiefly, that the mind of the prophet was given wholly, + to what was right and good. +</p> + +<p> +(26) Although Scripture does not always make mention of a sign, we must +nevertheless suppose that a sign was always vouchsafed; for Scripture does +not always relate every condition and circumstance (as many have +remarked), but rather takes them for granted. (27) We may, however, admit +that no sign was needed when the prophecy declared nothing that was not +already contained in the law of Moses, because it was confirmed by that law. +(28) For instance, Jeremiah's prophecy, of the destruction of Jerusalem was +confirmed by the prophecies of other prophets, and by the threats in the +law, and, therefore, it needed no sign; whereas Hananiah, who, contrary to +all the prophets, foretold the speedy restoration of the state, stood in +need of a sign, or he would have been in doubt as to the truth of his +prophecy, until it was confirmed by facts. (29) "The prophet which +prophesieth of peace, when the word of the prophet shall come to +pass, then shall the prophet be known that the Lord hath truly sent him." +</p> + +<p> +(30) As, then, the certitude afforded to the prophet by signs was not +mathematical (i.e. did not necessarily follow from the perception of the +thing perceived or seen), but only moral, and as the signs were only given +to convince the prophet, it follows that such signs were given according to +the opinions and capacity of each prophet, so that a sign which +convince one prophet would fall far short of convincing another who was +imbued with different opinions. (31) Therefore the signs varied according to +the individual prophet. +</p> + +<p> +(32) So also did the revelation vary, as we have stated, according to +individual disposition and temperament, and according to the opinions +previously held. +</p> + +<p> +(33) It varied according to disposition, in this way: if a prophet was +cheerful, victories, peace, and events which make men glad, were revealed to +him; in that he was naturally more likely to imagine such things. (34) If, +on the contrary, he was melancholy, wars, massacres, and calamities were +revealed; and so, according as a prophet was merciful, gentle, quick to +anger, or severe, he was more fitted for one kind of revelation than +another. (35) It varied according to the temper of imagination in this way: +if a prophet was cultivated he perceived the mind of God in a cultivated +way, if he was confused he perceived it confusedly. (36) And so with +revelations perceived through visions. (37) If a prophet was a countryman he +saw visions of oxen, cows, and the like; if he was a soldier, he saw +generals and armies; if a courtier, a royal throne, and so on. +</p> + +<p> +(38) Lastly, prophecy varied according to the opinions held by the prophets; +for instance, to the Magi, who believed in the follies of astrology, the +birth of Christ was revealed through the vision of a star in the East. (39) +To the augurs of Nebuchadnezzar the destruction of Jerusalem was revealed +through entrails, whereas the king himself inferred it from oracles and the +direction of arrows which he shot into the air. (40) To prophets who +believed that man acts from free choice and by his own power, God was +revealed as standing apart from and ignorant of future human actions. (41) +All of which we will illustrate from Scripture. +</p> + +<p> +(42) The first point is proved from the case of Elisha, who, in order to +prophecy to Jehoram, asked for a harp, and was unable to perceive the Divine +purpose till he had been recreated by its music; then, indeed, he prophesied +to Jehoram and to his allies glad tidings, which previously he had been +unable to attain to because he was angry with the king, and these who are +angry with anyone can imagine evil of him, but not good. (43) The theory +that God does not reveal Himself to the angry or the sad, is a mere dream: +for God revealed to Moses while angry, the terrible slaughter of the +firstborn, and did so without the intervention of a harp. (44) To Cain in +his rage, God was revealed, and to Ezekiel, impatient with anger, was +revealed the contumacy and wretchedness of the Jews. (45) Jeremiah, +miserable and weary of life, prophesied the disasters of the Hebrews, so +that Josiah would not consult him, but inquired of a woman, inasmuch as it +was more in accordance with womanly nature that God should reveal His mercy +thereto. (46) So, Micaiah never prophesied good to Ahab, though other true +prophets had done so, but invariably evil. (46) Thus we see that individual +prophets were by temperament more fitted for one sort of revelation than +another. +</p> + +<p> +(47) The style of the prophecy also varied according to the eloquence of the +individual prophet. (48) The prophecies of Ezekiel and Amos are not written +in a cultivated style like those of Isaiah and Nahum, but more rudely. (49) +Any Hebrew scholar who wishes to inquire into this point more closely, and +compares chapters of the different prophets treating of the same subject, +will find great dissimilarity of style. (50) Compare, for instance, chap. i. +of the courtly Isaiah, verse 11 to verse 20, with chap. v. of the countryman +Amos, verses 21-24. (51) Compare also the order and reasoning of the +prophecies of Jeremiah, written in Idumaea (chap. xlix.), with the order and +reasoning of Obadiah. (52) Compare, lastly, Isa. xl:19, 20, and xliv:8, with +Hosea viii:6, and xiii:2. And so on. +</p> + +<p> +(53) A due consideration of these passage will clearly show us that God has +no particular style in speaking, but, according to the learning and capacity +of the prophet, is cultivated, compressed, severe, untutored, prolix, or +obscure. +</p> + +<p> +(54) There was, moreover, a certain variation in the visions vouchsafed to +the prophets, and in the symbols by which they expressed them, for Isaiah +saw the glory of the Lord departing from the Temple in a different form from +that presented to Ezekiel. (55) The Rabbis, indeed, maintain that both +visions were really the same, but that Ezekiel, being a countryman, was +above measure impressed by it, and therefore set it forth in full detail; +but unless there is a trustworthy tradition on the subject, which I do not +for a moment believe, this theory is plainly an invention. Isaiah saw +seraphim with six wings, Ezekiel beasts with four wings; Isaiah saw God +clothed and sitting on a royal throne, Ezekiel saw Him in the likeness of a +fire; each doubtless saw God under the form in which he usually imagined +Him. +</p> + +<p> +(56) Further, the visions varied in clearness as well as in details; for the +revelations of Zechariah were too obscure to be understood by the prophet +without explanation, as appears from his narration of them; the visions of +Daniel could not be understood by him even after they had been explained, +and this obscurity did not arise from the difficulty of the matter revealed +(for being merely human affairs, these only transcended human capacity in +being future), but solely in the fact that Daniel's imagination was not so +capable for prophecy while he was awake as while he was asleep; and this is +further evident from the fact that at the very beginning of the vision he +was so terrified that he almost despaired of his strength. (57) Thus, on +account of the inadequacy of his imagination and his strength, the things +revealed were so obscure to him that he could not understand them even after +they had been explained. (58) Here we may note that the words heard by +Daniel, were, as we have shown above, simply imaginary, so that it is hardly +wonderful that in his frightened state he imagined them so confusedly and +obscurely that afterwards he could make nothing of them. (59) Those who say +that God did not wish to make a clear revelation, do not seem to have read +the words of the angel, who expressly says that he came to make the prophet +understand what should befall his people in the latter days (Dan. x:14). +</p> + +<p> +(60) The revelation remained obscure because no one was found, at that time, +with imagination sufficiently strong to conceive it more clearly. (61) +Lastly, the prophets, to whom it was revealed that God would take away +Elijah, wished to persuade Elisha that he had been taken somewhere where +they would find him; showing sufficiently clearly that they had not +understood God's revelation aright. +</p> + +<p> +(62) There is no need to set this out more amply, for nothing is more plain +in the Bible than that God endowed some prophets with far greater gifts of +prophecy than others. (63) But I will show in greater detail and length, for +I consider the point more important, that the prophecies varied according to +the opinions previously embraced by the prophets, and that the prophets held +diverse and even contrary opinions and prejudices. (64) (I speak, be it +understood, solely of matters speculative, for in regard to uprightness and +morality the case is widely different.) (65) From thence I shall conclude +that prophecy never rendered the prophets more learned, but left them with +their former opinions, and that we are, therefore, not at all bound to +trust them in matters of intellect. +</p> + +<p> +(66) Everyone has been strangely hasty in affirming that the prophets knew +everything within the scope of human intellect; and, although certain +passages of Scripture plainly affirm that the prophets were in certain +respects ignorant, such persons would rather say that they do not +understand the passages than admit that there was anything which the +prophets did not know; or else they try to wrest the Scriptural words away +from their evident meaning. +</p> + +<p> +(67) If either of these proceedings is allowable we may as well shut our +Bibles, for vainly shall we attempt to prove anything from them if their +plainest passages may be classed among obscure and impenetrable mysteries, +or if we may put any interpretation on them which we fancy. (68) For +instance, nothing is more clear in the Bible than that Joshua, and perhaps +also the author who wrote his history, thought that the sun revolves round +the earth, and that the earth is fixed, and further that the sun for a +certain period remained still. (69) Many, who will not admit any movement in +the heavenly bodies, explain away the passage till it seems to mean +something quite different; others, who have learned to philosophize more +correctly, and understand that the earth moves while the sun is still, or at +any rate does not revolve round the earth, try with all their might to wrest +this meaning from Scripture, though plainly nothing of the sort is +intended. (70) Such quibblers excite my wonder! (71) Are we, forsooth, bound +to believe that Joshua the Soldier was a learned astronomer? or that a +miracle could not be revealed to him, or that the light of the sun could not +remain longer than usual above the horizon, without his knowing the cause? +(72) To me both alternatives appear ridiculous, and therefore I would +rather say, that Joshua was ignorant of the true cause of the lengthened +day, and that he and the whole host with him thought that the sun moved +round the earth every day, and that on that particular occasion it stood +still for a time, thus causing the light to remain longer; and I would +say, that they did not conjecture that, from the amount of snow in the air +(see Josh. x:11), the refraction may have been greater than usual, or that +there may have been some other cause which we will not now inquire into. +</p> + +<p> +(73) So also the sign of the shadow going back was revealed to Isaiah +according to his understanding; that is, as proceeding from a going +backwards of the sun; for he, too, thought that the sun moves and that the +earth is still; of parhelia he perhaps never even dreamed. (74) We may +arrive at this conclusion without any scruple, for the sign could really +have come to pass, and have been predicted by Isaiah to the king, without +the prophet being aware of the real cause. +</p> + +<p> +(75) With regard to the building of the Temple by Solomon, if it was really +dictated by God we must maintain the same doctrine: namely, that all the +measurements were revealed according to the opinions and understanding of +the king; for as we are not bound to believe that Solomon was a +mathematician, we may affirm that he was ignorant of the true ratio between +the circumference and the diameter of a circle, and that, like the +generality of workmen, he thought that it was as three to one. (76) But if +it is allowable to declare that we do not understand the passage, in good +sooth I know nothing in the Bible that we can understand; for the process of +building is there narrated simply and as a mere matter of history. (77) If, +again, it is permitted to pretend that the passage has another meaning, and +was written as it is from some reason unknown to us, this is no less than a +complete subversal of the Bible; for every absurd and evil invention of +human perversity could thus, without detriment to Scriptural authority, be +defended and fostered. (78) Our conclusion is in no wise impious, for though +Solomon, Isaiah, Joshua, &c. were prophets, they were none the less men, and +as such not exempt from human shortcomings. +</p> + +<p> +(79) According to the understanding of Noah it was revealed to him that God +as about to destroy the whole human race, for Noah thought that beyond the +limits of Palestine the world was not inhabited. +</p> + +<p> +(80) Not only in matters of this kind, but in others more important, the +prophets could be, and in fact were, ignorant; for they taught nothing special +about the Divine attributes, but held quite ordinary notions about God, and to +these notions their revelations were adapted, as I will demonstrate by ample +Scriptural testimony; from all which one may easily see that they were praised +and commended, not so much for the sublimity and eminence of their intellect as +for their piety and faithfulness. +</p> + +<p> +(81) Adam, the first man to whom God was revealed, did not know that He is +omnipotent and omniscient; for he hid himself from Him, and attempted to +make excuses for his fault before God, as though he had had to do with a +man; therefore to him also was God revealed according to his understanding - +that is, as being unaware of his situation or his sin, for Adam +heard, or seemed to hear, the Lord walking in the garden, calling him and +asking him where he was; and then, on seeing his shamefacedness, asking him +whether he had eaten of the forbidden fruit. (82) Adam evidently only knew +the Deity as the Creator of all things. (83) To Cain also God was revealed, +according to his understanding, as ignorant of human affairs, nor was a +higher conception of the Deity required for repentance of his sin. +</p> + +<p> +(83) To Laban the Lord revealed Himself as the God of Abraham, because Laban +believed that each nation had its own special divinity (see Gen. xxxi:29). +(84) Abraham also knew not that God is omnipresent, and has foreknowledge of +all things; for when he heard the sentence against the inhabitants of Sodom, +he prayed that the Lord should not execute it till He had ascertained +whether they all merited such punishment; for he said (see Gen. xviii:24), +"Peradventure there be fifty righteous within the city," and in accordance +with this belief God was revealed to him; as Abraham imagined, He spake +thus: "I will go down now, and see whether they have done altogether +according to the cry of it which is come unto Me; and, if not, I will know." +(85) Further, the Divine testimony concerning Abraham asserts nothing but +that he was obedient, and that he "commanded his household after him that +they should keep the way of the Lord" (Gen. xviii:19); it does not state +that he held sublime conceptions of the Deity. +</p> + +<p> +(86) Moses, also, was not sufficiently aware that God is omniscient, and +directs human actions by His sole decree, for although God Himself says that +the Israelites should hearken to Him, Moses still considered the matter +doubtful and repeated, "But if they will not believe me, nor hearken unto my +voice." (87) To him in like manner God was revealed as taking no part in, +and as being ignorant of, future human actions: the Lord gave him two signs +and said, "And it shall come to pass that if they will not believe thee, +neither hearken to the voice of the first sign, that they will believe the +voice of the latter sign; but if not, thou shalt take of the water of the +river," &c. (88) Indeed, if any one considers without prejudice the recorded +opinions of Moses, he will plainly see that Moses conceived the Deity as a +Being Who has always existed, does exist, and always will exist, and for +this cause he calls Him by the name Jehovah, which in Hebrew signifies these +three phases of existence: as to His nature, Moses only taught that He is +merciful, gracious, and exceeding jealous, as appears from many passages in +the Pentateuch. (89) Lastly, he believed and taught that this Being was so +different from all other beings, that He could not be expressed by the image +of any visible thing; also, that He could not be looked upon, and that not +so much from inherent impossibility as from human infirmity; further, that +by reason of His power He was without equal and unique. (90) Moses admitted, +indeed, that there were beings (doubtless by the plan and command of the +Lord) who acted as God's vicegerents - that is, beings to whom God had given +the right, authority, and power to direct nations, and to provide and care +for them; but he taught that this Being Whom they were bound to obey was +the highest and Supreme God, or (to use the Hebrew phrase) God of gods, and +thus in the song (Exod. xv:11) he exclaims, "Who is like unto Thee, O Lord, +among the gods?" and Jethro says (Exod. xviii:11), "Now I know that the Lord +is greater than all gods." (91) That is to say, "I am at length compelled to +admit to Moses that Jehovah is greater than all gods, and that His power +is unrivalled." (92) We must remain in doubt whether Moses thought that +these beings who acted as God's vicegerents were created by Him, for he +has stated nothing, so far as we know, about their creation and origin. (93) +He further taught that this Being had brought the visible world into order +from Chaos, and had given Nature her germs, and therefore that He +possesses supreme right and power over all things; further, that by reason +of this supreme right and power He had chosen for Himself alone the Hebrew +nation and a certain strip of territory, and had handed over to the care of +other gods substituted by Himself the rest of the nations and territories, +and that therefore He was called the God of Israel and the God of Jerusalem, +whereas the other gods were called the gods of the Gentiles. (94) For this +reason the Jews believed that the strip of territory which God had chosen +for Himself, demanded a Divine worship quite apart and different from the +worship which obtained elsewhere, and that the Lord would not suffer the +worship of other gods adapted to other countries. (95) Thus they thought +that the people whom the king of Assyria had brought into Judaea were torn +in pieces by lions because they knew not the worship of the National +Divinity (2 Kings xvii:25). +</p> + +<p> +(96) Jacob, according to Aben Ezra's opinion, therefore admonished his sons +when he wished them to seek out a new country, that they should prepare +themselves for a new worship, and lay aside the worship of strange gods - +that is, of the gods of the land where they were (Gen. xxxv:2, 3). +</p> + +<p> +(97) David, in telling Saul that he was compelled by the king's persecution +to live away from his country, said that he was driven out from the heritage +of the Lord, and sent to worship other gods (1 Sam. xxvi:19). (98) Lastly, +he believed that this Being or Deity had His habitation in the heavens +(Deut. xxxiii:27), an opinion very common among the Gentiles. +</p> + +<p> +(99) If we now examine the revelations to Moses, we shall find that they +were accommodated to these opinions; as he believed that the Divine Nature +was subject to the conditions of mercy, graciousness, &c., so God was +revealed to him in accordance with his idea and under these attributes (see +Exodus xxxiv:6, 7, and the second commandment). (100) Further it is related +(Ex. xxxiii:18) that Moses asked of God that he might behold Him, but as +Moses (as we have said) had formed no mental image of God, and God (as I +have shown) only revealed Himself to the prophets in accordance with the +disposition of their imagination, He did not reveal Himself in any form. +(101) This, I repeat, was because the imagination of Moses was unsuitable, +for other prophets bear witness that they saw the Lord; for instance, +Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, &c. (102) For this reason God answered Moses, "Thou +canst not see My face;" and inasmuch as Moses believed that God can be +looked upon - that is, that no contradiction of the Divine nature is therein +involved (for otherwise he would never have preferred his request) - it is +added, "For no one shall look on Me and live," thus giving a reason in +accordance with Moses' idea, for it is not stated that a contradiction of +the Divine nature would be involved, as was really the case, but that the +thing would not come to pass because of human infirmity. +</p> + +<p> +(103) When God would reveal to Moses that the Israelites, because they +worshipped the calf, were to be placed in the same category as other +nations, He said (ch. xxxiii:2, 3), that He would send an angel (that is, a +being who should have charge of the Israelites, instead of the Supreme +Being), and that He Himself would no longer remain among them; thus leaving +Moses no ground for supposing that the Israelites were more beloved by God +than the other nations whose guardianship He had entrusted to other beings +or angels (vide verse 16). +</p> + +<p> +(104) Lastly, as Moses believed that God dwelt in the heavens, God was +revealed to him as coming down from heaven on to a mountain, and in order to +talk with the Lord Moses went up the mountain, which he certainly need not +have done if he could have conceived of God as omnipresent. +</p> + +<p> +(105) The Israelites knew scarcely anything of God, although He was revealed +to them; and this is abundantly evident from their transferring, a few days +afterwards, the honour and worship due to Him to a calf, which they believed +to be the god who had brought them out of Egypt. (106) In truth, it is +hardly likely that men accustomed to the superstitions of Egypt, +uncultivated and sunk in most abject slavery, should have held any sound +notions about the Deity, or that Moses should have taught them anything +beyond a rule of right living; inculcating it not like a philosopher, as the +result of freedom, but like a lawgiver compelling them to be moral by +legal authority. (107) Thus the rule of right living, the worship and love +of God, was to them rather a bondage than the true liberty, the gift and +grace of the Deity. (108) Moses bid them love God and keep His law, because +they had in the past received benefits from Him (such as the +deliverance from slavery in Egypt), and further terrified them with threats +if they transgressed His commands, holding out many promises of good if they +should observe them; thus treating them as parents treat irrational +children. It is, therefore, certain that they knew not the excellence of +virtue and the true happiness. +</p> + +<p> +(109) Jonah thought that he was fleeing from the sight of God, which seems +to show that he too held that God had entrusted the care of the nations +outside Judaea to other substituted powers. (110) No one in the whole of the +Old Testament speaks more rationally of God than Solomon, who in fact +surpassed all the men of his time in natural ability. (111) Yet he +considered himself above the law (esteeming it only to have been given for +men without reasonable and intellectual grounds for their actions), and made +small account of the laws concerning kings, which are mainly three: nay, he +openly violated them (in this he did wrong, and acted in a manner unworthy +of a philosopher, by indulging in sensual pleasure), and taught that all +Fortune's favours to mankind are vanity, that humanity has no nobler gift +than wisdom, and no greater punishment than folly. +(112) See Proverbs xvi:22, 23. +</p> + +<p> +(113) But let us return to the prophets whose conflicting opinions we have +undertaken to note. +</p> + +<p> +(114) The expressed ideas of Ezekiel seemed so diverse from those of Moses to +the Rabbis who have left us the extant prophetic books (as is told in the +treatise of Sabbathus, i:13, 2), that they had serious thoughts of omitting his +prophecy from the canon, and would doubtless have thus excluded it if a certain +Hananiah had not undertaken to explain it; a task which (as is there narrated) +he with great zeal and labour accomplished. (115) How he did so does not +sufficiently appear, whether it was by writing a commentary which has now +perished, or by altering Ezekiel's words and audaciously striking out phrases +according to his fancy. (116) However this may be, chapter xviii. certainly +does not seem to agree with Exodus xxxiv:7, Jeremiah xxxii:18, &c. +</p> + +<p> +(117 ) Samuel believed that the Lord never repented of anything He had +decreed (1 Sam. xv:29), for when Saul was sorry for his sin, and wished to +worship God and ask for forgiveness, Samuel said that the Lord would not go +back from his decree. +</p> + +<p> +(118) To Jeremiah, on the other hand, it was revealed that, "If that nation +against whom I (the Lord) have pronounced, turn from their evil, I will +repent of the evil that I thought to do unto them. (119) If it do evil in my +sight, that it obey not my voice, then I will repent of the good wherewith I +said I would benefit them" (Jer. xviii:8-10). (120) Joel (ii:13) taught that +the Lord repented Him only of evil. (121) Lastly, it is clear from Gen iv: 7 +that a man can overcome the temptations of sin, and act righteously; for +this doctrine is told to Cain, though, as we learn from Josephus and the +Scriptures, he never did so overcome them. (122) And this agrees with the +chapter of Jeremiah just cited, for it is there said that the Lord repents +of the good or the evil pronounced, if the men in question change their ways +and manner of life. (123) But, on the other hand, Paul (Rom.ix:10) teaches +as plainly as possible that men have no control over the temptations of the +flesh save by the special vocation and grace of God. (124) And when +(Rom. iii:5 and vi:19) he attributes righteousness to man, he corrects +himself as speaking merely humanly and through the infirmity of the flesh. +</p> + +<p> +(125) We have now more than sufficiently proved our point, that God adapted +revelations to the understanding and opinions of the prophets, and that in +matters of theory without bearing on charity or morality the prophets could +be, and, in fact, were, ignorant, and held conflicting opinions. (126) It +therefore follows that we must by no means go to the prophets for knowledge, +either of natural or of spiritual phenomena. +</p> + +<p> +(127) We have determined, then, that we are only bound to believe in the +prophetic writings, the object and substance of the revelation; with regard +to the details, every one may believe or not, as he likes. +</p> + +<p> +(128) For instance, the revelation to Cain only teaches us that God +admonished him to lead the true life, for such alone is the object and +substance of the revelation, not doctrines concerning free will and +philosophy. (129) Hence, though the freedom of the will is clearly implied +in the words of the admonition, we are at liberty to hold a contrary +opinion, since the words and reasons were adapted to the understanding of +Cain. +</p> + +<p> +(130) So, too, the revelation to Micaiah would only teach that God revealed +to him the true issue of the battle between Ahab and Aram; and this is all +we are bound to believe. (131) Whatever else is contained in the revelation +concerning the true and the false Spirit of God, the army of heaven standing +on the right hand and on the left, and all the other details, does not +affect us at all. (132) Everyone may believe as much of it as his reason +allows. +</p> + +<p> +(132) The reasonings by which the Lord displayed His power to Job (if they +really were a revelation, and the author of the history is narrating, and +not merely, as some suppose, rhetorically adorning his own conceptions), +would come under the same category - that is, they were adapted to Job's +understanding, for the purpose of convincing him, and are not universal, +or for the convincing of all men. +</p> + +<p> +(133) We can come to no different conclusion with respect to the reasonings +of Christ, by which He convicted the Pharisees of pride and ignorance, and +exhorted His disciples to lead the true life. (134) He adapted them to each +man's opinions and principles. (135) For instance, when He said to the +Pharisees (Matt. xii:26), "And if Satan cast out devils, his house is +divided against itself, how then shall his kingdom stand?" (136) He only +wished to convince the Pharisees according, to their own principles, not to +teach that there are devils, or any kingdom of devils. (137) So, too, +when He said to His disciples (Matt. viii:10), "See that ye despise not one +of these little ones, for I say unto you that their angels," &c., He merely +desired to warn them against pride and despising any of their fellows, not +to insist on the actual reason given, which was simply adopted in order to +persuade them more easily. +</p> + +<p> +(138) Lastly, we should say exactly the same of the apostolic signs and +reasonings, but there is no need to go further into the subject. (139) If I +were to enumerate all the passages of Scripture addressed only to +individuals, or to a particular man's understanding, and which cannot, +without great danger to philosophy, be defended as Divine doctrines, I +should go far beyond the brevity at which I aim. (140) Let it suffice, then, +to have indicated a few instances of general application, and let the +curious reader consider others by himself. (141) Although the points we +have just raised concerning prophets and prophecy are the only ones which +have any direct bearing on the end in view, namely, the separation of +Philosophy from Theology, still, as I have touched on the general question, +I may here inquire whether the gift of prophecy was peculiar to the Hebrews, +or whether it was common to all nations. (142) I must then come to a +conclusion about the vocation of the Hebrews, all of which I shall do in the +ensuing chapter. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a id="chap03"></a> +CHAPTER III. OF THE VOCATION OF THE HEBREWS, AND<br /> +WHETHER THE GIFT OF PROPHECY WAS PECULIAR TO THEM. +</h2> + +<p> +(1) Every man's true happiness and blessedness consist solely in the +enjoyment of what is good, not in the pride that he alone is enjoying it, to +the exclusion of others. (2) He who thinks himself the more blessed because +he is enjoying benefits which others are not, or because he is more blessed +or more fortunate than his fellows, is ignorant of true happiness and +blessedness, and the joy which he feels is either childish or envious and +malicious. (3) For instance, a man's true happiness consists only in wisdom, +and the knowledge of the truth, not at all in the fact that he is wiser than +others, or that others lack such knowledge: such considerations do not +increase his wisdom or true happiness. +</p> + +<p> +(4) Whoever, therefore, rejoices for such reasons, rejoices in another's +misfortune, and is, so far, malicious and bad, knowing neither true +happiness nor the peace of the true life. +</p> + +<p> +(5) When Scripture, therefore, in exhorting the Hebrews to obey the law, +says that the Lord has chosen them for Himself before other nations +(Deut. x:15); that He is near them, but not near others (Deut. iv:7); that +to them alone He has given just laws (Deut. iv:8); and, lastly, that He has +marked them out before others (Deut. iv:32); it speaks only according to the +understanding of its hearers, who, as we have shown in the last chapter, and +as Moses also testifies (Deut. ix:6, 7), knew not true blessedness. (6) For +in good sooth they would have been no less blessed if God had called all men +equally to salvation, nor would God have been less present to them for being +equally present to others; their laws, would have been no less just if they +had been ordained for all, and they themselves would have been no less wise. +(7) The miracles would have shown God's power no less by being wrought for +other nations also; lastly, the Hebrews would have been just as much bound +to worship God if He had bestowed all these gifts equally on all men. +</p> + +<p> +(8) When God tells Solomon (1 Kings iii:12) that no one shall be as wise as +he in time to come, it seems to be only a manner of expressing surpassing +wisdom; it is little to be believed that God would have promised Solomon, +for his greater happiness, that He would never endow anyone with so much +wisdom in time to come; this would in no wise have increased Solomon's +intellect, and the wise king would have given equal thanks to the Lord if +everyone had been gifted with the same faculties. +</p> + +<p> +(9) Still, though we assert that Moses, in the passages of the Pentateuch +just cited, spoke only according to the understanding of the Hebrews, we +have no wish to deny that God ordained the Mosaic law for them alone, nor +that He spoke to them alone, nor that they witnessed marvels beyond those +which happened to any other nation; but we wish to emphasize that +Moses desired to admonish the Hebrews in such a manner, and with such +reasonings as would appeal most forcibly to their childish understanding, +and constrain them to worship the Deity. (10) Further, we wished to show +that the Hebrews did not surpass other nations in knowledge, or in piety, +but evidently in some attribute different from these; or (to speak like the +Scriptures, according to their understanding), that the Hebrews were not +chosen by God before others for the sake of the true life and sublime ideas, +though they were often thereto admonished, but with some other object. (11) +What that object was, I will duly show. +</p> + +<p> +(12) But before I begin, I wish in a few words to explain what I mean by the +guidance of God, by the help of God, external and inward, and, lastly, what +I understand by fortune. +</p> + +<p> +(13) By the help of God, I mean the fixed and unchangeable order of nature +or the chain of natural events: for I have said before and shown elsewhere +that the universal laws of nature, according to which all things exist and +are determined, are only another name for the eternal decrees of God, which +always involve eternal truth and necessity. +</p> + +<p> +(14) So that to say that everything happens according to natural laws, and +to say that everything is ordained by the decree and ordinance of God, is +the same thing. (15) Now since the power in nature is identical with the +power of God, by which alone all things happen and are determined, it +follows that whatsoever man, as a part of nature, provides himself with to +aid and preserve his existence, or whatsoever nature affords him without his +help, is given to him solely by the Divine power, acting either through +human nature or through external circumstance. (16) So whatever human nature +can furnish itself with by its own efforts to preserve its existence, may +be fitly called the inward aid of God, whereas whatever else accrues to +man's profit from outward causes may be called the external aid of God. +</p> + +<p> +(17) We can now easily understand what is meant by the election of God. (18) +For since no one can do anything save by the predetermined order of nature, +that is by God's eternal ordinance and decree, it follows that no one can +choose a plan of life for himself, or accomplish any work save by God's +vocation choosing him for the work or the plan of life in question, rather +than any other. (19) Lastly, by fortune, I mean the ordinance of God in so +far as it directs human life through external and unexpected means. (20) +With these preliminaries I return to my purpose of discovering the reason +why the Hebrews were said to be elected by God before other nations, and +with the demonstration I thus proceed. +</p> + +<p> +(21) All objects of legitimate desire fall, generally speaking, under one +of these three categories: +</p> + +<p> + 1. The knowledge of things through their primary causes.<br /> + 2. The government of the passions, or the acquirement of the habit of + virtue.<br /> + 3. Secure and healthy life.<br /> +</p> + +<p> +(22) The means which most directly conduce towards the first two of these +ends, and which may be considered their proximate and efficient causes are +contained in human nature itself, so that their acquisition hinges only on +our own power, and on the laws of human nature. (23) It may be concluded +that these gifts are not peculiar to any nation, but have always been shared +by the whole human race, unless, indeed, we would indulge the dream that +nature formerly created men of different kinds. (24) But the means which +conduce to security and health are chiefly in external circumstance, and are +called the gifts of fortune because they depend chiefly on objective causes +of which we are ignorant; for a fool may be almost as liable to happiness +or unhappiness as a wise man. (25) Nevertheless, human management and +watchfulness can greatly assist towards living in security and warding off +the injuries of our fellow-men, and even of beasts. (26) Reason and +experience show no more certain means of attaining this object than +the formation of a society with fixed laws, the occupation of a strip of +territory and the concentration of all forces, as it were, into one body, +that is the social body. (27) Now for forming and preserving a society, no +ordinary ability and care is required: that society will be most +secure, most stable, and least liable to reverses, which is founded and +directed by far-seeing and careful men; while, on the other hand, a society +constituted by men without trained skill, depends in a great measure on +fortune, and is less constant. (28) If, in spite of all, such a society +lasts a long time, it is owing to some other directing influence than its +own; if it overcomes great perils and its affairs prosper, it will perforce +marvel at and adore the guiding Spirit of God (in so far, that is, as God +works through hidden means, and not through the nature and mind of man), +for everything happens to it unexpectedly and contrary to anticipation, it +may even be said and thought to be by miracle. (29) Nations, then, are +distinguished from one another in respect to the social organization and the +laws under which they live and are governed; the Hebrew nation was not +chosen by God in respect to its wisdom nor its tranquillity of mind, but in +respect to its social organization and the good fortune with which it +obtained supremacy and kept it so many years. (30) This is abundantly clear +from Scripture. Even a cursory perusal will show us that the only respects +in which the Hebrews surpassed other nations, are in their successful +conduct of matters relating to government, and in their surmounting great +perils solely by God's external aid; in other ways they were on a par with +their fellows, and God was equally gracious to all. (31) For in respect to +intellect (as we have shown in the last chapter) they held very ordinary +ideas about God and nature, so that they cannot have been God's chosen in +this respect; nor were they so chosen in respect of virtue and the true +life, for here again they, with the exception of a very few elect, were on +an equality with other nations: therefore their choice and vocation +consisted only in the temporal happiness and advantages of independent rule. +(32) In fact, we do not see that God promised anything beyond this to the +patriarchs [Endnote 4] or their successors; in the law no other reward is +offered for obedience than the continual happiness of an independent +commonwealth and other goods of this life; while, on the other hand, against +contumacy and the breaking of the covenant is threatened the downfall of the +commonwealth and great hardships. (33) Nor is this to be wondered at; for +the ends of every social organization and commonwealth are (as appears from +what we have said, and as we will explain more at length hereafter) security +and comfort; a commonwealth can only exist by the laws being binding on all. +(34) If all the members of a state wish to disregard the law, by that very +fact they dissolve the state and destroy the commonwealth. (35) Thus, the +only reward which could be promised to the Hebrews for continued obedience +to the law was security [Endnote 5] and its attendant advantages, while no +surer punishment could be threatened for disobedience, than the ruin of the +state and the evils which generally follow therefrom, in addition to such +further consequences as might accrue to the Jews in particular from the ruin +of their especial state. (36) But there is no need here to go into this +point at more length. (37) I will only add that the laws of the Old +Testament were revealed and ordained to the Jews only, for as God chose them +in respect to the special constitution of their society and government, they +must, of course, have had special laws. (38) Whether God ordained special +laws for other nations also, and revealed Himself to their lawgivers +prophetically, that is, under the attributes by which the latter were +accustomed to imagine Him, I cannot sufficiently determine. (39) It is +evident from Scripture itself that other nations acquired supremacy and +particular laws by the external aid of God; witness only the two following +passages: +</p> + +<p> +(40) In Genesis xiv:18, 19, 20, it is related that Melchisedek was king of +Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God, that in exercise of his priestly +functions he blessed Abraham, and that Abraham the beloved of the Lord gave +to this priest of God a tithe of all his spoils. (41) This sufficiently +shows that before He founded the Israelitish nation God constituted kings +and priests in Jerusalem, and ordained for them rites and laws. (42) Whether +He did so prophetically is, as I have said, not sufficiently clear; but I am +sure of this, that Abraham, whilst he sojourned in the city, lived +scrupulously according to these laws, for Abraham had received no special +rites from God; and yet it is stated (Gen. xxvi:5), that he observed the +worship, the precepts, the statutes, and the laws of God, which must be +interpreted to mean the worship, the statutes, the precepts, and the laws of +king Melchisedek. (43) Malachi chides the Jews as follows (i:10-11.): "Who +is there among you that will shut the doors? [of the Temple]; neither do ye +kindle fire on mine altar for nought. (44) I have no pleasure in you, saith +the Lord of Hosts. (45) For from the rising of the sun, even until the going +down of the same My Name shall be great among the Gentiles; and in every +place incense shall be offered in My Name, and a pure offering; for My Name +is great among the heathen, saith the Lord of Hosts." (46) These words, +which, unless we do violence to them, could only refer to the current +period, abundantly testify that the Jews of that time were not more beloved +by God than other nations, that God then favoured other nations with more +miracles than He vouchsafed to the Jews, who had then partly recovered their +empire without miraculous aid; and, lastly, that the Gentiles possessed +rites and ceremonies acceptable to God. (47) But I pass over these points +lightly: it is enough for my purpose to have shown that the election of the +Jews had regard to nothing but temporal physical happiness and freedom, in +other words, autonomous government, and to the manner and means by which +they obtained it; consequently to the laws in so far as they were +necessary to the preservation of that special government; and, lastly, to +the manner in which they were revealed. In regard to other matters, wherein +man's true happiness consists, they were on a par with the rest of the +nations. +</p> + +<p> +(48) When, therefore, it is said in Scripture (Deut. iv:7) that the Lord is +not so nigh to any other nation as He is to the Jews, reference is only made +to their government, and to the period when so many miracles happened to +them, for in respect of intellect and virtue - that is, in respect of +blessedness - God was, as we have said already, and are now demonstrating, +equally gracious to all. (49) Scripture itself bears testimony to this fact, +for the Psalmist says (cxlv:18), "The Lord is near unto all them that call +upon Him, to all that call upon Him in truth." (50) So in the same Psalm, +verse 9, "The Lord is good to all, and His tender mercies are over all +His works." In Ps. xxxiii:16, it is clearly stated that God has granted to +all men the same intellect, in these words, "He fashioneth their hearts +alike." The heart was considered by the Hebrews, as I suppose everyone +knows, to be the seat of the soul and the intellect. +</p> + +<p> +(51) Lastly, from Job xxxviii:28, it is plain that God had ordained for the +whole human race the law to reverence God, to keep from evil doing, or to do +well, and that Job, although a Gentile, was of all men most acceptable to +God, because he exceeded all in piety and religion. (52) Lastly, from Jonah +iv:2, it is very evident that, not only to the Jews but to all men, God was +gracious, merciful, long-suffering, and of great goodness, and repented Him +of the evil, for Jonah says: "Therefore I determined to flee before unto +Tarshish, for I know that Thou art a gracious God, and merciful, slow to +anger, and of great kindness," &c., and that, therefore, God would pardon +the Ninevites. (53) We conclude, therefore (inasmuch as God is to all men +equally gracious, and the Hebrews were only chosen by him in respect to +their social organization and government), that the individual Jew, taken +apart from his social organization and government, possessed no +gift of God above other men, and that there was no difference between Jew +and Gentile. (54) As it is a fact that God is equally gracious, merciful, +and the rest, to all men; and as the function of the prophet was to teach +men not so much the laws of their country, as true virtue, and to exhort +them thereto, it is not to be doubted that all nations possessed prophets, +and that the prophetic gift was not peculiar to the Jews. (55) Indeed, +history, both profane and sacred, bears witness to the fact. (56) Although, +from the sacred histories of the Old Testament, it is not evident that the +other nations had as many prophets as the Hebrews, or that any Gentile +prophet was expressly sent by God to the nations, this does not affect the +question, for the Hebrews were careful to record their own affairs, not +those of other nations. (57) It suffices, then, that we find in the Old +Testament Gentiles, and uncircumcised, as Noah, Enoch, Abimelech, +Balaam, &c., exercising prophetic gifts; further, that Hebrew prophets were +sent by God, not only to their own nation but to many others also. (58) +Ezekiel prophesied to all the nations then known; Obadiah to none, that we +are aware of, save the Idumeans; and Jonah was chiefly the prophet to the +Ninevites. (59) Isaiah bewails and predicts the calamities, and hails the +restoration not only of the Jews but also of other nations, for he says +(chap. xvi:9), "Therefore I will bewail Jazer with weeping;" and in chap. +xix. he foretells first the calamities and then the restoration of +the Egyptians (see verses 19, 20, 21, 25), saying that God shall send them a +Saviour to free them, that the Lord shall be known in Egypt, and, further, +that the Egyptians shall worship God with sacrifice and oblation; and, at +last, he calls that nation the blessed Egyptian people of God; all of which +particulars are specially noteworthy. +</p> + +<p> +(60) Jeremiah is called, not the prophet of the Hebrew nation, but simply +the prophet of the nations (see Jer. i.5). (61) He also mournfully foretells +the calamities of the nations, and predicts their restoration, for he says +(xlviii. 31) of the Moabites, "Therefore will I howl for Moab, and I will +cry out for all Moab" (verse 36), "and therefore mine heart shall sound +for Moab like pipes;" in the end he prophesies their restoration, as also +the restoration of the Egyptians, Ammonites, and Elamites. (62) Wherefore it +is beyond doubt that other nations also, like the Jews, had their +prophets, who prophesied to them. +</p> + +<p> +(63) Although Scripture only, makes mention of one man, Balaam, to whom the +future of the Jews and the other nations was revealed, we must not suppose +that Balaam prophesied only once, for from the narrative itself it is +abundantly clear that he had long previously been famous for prophesy and +other Divine gifts. (64) For when Balak bade him to come to him, he said +(Num. xxii:6), "For I know that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he +whom thou cursest is cursed." (65) Thus we see that he possessed the gift +which God had bestowed on Abraham. Further, as accustomed to prophesy, +Balaam bade the messengers wait for him till the will of the Lord was +revealed to him. (66) When he prophesied, that is, when he interpreted +the true mind of God, he was wont to say this of himself: "He hath said, +which heard the words of God and knew the knowledge of the Most High, which +saw the vision of the Almighty falling into a trance, but having his eyes +open." (67) Further, after he had blessed the Hebrews by the command of God, +he began (as was his custom) to prophesy to other nations, and to predict +their future; all of which abundantly shows that he had always been a +prophet, or had often prophesied, and (as we may also remark here) possessed +that which afforded the chief certainty to prophets of the truth of their +prophecy, namely, a mind turned wholly to what is right and good, for he did +not bless those whom he wished to bless, nor curse those whom he wished to +curse, as Balak supposed, but only those whom God wished to be blessed or +cursed. (68) Thus he answered Balak: "If Balak should give me his house full +of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the Lord to do +either good or bad of my own mind; but what the Lord saith, that will I +speak." (69) As for God being angry with him in the way, the same happened +to Moses when he set out to Egypt by the command of the Lord; and as to his +receiving money for prophesying, Samuel did the same (1 Sam. ix:7, 8); if in +anyway he sinned, "there is not a just man upon earth that doeth good and +sinneth not," Eccles. vii:20. (Vide 2 Epist. Peter ii:15, 16, and +Jude 5:11.) +</p> + +<p> +(70) His speeches must certainly have had much weight with God, and His +power for cursing must assuredly have been very great from the number of +times that we find stated in Scripture, in proof of God's great mercy to the +Jews, that God would not hear Balaam, and that He changed the cursing to +blessing (see Deut. xxiii:6, Josh. xxiv:10, Neh. xiii:2). (71) Wherefore he +was without doubt most acceptable to God, for the speeches and cursings of +the wicked move God not at all. (72) As then he was a true prophet, and +nevertheless Joshua calls him a soothsayer or augur, it is certain that this +title had an honourable signification, and that those whom the Gentiles +called augurs and soothsayers were true prophets, while those whom Scripture +often accuses and condemns were false soothsayers, who deceived the +Gentiles as false prophets deceived the Jews; indeed, this is made evident +from other passages in the Bible, whence we conclude that the gift of +prophecy was not peculiar to the Jews, but common to all nations. (73) The +Pharisees, however, vehemently contend that this Divine gift was peculiar to +their nation, and that the other nations foretold the future (what will +superstition invent next?) by some unexplained diabolical faculty. (74) The +principal passage of Scripture which they cite, by way of confirming their +theory with its authority, is Exodus xxxiii:16, where Moses says to God, +"For wherein shall it be known here that I and Thy people have found grace +in Thy sight? is it not in that Thou goest with us? so shall we be +separated, I and Thy people, from all the people that are upon the face of +the earth." (75) From this they would infer that Moses asked of God that He +should be present to the Jews, and should reveal Himself to them +prophetically; further, that He should grant this favour to no other nation. +(76) It is surely absurd that Moses should have been jealous of God's +presence among the Gentiles, or that he should have dared to ask any such +thing. (77) The fact is, as Moses knew that the disposition and spirit of his +nation was rebellious, he clearly saw that they could not carry out what +they had begun without very great miracles and special external aid from +God; nay, that without such aid they must necessarily perish: as it was +evident that God wished them to be preserved, he asked for this special +external aid. (78) Thus he says (Ex. xxxiv:9), "If now I have found grace in +Thy sight, O Lord, let my Lord, I pray Thee, go among us; for it is a +stiffnecked people." (79) The reason, therefore, for his seeking special +external aid from God was the stiffneckedness of the people, and it is made +still more plain, that he asked for nothing beyond this special external aid +by God's answer - for God answered at once (verse 10 of the same chapter) - +"Behold, I make a covenant: before all Thy people I will do marvels, such as +have not been done in all the earth, nor in any nation." (80) Therefore +Moses had in view nothing beyond the special election of the Jews, as I have +explained it, and made no other request to God. (81) I confess that in +Paul's Epistle to the Romans, I find another text which carries more weight, +namely, where Paul seems to teach a different doctrine from that here set +down, for he there says (Rom. iii:1): "What advantage then hath the Jew? or +what profit is there of circumcision? (82) Much every way: chiefly, because +that unto them were committed the oracles of God." +</p> + +<p> +(83) But if we look to the doctrine which Paul especially desired to teach, +we shall find nothing repugnant to our present contention; on the contrary, +his doctrine is the same as ours, for he says (Rom. iii:29) "that God is the +God of the Jews and of the Gentiles, and" (ch. ii:25, 26) "But, +if thou be a breaker of the law, thy circumcision is made uncircumcision. +(84) Therefore if the uncircumcision keep the righteousness of the law, +shall not his uncircumcision be counted for circumcision?" (85) Further, in +chap. iv:verse 9, he says that all alike, Jew and Gentile, were under sin, +and that without commandment and law there is no sin. (86) Wherefore it is +most evident that to all men absolutely was revealed the law under which all +lived - namely, the law which has regard only to true virtue, not the law +established in respect to, and in the formation of a particular state and +adapted to the disposition of a particular people. (87) Lastly, Paul +concludes that since God is the God of all nations, that is, is equally +gracious to all, and since all men equally live under the law and under sin, +so also to all nations did God send His Christ, to free all men equally from +the bondage of the law, that they should no more do right by the +command of the law, but by the constant determination of their hearts. (88) +So that Paul teaches exactly the same as ourselves. (89) When, therefore, he +says "To the Jews only were entrusted the oracles of God," we must either +understand that to them only were the laws entrusted in writing, while they +were given to other nations merely in revelation and conception, or else (as +none but Jews would object to the doctrine he desired to advance) that Paul +was answering only in accordance with the understanding and current ideas of +the Jews, for in respect to teaching things which he had partly seen, partly +heard, he was to the Greeks a Greek, and to the Jews a Jew. +</p> + +<p> +(90) It now only remains to us to answer the arguments of those who would +persuade themselves that the election of the Jews was not temporal, and +merely in respect of their commonwealth, but eternal; for, they say, we see +the Jews after the loss of their commonwealth, and after being scattered so +many years and separated from all other nations, still surviving, which is +without parallel among other peoples, and further the Scriptures seem to +teach that God has chosen for Himself the Jews for ever, so that though they +have lost their commonwealth, they still nevertheless remain God's elect. +</p> + +<p> +(91) The passages which they think teach most clearly this eternal election, are chiefly: +(1.) Jer. xxxi:36, where the prophet testifies that the seed of Israel +shall for ever remain the nation of God, comparing them with the +stability of the heavens and nature; +</p> + +<p> +(2.) Ezek. xx:32, where the prophet seems to intend that though the Jews +wanted after the help afforded them to turn their backs on the worship of +the Lord, that God would nevertheless gather them together again from all +the lands in which they were dispersed, and lead them to the wilderness of +the peoples - as He had led their fathers to the wilderness of the land of +Egypt - and would at length, after purging out from among them the rebels +and transgressors, bring them thence to his Holy mountain, where the whole +house of Israel should worship Him. Other passages are also cited, +especially by the Pharisees, but I think I shall satisfy everyone if I +answer these two, and this I shall easily accomplish after showing from +Scripture itself that God chose not the Hebrews for ever, but only on the +condition under which He had formerly chosen the Canaanites, for these last, +as we have shown, had priests who religiously worshipped God, and whom God +at length rejected because of their luxury, pride, and corrupt worship. +</p> + +<p> +(92) Moses (Lev. xviii:27) warned the Israelites that they be not polluted +with whoredoms, lest the land spue them out as it had spued out the nations +who had dwelt there before, and in Deut. viii:19, 20, in the plainest terms +He threatens their total ruin, for He says, "I testify against you that ye +shall surely perish. (93) As the nations which the Lord destroyeth before +your face, so shall ye perish." In like manner many other passages are found +in the law which expressly show that God chose the Hebrews neither +absolutely nor for ever. (94) If, then, the prophets foretold for them a new +covenant of the knowledge of God, love, and grace, such a promise is easily +proved to be only made to the elect, for Ezekiel in the chapter which we +have just quoted expressly says that God will separate from them the +rebellious and transgressors, and Zephaniah (iii:12, 13), says that "God +will take away the proud from the midst of them, and leave the poor." (95) +Now, inasmuch as their election has regard to true virtue, it is not to be +thought that it was promised to the Jews alone to the exclusion of others, +but we must evidently believe that the true Gentile prophets (and every +nation, as we have shown, possessed such) promised the same to the faithful +of their own people, who were thereby comforted. (96) Wherefore this eternal +covenant of the knowledge of God and love is universal, as is clear, +moreover, from Zeph. iii:10, 11: no difference in this respect can be +admitted between Jew and Gentile, nor did the former enjoy any special +election beyond that which we have pointed out. +</p> + +<p> +(97) When the prophets, in speaking of this election which regards only true +virtue, mixed up much concerning sacrifices and ceremonies, and the +rebuilding of the temple and city, they wished by such figurative +expressions, after the manner and nature of prophecy, to expound matters +spiritual, so as at the same time to show to the Jews, whose prophets they +were, the true restoration of the state and of the temple to be expected +about the time of Cyrus. +</p> + +<p> +(98) At the present time, therefore, there is absolutely nothing which the +Jews can arrogate to themselves beyond other people. +</p> + +<p> +(99) As to their continuance so long after dispersion and the loss of +empire, there is nothing marvellous in it, for they so separated themselves +from every other nation as to draw down upon themselves universal hate, not +only by their outward rites, rites conflicting with those of other nations, +but also by the sign of circumcision which they most scrupulously observe. +</p> + +<p> +(100) That they have been preserved in great measure by Gentile hatred, +experience demonstrates. (101) When the king of Spain formerly +compelled the Jews to embrace the State religion or to go into exile, a +large number of Jews accepted Catholicism. (102) Now, as these renegades +were admitted to all the native privileges of Spaniards, and deemed worthy +of filling all honourable offices, it came to pass that they straightway +became so intermingled with the Spaniards as to leave of themselves no relic +or remembrance. (103) But exactly the opposite happened to those whom the +king of Portugal compelled to become Christians, for they always, though +converted, lived apart, inasmuch as they were considered unworthy of any +civic honours. +</p> + +<p> +(104) The sign of circumcision is, as I think, so important, that I could +persuade myself that it alone would preserve the nation for ever. (105) Nay, +I would go so far as to believe that if the foundations of their religion +have not emasculated their minds they may even, if occasion offers, so +changeable are human affairs, raise up their empire afresh, and that God may +a second time elect them. +</p> + +<p> +(106) Of such a possibility we have a very famous example in the Chinese. +(107) They, too, have some distinctive mark on their heads which they most +scrupulously observe, and by which they keep themselves apart from everyone +else, and have thus kept themselves during so many thousand years that they +far surpass all other nations in antiquity. (108) They have not always +retained empire, but they have recovered it when lost, and doubtless will do +so again after the spirit of the Tartars becomes relaxed through the luxury +of riches and pride. +</p> + +<p> +(109) Lastly, if any one wishes to maintain that the Jews, from this or from +any other cause, have been chosen by God for ever, I will not gainsay him if +he will admit that this choice, whether temporary or eternal, has no regard, +in so far as it is peculiar to the Jews, to aught but dominion and physical +advantages (for by such alone can one nation be distinguished from +another), whereas in regard to intellect and true virtue, every nation is on +a par with the rest, and God has not in these respects chosen one people +rather than another. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a id="chap04"></a> +CHAPTER IV. - OF THE DIVINE LAW. +</h2> + +<p> +(1) The word law, taken in the abstract, means that by which an individual, +or all things, or as many things as belong to a particular species, act in +one and the same fixed and definite manner, which manner depends either on +natural necessity or on human decree. (2) A law which depends on natural +necessity is one which necessarily follows from the nature, or from the +definition of the thing in question; a law which depends on human decree, +and which is more correctly called an ordinance, is one which men have laid +down for themselves and others in order to live more safely or conveniently, +or from some similar reason. +</p> + +<p> +(3) For example, the law that all bodies impinging on lesser bodies, lose as +much of their own motion as they communicate to the latter is a universal +law of all bodies, and depends on natural necessity. (4) So, too, the law +that a man in remembering one thing, straightway remembers another either +like it, or which he had perceived simultaneously with it, is a law which +necessarily follows from the nature of man. (5) But the law that men must +yield, or be compelled to yield, somewhat of their natural right, and that +they bind themselves to live in a certain way, depends on human decree. (6) +Now, though I freely admit that all things are predetermined by universal +natural laws to exist and operate in a given, fixed, and definite +manner, I still assert that the laws I have just mentioned depend on human +decree. +</p> + +<p> +(1.) (7) Because man, in so far as he is a part of nature, constitutes a +part of the power of nature. (8) Whatever, therefore, follows necessarily +from the necessity of human nature (that is, from nature herself, in so far +as we conceive of her as acting through man) follows, even though it be +necessarily, from human power. (9) Hence the sanction of such laws may very +well be said to depend on man's decree, for it principally depends on the +power of the human mind; so that the human mind in respect to its perception +of things as true and false, can readily be conceived as without such laws, +but not without necessary law as we have just defined it. +</p> + +<p> +(2.) (10) I have stated that these laws depend on human decree because it is +well to define and explain things by their proximate causes. (11) The +general consideration of fate and the concatenation of causes would aid us +very little in forming and arranging our ideas concerning particular +questions. (12) Let us add that as to the actual coordination and +concatenation of things, that is how things are ordained and linked +together, we are obviously ignorant; therefore, it is more profitable for +right living, nay, it is necessary for us to consider things as contingent. +(13) So much about law in the abstract. +</p> + +<p> +(14) Now the word law seems to be only applied to natural phenomena by +analogy, and is commonly taken to signify a command which men can either +obey or neglect, inasmuch as it restrains human nature within certain +originally exceeded limits, and therefore lays down no rule beyond human +strength. (15) Thus it is expedient to define law more particularly as a +plan of life laid down by man for himself or others with a certain object. +</p> + +<p> +(16) However, as the true object of legislation is only perceived by a few, +and most men are almost incapable of grasping it, though they live under its +conditions, legislators, with a view to exacting general obedience, have +wisely put forward another object, very different from that which +necessarily follows from the nature of law: they promise to the observers of +the law that which the masses chiefly desire, and threaten its violators +with that which they chiefly fear: thus endeavouring to restrain the masses, +as far as may be, like a horse with a curb; whence it follows that the word +law is chiefly applied to the modes of life enjoined on men by the sway of +others; hence those who obey the law are said to live under it and to be +under compulsion. (17) In truth, a man who renders everyone their due +because he fears the gallows, acts under the sway and compulsion of others, +and cannot be called just. (18) But a man who does the same from a knowledge +of the true reason for laws and their necessity, acts from a firm purpose +and of his own accord, and is therefore properly called just. (19) This, I +take it, is Paul's meaning when he says, that those who live under the law +cannot be justified through the law, for justice, as commonly defined, is +the constant and perpetual will to render every man his due. (20) Thus +Solomon says (Prov. xxi:15), "It is a joy to the just to do judgment," but +the wicked fear. +</p> + +<p> +(21) Law, then, being a plan of living which men have for a certain object +laid down for themselves or others, may, as it seems, be divided into human +law and Divine law. +</p> + +<p> +(22) By human law I mean a plan of living which serves only to render life +and the state secure. (23) By Divine law I mean that which only regards the +highest good, in other words, the true knowledge of God and love. +</p> + +<p> +(24) I call this law Divine because of the nature of the highest good, which +I will here shortly explain as clearly as I can. +</p> + +<p> +(25) Inasmuch as the intellect is the best part of our being, it is evident +that we should make every effort to perfect it as far as possible if we +desire to search for what is really profitable to us. (26) For in +intellectual perfection the highest good should consist. (27) Now, since all +our knowledge, and the certainty which removes every doubt, depend solely on +the knowledge of God;- firstly, because without God nothing can exist or be +conceived; secondly, because so long as we have no clear and distinct idea +of God we may remain in universal doubt - it follows that our highest good +and perfection also depend solely on the knowledge of God. (28) Further, +since without God nothing can exist or be conceived, it is evident that all +natural phenomena involve and express the conception of God as far as their +essence and perfection extend, so that we have greater and more perfect +knowledge of God in proportion to our knowledge of natural phenomena: +conversely (since the knowledge of an effect through its cause is the same +thing as the knowledge of a particular property of a cause) the greater our +knowledge of natural phenomena, the more perfect is our knowledge of the +essence of God (which is the cause of all things). (29) So, then, our +highest good not only depends on the knowledge of God, but wholly consists +therein; and it further follows that man is perfect or the reverse in +proportion to the nature and perfection of the object of his special desire; +hence the most perfect and the chief sharer in the highest blessedness is he +who prizes above all else, and takes especial delight in, the intellectual +knowledge of God, the most perfect Being. +</p> + +<p> +(30) Hither, then, our highest good and our highest blessedness aim - +namely, to the knowledge and love of God; therefore the means demanded by +this aim of all human actions, that is, by God in so far as the idea of him +is in us, may be called the commands of God, because they proceed, as it +were, from God Himself, inasmuch as He exists in our minds, and the plan of +life which has regard to this aim may be fitly called the law of God. +</p> + +<p> +(31) The nature of the means, and the plan of life which this aim demands, +how the foundations of the best states follow its lines, and how men's life +is conducted, are questions pertaining to general ethics. (32) Here I only +proceed to treat of the Divine law in a particular application. +</p> + +<p> +(33) As the love of God is man's highest happiness and blessedness, and the +ultimate end and aim of all human actions, it follows that he alone lives by +the Divine law who loves God not from fear of punishment, or from love of +any other object, such as sensual pleasure, fame, or the like; but solely +because he has knowledge of God, or is convinced that the knowledge and love +of God is the highest good. (34) The sum and chief precept, then, of the +Divine law is to love God as the highest good, namely, as we have said, not +from fear of any pains and penalties, or from the love of any other object +in which we desire to take pleasure. (35) The idea of God lays down +the rule that God is our highest good - in other words, that the knowledge +and love of God is the ultimate aim to which all our actions should be +directed. (36) The worldling cannot understand these things, they appear +foolishness to him, because he has too meager a knowledge of God, and also +because in this highest good he can discover nothing which he can handle or +eat, or which affects the fleshly appetites wherein he chiefly delights, for +it consists solely in thought and the pure reason. (37) They, on the other +hand, who know that they possess no greater gift than intellect and sound +reason, will doubtless accept what I have said without question. +</p> + +<p> +(38) We have now explained that wherein the Divine law chiefly consists, and +what are human laws, namely, all those which have a different aim +unless they have been ratified by revelation, for in this respect also +things are referred to God (as we have shown above) and in this sense the +law of Moses, although it was not universal, but entirely adapted to the +disposition and particular preservation of a single people, may yet be +called a law of God or Divine law, inasmuch as we believe that it was +ratified by prophetic insight. (39) If we consider the nature of natural +Divine law as we have just explained it, we shall see: +</p> + +<p> +(40) I.- That it is universal or common to all men, for we have deduced it +from universal human nature. +</p> + +<p> +(41) II. That it does not depend on the truth of any historical narrative +whatsoever, for inasmuch as this natural Divine law is comprehended solely +by the consideration of human nature, it is plain that we can conceive it as +existing as well in Adam as in any other man, as well in a man living among +his fellows, as in a man who lives by himself. +</p> + +<p> +(42) The truth of a historical narrative, however assured, cannot give us +the knowledge nor consequently the love of God, for love of God springs from +knowledge of Him, and knowledge of Him should be derived from general ideas, +in themselves certain and known, so that the truth of a historical narrative +is very far from being a necessary requisite for our attaining our highest +good. +</p> + +<p> +(43) Still, though the truth of histories cannot give us the knowledge and +love of God, I do not deny that reading them is very useful with a view to +life in the world, for the more we have observed and known of men's customs +and circumstances, which are best revealed by their actions, the more warily +we shall be able to order our lives among them, and so far as reason +dictates to adapt our actions to their dispositions. +</p> + +<p> +(44) III. We see that this natural Divine law does not demand the +performance of ceremonies - that is, actions in themselves indifferent, +which are called good from the fact of their institution, or actions +symbolizing something profitable for salvation, or (if one prefers this +definition) actions of which the meaning surpasses human understanding. (45) +The natural light of reason does not demand anything which it is itself +unable to supply, but only such as it can very clearly show to be good, or a +means to our blessedness. (46) Such things as are good simply because they +have been commanded or instituted, or as being symbols of something good, +are mere shadows which cannot be reckoned among actions that are the +offsprings as it were, or fruit of a sound mind and of intellect. (47) There +is no need for me to go into this now in more detail. +</p> + +<p> +(48) IV. Lastly, we see that the highest reward of the Divine law is the law +itself, namely, to know God and to love Him of our free choice, and with an +undivided and fruitful spirit; while its penalty is the absence of these +things, and being in bondage to the flesh - that is, having an inconstant +and wavering spirit. +</p> + +<p> +(49) These points being noted, I must now inquire: +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(50) I. Whether by the natural light of reason we can conceive of + God as a law-giver or potentate ordaining laws for men? +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(51) II. What is the teaching of Holy Writ concerning this + natural light of reason and natural law? +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(52) III. With what objects were ceremonies formerly instituted? +</p> + +<p class="bullet"> +(53) IV. Lastly, what is the good gained by knowing the + sacred histories and believing them? +</p> + +<p> +(54) Of the first two I will treat in this chapter, of the remaining two +in the following one. +</p> + +<p> +(55) Our conclusion about the first is easily deduced from the nature of +God's will, which is only distinguished from His understanding in relation +to our intellect - that is, the will and the understanding of God are in +reality one and the same, and are only distinguished in relation to +our thoughts which we form concerning God's understanding. (56) For +instance, if we are only looking to the fact that the nature of a triangle +is from eternity contained in the Divine nature as an eternal verity, we say +that God possesses the idea of a triangle, or that He understands the +nature of a triangle; but if afterwards we look to the fact that the nature +of a triangle is thus contained in the Divine nature, solely by the +necessity of the Divine nature, and not by the necessity of the nature and +essence of a triangle - in fact, that the necessity of a triangle's essence +and nature, in so far as they are conceived of as eternal verities, depends +solely on the necessity of the Divine nature and intellect, we then style +God's will or decree, that which before we styled His intellect. (57) +Wherefore we make one and the same affirmation concerning God when we say +that He has from eternity decreed that three angles of a triangle are equal +to two right angles, as when we say that He has understood it. +</p> + +<p> +(58) Hence the affirmations and the negations of God always involve +necessity or truth; so that, for example, if God said to Adam that He did +not wish him to eat of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, it would have +involved a contradiction that Adam should have been able to eat of it, and +would therefore have been impossible that he should have so eaten, for the +Divine command would have involved an eternal necessity and truth. (59) But +since Scripture nevertheless narrates that God did give this command to +Adam, and yet that none the less Adam ate of the tree, we must perforce say +that God revealed to Adam the evil which would surely follow if he should +eat of the tree, but did not disclose that such evil would of necessity +come to pass. (60) Thus it was that Adam took the revelation to be not an +eternal and necessary truth, but a law - that is, an ordinance followed by +gain or loss, not depending necessarily on the nature of the act performed, +but solely on the will and absolute power of some potentate, so that the +revelation in question was solely in relation to Adam, and solely through +his lack of knowledge a law, and God was, as it were, a lawgiver and +potentate. (61) From the same cause, namely, from lack of knowledge, the +Decalogue in relation to the Hebrews was a law, for since they knew not the +existence of God as an eternal truth, they must have taken as a law that +which was revealed to them in the Decalogue, namely, that God exists, and +that God only should be worshipped. (62) But if God had spoken to them +without the intervention of any bodily means, immediately they would have +perceived it not as a law, but as an eternal truth. +</p> + +<p> +(63) What we have said about the Israelites and Adam, applies also to all +the prophets who wrote laws in God's name - they did not adequately conceive +God's decrees as eternal truths. (64) For instance, we must say of Moses +that from revelation, from the basis of what was revealed to him, he +perceived the method by which the Israelitish nation could best be united in +a particular territory, and could form a body politic or state, and further +that he perceived the method by which that nation could best be constrained +to obedience; but he did not perceive, nor was it revealed to him, that this +method was absolutely the best, nor that the obedience of the people in a +certain strip of territory would necessarily imply the end he had in view. +(65) Wherefore he perceived these things not as eternal truths, but as +precepts and ordinances, and he ordained them as laws of God, and thus it +came to be that he conceived God as a ruler, a legislator, a king, as +merciful, just, &c., whereas such qualities are simply attributes of human +nature, and utterly alien from the nature of the Deity. (66)Thus much we may +affirm of the prophets who wrote laws in the name of God; but we must not +affirm it of Christ, for Christ, although He too seems to have written laws +in the name of God, must be taken to have had a clear and adequate +perception, for Christ was not so much a prophet as the mouthpiece of God. +(67) For God made revelations to mankind through Christ as He had before +done through angels - that is, a created voice, visions, &c. (68) It would +be as unreasonable to say that God had accommodated his revelations to the +opinions of Christ as that He had before accommodated them to the opinions +of angels (that is, of a created voice or visions) as matters to be revealed +to the prophets, a wholly absurd hypothesis. (69) Moreover, Christ was sent +to teach not only the Jews but the whole human race, and therefore it was +not enough that His mind should be accommodated to the opinions the Jews +alone, but also to the opinion and fundamental teaching common to the whole +human race - in other words, to ideas universal and true. (70) Inasmuch as +God revealed Himself to Christ, or to Christ's mind immediately, and not as +to the prophets through words and symbols, we must needs suppose that Christ +perceived truly what was revealed, in other words, He understood it, for a +matter is understood when it is perceived simply by the mind without words +or symbols. +</p> + +<p> +(71) Christ, then, perceived (truly and adequately) what was revealed, and +if He ever proclaimed such revelations as laws, He did so because of the +ignorance and obstinacy of the people, acting in this respect the part of +God; inasmuch as He accommodated Himself to the comprehension of the +people, and though He spoke somewhat more clearly than the other prophets, +yet He taught what was revealed obscurely, and generally through parables, +especially when He was speaking to those to whom it was not yet given to +understand the kingdom of heaven. (See Matt. xiii:10, &c.) (72) To those to +whom it was given to understand the mysteries of heaven, He doubtless taught +His doctrines as eternal truths, and did not lay them down as laws, thus +freeing the minds of His hearers from the bondage of that law which He +further confirmed and established. (73) Paul apparently points to this more +than once (e.g. Rom. vii:6, and iii:28), though he never himself seems to +wish to speak openly, but, to quote his own words (Rom. iii:6, and vi:19), +"merely humanly." (74) This he expressly states when he calls God just, and +it was doubtless in concession to human weakness that he attributes mercy, +grace, anger, and similar qualities to God, adapting his language to the +popular mind, or, as he puts it (1 Cor. iii:1, 2), to carnal men. (75) In +Rom. ix:18, he teaches undisguisedly that God's auger and mercy depend not +on the actions of men, but on God's own nature or will; further, that no +one is justified by the works of the law, but only by faith, which he seems +to identify with the full assent of the soul; lastly, that no one is blessed +unless he have in him the mind of Christ (Rom. viii:9), whereby he perceives +the laws of God as eternal truths. (76) We conclude, therefore, that God is +described as a lawgiver or prince, and styled just, merciful, &c., merely in +concession to popular understanding, and the imperfection of popular +knowledge; that in reality God acts and directs all things simply by the +necessity of His nature and perfection, and that His decrees and volitions +are eternal truths, and always involve necessity. (77) So much for the first +point which I wished to explain and demonstrate. +</p> + +<p> +(78) Passing on to the second point, let us search the sacred pages for +their teaching concerning the light of nature and this Divine law. (79) The +first doctrine we find in the history of the first man, where it is narrated +that God commanded Adam not to eat of the fruit of the tree of the +knowledge of good and evil; this seems to mean that God commanded Adam to do +and to seek after righteousness because it was good, not because the +contrary was evil: that is, to seek the good for its own sake, not from fear +of evil. (80) We have seen that he who acts rightly from the true knowledge +and love of right, acts with freedom and constancy, whereas he who acts from +fear of evil, is under the constraint of evil, and acts in bondage under +external control. (81) So that this commandment of God to Adam comprehends +the whole Divine natural law, and absolutely agrees with the dictates of the +light of nature; nay, it would be easy to explain on this basis the whole +history or allegory of the first man. (82) But I prefer to pass over the +subject in silence, because, in the first place, I cannot be absolutely +certain that my explanation would be in accordance with the intention of the +sacred writer; and, secondly, because many do not admit that this history is +an allegory, maintaining it to be a simple narrative of facts. (83) It will +be better, therefore, to adduce other passages of Scripture, especially such +as were written by him, who speaks with all the strength of his natural +understanding, in which he surpassed all his contemporaries, and whose +sayings are accepted by the people as of equal weight with +those of the prophets. (84) I mean Solomon, whose prudence and wisdom are +commended in Scripture rather than his piety and gift of prophecy. (85) Life +being taken to mean the true life (as is evident from Deut. xxx:19), the +fruit of the understanding consists only in the true life, and its +absence constitutes punishment. (86) All this absolutely agrees with what +was set out in our fourth point concerning natural law. (87) Moreover our +position that it is the well-spring of life, and that the intellect alone +lays down laws for the wise, is plainly taught by, the sage, for he says +(Prov. xiii:14): "The law of the wise is a fountain of life" - that is, as +we gather from the preceding text, the understanding. (88) In chap. iii:13, +he expressly teaches that the understanding renders man blessed and happy, +and gives him true peace of mind. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and +the man that getteth understanding," for "Wisdom gives length of days, and +riches and honour; her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths +peace" (xiiii:6, 17). (89) According to Solomon, therefore, it is only, +the wise who live in peace and equanimity, not like the wicked whose minds +drift hither and thither, and (as Isaiah says, chap. lvii:20) "are like the +troubled sea, for them there is no peace." +</p> + +<p> +(90) Lastly, we should especially note the passage in chap. ii. of Solomon's +proverbs which most clearly confirms our contention: "If thou criest after +knowledge, and liftest up thy voice for understanding . . . then shalt thou +understand the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God; for the Lord +giveth wisdom; out of His mouth cometh knowledge and understanding." +(91) These words clearly enunciate (1), that wisdom or intellect alone +teaches us to fear God wisely - that is, to worship Him truly; (2), that +wisdom and knowledge flow from God's mouth, and that God bestows on us this +gift; this we have already shown in proving that our understanding and our +knowledge depend on, spring from, and are perfected by the idea or +knowledge of God, and nothing else. (92) Solomon goes on to say in so many +words that this knowledge contains and involves the true principles of +ethics and politics: "When wisdom entereth into thy heart, and knowledge is +pleasant to thy soul, discretion shall preserve thee, understanding shall +keep thee, then shalt thou understand righteousness, and judgment, and +equity, yea every good path." (93) All of which is in obvious agreement with +natural knowledge: for after we have come to the understanding of things, +and have tasted the excellence of knowledge, she teaches us ethics and true +virtue. +</p> + +<p> +(94) Thus the happiness and the peace of him who cultivates his natural +understanding lies, according to Solomon also, not so much under the +dominion of fortune (or God's external aid) as in inward personal virtue (or +God's internal aid), for the latter can to a great extent be preserved by +vigilance, right action, and thought. +</p> + +<p> +(95) Lastly, we must by no means pass over the passage in Paul's Epistle to +the Romans, i:20, in which he says: "For the invisible things of God from +the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things +that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without +excuse, because, when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither +were they thankful." (96) These words clearly show that everyone can by the +light of nature clearly understand the goodness and the eternal divinity of +God, and can thence know and deduce what they should seek for and what +avoid; wherefore the Apostle says that they are without excuse and cannot +plead ignorance, as they certainly might if it were a question of +supernatural light and the incarnation, passion, and resurrection of Christ. +(97) "Wherefore," he goes on to say (ib. 24), "God gave them up to +uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts;" and so on, through the +rest of the chapter, he describes the vices of ignorance, and sets them +forth as the punishment of ignorance. (98) This obviously agrees with the +verse of Solomon, already quoted, "The instruction of fools is folly," so +that it is easy to understand why Paul says that the wicked are without +excuse. (99) As every man sows so shall he reap: out of evil, evils +necessarily spring, unless they be wisely counteracted. +</p> + +<p> +(100) Thus we see that Scripture literally approves of the light of natural +reason and the natural Divine law, and I have fulfilled the promises made at +the beginning of this chapter. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a id="chap05"></a> +CHAPTER V. - OF THE CEREMONIAL LAW. +</h2> + +<p> +(1) In the foregoing chapter we have shown that the Divine law, which +renders men truly blessed, and teaches them the true life, is universal to +all men; nay, we have so intimately deduced it from human nature that it +must be esteemed innate, and, as it were, ingrained in the human mind. +</p> + +<p> +(2) But with regard to the ceremonial observances which were ordained in the +Old Testament for the Hebrews only, and were so adapted to their state that +they could for the most part only be observed by the society as a whole and +not by each individual, it is evident that they formed no part of the Divine +law, and had nothing to do with blessedness and virtue, but had reference +only to the election of the Hebrews, that is (as I have shown in Chap. II.), +to their temporal bodily happiness and the tranquillity of their kingdom, +and that therefore they were only valid while that kingdom lasted. (3) If in +the Old Testament they are spoken of as the law of God, it is only because +they were founded on revelation, or a basis of revelation. (4) Still as +reason, however sound, has little weight with ordinary theologians, I will +adduce the authority of Scripture for what I here assert, and will further +show, for the sake of greater clearness, why and how these ceremonials +served to establish and preserve the Jewish kingdom. (5) Isaiah teaches most +plainly that the Divine law in its strict sense signifies that universal law +which consists in a true manner of life, and does not signify ceremonial +observances. (6) In chapter i:10, the prophet calls on his countrymen to +hearken to the Divine law as he delivers it, and first excluding all kinds +of sacrifices and all feasts, he at length sums up the law in these few +words, "Cease to do evil, learn to do well: seek judgment, relieve the +oppressed." (7) Not less striking testimony is given in Psalm xl:7- 9, where +the Psalmist addresses God: "Sacrifice and offering Thou didst not desire; +mine ears hast Thou opened; burnt offering and sin-offering hast Thou not +required; I delight to do Thy will, O my God; yea, Thy law is within my +heart." (8) Here the Psalmist reckons as the law of God only that which is +inscribed in his heart, and excludes ceremonies therefrom, for the latter +are good and inscribed on the heart only from the fact of their institution, +and not because of their intrinsic value. +</p> + +<p> +(9) Other passages of Scripture testify to the same truth, but these two +will suffice. (10) We may also learn from the Bible that ceremonies are no +aid to blessedness, but only have reference to the temporal prosperity of +the kingdom; for the rewards promised for their observance are +merely temporal advantages and delights, blessedness being reserved for the +universal Divine law. (11) In all the five books commonly attributed to +Moses nothing is promised, as I have said, beyond temporal benefits, such as +honours, fame, victories, riches, enjoyments, and health. (12) Though many +moral precepts besides ceremonies are contained in these five books, they +appear not as moral doctrines universal to all men, but as commands +especially adapted to the understanding and character of the Hebrew people, +and as having reference only to the welfare of the kingdom. (13) For +instance, Moses does not teach the Jews as a prophet not to kill or to +steal, but gives these commandments solely as a lawgiver and judge; he does +not reason out the doctrine, but affixes for its non-observance a penalty +which may and very properly does vary in different nations. (14) So, too, +the command not to commit adultery is given merely with reference to the +welfare of the state; for if the moral doctrine had been intended, with +reference not only to the welfare of the state, but also to the tranquillity +and blessedness of the individual, Moses would have condemned not merely the +outward act, but also the mental acquiescence, as is done by Christ, Who +taught only universal moral precepts, and for this cause promises a +spiritual instead of a temporal reward. (15) Christ, as I have said, was +sent into the world, not to preserve the state nor to lay down laws, but +solely to teach the universal moral law, so we can easily understand that He +wished in nowise to do away with the law of Moses, inasmuch as He introduced +no new laws of His own - His sole care was to teach moral doctrines, and +distinguish them from the laws of the state; for the Pharisees, in their +ignorance, thought that the observance of the state law and the Mosaic law +was the sum total of morality; whereas such laws merely had reference to the +public welfare, and aimed not so much at instructing the Jews as at keeping +them under constraint. (16) But let us return to our subject, and cite other +passages of Scripture which set forth temporal benefits as rewards for +observing the ceremonial law, and blessedness as reward for the universal +law. +</p> + +<p> +(17) None of the prophets puts the point more clearly than Isaiah. (18.) +After condemning hypocrisy he commends liberty and charity towards one's +self and one's neighbours, and promises as a reward: "Then shall thy light +break forth as the morning, and thy health shall spring forth speedily, thy +righteousness shall go before thee, and the glory of the Lord shall be thy +reward" (chap. lviii:8). (19) Shortly afterwards he commends the Sabbath, +and for a due observance of it, promises: "Then shalt thou delight thyself +in the Lord, and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the +earth, and feed thee with the heritage of Jacob thy father: for the mouth of +the Lord has spoken it." (20) Thus the prophet for liberty bestowed, and +charitable works, promises a healthy mind in a healthy body, and the glory +of the Lord even after death; whereas, for ceremonial exactitude, he only +promises security of rule, prosperity, and temporal happiness. +</p> + +<p> +(21) In Psalms xv. and xxiv. no mention is made of ceremonies, but only of +moral doctrines, inasmuch as there is no question of anything but +blessedness, and blessedness is symbolically promised: it is quite certain +that the expressions, "the hill of God," and "His tents and the dwellers +therein," refer to blessedness and security of soul, not to the actual mount +of Jerusalem and the tabernacle of Moses, for these latter were not dwelt in +by anyone, and only the sons of Levi ministered there. (22) Further, all +those sentences of Solomon to which I referred in the last chapter, for the +cultivation of the intellect and wisdom, promise true blessedness, for by +wisdom is the fear of God at length understood, and the knowledge of God +found. +</p> + +<p> +(23) That the Jews themselves were not bound to practise their ceremonial +observances after the destruction of their kingdom is evident from Jeremiah. +(24) For when the prophet saw and foretold that the desolation of the city +was at hand, he said that God only delights in those who know and understand +that He exercises loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness in the +earth, and that such persons only are worthy of praise. (Jer. ix:23.) (25) +As though God had said that, after the desolation of the city, He would +require nothing special from the Jews beyond the natural law by which all +men are bound. +</p> + +<p> +(26) The New Testament also confirms this view, for only moral doctrines are +therein taught, and the kingdom of heaven is promised as a reward, whereas +ceremonial observances are not touched on by the Apostles, after they began +to preach the Gospel to the Gentiles. (27) The Pharisees certainly continued +to practise these rites after the destruction of the kingdom, but more with +a view of opposing the Christians than of pleasing God: for after the first +destruction of the city, when they were led captive to Babylon, not being +then, so far as I am aware, split up into sects, they straightway neglected +their rites, bid farewell to the Mosaic law, buried their national customs +in oblivion as being plainly superfluous, and began to mingle with other +nations, as we may abundantly learn from Ezra and Nehemiah. (28) We cannot, +therefore, doubt that they were no more bound by the law of Moses, after the +destruction of their kingdom, than they had been before it had been begun, +while they were still living among other peoples before the exodus from +Egypt, and were subject to no special law beyond the natural law, and also, +doubtless, the law of the state in which they were living, in so far as it +was consonant with the Divine natural law. +</p> + +<p> +(29) As to the fact that the patriarchs offered sacrifices, I think they did +so for the purpose of stimulating their piety, for their minds had been +accustomed from childhood to the idea of sacrifice, which we know had been +universal from the time of Enoch; and thus they found in sacrifice their +most powerful incentive. (30) The patriarchs, then, did not sacrifice to God +at the bidding of a Divine right, or as taught by the basis of the Divine +law, but simply in accordance with the custom of the time; and, if in so +doing they followed any ordinance, it was simply the ordinance of the +country they were living in, by which (as we have seen before in the case of +Melchisedek) they were bound. +</p> + +<p> +(31) I think that I have now given Scriptural authority for my view: it +remains to show why and how the ceremonial observances tended to preserve +and confirm the Hebrew kingdom; and this I can very briefly do on grounds +universally accepted. +</p> + +<p> +(32) The formation of society serves not only for defensive purposes, but is +also very useful, and, indeed, absolutely necessary, as rendering possible +the division of labour. (33) If men did not render mutual assistance to each +other, no one would have either the skill or the time to provide for his own +sustenance and preservation: for all men are not equally apt for all work, +and no one would be capable of preparing all that he individually stood in +need of. (34) Strength and time, I repeat, would fail, if every one had in +person to plough, to sow, to reap, to grind corn, to cook, to weave, to +stitch, and perform the other numerous functions required to keep life +going; to say nothing of the arts and sciences which are also entirely +necessary to the perfection and blessedness of human nature. (35) We see +that peoples living, in uncivilized barbarism lead a wretched and almost +animal life, and even they would not be able to acquire their few rude +necessaries without assisting one another to a certain extent. +</p> + +<p> +(36) Now if men were so constituted by nature that they desired nothing but +what is designated by true reason, society would obviously have no need of +laws: it would be sufficient to inculcate true moral doctrines; and men +would freely, without hesitation, act in accordance with their true +interests. (37) But human nature is framed in a different fashion: every +one, indeed, seeks his own interest, but does not do so in accordance with +the dictates of sound reason, for most men's ideas of desirability and +usefulness are guided by their fleshly instincts and emotions, which take no +thought beyond the present and the immediate object. (38) Therefore, no +society can exist without government, and force, and laws to restrain and +repress men's desires and immoderate impulses. (39) Still human nature will +not submit to absolute repression. (40) Violent governments, as Seneca says, +never last long; the moderate governments endure. (41) So long as men act +simply from fear they act contrary to their inclinations, taking no thought +for the advantages or necessity of their actions, but simply endeavouring to +escape punishment or loss of life. (42) They must needs rejoice in any evil +which befalls their ruler, even if it should involve themselves; and must +long for and bring about such evil by every means in their power. (43) +Again, men are especially intolerant of serving and being ruled by their +equals. (44) Lastly, it is exceedingly difficult to revoke liberties once +granted. +</p> + +<p> +(45) From these considerations it follows, firstly, that authority should +either be vested in the hands of the whole state in common, so that everyone +should be bound to serve, and yet not be in subjection to his equals; or +else, if power be in the hands of a few, or one man, that one man should be +something above average humanity, or should strive to get himself accepted +as such. (46) Secondly, laws should in every government be so arranged that +people should be kept in bounds by the hope of some greatly desired good, +rather than by fear, for then everyone will do his duty willingly. +</p> + +<p> +(47) Lastly, as obedience consists in acting at the bidding of external +authority, it would have no place in a state where the government is vested +in the whole people, and where laws are made by common consent. (48) In such +a society the people would remain free, whether the laws were added to or +diminished, inasmuch as it would not be done on external authority, but +their own free consent. (49) The reverse happens when the sovereign power is +vested in one man, for all act at his bidding; and, therefore, unless they +had been trained from the first to depend on the words of their ruler, the +latter would find it difficult, in case of need, to abrogate liberties once +conceded, and impose new laws. +</p> + +<p> +(50) From these universal considerations, let us pass on to the kingdom of +the Jews. (51) The Jews when they first came out of Egypt were not bound by +any national laws, and were therefore free to ratify any laws they liked, or +to make new ones, and were at liberty to set up a government and occupy a +territory wherever they chose. (52) However, they, were entirely unfit +to frame a wise code of laws and to keep the sovereign power vested in the +community; they were all uncultivated and sunk in a wretched slavery, +therefore the sovereignty was bound to remain vested in the hands of one man +who would rule the rest and keep them under constraint, make laws and +interpret them. (53) This sovereignty was easily retained by Moses, +because he surpassed the rest in virtue and persuaded the people of the +fact, proving it by many testimonies (see Exod. chap. xiv., last verse, and +chap. xix:9). (54) He then, by the Divine virtue he possessed, made laws and +ordained them for the people, taking the greatest care that they should be +obeyed willingly and not through fear, being specially induced to adopt this +course by the obstinate nature of the Jews, who would not have submitted to +be ruled solely by constraint; and also by the imminence of war, for it is +always better to inspire soldiers with a thirst for glory than to terrify +them with threats; each man will then strive to distinguish himself +by valour and courage, instead of merely trying to escape punishment. (55) +Moses, therefore, by his virtue and the Divine command, introduced a +religion, so that the people might do their duty from devotion rather than +fear. (56) Further, he bound them over by benefits, and prophesied +many advantages in the future; nor were his laws very severe, as anyone may +see for himself, especially if he remarks the number of circumstances +necessary in order to procure the conviction of an accused person. +</p> + +<p> +(57) Lastly, in order that the people which could not govern itself should +be entirely dependent on its ruler, he left nothing to the free choice of +individuals (who had hitherto been slaves); the people could do nothing but +remember the law, and follow the ordinances laid down at the good pleasure +of their ruler; they were not allowed to plough, to sow, to reap, nor even +to eat; to clothe themselves, to shave, to rejoice, or in fact to do +anything whatever as they liked, but were bound to follow the directions +given in the law; and not only this, but they were obliged to have marks on +their door-posts, on their hands, and between their eyes to admonish them to +perpetual obedience. +</p> + +<p> +(58) This, then, was the object of the ceremonial law, that men should do +nothing of their own free will, but should always act under external +authority, and should continually confess by their actions and thoughts that +they were not their own masters, but were entirely under the control of +others. +</p> + +<p> +(59) From all these considerations it is clearer than day that ceremonies +have nothing to do with a state of blessedness, and that those mentioned in +the Old Testament, i.e. the whole Mosaic Law, had reference merely to the +government of the Jews, and merely temporal advantages. +</p> + +<p> +(60) As for the Christian rites, such as baptism, the Lord's Supper, +festivals, public prayers, and any other observances which are, and always +have been, common to all Christendom, if they were instituted by Christ or +His Apostles (which is open to doubt), they were instituted as external +signs of the universal church, and not as having anything to do with +blessedness, or possessing any sanctity in themselves. (61) Therefore, +though such ceremonies were not ordained for the sake of upholding a +government, they were ordained for the preservation of a society, and +accordingly he who lives alone is not bound by them: nay, those who live in +a country where the Christian religion is forbidden, are bound to abstain +from such rites, and can none the less live in a state of blessedness. (62) +We have an example of this in Japan, where the Christian religion is +forbidden, and the Dutch who live there are enjoined by their East India +Company not to practise any outward rites of religion. (63) I need not cite +other examples, though it would be easy to prove my point from the +fundamental principles of the New Testament, and to adduce many confirmatory +instances; but I pass on the more willingly, as I am anxious to proceed to +my next proposition. (64) I will now, therefore, pass on to what I proposed +to treat of in the second part of this chapter, namely, what persons are +bound to believe in the narratives contained in Scripture, and how far they +are so bound. (65) Examining this question by the aid of natural reason, I +will proceed as follows. +</p> + +<p> +(66) If anyone wishes to persuade his fellows for or against anything which +is not self-evident, he must deduce his contention from their admissions, +and convince them either by experience or by ratiocination; either by +appealing to facts of natural experience, or to self-evident intellectual +axioms. (67) Now unless the experience be of such a kind as to be clearly +and distinctly understood, though it may convince a man, it will not have +the same effect on his mind and disperse the clouds of his doubt so +completely as when the doctrine taught is deduced entirely from intellectual +axioms - that is, by the mere power of the understanding and logical order, +and this is especially the case in spiritual matters which have nothing to +do with the senses. +</p> + +<p> +(68) But the deduction of conclusions from general truths a priori, usually +requires a long chain of arguments, and, moreover, very great caution, +acuteness, and self-restraint - qualities which are not often met with; +therefore people prefer to be taught by experience rather than deduce +their conclusion from a few axioms, and set them out in logical order. (69) +Whence it follows, that if anyone wishes to teach a doctrine to a whole +nation (not to speak of the whole human race), and to be understood by all +men in every particular, he will seek to support his teaching with +experience, and will endeavour to suit his reasonings and the definitions of +his doctrines as far as possible to the understanding of the common people, +who form the majority of mankind, and he will not set them forth in logical +sequence nor adduce the definitions which serve to establish them. (70) +Otherwise he writes only for the learned - that is, he will be understood by +only a small proportion of the human race. +</p> + +<p> +(71) All Scripture was written primarily for an entire people, and +secondarily for the whole human race; therefore its contents must +necessarily be adapted as far as possible to the understanding of the +masses, and proved only by examples drawn from experience. (72) We will +explain ourselves more clearly. (73) The chief speculative doctrines taught +in Scripture are the existence of God, or a Being Who made all things, and +Who directs and sustains the world with consummate wisdom; furthermore, that +God takes the greatest thought for men, or such of them as live piously and +honourably, while He punishes, with various penalties, those who do +evil, separating them from the good. (74) All this is proved in Scripture +entirely through experience-that is, through the narratives there related. +(75) No definitions of doctrine are given, but all the sayings and +reasonings are adapted to the understanding of the masses. (76) Although +experience can give no clear knowledge of these things, nor explain the +nature of God, nor how He directs and sustains all things, it can +nevertheless teach and enlighten men sufficiently to impress obedience +and devotion on their minds. +</p> + +<p> +(77) It is now, I think, sufficiently clear what persons are bound to +believe in the Scripture narratives, and in what degree they are so bound, +for it evidently follows from what has been said that the knowledge of and +belief in them is particularly necessary to the masses whose intellect is +not capable of perceiving things clearly and distinctly. (78) Further, he +who denies them because he does not believe that God exists or takes thought +for men and the world, may be accounted impious; but a man who is ignorant +of them, and nevertheless knows by natural reason that God exists, as we +have said, and has a true plan of life, is altogether blessed - yes, more +blessed than the common herd of believers, because besides true opinions he +possesses also a true and distinct conception. (79) Lastly, he who is +ignorant of the Scriptures and knows nothing by the light of reason, though +he may not be impious or rebellious, is yet less than human and almost +brutal, having none of God's gifts. +</p> + +<p> +(80) We must here remark that when we say that the knowledge of the sacred +narrative is particularly necessary to the masses, we do not mean the +knowledge of absolutely all the narratives in the Bible, but only of the +principal ones, those which, taken by themselves, plainly display the +doctrine we have just stated, and have most effect over men's minds. +</p> + +<p> +(81) If all the narratives in Scripture were necessary for the proof of this +doctrine, and if no conclusion could be drawn without the general +consideration of every one of the histories contained in the sacred +writings, truly the conclusion and demonstration of such doctrine would +overtask the understanding and strength not only of the masses, but of +humanity; who is there who could give attention to all the narratives at +once, and to all the circumstances, and all the scraps of doctrine to be +elicited from such a host of diverse histories? (82) I cannot believe that +the men who have left us the Bible as we have it were so abounding in talent +that they attempted setting about such a method of demonstration, still less +can I suppose that we cannot understand Scriptural doctrine till we have +given heed to the quarrels of Isaac, the advice of Achitophel to Absalom, +the civil war between Jews and Israelites, and other similar chronicles; nor +can I think that it was more difficult to teach such doctrine by means of +history to the Jews of early times, the contemporaries of Moses, than it was +to the contemporaries of Esdras. (83) But more will be said on this point +hereafter, we may now only note that the masses are only bound to know those +histories which can most powerfully dispose their mind to obedience and +devotion. (84) However, the masses are not sufficiently skilled to draw +conclusions from what they read, they take more delight in the actual +stories, and in the strange and unlooked-for issues of events than in the +doctrines implied; therefore, besides reading these narratives, they are +always in need of pastors or church ministers to explain them to their +feeble intelligence. +</p> + +<p> +(85) But not to wander from our point, let us conclude with what has been +our principal object - namely, that the truth of narratives, be they what +they may, has nothing to do with the Divine law, and serves for nothing +except in respect of doctrine, the sole element which makes one history +better than another. (86) The narratives in the Old and New Testaments +surpass profane history, and differ among themselves in merit simply by +reason of the salutary doctrines which they inculcate. (87) Therefore, if a +man were to read the Scripture narratives believing the whole of them, but +were to give no heed to the doctrines they contain, and make no amendment in +his life, he might employ himself just as profitably in reading the Koran +or the poetic drama, or ordinary chronicles, with the attention usually +given to such writings; on the other hand, if a man is absolutely ignorant +of the Scriptures, and none the less has right opinions and a true +plan of life, he is absolutely blessed and truly possesses in himself the +spirit of Christ. +</p> + +<p> +(88) The Jews are of a directly contrary way of thinking, for they hold that +true opinions and a true plan of life are of no service in attaining +blessedness, if their possessors have arrived at them by the light of reason +only, and not like the documents prophetically revealed to Moses. (89) +Maimonides ventures openly to make this assertion: "Every man who takes to +heart the seven precepts and diligently follows them, is counted with the +pious among the nation, and an heir of the world to come; that is to say, if +he takes to heart and follows them because God ordained them in the law, and +revealed them to us by Moses, because they were of aforetime precepts to the +sons of Noah: but he who follows them as led thereto by reason, is not +counted as a dweller among the pious or among the wise of the nations." (90) +Such are the words Of Maimonides, to which R. Joseph, the son of Shem Job, +adds in his book which he calls "Kebod Elohim, or God's Glory," that +although Aristotle (whom he considers to have written the best ethics and to +be above everyone else) has not omitted anything that concerns +true ethics, and which he has adopted in his own book, carefully following +the lines laid down, yet this was not able to suffice for his salvation, +inasmuch as he embraced his doctrines in accordance with the dictates of +reason and not as Divine documents prophetically revealed. +</p> + +<p> +(91) However, that these are mere figments, and are not supported by +Scriptural authority will, I think, be sufficiently evident to the attentive +reader, so that an examination of the theory will be sufficient for its +refutation. (92) It is not my purpose here to refute the assertions of those +who assert that the natural light of reason can teach nothing, of any value +concerning the true way of salvation. (93) People who lay no claims to +reason for themselves, are not able to prove by reason this their assertion; +and if they hawk about something superior to reason, it is a mere figment, +and far below reason, as their general method of life sufficiently shows. +(94) But there is no need to dwell upon such persons. (95) I will merely add +that we can only judge of a man by his works. (96) If a man abounds in the +fruits of the Spirit, charity, joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, +goodness, faith, gentleness, chastity, against which, as Paul says +(Gal. v:22), there is no law, such an one, whether he be taught by reason +only or by the Scripture only, has been in very truth taught by God, and is +altogether blessed. (97) Thus have I said all that I undertook to say +concerning Divine law. +</p> + +<p class="t3"> +<br /><br /> +End of Part 1 +</p> + +<p><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<h3> +<a id="endnotes"></a> +AUTHOR'S ENDNOTES TO THE THEOLOGICO-POLITICAL TREATISE +</h3> + +<p class="t3b"> +CHAPTERS I to V +</p> + +<p class="t3"> +Chapter I +</p> + +<p> +Endnote 1. (1) The word <i>nabi</i> is rightly interpreted by Rabbi Salomon +Jarchi, but the sense is hardly caught by Aben Ezra, who was not so good a +Hebraist. (2) We must also remark that this Hebrew word for prophecy has a +universal meaning and embraces all kinds of prophecy. (3) Other terms are more +special, and denote this or that sort of prophecy, as I believe is well known +to the learned. +</p> + +<p> +Endnote 2. (1) "Although, ordinary knowledge is Divine, its professors +cannot be called prophets." That is, interpreters of God. (2) For he alone +is an interpreter of God, who interprets the decrees which God has revealed +to him, to others who have not received such revelation, and whose belief, +therefore, rests merely on the prophet's authority and the confidence +reposed in him. (3) If it were otherwise, and all who listen to prophets +became prophets themselves, as all who listen to philosophers become +philosophers, a prophet would no longer be the interpreter of Divine +decrees, inasmuch as his hearers would know the truth, not on the authority +of the prophet, but by means of actual Divine revelation and inward +testimony. (4) Thus the sovereign powers are the interpreters of their own +rights of sway, because these are defended only by their authority and +supported by their testimony. +</p> + +<p> +Endnote 3. (1) "Prophets were endowed with a peculiar and +extraordinary power." (2) Though some men enjoy gifts which nature has not +bestowed on their fellows, they are not said to surpass the bounds of human +nature, unless their special qualities are such as cannot be said to be +deducible from the definition of human nature. (3) For instance, a giant is +a rarity, but still human. (4) The gift of composing poetry extempore is +given to very few, yet it is human. (5) The same may, therefore, be said of +the faculty possessed by some of imagining things as vividly as though they +saw them before them, and this not while asleep, but while awake. (6) But if +anyone could be found who possessed other means and other foundations for +knowledge, he might be said to transcend the limits of human nature. +</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="t3"> +CHAPTER III. +</p> + +<p> +Endnote 4. (1) In Gen. xv. it is written that God promised Abraham to +protect him, and to grant him ample rewards. (2) Abraham answered that he +could expect nothing which could be of any value to him, as he was childless +and well stricken in years. +</p> + +<p> +Endnote 5. (1) That a keeping of the commandments of the old Testament +is not sufficient for eternal life, appears from Mark x:21. +</p> + +<p><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="t3"> +End of Endnotes to PART I +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THEOLOGICAL-POLITICAL TREATISE, 1 ***</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 989-h.htm or 989-h.zip</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/9/8/989/</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ +concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, +and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive +specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this +eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook +for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, +performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given +away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks +not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the +trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. +</div> + +<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE<br /> +<span style='font-size:smaller;'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span> +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project +Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full +Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at +www.gutenberg.org/license. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;font-size:1.1em;margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or +destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your +possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a +Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound +by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person +or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this +agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ +electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the +Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection +of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual +works in the collection are in the public domain in the United +States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the +United States and you are located in the United States, we do not +claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, +displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as +all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope +that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting +free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ +works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the +Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily +comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the +same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when +you share it without charge with others. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are +in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, +check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this +agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, +distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any +other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no +representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any +country outside the United States. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other +immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear +prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work +on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the +phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, +performed, viewed, copied or distributed: +</div> + +<blockquote> + <div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> + This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most + other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions + whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms + of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online + at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you + are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws + of the country where you are located before using this eBook. + </div> +</blockquote> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is +derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not +contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the +copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in +the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are +redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project +Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply +either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or +obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ +trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any +additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms +will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works +posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the +beginning of this work. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg™ License. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including +any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access +to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format +other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official +version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ web site +(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense +to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means +of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain +Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the +full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works +provided that +</div> + +<ul style='display: block;list-style-type: disc;margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em;margin-left: 0;margin-right: 0;padding-left: 40px;'> + <li style='display: list-item;'> + You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed + to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has + agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid + within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are + legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty + payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in + Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation.” + </li> + + <li style='display: list-item;'> + You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ + License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all + copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue + all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ + works. + </li> + + <li style='display: list-item;'> + You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of + any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of + receipt of the work. + </li> + + <li style='display: list-item;'> + You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. + </li> +</ul> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project +Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than +are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing +from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The +Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ +trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project +Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ +electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may +contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate +or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or +other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or +cannot be read by your equipment. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right +of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium +with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you +with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in +lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person +or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second +opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If +the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing +without further opportunities to fix the problem. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO +OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of +damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement +violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the +agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or +limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or +unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the +remaining provisions. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in +accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the +production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ +electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, +including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of +the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this +or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or +additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any +Defect you cause. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;font-size:1.1em;margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of +computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It +exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations +from people in all walks of life. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future +generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see +Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;font-size:1.1em;margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by +U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +The Foundation’s principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the +mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its +volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous +locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt +Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to +date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s web site and +official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +For additional contact information: +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em;'> +Dr. Gregory B. Newby<br /> +Chief Executive and Director<br /> +gbnewby@pglaf.org +</div> + +<div style='display:block;font-size:1.1em;margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND +DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state +visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To +donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate +</div> + +<div style='display:block;font-size:1.1em;margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project +Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be +freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and +distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of +volunteer support. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in +the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not +necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper +edition. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search +facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. +</div> + +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg™, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. +</div> + +</body> + +</html> + |