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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Freeland + A Social Anticipation + +Author: Theodor Hertzka + +Posting Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #9866] +Release Date: February, 2006 +First Posted: October 25, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREELAND *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Shell, Christopher Lund and PG +Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>FREELAND</h1> + +<h2>A SOCIAL ANTICIPATION</h2> + + +<h3>BY</h3> + + +<h2>DR. THEODOR HERTZKA</h2> + +<h4>TRANSLATED BY</h4> +<h3>ARTHUR RANSOM</h3> + +<h4>1891</h4> + +<hr width="50%"/> + + +<h2>TRANSLATOR'S NOTE</h2> + + +<p>This book contains a translation of <i>Freiland; ein sociales Zukunftsbild</i>, +by Dr. <span class="name">Theodor Hertzka</span>, a Viennese economist. The first German edition +appeared early in 1890, and was rapidly followed by three editions in an +abridged form. This translation is made from the unabridged edition, with a +few emendations from the subsequent editions.</p> + +<p>The author has long been known as an eminent representative of those +Austrian Economists who belong to what is known on the Continent as the +Manchester School as distinguished from the Historical School. In 1872 he +became economic editor of the <i>Neue Freie Presse</i>; and in 1874 he with +others founded the Society of Austrian National Economists. In 1880 he +published <i>Die Gesetze der Handels-und Sozialpolitik</i>; and in 1886 <i>Die +Gesetze der Sozialentwickelung</i>. At various times he has published works +which have made him an authority upon currency questions. In 1889 he +founded, and he still edits, the weekly <i>Zeitschrift für Staats-und +Volkswirthschaft</i>.</p> + +<p>How the author was led to modify some of his earlier views will be found +detailed in the introduction of the present work.</p> + +<p>The publication of <i>Freiland</i> immediately called forth in Austria and +Germany a desire to put the author's views in practice. In many of the +larger towns and cities a number of persons belonging to all classes of +society organised local societies for this purpose, and these local +societies have now been united into an International Freeland Society. At +the first plenary meeting of the Vienna <i>Freilandverein</i> in March last, it +was announced that a suitable tract of land in British East Africa, between +Mount Kenia and the coast, had already been placed at the disposal of the +Society; and a hope was expressed that the actual formation of a Freeland +Colony would not be long delayed. It is anticipated that the English +edition of <i>Freiland</i> will bring a considerable number of English-speaking +members into the Society; and it is intended soon to make an application to +the British authorities for a guarantee of non-interference by the +Government with the development of Freeland institutions.</p> + +<p>Any of the readers of this book who wish for further information concerning +the Freeland movement, may apply either to Dr. <span class="name">Hertzka</span> in Vienna, or to the +Translator.</p> + +<p class="right">A.R.</p> + +<p><span class="name">St. Loyes, Bedford</span>: <i>June</i>, 1891.</p> + + +<h2>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2> + +<p> +The economic and social order of the modern world exhibits a strange +enigma, which only a prosperous thoughtlessness can regard with +indifference or, indeed, without a shudder. We have made such splendid +advances in art and science that the unlimited forces of nature have been +brought into subjection, and only await our command to perform for us all +our disagreeable and onerous tasks, and to wring from the soil and prepare +for use whatever man, the master of the world, may need. As a consequence, +a moderate amount of labour ought to produce inexhaustible abundance for +everyone born of woman; and yet all these glorious achievements have +not--as Stuart Mill forcibly says--been able to mitigate one human woe. +And, what is more, the ever-increasing facility of producing an abundance +has proved a curse to multitudes who lack necessaries because there exists +no demand for the many good and useful things which they are able to +produce. The industrial activity of the present day is a ceaseless confused +struggle with the various symptoms of the dreadful evil known as +'over-production.' Protective duties, cartels and trusts, guild agitations, +strikes--all these are but the desperate resistance offered by the classes +engaged in production to the inexorable consequences of the apparently so +absurd, but none the less real, phenomenon that increasing facility in the +production of wealth brings ruin and misery in its train.</p> + +<p>That science stands helpless and perplexed before this enigma, that no beam +of light has yet penetrated and dispelled the gloom of this--the +social--problem, though that problem has exercised the minds of the noblest +and best of to-day, is in part due to the fact that the solution has been +sought in a wrong direction.</p> + +<p>Let us see, for example, what Stuart Mill says upon this subject: 'I looked +forward ... to a future' ... whose views (and institutions) ... shall be +'so firmly grounded in reason and in the true exigencies of life that they +shall not, like all former and present creeds, religious, ethical, and +political, require to be periodically thrown off and replaced by others.'<sup><a href="#f1">[1]</a></sup></p> +<blockquote class="fnote"><a name="f1" /><sup>1</sup><i>Autobiography</i>, p. 166.</blockquote> + +<p>Yet more plainly does Laveleye express himself in the same sense at the +close of his book 'De la Propriété': 'There is an order of human affairs +<i>which is the best ... God knows it and wills it</i>. Man must discover and +introduce it.'</p> + +<p>It is therefore an <i>absolutely best, eternal order</i> which both are waiting +for; although, when we look more closely, we find that both ought to know +they are striving after the impossible. For Mill, a few lines before the +above remarkable passage, points out that all human things are in a state +of constant flux; and upon this he bases his conviction that existing +institutions can be only transitory. Therefore, upon calm reflection, he +would be compelled to admit that the same would hold in the future, and +that consequently unchangeable human institutions will never exist. And +just so must we suppose that Laveleye, with his '<i>God</i> knows it and wills +it,' would have to admit that it could <i>not</i> be man's task either to +discover or to introduce the absolutely best order known only to God. He is +quite correct in saying that if there be really an absolutely best order, +God alone knows it; but since it cannot be the office of science to wait +upon Divine revelation, and since such an absolutely best order could be +introduced by God alone and not by men, and therefore the revelation of the +Divine will would not help us in the least, so it must logically follow, +from the admission that the knowing and the willing of the absolutely good +appertain to God, that man has not to strive after this absolutely good, +but after the <i>relatively best</i>, which alone is intelligible to and +attainable by him.</p> + +<p>And thus it is in fact. The solution of the social problem is not to be +sought in the discovery of an <i>absolutely good</i> order of society, but in +that of the <i>relatively best</i>--that is, of such an order of human +institutions as best corresponds to the contemporary conditions of human +existence. The existing arrangements of society call for improvement, not +because they are out of harmony with our longing for an absolutely good +state of things, but because it can be shown to be possible to replace them +by others more in accordance with the contemporary conditions of human +existence. Darwin's law of evolution in nature teaches us that when the +actual social arrangements have ceased to be the relatively best--that is, +those which best correspond to the contemporary conditions of human +existence--their abandonment is not only possible but simply inevitable. +For in the struggle for existence that which is out of date not only <i>may</i> +but <i>must</i> give place to that which is more in harmony with the actual +conditions. And this law also teaches us that all the characters of any +organic being whatever are the results of that being's struggle for +existence in the conditions in which it finds itself. If, now, we bring +together these various hints offered us by the doctrine of evolution, we +see the following to be the only path along which the investigation of the +social problem can be pursued so as to reach the goal:</p> + +<p>First, we must inquire and establish under what particular conditions of +existence the actual social arrangements were evolved.</p> + +<p>Next we must find out whether these same conditions of existence still +subsist, or whether others have taken their place.</p> + +<p>If others have taken their place, it must be clearly shown whether the new +conditions of existence are compatible with the old arrangements; and, if +not, what alterations of the latter are required.</p> + +<p>The new arrangements thus discovered must and will contain that which we +are justified in looking for as the 'solution of the social problem.'</p> + +<p>When I applied this strictly scientific method of investigation to the +social problem, I arrived four years ago at the following conclusions, to +the exposition of which I devoted my book on 'The Laws of Social +Evolution,'<sup><a href="#f2">[2]</a></sup> published at that time:</p> +<blockquote class="fnote"><a name="f2" /><sup>2</sup><i>Die Gesetze der Sozialentwickelung</i> Leipzig, 1886.</blockquote> + +<p>The actual social arrangements are the necessary result of the human +struggle for existence when the productiveness of labour was such that a +single worker could produce, by the labour of his own hands, more than was +indispensable to the sustenance of his animal nature, but not enough to +enable him to satisfy his higher needs. With only this moderate degree of +productiveness of labour, the exploitage of man by man was the only way by +which it was possible to ensure to <i>individuals</i> wealth and leisure, those +fundamental essentials to higher culture. But as soon as the productiveness +of labour reaches the point at which it is sufficient to satisfy also the +highest requirements of every worker, the exploitage of man by man not only +ceases to be a necessity of civilisation, but becomes an obstacle to +further progress by hindering men from making full use of the industrial +capacity to which they have attained.</p> + +<p>For, as under the domination of exploitage the masses have no right to more +of what they produce than is necessary for their bare subsistence, demand +is cramped by limitations which are quite independent of the possible +amount of production. Things for which there is no demand are valueless, +and therefore will not be produced; consequently, under the exploiting +system, society does not produce that amount of wealth which the progress +of science and technical art has made possible, but only that infinitely +smaller amount which suffices for the bare subsistence of the masses and +the luxury of the few. Society wishes to employ the whole of the surplus of +the productive power in the creation of instruments of labour--that is, it +wishes to convert it into capital; but this is impossible, since the +quantity of utilisable capital is strictly dependent upon the quantity of +commodities to be produced by the aid of this capital. The utilisation of +all the proceeds of such highly productive labour is therefore dependent +upon the creation of a new social order which shall guarantee to every +worker the enjoyment of the full proceeds of his own work. And since +impartial investigation further shows that this new order is not merely +indispensable to further progress in civilisation, but is also thoroughly +in harmony with the natural and acquired characteristics of human society, +and consequently is met by no inherent and permanent obstacle, it is +evident that in the natural process of human evolution this new order must +necessarily come into being.</p> + +<p>When I placed this conclusion before the public four years ago, I assumed, +as something self-evident, that I was announcing a doctrine which was not +by any means an isolated novelty; and I distinctly said so in the preface +to the 'Laws of Social Evolution.' I fully understood that there must be +some connecting bridge between the so-called classical economics and the +newly discovered truths; and I was convinced that in a not distant future +either others or myself would discover this bridge. But in expounding the +consequences springing from the above-mentioned general principles, I at +first allowed an error to escape my notice. That ground-rent and +undertaker's profit--that is, the payment which the landowner demands for +the use of his land, and the claim of the so-called work-giver to the +produce of the worker's labour--are incompatible with the claim of the +worker to the produce of his own labour, and that consequently in the +course of social evolution ground-rent and undertaker's profit must become +obsolete and must be given up--this I perceived; but with respect to the +interest of capital I adhered to the classical-orthodox view that this was +a postulate of progress which would survive all the phases of evolution.</p> + +<p>As palliation of my error I may mention that it was the opponents of +capital themselves--and Marx in particular--who confirmed me in it, or, +more correctly, who prevented me from distinctly perceiving the basis upon +which interest essentially rests. To tear oneself away from long-cherished +views is in itself extremely difficult; and when, moreover, the men who +attack the old views base their attack point after point upon error, it +becomes only too easy to mistake the weakness of the attack for +impregnability in the thing attacked. Thus it happened with me. Because I +saw that what had been hitherto advanced against capital and interest was +altogether untenable, I felt myself absolved from the task of again and +independently inquiring whether there were no better, no really valid, +arguments against the absolute and permanent necessity of interest. Thus, +though interest is, in reality, as little compatible with associated labour +carried on upon the principle of perfect economic justice as are +ground-rent and the undertaker's profit, I was prevented by this +fundamental error from arriving at satisfactory views concerning the +constitution and character of the future forms of organisation based upon +the principle of free organisation. <i>That</i> and <i>wherefore</i> economic freedom +and justice must eventually be practically realised, I had shown; on the +other hand, <i>how</i> this phase of evolution was to be brought about I was not +able to make fully clear. Yet I did not ascribe this inability to any error +of mine in thinking the subject out, but believed it to reside in the +nature of the subject itself. I reasoned that institutions the practical +shaping of which belongs to the future could not be known in detail before +they were evolved. Just as those former generations, which knew nothing of +the modern joint-stock company, could not possibly form an exact and +perfect idea of the nature and working of this institution even if they had +conceived the principle upon which it is based, so I held it to be +impossible to-day to possess a clear and connected idea of those future +economic forms which cannot be evolved until the principle of the free +association of labour has found its practical realisation.</p> + +<p>I was slow in discovering the above-mentioned connection of my doctrine of +social evolution with the orthodox system of economy. The most +clear-sighted minds of three centuries have been at work upon that system; +and if a new doctrine is to win acceptance, it is absolutely necessary that +its propounder should not merely refute the old doctrine and expose its +errors, but should trace back and lay open to its remotest source the +particular process of thought which led these heroes of our science into +their errors. It is not enough to show <i>that</i> and <i>wherefore</i> their theses +were false; it must also be made clear <i>how</i> and <i>wherefore</i> those thinkers +arrived at their false theses, what it was that forced them--despite all +their sagacity--to hold such theses as correct though they are simply +absurd when viewed in the light of truth. I pondered in vain over this +enigma, until suddenly, like a ray of sunlight, there shot into the +darkness of my doubt the discovery that in its essence my work was nothing +but the necessary outcome of what others had achieved--that my theory was +in no way out of harmony with the numerous theories of my predecessors, but +that rather, when thoroughly understood, it was the very truth after which +all the other economists had been searching, and upon the track of +which--and this I held to be decisive--I had been thrown, not by my own +sagacity, but solely by the mental labours of my great predecessors. In +other words, <i>the solution of the social problem offered by me is the very +solution of the economic problem which the science of political economy has +been incessantly seeking from its first rise down to the present day</i>.</p> + +<p>But, I hear it asked, does political economy possess such a problem--one +whose solution it has merely attempted but not arrived at? For it is +remarkable that in our science the widest diversity of opinions co-exists +with the most dogmatic orthodoxy. Very few draw from the existence of the +numberless antagonistic opinions the self-evident conclusion that those +opinions are erroneous, or at least unproved; and none are willing to admit +that--like their opponents--they are merely seeking the truth, and are not +in possession of it. So prevalent is this tenacity of opinion which puts +faith in the place of knowledge that the fact that every science owes its +origin to a problem is altogether forgotten. This problem may afterwards +find its solution, and therewith the science will have achieved its +purpose; but without a problem there is no investigation--consequently, +though there may be knowledge, there will be no science. Clear and simple +cognisances do not stimulate the human mind to that painstaking, +comprehensive effort which is the necessary antecedent of science; in +brief, a science can arise only when things are under consideration which +are not intelligible directly and without profound reflection--things, +therefore, which contain a problem.</p> + +<p>Thus, political economy must have had its problem, its enigma, out of the +attempts to solve which it had its rise. This problem is nothing else but +the question '<i>Why do we not become richer in proportion to our increasing +capacity of producing wealth?</i>' To this question a satisfactory answer can +no more be given to-day than could be given three centuries ago--at the +time, that is, when the problem first arose in view, not of a previously +existing phenomenon to which the human mind had then had its attention +drawn for the first time, but of a phenomenon which was then making its +first appearance.</p> + +<p>With unimportant and transient exceptions (which, it may be incidentally +remarked, are easily explicable from what follows) antiquity and the Middle +Ages had no political economy. This was not because the men of those times +were not sharp-sighted enough to discover the sources of wealth, but +because to them there was nothing enigmatical about those sources of +wealth. The nations became richer the more progress they made in the art of +producing; and this was so self-evident and clear that, very rightly, no +one thought it necessary to waste words about it. It was not until the end +of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries of our era, +therefore scarcely three hundred years ago, that political economy as a +distinct science arose.</p> + +<p>It is impossible for the unprejudiced eye to escape seeing what the first +political economists sought for--what the problem was with which they +busied themselves. They stood face to face with the enigmatical fact that +increasing capacity of production is not necessarily accompanied or +followed by an increase of wealth; and they sought to explain this fact. +Why this remarkable fact then first made its appearance will be clearly +seen from what follows; it is unquestionable <i>that</i> it then appeared, for +the whole system of these first political economists, the so-called +Mercantilists, had no other aim than to demonstrate that the increase of +wealth depends not, as everybody had until then very naturally believed, +upon increasing productiveness of labour, but upon something else, that +something else being, in the opinion of the Mercantilists, money. +Notwithstanding what may be called the tangible absurdity of this doctrine, +it remained unquestioned for generations; nay, to be candid, most men still +cling to it--a fact which would be inconceivable did not the doctrine offer +a very simple and plausible explanation of the enigmatical phenomenon that +increasing capacity of production does not necessarily bring with it a +corresponding increase of wealth.</p> + +<p>But it is equally impossible for the inquiring human mind to remain +permanently blind to the fact that money and wealth are two very different +things, and that therefore some other solution must be looked for of the +problem, the existence of which is not to be denied. The Physiocrats found +this second explanation in the assertion that the soil was the source and +origin of all wealth, whilst human labour, however highly developed it +might be, could add nothing to what was drawn from the soil, because labour +itself consumed what it produced. This may look like the first application +of the subsequently discovered natural law of the conservation of force; +and--notwithstanding its obvious absurdity--it was seriously believed in +because it professed to explain what seemed otherwise inexplicable. Between +the labourer's means of subsistence, the amount of labour employed, and the +product, there is by no means that quantitative relation which is to be +found in the conversion of one physical force into another. Human labour +produces more or less in proportion as it is better or worse applied; for +production does not consist in converting labour into things that have a +value, but in using labour to produce such things out of natural objects. A +child can understand this, yet the acutest thinkers of the eighteenth +century denied it with the approval of the best of their contemporaries and +of not the worst of their epigones, because they could not otherwise +explain the strange problem of human economics.</p> + +<p>Then arose that giant of our science, one of the greatest minds of which +humanity can boast--Adam Smith. He restored the ancient wisdom of our +ancestors, and also clearly and irrefutably demonstrated what they had only +instinctively recognised--namely, that the increase of wealth depends upon +the productiveness of human labour. But while he threw round this truth the +enduring ramparts of his logic and of his sound understanding, he +altogether failed to see that the actual facts directly contradicted his +doctrine. He saw that wealth did <i>not</i> increase step by step with the +increased productiveness of labour; but he believed he had discovered the +cause of this in the mercantilistic and physiocratic sins of the past. In +his day the historical sense was not sufficiently developed to save him +from the error of confounding the--erroneous--explanations of an existing +evil with its causes. Hence he believed that the course of economic events +would necessarily correspond fully with the restored laws of a sound +understanding--that is, that wealth would necessarily increase step by step +with the capacity of producing it, if only production were freed from the +legislative restraints and fiscal fetters which cramped it.</p> + +<p>But even this delusion could not long prevail. Ricardo was the first of the +moderns who perceived that wealth did not increase in proportion to +industrial capacity, even when production and trade were, as Smith +demanded, freed from State interference and injury. He hit upon the +expedient of finding the cause of this incongruity in the nature of labour +itself. Since labour is the only source of value, he said, it cannot +increase value. A thing is worth as much as the quantity of labour put into +it; consequently, when with increasing productiveness of labour the amount +of labour necessary to the production of a thing is diminished, then the +value of that thing diminishes also. Hence no increase in the +productiveness of labour can increase the total sum of values. This, +however, is a fundamental mistake, for what depends upon the amount of +labour is merely the <i>relative</i> value of things--the exchange relation in +which they stand to other things. This is so self-evident that Ricardo +himself cannot avoid expressly stating that he is speaking of merely the +'relative' value of things; nevertheless, this relative value--which, +strictly speaking, is nothing but a value relation, the relation of +values--is treated by him as if it were absolute value.</p> + +<p>And yet Ricardo's error is a not less important step in the evolution of +doctrine than those of his previously mentioned predecessors. It signifies +the revival of the original problem of political economy, which had been +lost sight of since Adam Smith; and Ricardo's follower, Marx, is in a +certain sense right when, with bitter scorn, he denounces as 'vulgar +economists' those who, persistently clinging to Smith's optimism, see in +the <i>productiveness</i> of labour the measure of the increase of <i>actual</i> +wealth. For all that was brought against Ricardo by his opponents was known +by him as well as or better than by them; only he knew what had escaped +their notice, or what they saw no obligation to take note of in their +theory--namely, that the actual facts directly contradicted the doctrine. +It by no means escaped Ricardo that his attempted reconciliation of the +theory with the great problem of economics was absurd; and Marx has most +clearly shown the absurdity of it. The latter speaks of the alleged +dependence of value, not upon the productiveness of labour, but upon the +effort put forth by the labourer, as the 'fetishism' of industry; this +relation, being unnatural, contrary to the nature of things, ought +therefore--and this, again, is Marx's contribution to the progress of the +science--to be referred back to an unnatural ultimate cause residing, not +in the nature of things, but in human arrangements. And in looking for this +ultimate cause, he, like his great predecessors, comes extremely near to +the truth, but, after all, glides past without seeing it.</p> + +<p>On this road, which leads to truth past so many errors, the last stage is +the hypothesis set up by the so-called Historical School of political +economy--the hypothesis, namely, that there exists in the nature of things +a gulf between economic theory and practice, which makes it quite +conceivable that the principles that are correct <i>in thesi</i> do not coincide +with the real course of industrial life. The existence of the problem is +thereby more fully established than ever, but its solution is placed +outside of the domain of theoretical cognisance. For the Historical School +is perfectly correct in maintaining that the abstractions of the current +economic doctrine are practically useless, and that this is true not only +of some of them, but of all. The real human economy does <i>not</i> obey those +laws which the theorists have abstractedly deduced from economic phenomena. +Hence it is only possible either that the human economy is by its very +nature unfitted to become the object of scientific abstraction and +cognisance, or that the abstractions hitherto made have been +erroneous--erroneous, that is, not in the sense of being actually out of +harmony with phenomena from which they are correctly and logically deduced, +but in the sense of being theoretically erroneous, deduced according to +wrong principles, and therefore useless both <i>in abstracto</i> and <i>in +concreto</i>.</p> + +<p>Of these alternatives only the second can, in reality, be correct. There is +absolutely no reasonable ground for supposing that the laws which regulate +the economic activity of men should be beyond human cognisance; and still +less ground is there for assuming that such laws do not exist at all. We +must therefore suppose that the science which seeks to discover these laws +has hitherto failed to attain its object simply because it has been upon +the wrong road--that is, that the principles of political economy are +erroneous because, in deducing them from the economic phenomena, some fact +has been overlooked, some mistake in reasoning has been committed. There +<i>must</i> be a correct solution of the problem of political economy; and the +solution of the social problem derived from the theory of social evolution +offers at once the key to the other.</p> + +<p>The correct answer to the question, 'Why are we not richer in proportion to +the increase in our productive capacity?' is this: <i>Because wealth does not +consist in what can be produced, but in what is actually produced; the +actual production, however, depends not merely upon the amount of +productive power, but also upon the extent of what is required, not merely +upon the possible supply, but also upon the possible demand: the current +social arrangements, however, prevent the demand from increasing to the +same extent as the productive capacity.</i> In other words: We do not produce +that wealth which our present capacity makes it possible for us to produce, +but only so much as we have use for; and this use depends, not upon our +capacity of producing, but upon our capacity of consuming.</p> + +<p>It is now plain why the economic problem of the disparity between the +possible and the actual increase of wealth is of so comparatively recent a +date. Antiquity and the middle ages knew nothing of this problem, because +human labour was not then productive enough to do more than provide and +maintain the means of production after covering the consumption of the +masses and the possessors of property. There was in those ages a demand for +all the things which labour was then able to produce; full employment could +be made of any increase of capacity to create wealth; no one could for a +moment be in doubt as to the purpose which the increased power of producing +had served; there was no economic problem to call into existence a special +science of political economy. Then came the Renaissance; the human mind +awoke out of its thousand years of hibernation; the great inventions and +discoveries rapidly followed one upon another; division of labour and the +mobilisation of capital gave a powerful impulse to production; and now, for +the first time, the productiveness of labour became so great, and the +impossibility of using as much as labour could produce became so evident, +that men were compelled to face the perplexing fact which finds expression +in the economic problem.</p> + +<p>That three centuries should have had to elapse before the solution could be +found, is in perfect harmony with the other fact that it was reserved for +these last generations to give us complete control over the forces of +nature, and to render it possible for us to <i>make use</i> of the knowledge we +have acquired. For so long as human production was in the main dependent +upon the capacity and strength of human muscles, aided by the muscles of a +few domestic animals, more might certainly be produced than would be +consumed by the luxury of a few after the bare subsistence of the masses +had been provided for; but to afford to <i>all</i> men an abundance without +excessive labour needed the results of the substitution of the +inexhaustible forces of nature for muscular energy. Until this substitution +had become possible, it would have availed mankind little to have attained +to a knowledge of the ultimate ground of the hindrance to the full +utilisation of the then existing powers of production.</p> + +<p>For in order that the exploitage of man by man might be put an end to, it +was necessary that the amount of producible wealth should not merely exceed +the consumption of the few wealthy persons, but should be sufficient to +satisfy the higher human needs of all. Economic equity, if it is not to +bring about a stagnation in civilisation, assumes that the man who has to +depend upon the earnings of his own labour is in a position to enjoy a +considerable amount of wealth at the cost of moderate effort. This has +become possible only during the last few generations; and herein is to be +sought the reason why the great economists of the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries were not able to rise to an unprejudiced critical +examination of the true nature and the necessary consequences of the +exploiting system of industry. <i>They</i> were compelled to regard exploitage +as a cruel but eternally unavoidable condition of the progress of +civilisation; for when they lived it was and it always had been a necessity +of civilisation, and they could not justly be expected to anticipate such a +fundamental revolution in the conditions of human existence as must +necessarily precede the passage from exploitage to economic equity.</p> + +<p>So long as the exploitage of man by man was considered a necessary and +eternal institution, there existed no motive to prompt men to subject it to +a closer critical investigation; and in the absence of such an +investigation its influence upon the nature and extent of demand could not +be discovered. The old economists were therefore <i>compelled</i> to believe it +chimerical to think of demand as falling short of production; for they +said, quite correctly, that man produces only to consume. Here, with them, +the question of demand was done with, and every possibility of the +discovery of the true connection cut off. Their successors, on the other +hand, who have all been witnesses of the undreamt-of increase of the +productiveness of labour, have hitherto been prevented, by their otherwise +well-justified respect for the authority of the founders of our science, +from adequately estimating the economic importance of this revolution in +the conditions of labour. The classical system of economics is based upon a +conception of the world which takes in all the affairs of life, is +self-consistent, and is supported by all the past teachings of the great +forms of civilisation; and if we would estimate the enormous force with +which this doctrine holds us bound, we must remember that even those who +were the first to recognise its incongruity with existing facts were unable +to free themselves from its power. They persisted in believing in it, +though they perceived its incompatibility with the facts, and knew +therefore that it was false.</p> + +<p>This glance at the historical evolution of economic doctrine opens the way +to the rectification of all the errors of which the different schools of +political economy have--even in their quest after truth--been guilty. It is +seen that the great inquirers and thinkers of past centuries, in their vast +work of investigation and analysis of economic facts, approached so very +near to the full and complete cognisance of the true connection of all +phenomena, that it needed but a little more labour in order to construct a +thoroughly harmonious definitive economic theory based upon the solution, +at last discovered, of the long vexed problem.</p> + +<p>I zealously threw myself into this task, and had proceeded with it a +considerable way--to the close of a thick first volume, containing a new +treatment of the theory of value; but when at work on the classical theory +of capital, I made a discovery which at once threw a ray of light into the +obscurity that had until then made the practical realisation of the forms +of social organisation impossible. <i>I perceived that capitalism stops the +growth of wealth, not</i>--as Marx has it--<i>by stimulating 'production for the +market,' but by preventing the consumption of the surplus produce; and that +interest, though not unjust, will nevertheless in a condition of economic +justice become superfluous and objectless.</i> These two fundamental truths +will be found treated in detail in chapters xxiv. and xviii.; but I cannot +refrain here from doing justice to the manes of Marx, by acknowledging +unreservedly his service in having been the first to proclaim--though he +misunderstood it and argued illogically--the connection between the problem +of value and modern capitalism.</p> + +<p>I consider the theoretical and practical importance of these new truths to +be incalculable. Not merely do they at once give to the theory of social +evolution the unity and harmony of a definitive whole, but, what is more, +they show the way to an immediate practical realisation of the principles +formulated by this theory. If it is possible for the community to provide +the capital for production with out thereby doing injury to either the +principle of perfect individual freedom or to that of justice, <i>if interest +can be dispensed with without introducing communistic control in its stead, +then there no longer stands any positive obstacle in the way of the +establishment of the free social order</i>.</p> + +<p>My intense delight at making this discovery robbed me of the calm necessary +to the prosecution of the abstract investigations upon which I was engaged. +Before my mind's eye arose scenes which the reader will find in the +following pages--tangible, living pictures of a commonwealth based upon the +most perfect freedom and equity, and which needs nothing to convert it into +a reality but the will of a number of resolute men. It happened to me as it +may have happened to Bacon of Verulam when his studies for the 'Novum +Organon' were interrupted by the vision of his 'Nova Atlantis'--with this +difference, however, that his prophetic glance saw the land of social +freedom and justice when centuries of bondage still separated him from it, +whilst I see it when mankind is already actually equipped ready to step +over its threshold. Like him, I felt an irresistible impulse vividly to +depict what agitated my mind. Thus, putting aside for awhile the abstract +and systematic treatise which I had begun, I wrote this book, which can +justly be called 'a political romance,' though it differs from all its +predecessors of that category in introducing no unknown and mysterious +human powers and characteristics, but throughout keeps to the firm ground +of the soberest reality. The scene of the occurrences described by me is no +imaginary fairy-land, but a part of our planet well-known to modern +geography, which I describe exactly as its discoverers and explorers have +done. The men who appear in my narrative are endowed with no supernatural +properties and virtues, but are spirit of our spirit, flesh of our flesh; +and the motive prompting their economic activity is neither public spirit +nor universal philanthropy, but an ordinary and commonplace self-interest. +Everything in my 'Freeland' is severely real, only one fiction underlies +the whole narrative, namely, that a sufficient number of men possessing a +modicum of capacity and strength have actually been found ready to take the +step that shall deliver them from the bondage of the exploiting system of +economics, and conduct them into the enjoyment of a system of social equity +and freedom. Let this one assumption be but realised--and that it will be, +sooner or later, I have no doubt, though perhaps not exactly as I have +represented--then will 'Freeland' have become a reality, and the +deliverance of mankind will have been accomplished. For the age of bondage +is past; that control over the forces of nature which the founder of modern +natural science, in his 'Nova Atlantis,' predicted as the end of human +misery has now been actually acquired. We are prevented from enjoying the +fruits of this acquisition, from making full use of the discoveries and +inventions of the great intellects of our race, by nothing but the +phlegmatic faculty of persistence in old habits which still keeps laws and +institutions in force when the conditions that gave rise to them have long +since disappeared.</p> + +<p>As this book professes to offer, in narrative form, a picture of the actual +social life of the future, it follows as a matter of course that it will be +exposed, in all its essential features, to the severest professional +criticism. To this criticism I submit it, with this observation, that, if +my work is to be regarded as a failure, or as the offspring of frivolous +fancy, it must be demonstrated that men gifted with a normal average +understanding would in any material point arrive at results other than +those described by me if they were organised according to the principles +which I have expounded; or that those principles contain anything which a +sound understanding would not accept as a self-evident postulate of justice +as well as of an enlightened self-interest.</p> + +<p>I do not imagine that the establishment of the future social order must +necessarily be effected exactly in the way described in the following +pages. But I certainly think that this would be the best and the simplest +way, because it would most speedily and easily lead to the desired result. +If economic freedom and justice are to obtain in human society, they must +be seriously <i>determined upon</i>; and it seems easier to unite a few +thousands in such a determination than numberless millions, most of whom +are not accustomed to accept the new--let it be ever so clear and +self-evident--until it has been embodied in fact.</p> + +<p>Nor would I be understood to mean that, supposing there could be found a +sufficient number of resolute men to carry out the work of social +emancipation, Equatorial Africa must be chosen as the scene of the +undertaking. I was led, by reasons stated in the book, to fix upon the +remarkable hill country of Central Africa; but similar results could be +achieved in many other parts of our planet. I must ask the reader to +believe that, in making choice of the scene, I was not influenced by a +desire to give the reins to my fancy; on the contrary, the descriptions of +the little-known mountains and lakes of Central Africa adhere in all points +to sober reality. Any one who doubts this may compare my narrative with the +accounts given by Speke, Grant, Livingstone, Baker, Stanley, Emin Pacha, +Thomson, Johnston, Fischer--in short, by all who have visited these +paradisiacal regions.</p> + +<p>Just a few words in conclusion, in justification of the romantic +accessories introduced into the exposition of so serious a subject. I might +appeal to the example of my illustrious predecessors, of whom I have +already mentioned Bacon, the clearest, the acutest, the soberest thinker of +all times. But I feel bound to confess that I had a double purpose. In the +first place, I hoped by means of vivid and striking pictures to make the +difficult questions which form the essential theme of the book acceptable +to a wider circle of readers than I could have expected to reach by a dry +systematic treatment. In the second place, I wished, by means of the +concrete form thus given to a part of my abstractions, to refute by +anticipation the criticism that those abstractions, though correct <i>in +thesi</i>, were nevertheless inapplicable <i>in praxi</i>. Whether I have succeeded +in these two objects remains to be proved.</p> + +<p>THEODOR HERTZKA.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Vienna</span>: <i>October</i> 1889.</p> + +<h1>FREELAND</h1> + +<h2>A SOCIAL ANTICIPATION</h2> + +<h2><i>BOOK I</i></h2> + +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p> +In July 18 ... the following appeared in the leading journals of Europe and +America:</p> + +<p class="center">'<span class="name">International Free Society</span>'</p> + +<p>'A number of men from all parts of the civilised world have united for the +purpose of making a practical attempt to solve the social problem.</p> + +<p>'They seek this solution in the establishment of a community on the basis +of perfect liberty and economic justice--that is, of a community which, +while it preserves the unqualified right of every individual to control his +own actions, secures to every worker the full and uncurtailed enjoyment of +the fruits of his labour.</p> + +<p>'For the site of such a community a large tract of land shall be procured +in a territory at present unappropriated, but fertile and well adapted for +colonisation.</p> + +<p>'The Free Society shall recognise no exclusive right of property in the +land occupied by them, either on the part of an individual or of the +collective community.</p> + +<p>'For the cultivation of the land, as well as for productive purposes +generally, self-governing associations shall be formed, each of which shall +share its profits among its members in proportion to their several +contributions to the common labour of the association. Anyone shall have +the right to belong to any association and to leave it when he pleases.</p> + +<p>'The capital for production shall be furnished to the producers without +interest out of the revenue of the community, but it must be re-imbursed by +the producers.</p> + +<p>'All persons who are incapable of labour, and women, shall have a right to +a competent allowance for maintenance out of the revenue of the community.</p> + +<p>'The public revenue necessary for the above purposes, as well as for other +public expenses, shall be provided by a tax levied upon the net income of +the total production.</p> + +<p>'The International Free Society already possesses a number of members and +an amount of capital sufficient for the commencement of its work upon a +moderate scale. As, however, it is thought, on the one hand, that the +Society's success will necessarily be in proportion to the amount of means +at its disposal, and, on the other hand, that opportunity should be given +to others who may sympathise with the movement to join in the undertaking, +the Society hereby announces that inquiries or communications of any kind +may be addressed to the office of the Society at the Hague. The +International Free Society will hold a public meeting at the Hague, on the +20th of October next, at which the definitive resolutions prior to the +beginning of the work will be passed.</p> + +<p class="rightl">'For the Executive Committee of the International Free Society,</p> + +<p class="right">'<span class="name">Karl Strahl</span>.</p> + +<p>'<span class="name">The Hague</span>, <i>July</i> 18 ...'</p> + +<p>This announcement produced no little sensation throughout the world. Any +suspicion of mystification or of fraud was averted by the name of the +acting representative of the Executive Committee. Dr. Strahl was not merely +a man of good social position, but was widely known as one of the first +political economists of Germany. The strange project, therefore, could not +but be seriously received, and the journals of the most diverse party +tendencies at once gave it their fullest attention.</p> + +<p>Long before the 20th of October there was not a journal on either side of +the Atlantic which had not assumed a definite attitude towards the question +whether the realisation of the plans of the Free Society belonged to the +domain of the possible or to that of the Utopian. The Society itself, +however, kept aloof from the battle of the journals. It was evidently not +the intention of the Society to win over its opponents by theoretical +evidence; it would attract to itself voluntary sympathisers and then +proceed to action.</p> + +<p>As the 20th of October drew near, it became evident that the largest public +hall in the Hague would not accommodate the number of members, guests, and +persons moved by curiosity who wished to attend. Hence it was found +necessary to limit the number of at least the last category of the +audience; and this was done by admitting gratis the guests who came from a +distance, while those who belonged to the place were charged twenty Dutch +guldens. (The proceeds of these tickets were given to the local hospital.) +Nevertheless, on the morning of the 20th of October the place of +assembly--capable of seating two thousand persons--was filled to the last +corner.</p> + +<p>Amid the breathless attention of the audience, the President--Dr. +Strahl--rose to open the meeting. The unexpectedly large number of fresh +members and the large amount of contributions which had been received +showed that, even before facts had had time to speak, the importance of the +projected undertaking of the International Free Society was fully +recognised by thousands in all parts of the habitable globe without +distinction of sex or of condition. 'The conviction that the community to +the establishment of which we are about to proceed'--thus began the +speaker--'is destined to attack poverty and misery at the root, and +together with these to annihilate all that wretchedness and all those vices +which are to be regarded as the evil results of misery--this conviction +finds expression not simply in the words, but also in the actions, of the +greater part of our members, in the lofty self-denying enthusiasm with +which they--each one according to his power--have contributed towards the +realisation of the common aim. When we sent out our appeal we numbered but +eighty-four, the funds at our disposal amounted to only £11,400; to-day the +Society consists of 5,650 members, and its funds amount to £205,620.' (Here +the speaker was interrupted by applause that lasted several minutes.) 'Of +course, such a sum could not have been collected from only those most +wretched of the wretched whom we are accustomed to think of as exclusively +interested in the solution of the social problem. This will be still more +evident when the list of our members is examined in detail. That list +shows, with irresistible force, that disgust and horror at the social +condition of the people have by degrees taken possession of even those who +apparently derive benefit from the privations of their disinherited +fellow-men. For--and I would lay special emphasis upon this--those +well-to-do and rich persons, some of whose names appear as contributors of +thousands of pounds to our funds, have with few exceptions joined us not +merely as helpers, but also as seekers of help; they wish to found the new +community not merely for their suffering brethren, but also for themselves. +And from this, more than from anything else, do we derive our firm +conviction of the success of our work.'</p> + +<p>Long-continued and enthusiastic applause again interrupted the President. +When quiet was once more restored, Dr. Strahl thus concluded his short +address:</p> + +<p>'In carrying out our programme, a hitherto unappropriated large tract of +land will have to be acquired for the founding of an independent community. +The question now is, what part of the earth shall we choose for such a +purpose? For obvious reasons we cannot look for territory to any part of +Europe; and everywhere in Asia, at least in those parts in which Caucasian +races could flourish, we should be continually coming into collision with +ancient forms of law and society. We might expect that the several +governments in America and Australia would readily grant us land and +freedom of action; but even there our young community would scarcely be +able to enjoy that undisturbed quiet and security against antagonistic +interference which would be at first a necessary condition of rapid and +uninterrupted success. Thus there remains only Africa, the oldest yet the +last-explored part of the world. The equatorial portion of its interior is +virtually unappropriated; we find there not merely the practically +unlimited extent and absence of disturbing influences necessary for our +development, but--if the selection be wisely made--the most favourable +conditions of climate and soil imaginable. Vast highlands, which unite in +themselves the advantages of the tropics and of our Alpine regions, there +await settlement. Communication with these hilly districts situated far in +the interior of the Dark Continent is certainly difficult; but that is a +condition necessary to us at first. We therefore propose to you that we +should fix our new home in the interior of Equatorial Africa. And we are +thinking particularly of the mountain district of Kenia, the territory to +the east of the Victoria Nyanza, between latitude 1° S. and 1° N., and +longitude 34°-88° E. It is there that we expect to find the most suitable +district for our purpose. Does the meeting approve of this choice?'</p> + +<p>Unanimous assent was expressed, and loud cries were enthusiastically +uttered of 'Forwards! To-day rather than to-morrow!' It was unmistakably +evident that the majority wished to make a beginning at once. The President +then resumed:</p> + +<p>'Such haste is not practicable, my friends. The new home must first be +found and acquired; and that is a difficult and dangerous undertaking. The +way leads through deserts and inhospitable forests; conflicts with inimical +wild races will probably be inevitable; and all this demands strong +men--not women, children, and old men. The provisioning and protection of +an emigrant train of many thousand persons through such regions must be +organised. In short, it is absolutely necessary that a number of selected +pioneers should precede the general company. When the pioneers have +accomplished their task, the rest can follow.</p> + +<p>'To make all requisite provision with the greatest possible vigour, +foresight, and speed, the directorate must be harmonious and fully informed +as to our aims. Hitherto the business of the Society has been in the hands +of a committee of ten; but as the membership has so largely increased, and +will increase still more largely, it might appear desirable to elect a +fresh executive, or at least to add to the numbers of the present one from +the new members. Yet we cannot recommend you to adopt such a course, for +the reason that the new members do not know each other, and could not +become sufficiently well acquainted with each other soon enough to prevent +the election from being anything but a game of chance. We rather ask from +you a confirmation of our authority, with the power of increasing our +numbers by co-option from among you as our judgment may suggest. And we ask +for this authorisation--which can be at any time withdrawn by your +resolution in a full meeting--for the period of two years. At the +expiration of this period we shall--we are fully convinced--not only have +fixed upon a new home, but have lived in it long enough to have learnt a +great deal about it.'</p> + +<p>This proposition was unanimously adopted.</p> + +<p>The President announced that all the communications of the executive +committee to the members would be published both in the newspapers and by +means of circulars. He then closed the meeting, which broke up in the +highest spirits.</p> + +<p>The first act of the executive committee was to appoint two persons with +full powers to organise and take command of the pioneer expedition to +Central Africa. These two leaders of the expedition were so to divide their +duties that one of them was to organise and command the expedition until a +suitable territory was selected and occupied, and the other was to take in +hand the organisation of the colony. The one was to be, as it were, the +conductor, and the other the statesman of the expeditionary corps. For the +former duty the committee chose the well-known African traveller Thomas +Johnston, who had repeatedly traversed the region between Kilimanjaro and +Kenia, the so-called Masailand. Johnston was a junior member of the +Society, and was co-opted upon the committee upon his nomination as leader +of the pioneer expedition. To take charge of the expedition after its +arrival at the locality chosen, the committee nominated a young engineer, +Henry Ney, who, as the most intimate friend of the founder and intellectual +leader of the Society--Dr. Strahl--was held to be the most fitting person +to represent him during the first period of the founding of the community.</p> + +<p>Dr. Strahl himself originally intended to accompany the pioneers and +personally to direct the first work of organisation in the new home, but +the other members of the committee urged strong objections. They could not +permit the man upon whose further labours the prosperous development of the +Society so largely depended to expose himself to dangers from which he was +the more likely to suffer harm because his health was delicate. And, after +mature reflection, he himself admitted that for the next few months his +presence would be more needed in Europe than in Central Africa. In a word, +Dr. Strahl consented to wait and to follow the pioneers with the main body +of members; and Henry Ney went with the expedition as his substitute.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p> +The account--contained in this and the next five chapters--of the +preparations for and the successful completion of the African expedition, +as well as of the initial work of settling and cultivating the highlands of +Kenia, is taken from the journal of Dr. Strahl's friend:</p> + +<p>My appointment as provisional substitute for our revered leader at first +filled me with alarm. The reflection that upon me depended in no small +degree the successful commencement of a work which we all had come to +regard as the most important and far-reaching in its consequences of any in +the history of human development, produced in me a sensation of giddiness. +But my despondency did not last long. I had no right to refuse a +responsibility which my colleagues had declared me to be the most fitted to +bear; and when my fatherly friend Strahl asked me whether I thought failure +possible on the supposition that those who were committed to my leadership +were fired with the same zeal as myself, and whether I had any reason to +question this supposition, then my courage revived, and in place of my +previous timidity I felt an unshakable conviction of the success of the +work, a conviction which I never lost for a moment.</p> + +<p>The preparatory measures for the organisation of the pioneer expedition +were discussed and decided upon by the whole committee of the International +Free Society. The first thing to determine was the number of the +expedition. The expedition must not be too small, since the race among whom +we proposed to settle--the nomadic Masai, between the Kilima and the Kenia +mountains--was the most warlike in Equatorial Africa, and could be kept in +check only by presenting a strong and imposing appearance. On the other +hand, if the expedition were too numerous it would be exposed to the risk +of being hampered by the difficulty of obtaining supplies. It was +unanimously agreed to fix the number of pioneers at two hundred of the +sturdiest members of the Society, the best able to endure fatigue and +privation and to face danger, and every one of whom gave evidence of +possessing that degree of general intelligence which would qualify him to +assume, in case of need, the whole responsibility of the mission.</p> + +<p>In pursuance of this resolve, the committee applied to the branch +associations--which had been formed wherever members of the Society +lived--for lists of those persons willing to join the expedition, to whose +health, vigorous constitution, and intelligence the respective branch +associations could certify. At the same time a full statement was to be +sent of the special knowledge, experience, and capabilities of the several +candidates. In the course of a few weeks offers were received from 870 +strongly recommended members. Of these a hundred, whose qualifications +appeared to the committee to be in all points eminently satisfactory, were +at once chosen. This select hundred included four naturalists (two of whom +were geologists), three physicians, eight engineers, four representatives +of other branches of technical knowledge, and six scientifically trained +agriculturists and foresters; further, thirty artisans such as would make +the expedition able to meet all emergencies; and, finally, forty-five men +who were exceptionally good marksmen or remarkable for physical strength. +The selection of the other hundred pioneers was entrusted to the branch +associations, which were to choose one pioneer out of every seven or eight +of those whose names they had sent. The chosen men were asked to meet as +speedily as possible in Alexandria, which was fixed upon as the provisional +rendezvous of the expedition; money for their travelling expenses was +voted--which, it may be noted in passing, was declined with thanks by about +half of the pioneers.</p> + +<p>Thus passed the month of November. In the meantime the committee had not +been idle. The equipment of the expedition was fully and exhaustively +discussed, the details decided upon, and all requisites carefully provided. +Each of the two hundred members was furnished with six complete sets of +underclothing of light elastic woollen material--the so-called Jäger +clothing; a lighter and a heavier woollen outer suit; two pair of +waterproof and two pair of lighter boots; two cork helmets, and one +waterproof overcoat. In weapons every member received a repeating-rifle of +the best construction for twelve shots, a pocket revolver, and an American +bowie-knife. In addition, there were provided a hundred sporting guns of +different calibres, from the elephant-guns, which shot two-ounce explosive +bullets, to the lightest fowling-pieces; and of course the necessary +ammunition was not forgotten.</p> + +<p>At this point the weightiest questions for discussion were whether the +expedition should be a mounted one, and whether the baggage should be +transported from the Zanzibar coast by porters, called <i>pagazis</i>, or by +beasts of burden. Johnston's first intention was to purchase only eighty +horses and asses for the conveyance of the heavier baggage, and for the use +of any who might be sick or fatigued; and to hire 800 <i>pagazis</i> in Zanzibar +and Mombasa as porters of the remainder of the baggage, which he estimated +at about 400 cwt. But he gave up this plan at once when he discovered what +my requirements were. He had made provision merely for six months' +maintenance of the expedition, and for articles of barter with the natives. +I required, above all, that the expedition should take with it implements, +machinery (in parts), and such other things as would place us in a +position, when we had arrived at our goal, as speedily as possible to begin +a rational system of agriculture and to engage in the production of what +would be necessary for the use of the many thousand colonists who would +follow us. We needed a number of agricultural implements, or, at least, of +those parts of them which could not be manufactured without complicated and +tedious preparation; similar materials for a field-forge and smithy, as +well as for a flour-mill and a saw-mill; further, seeds of all kinds and +saplings in large quantities, as well as many materials which we could not +reckon upon being able to produce at once in the interior of Africa. +Finally, I pointed out that, in order to make the way safe for the caravans +that would follow us, it would be advisable to form friendly alliances, +particularly with the warlike Masai, for which purpose larger and more +valuable stores of presents would be required than had been provided.</p> + +<p>Johnston made no objection to all this. He estimated that the necessary +amount of baggage would thus be doubled, perhaps trebled, and that the +1,600 or 2,400 <i>pagazis</i> that would be required would make the expedition +too cumbrous. Dr. Strahl proposed that transportation by <i>pagazis</i> should +be relinquished altogether, and that beasts of burden should be used +exclusively. He knew well that in the low lands of Equatorial Africa the +tsetse-fly and the bad water were particularly fatal to horses; but these +difficulties were not to be anticipated on our route, which would soon take +us to the high land where the animals would be safe. And the difficulty due +to the peculiar character of the roads in Central Africa could be easily +overcome. These roads possess--as he had learnt from Johnston's +descriptions, among others--where they pass through thickets or bush, a +breadth of scarcely two feet, and are too narrow for pack-horses, which +have often to be unloaded at such places, and the transportation of the +luggage has to be effected by porters. This last expedient would either be +impossible or would involve an incalculable loss of time in the case of a +caravan possessing only beasts of burden with a proportionately small +number of drivers and attendants. But he thought that the roads could +everywhere be made passable for even beasts of burden by means of an +adequate number of well-equipped <i>éclaireurs</i>, or advance-guard. Johnston +was of the same opinion: if he were furnished with a hundred natives--whom +he would get from the population on the coast--supplied with axes and +fascine-knives, he would undertake to lead a caravan of beasts of burden to +the Kenia without any delay worth mentioning.</p> + +<p>When this question was settled, Dr. Strahl again brought forward the idea +of mounting the 200 pioneers themselves. He had a double end in view. In +the first place--and it was this in part that had led him to make the +previous proposition--it would be necessary to provide for the introduction +and acclimatisation of beasts of burden and draught in the future home, +where there were already cattle, sheep, and goats, but neither horses, +asses, nor camels; and he held that it would be best for the expedition to +take with them at once as large a number as possible of these useful +animals. Moreover, he thought that we could travel much faster if we were +mounted. In the next place, he attached great importance to the careful +selection of animals--whether beasts of burden or for the saddle--suitable +for breeding purposes particularly in the case of the horses, since the +character of the future stock would depend entirely upon that of those +first introduced. This also was agreed to; only Johnston feared that the +expenses of the expedition would be too heavily increased. According to his +original plan, the expenses would not exceed £12,000; but the alterations +would about quadruple the cost. This was not questioned; and Johnston's +estimate was subsequently found to be correct, for the expedition actually +consumed £52,500. But it was unanimously urged that the funds which had +been placed so copiously at their disposal, and which were still rapidly +pouring in, could not be more usefully applied than in expediting the +journey as much as possible, and in establishing the new community upon as +sound a foundation as the means allowed.</p> + +<p>The detailed consideration of the requisite material was then proceeded +with. When everything had been reckoned, and the total weight estimated, it +was found that we should have to transport a total burden of about 1,200 +cwt., as follows:</p> + +<table border="0"> + <tr><td>150</td><td class="center">cwt.</td><td class="center">of</td><td>various kinds of meat and drink;</td></tr> + <tr><td>120</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>travelling materials (including fifty waterproof tents for + four men each);</td></tr> + <tr><td>160</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>various kinds of seed and other agricultural materials;</td></tr> + <tr><td>220</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>implements, machinery, and tools;</td></tr> + <tr><td>400</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>articles of barter and presents;</td></tr> + <tr><td>120</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>ammunition and explosives.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>At Johnston's special request, in addition to the above, four light steel +mortars for shell were ordered of Krupp, in Essen. His object was not to +use these murderous weapons seriously against any foe; but he reckoned +that, should occasion occur, peace could be more easily preserved by means +of the terror which they would excite. At the last moment there came to +hand 300 Werndl rifles, together with the needful cartridges--very good +breechloaders which we bought cheaply of the Austrian Government, to use +partly as a reserve and partly to arm some of the negroes who were to be +hired at Zanzibar.</p> + +<p>The baggage was to be borne by 100 sumpter-horses, 200 asses and mules, and +80 camels. Since we also needed 200 saddle-horses, with a small reserve for +accidents, it was resolved to buy in all 320 horses, 210 asses, and 85 +camels, the horses to be bought, some in Egypt and some in Arabia, the +camels in Egypt, and the asses in Zanzibar.</p> + +<p>All the necessary purchases were at once made. Our authorised agents +procured everything at the first source; buyers were sent to Yemen in +Arabia and to Zanzibar for horses and asses. When all this was done or +arranged, Johnston and I--we had meantime contracted a close +friendship--started for Alexandria.</p> + +<p>But, before I describe our action there, I must mention an incident which +occurred in the committee. A young American lady had determined to join the +expedition. She was rich, beautiful, and eccentric, an enthusiastic admirer +of our principles, and evidently not accustomed to consider it possible +that her wishes should be seriously opposed. She had contributed very +largely to the funds of the Society, and had made up her mind to be one of +the first to set foot in the new African home. I must confess that I was +sorry for the noble girl, who was devoured by an eager longing for +adventure and painfully felt as a slight the anxious solicitude exhibited +by the committee on account of her sex. But nothing could be clone; we had +refused several women wishful to accompany their husbands who had been +chosen as pioneers, and we could make no exceptions. When the young lady +found that her appeals failed to move us men of the committee, she turned +to our female relatives, whom she speedily discovered; but she met with +little success among them. She was cordially and affectionately received by +the ladies, for she was very charming in her enthusiasm; but that was only +another reason, in the eyes of the women, for concluding that the men had +been right in refusing to allow such a delicate creature to share in the +dangers and privations of the journey of exploration. She was petted and +treated like a spoilt child that longed for the impossible, until Miss +Ellen Fox was fairly beside herself.</p> + +<p>She suddenly calmed down; and this occurred in a striking manner +immediately after she became acquainted with another lady who also, though +for other reasons, wished to join our expedition. This other lady was my +sister Clara. While the former was prompted to go to Africa by her zeal for +our principles, the latter was fired with the same desire by detestation +and dread of those same principles. My sister (twelve years my senior, and +still unmarried, because she had not been able to find a man who satisfied +her ideal of personal distinction and lofty character) was one of the +best--in her inmost heart one of the noblest--of women, but full of +immovable prejudices with which I had been continually coming into contact +for the twenty-six years of my life. She was not cold-hearted--her hand was +always open to those who needed help; but she had an invincible contempt +for everything that did not belong to the so-called higher, cultured +classes. When for the first time the social question was explained to her +by me, she was seized with horror at the idea that reasonable men should +believe that she and her kitchen maid were endowed with equal rights by +nature. Finding that all efforts to convert her were in vain, I long +refrained from telling her anything of my relations with Dr. Strahl, or of +the, founding of the Free Society and the <i>rôle</i> which I played in it. I +wished to spare her as long as possible the sorrow of knowing of my going +astray; for I love this sister dearly, and am idolised by her in return. +For many long years the one passion of her life was her anxious solicitude +about me. We lived together, and she always treated me as a small boy whose +bringing up was her business. That I could exist more than at most two or +three days away from her protection, without becoming the victim of my +childish inexperience and of the wickedness of evil men, always seemed to +her an utter impossibility. Imagine, then, the unutterable terror of my +protectress when I was eventually compelled to disclose to her not only +that I was a member of a socialistic society, had not only devoted the +whole of my modest fortune to the objects of that society, but had actually +been selected as leader of 200 Socialists into the interior of Africa! It +was some days before she could grasp and believe the monstrous fact; then +followed entreaties, tears, desperate reproaches, and expostulations. I +might let the fellows have my money--over which, however, she felt that she +should have kept better guard--but, for heaven's sake, could I not stay +like an honest man at home? She consulted our family physician as to my +responsibility for my actions; but she came back worse than she went, for +he was one of our Society--indeed, a member of the expedition. At last, +when all else had failed, she announced that, if I persisted in rushing to +my ruin, she would accompany me. When I explained to her that this could +not be, as there were to be no women in the expedition, she brought her +heaviest artillery to bear upon me; she reminded me of our deceased mother, +who, on her deathbed, had commissioned my sister never to leave me--a +testamentary injunction to which I ought religiously to submit. As I still +remained obdurate, daring for the first time in my life to remark that our +good mother had plainly committed me to my sister's care only during the +period of my childhood, she fell into hopeless despondency, out of which +nothing could rouse her. In vain did I use endearing terms; in vain did I +assure her that among our 200 pioneers there would certainly be some +excellent fellows between whom and myself there would exist kindly human +relations; in vain did I promise her that she should follow me in about six +months' time: it was all of no avail. She looked upon me as lost; and as +the day of my departure drew near I became exceedingly anxious to find some +means of allaying my sister's touching but foolish sorrow.</p> + +<p>Just then Miss Ellen visited my sister. I was called away by business, and +had to leave them together alone; when I returned I found Clara wonderfully +comforted. She no longer wailed and moaned, and was even able to speak of +the dreadful subject without tears. It was plain that Miss Ellen's +exaltation of feeling had wrought soothingly upon her childish anguish; and +I inwardly blessed the charming American for it, the more so that from that +moment the latter no longer troubled us with her importunities. She had +gone away suddenly, and I most heartily congratulated myself on having thus +got rid of a double difficulty.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd of December Johnston and I reached Alexandria, where we found +most of our fellow-pioneers awaiting us. Twenty-three wore still missing, +some of whom were coming from great distances, and others had been hindered +by unforeseen contingencies. Johnston set to work at once with the +equipment, exercising, end organisation of the troop. For these purposes we +left the city, and encamped about six miles off, on the shore of Lake +Mareotis. The provisioning was undertaken by a commissariat of six members +under my superintendence; each man received full rations and--unless it was +expressly declined--£2 per month in cash. The same amount was paid during +the whole of the time occupied by the expedition--of course not in the form +of cash, which would have been useless in Equatorial Africa, but in goods +at cost price for use or barter. After such articles as clothing and arms +had been unpacked, the exercises began. Eight hours a day were spent in +manoeuvring, marching, swimming, riding, fencing, and target-practice. +Later on Johnston organised longer marches, extending over several days, as +far as Ghizeh and past the Pyramids to Cairo. In the meantime we got to +know each other. Johnston appointed his inferior officers, to whom, as to +him, military obedience was to be rendered--a necessity which was readily +recognised by all without exception. This may appear strange to some, in +view of the fact that we were going forth to found a community in which +absolute social equality and unlimited individual liberty were to prevail. +But we all understood that the ultimate object of our undertaking, and the +expedition which was to lead to that object, were two different things. +During the whole journey there did not occur one case of insubordination; +while, on the other hand, on the side of the officers not one instance of +unnecessary or rude assumption of authority was noticed.</p> + +<p>When the time to go on to Zanzibar came, we were a completely trained +picked body of men. In manoeuvring we could compete with any corps of +Guards--naturally only in those exercises which give dexterity and agility +in face of a foe, and not in the parade march and the military salutes. In +these last respects we were and remained as ignorant as Hottentots. But we +could, without serious inconvenience, march or sit in the saddle, with only +brief halts, for twenty-four hours at a stretch; our quick firing yielded a +very respectable number of hits at a distance of eleven hundred yards; and +our grenade firing was not to be despised. We were quite as skilful with a +small battery of Congreve rockets which Johnston had had sent after us from +Trieste, on the advice of an Egyptian officer who had served in the +Soudan--a native of Austria, and a frequent witness of our practising at +Alexandria. The language of command, as well as that of our general +intercourse, was English. As many as 35 per cent. of us were English and +American, whilst the next numerous nationality--the German--was represented +by only about 23 per cent. Moreover, all but about forty-five of us +understood and spoke English more or less perfectly, and these forty-five +learnt to speak it tolerably well during our stay in Alexandria.</p> + +<p>On the 30th of March we embarked on the 'Aurora,' a fine screw steamer of +3,000 tons, which the committee had chartered of the English P. and O. +Company, and which, after it had, at Liverpool, Marseilles, and Genoa, +taken on board the wares ordered for us, reached Alexandria on the 22nd of +March. The embarkation and providing accommodation for 200 horses and 60 +camels, which had been bought in Egypt, occupied several days; but we were +in no hurry, as, on account of the rainy season, the journey into the +interior of Africa could not be begun before May. We reckoned that the +passage from Alexandria to Zanzibar--the halt in Aden, for taking on board +more horses and camels, included--would not exceed twenty days. We had +therefore fully two weeks left for Zanzibar and for the passage across to +Mombasa, whence we intended to take the road to the Kilimanjaro and the +Kenia, and where, on account of the danger from the fever which was alleged +to prevail on the coast, we did not purpose remaining a day longer than was +necessary.</p> + +<p>Our programme was successfully carried out. At Aden we met our agents with +120 superb Yemen horses, and 25 camels of equally excellent breed. Here +also were embarked 115 asses, which--like the camels--had been procured in +Arabia instead of Zanzibar or Egypt. On the 16th of April the 'Aurora' +dropped anchor in the harbour of Zanzibar.</p> + +<p>Half the population of the island came out to greet us. Our fame had gone +before us, and, as it seemed, no ill fame; for the European colonists--who +during the last few years had increased to nearly 200--and the Arabians, +Hindoos, and negroes, vied with each other in friendliness and welcome. +Naturally, the first person to receive us was our Zanzibar representative, +who hastened to give us the agreeable assurance that he had exactly +performed his commission, and that, in view of the prevailing public +sentiment respecting us, there would be no difficulty whatever in engaging +the number of natives we required. The English, French, German, Italian, +and American consuls welcomed us most cordially; as did also the +representatives of the great European and American houses of business, who +were all most zealous in pressing their hospitality upon us. Finally +appeared the prime minister of the Sultan, who claimed the whole 200 of us +as his guests. In order to avoid giving offence in any quarter, we left +ourselves at the disposal of the consuls, who distributed us among the +friendly competitors in a way most agreeable to everyone. Johnston and +sixteen officers--myself being one of the company--were allotted to the +Sultan, who placed his whole palace, except that part devoted to his harem, +at our disposal, and entertained us in a truly princely manner. Yet, +ungrateful as it may seem, I must say that we seventeen elect had every +reason to envy those of our colleagues who were entertained less +splendidly, but very comfortably, in the bosom of European families. Our +host did only too much for us: the ten days of our residence in Zanzibar +were crowded with an endless series of banquets, serenades, Bayadère +dances, and the like; and this was the less agreeable as we really found +more to be done than we had expected. A great quantity of articles for +barter had to be bought and packed; and we had to engage no fewer than 280 +Swahili men--coast dwellers--as attendants, drivers, and other workmen, +besides the requisite number of guides and interpreters. In all this both +the consuls and the Sultan's officials rendered us excellent service; and +as the negroes had a very favourable opinion of our expedition, in which +they anticipated neither excessive labour nor great danger, since we had a +great number of beasts and were well armed, we had a choice of the best men +that Zanzibar could afford for our purpose. But all this had to be attended +to, and during the whole of the ten days Johnston was sorely puzzled how to +execute his commission and yet do justice to the attentions of the Sultan.</p> + +<p>At last, in spite of everything, the work was accomplished, and, as the +issue showed, well accomplished--certainly not so much through any special +care and skill on our part as through the good will shown to us on all +sides. The merchants, European and Indian, supplied us with the best goods +at the lowest prices, without giving us much trouble in selection; and the +Swahili exercised among themselves a kind of ostracism by whipping out of +the market any disreputable or useless colleagues. In this last respect, so +fortunate were we in our selection that, during the whole course of the +expedition, we were spared all those struggles with the laziness or +obstinacy of the natives which are generally the lot of such caravans; in +fact we had not a single case of desertion--an unheard-of circumstance in +the history of African expeditions.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of April we left Zanzibar in the 'Aurora,' and reached Mombasa +safely the next morning. We had sent on, in charge of ten of our men, the +whole of our beasts and the greater part of our baggage in the 'Aurora' a +week before, together with a number of the attendants who had been engaged +in Zanzibar. We found all these in good condition, and for the most part +recovered from the ill-effects of the sea voyage. In order to muster the +people we had engaged, and at the same time to allot to each his duty, we +pitched a camp outside of Mombasa in a little palm-grove that commanded a +beautiful view of the sea. To every two led horses or camels, and to every +four asses, a driver and an attendant were allotted. This gave employment +to 145 of the 280 Swahili; 85 more were selected to carry the lighter and +more fragile articles, or such things as must be always readily accessible; +and the remaining 100--including, of course, the guides and two +interpreters--served as <i>éclaireurs</i>. By the 2nd of May everything was +ready, the burdens distributed, and every man had his place assigned; the +journey into the interior could be at once begun.</p> + +<p>As, however, we could not start until we had received the European mails, +due in Zanzibar on the 3rd or 4th, by which we were to receive the last +news of our friends and any further instructions the committee wished to +give us, we had several days of leisure, which we were able to employ in +viewing the country around Mombasa.</p> + +<p>The place itself is situated upon a small island at the mouth of a river, +which here spreads out into a considerable bay, with several dense +mangrove-swamps upon its banks. Hence residence on the coast and in Mombasa +itself is not conducive to health, and by no means desirable for a length +of time. But a few miles inland there are gently undulating hills, clothed +with fine clumps of cocoa-palms growing on ground covered with an +emerald-green sward. Among the trees are scattered the garden-encircled +huts of the Wa-Nyika, who inhabit this coast. These hills afford a healthy +residence during the rainy season; but it would be dangerous for a European +to live here the year through, as the prevailing temperature in the hot +months--from October to January--would in time be injurious to him. In May, +however, when the heavy rains that fall from February to April have +thoroughly cooled the soil and the air, the heat is by no means +disagreeable.</p> + +<p>The French packet-ship was a day behind, and did not arrive at Zanzibar +until late in the night of the 4th; but, thanks to the courtesy of the +captain, we received our letters a day earlier than we had expected them. +The captain, learning at Aden that we were awaiting our letters at Mombasa, +when off that place hailed an Arabian dhow and sent us by that our +packages, which we consequently received on the same morning; we should +otherwise have had to wait for them until the evening of the next day. Of +the news thus brought us only two items need be mentioned: first, the +intimation that the committee had instructed our agent in Zanzibar to keep +up constant communication with Mombasa during the whole period of our +journey, and for that purpose to have in readiness several despatch-boats +and a swift-sailing cutter; and, secondly, the information that on the 18th +of April, the day of despatching the mails, the membership of the Society +had reached 8,460, with funds amounting to nearly £400,000.</p> + +<p>Together with our letters there came another little surprise for us from +home. The dhow brought us a pack of not less than thirty-two dogs, in +charge of two keepers, who were the bearers of greetings to us from their +master, Lord Clinton. His lordship, a warm espouser of our principles and a +great lover of dogs, had sent us this present from York, believing that it +would be very useful to us both on our journey and after we had arrived at +our destination. The dogs were splendid creatures--a dozen mastiffs and +twenty sheep-dogs of that long-legged and long-haired breed which looks +like a cross between the greyhound and the St. Bernard. The smallest of the +mastiffs was above twenty-seven inches high at the loins; the sheep-dogs +not much smaller; and they all proved themselves to be well-trained and +well-mannered creatures. They met with a cordial welcome from us all. The +two keepers told us that they were perfectly indifferent to our plans and +principles, for they 'knew nothing at all about such matters;' but, if we +would allow them, they would gladly accompany us along with their +four-footed friends. As they looked like strong, healthy, and, in spite of +their simplicity, very decent fellows, and as they professed to be +tolerably expert in riding and shooting and experienced in the training and +treatment of different kinds of animals, we were pleased to take them with +us. A cordial letter of thanks was returned to Lord Clinton; and when our +mails had been sent off to Zanzibar, and all arrangements for the morrow +completed, we retired to rest for the last time previous to our departure +for the dark interior of the African world.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<p> +On the 5th of May we were woke by the horns and drums of the Kirangozis +(leaders of the caravan) at three o'clock, according to arrangement. The +large camp-fires, which had been prepared overnight, were lighted, and +breakfast--tea or coffee, with eggs and cold meat for us whites, a soup of +meat and vegetables for the Swahili--was cooked; and by the light of the +same fires preparations were made for starting. The advance-guard, +consisting of the hundred <i>éclaireurs</i> and twenty lightly laden packhorses, +accompanied by thirty mounted pioneers, started an hour after we awoke. The +duty of the advance-guard was, with axe, billhook, and pick, so to clear +the way where it led through jungle and thicket as to make it passable for +our sumpter beasts with the larger baggage; to bridge, as well as they were +able, over watercourses; and to prepare the next camping-place for the main +body. In order to do this, the advance-guard had to precede us several +hours, or even several days, according to the character of the country. We +learnt from our guides that no great difficulties were to be anticipated at +the outset, so at first our advance-guard had no need to be more than a few +hours ahead.</p> + +<p>It was eight o'clock when the main body was in order. In the front were 150 +of us whites, headed by Johnston and myself; then followed in a long line +first the led horses, then the asses, and finally the camels; twenty whites +brought up the rear. Thus, at last, we left our camp with the sun already +shining hotly upon us; and, throwing back a last glance at Mombasa lying +picturesquely behind us, we bade farewell to the sea foaming below, whose +dull roar could be distinctly heard despite a distance of four or five +miles. To the sound of horns and drums we scaled the steep though not very +high hills that separated us from the so-called desert which lay between us +and the interior. The region, which we soon reached, evidently deserves the +name of desert only in the hot season; now, when the three months' rainy +season was scarcely over, we found the landscape park-like. Rich, though +not very high, grass alternated with groves of mimosa and dwarf palm and +with clumps of acacia. When, after a march of two hours, we had left the +last of the coast hills behind us, the grass became more luxuriant and the +trees more numerous, and taller; antelopes showed themselves in the +distance, but they were very shy and were soon scared away by the dogs, +which were not yet broken of the habit of useless hunting. About eleven +o'clock we halted for rest and refreshment in the shade of a palm-grove +which a dense mass of climbing plants had converted into a stately giant +canopy. All--men and beasts--were exhausted, though we had been scarcely +three hours on the march; the previous running and racing about in camp for +four hours had been the reverse of refreshing to us, and after ten o'clock +the heat had become most oppressive. Johnston comforted us by saying that +it would be better in future. In the first place, we should henceforth be +less time in getting ready to march, and should therefore start earlier--if +it depended upon him, soon after four--doing the greatest part of the way +in the cool of the morning, and halting at nine, or at the latest at ten. +Moreover, the district we were now going through was the hottest, if not +the most difficult, we should have to travel over; when we had once got +into the higher regions we should be troubled by excessive heat only +exceptionally.</p> + +<p>Reinvigorated by this encouragement, and more still by a generous meal--the +bulk of which consisted of two fat oxen bought on the way--and by the rest +in the shade of the dense liana-canopy, we started again at four o'clock, +and, after a trying march of nearly five hours, reached the camping-place +prepared by our advance-guard in the neighbourhood of a Wa-Kamba village +between Mkwalé and Mkinga. We did not come up with the advance-guard at +all; they had rested here about noon, but had gone on several hours before +we arrived, in order to keep ahead of us. However, they had left our supper +in charge of one of their number--eleven antelopes of different kinds, +which their huntsmen had shot by the way. The Swahili who had been left +with this welcome gift, and who mounted his Arab horse to overtake his +companions as soon as he had delivered his message, told us that they had +unexpectedly come upon a large herd of these charming beasts, among which +the white huntsmen had committed great havoc. Five antelopes had furnished +his company with their midday meal, as many had been taken away for their +evening meal, and the rest--among which, as he remarked, not without a +little envy, were the fattest animals--had been left for us. This attention +on the part of our companions who were ahead of us was received by us all +the more gratefully as, in the Wa-Kamba villages which we had passed +through since our midday halt, we had found no beasts for sale, except a +few lean goats, which we had refused in hopes of getting something better; +and we had been less fortunate in the chase than our advance-guard. Nothing +but a few insignificant birds had come within reach of our sportsmen, and +so we had already given up any hope of having fresh meat when the +unexpected present furnished us with a dainty meal, the value of which only +those can rightly estimate who have left an exhausting march behind them, +and have the prospect of nothing but vegetables and preserved meats before +them.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the next day, mindful of the inconvenience experienced by +us the day before, we began our march as early as half-past four. At first +the country was quite open; but in a couple of hours we reached the Duruma +country, where our advance-guard had had hot work. For more than half a +mile the path lay through thorny hush of the most horrible kind, which +would have been absolutely impassable by our sumpter beasts but for the +hatchets and billhooks of our brave <i>éclaireurs</i>. Thanks, however, to the +ample clearance they had made, we were quickly through. Towards eight +o'clock the way got better again; and this alternation was repeated until, +on the evening of the third day, we left Durumaland behind us and entered +upon the great desert that stretches thence almost without a break as far +as Teita. We once got very near to our advance-guard; I gave my steed the +spur, in order to see the men at their work, but they made it their +ambition to prevent us from getting quite close to them. With eager haste +they plied knife and hatchet in the thick thorny bush, until a passage was +made for us; and they then at once hurried forward without waiting for the +main column, the head of which was within a mile and a quarter of them.</p> + +<p>Nothing noteworthy occurred during these days. We left our camp about +half-past four each morning, made our first halt about nine, resumed our +march again before five in the afternoon, and camped between eight and nine +in the evening. The provisioning in Durumaland was difficult; but we +succeeded in procuring from the pastoral and agricultural inhabitants +sufficient vegetables and flesh food, and of the latter a supply large +enough to last us until we had passed through the Duruma desert. The soil +seems to possess a great natural fertility, but its best portions are +uncultivated and neglected, since the inhabitants seldom venture out of +their jungle-thickets on account of the incessant inroads of the Masai. We +heard everywhere of the evil deeds of these marauders, who had only a few +weeks before fallen upon a tribe, slain the men, and driven off the women, +children, and cattle, and were said to be again on the war-path in search +of new booty. Our assurance that we would shortly free their district, as +well as the districts of all the tribes with whom we had contracted or +expected to contract alliance, from this scourge, was received by the +Wa-Duruma with great incredulity; for the Sultan of Zanzibar himself had +failed to prevent the Masai from extending their raids and levying +contributions even as far as Mombasa and Pangani. Nevertheless, our promise +spread rapidly far and near.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the fourth day of our journey, just as we were preparing +to enter upon the desert, we learnt from some natives, who hurried by +breathless with alarm and anxiety, that a strong body of Masai had in the +night made a large capture of slaves and cattle, and were now on their way +to attack us. Thereupon we altered our arrangements. As the position we +occupied was a good one, we left our baggage and the drivers in camp, and +got ourselves ready for action. The guns were mounted and horsed, and the +rockets prepared; the former were placed in the middle, and the latter in +the two wings of the long line into which we formed ourselves. This was the +work of scarcely ten minutes, and in less than another quarter of an hour +we saw about six hundred Masai approaching at a rapid pace. We let them +come on unmolested until they were about 1,100 yards off. Then the trumpets +brayed, and our whole line galloped briskly to meet them. The Masai stopped +short when they saw the strange sight of a line of cavalry bearing down +upon them. We slackened our pace and went on slowly until we were a little +over a hundred yards from them. Then we halted, and Johnston, who is +tolerably fluent in the Masai dialect, rode a few steps farther and asked +them in a loud voice what they wanted. There was a short consultation among +the Masai, and then one of them came forward and asked whether we would pay +tribute or fight. 'Is this your country,' was the rejoinder, 'that you +demand tribute? We pay tribute to no one; we have gifts for our friends, +and deadly weapons for our foes. Whether the Masai will be our friends we +shall see when we visit their country. But we have already formed an +alliance with the Wa-Duruma, and therefore we allow no one to rob them. +Give back the prisoners and the booty and go home to your kraals, else we +shall be obliged to use against you our weapons and our medicines +(magic)--which we should be sorry to do, for we wish to contract alliance +with you also.'</p> + +<p>This last statement was evidently taken to be a sign of weakness, for the +Masai, who at first seemed to be a little alarmed, shook their spears +threateningly, and with loud shouts set themselves again in motion towards +us. Our trumpets brayed again, and while we horsemen sprang forwards the +guns and rockets opened fire--not upon the foe, among whose close masses +they would have wrought execution as terrible as it would have been +unnecessary--but away over their heads. The Masai stayed for only one +volley. When the guns thundered, the rockets, hissing and crackling, swept +over their heads, and, above all, the strange creatures with four feet and +two heads rushed upon them, they turned in an instant and fled away +howling. Our artillery sent another volley after them, to increase their +panic, if possible; while the horsemen busied themselves taking prisoners +and getting possession of the slaves and children, who were now visible in +the distance.</p> + +<p>In less than half an hour we had forty-three prisoners, and the whole of +the booty was in our possession. We should not have succeeded so completely +in freeing the Duruma women and children had these not been fettered in +such a way as to make it impossible for them to run quickly. For when these +poor creatures saw and heard the fighting and the noise, they made +desperate attempts to follow the fleeing Masai. The children behaved more +sensibly, for, though they were much alarmed by the firing and the rockets, +they gave us and our dogs--which performed excellent service in this +affair--little difficulty in driving them into our camp.</p> + +<p>The captured Masai were fine daring-looking fellows, and maintained a +considerable degree of self-composure in spite of their intense alarm and +of their expectation of immediate execution. Fortunately there was among +them their <i>leitunu</i>, or chief and absolute leader of the party--a bronze +Apollo standing 6 ft. 6 in. high. He looked as if he would like to thrust +his <i>sime</i>, or short sword, into his own breast when the Wa-Duruma, who had +begun to collect about us, ventured to mock at him and his people and to +shout aloud for their death. Johnston most emphatically refused this +demand. Speaking loudly enough for the prisoners to hear, he explained that +the Masai were to become our allies; we had simply punished them for the +wrong they had done. Did they--the Duruma--imagine that we needed their +help, or the help of anyone, to slay the Masai if we wished to slay them? +Had they not seen that we fired into the air, when a few well-aimed shots +from our mighty machines would have sufficed to tear all the Masai in +pieces? Then, in order to show the Duruma--but still more the Masai--the +truth of these words, which had been listened to with shuddering and +without the slightest trace of scepticism, Johnston directed a full volley +of all our guns and rockets upon a dilapidated straw-thatched round hut +about 1,100 yards off. The hut was completely smashed, and at once burst +into flames--a spectacle which made a most powerful impression upon the +savages.</p> + +<p>'Now go,' said Johnston to the Wa-Duruma, pretending not to notice how +intently our prisoners listened and looked on, 'and take your women, +children, and cattle, which we have set free, and leave the Masai in peace. +We will see to it that they do not trouble you in future. But do not forget +that in a few weeks the Masai also will be our allies.'</p> + +<p>The Wa-Duruma obeyed, but they did not quite know what to make of this +business. When they were gone away, Johnston ordered their weapons to be +given back to the captive Masai, whom he commanded to go away, telling them +that in at most two weeks' time he expected to visit Lytokitok, the +south-eastern frontier district of Masailand; and that it was in order to +inform them of this that he had had them brought before him. But instead of +at once taking advantage of this permission to go away, the <i>el-moran</i> (as +the Masai warriors are called) lingered where they were; and at last +Mdango, their <i>leitunu</i>, stepped forward and explained that it would be +certain death for such a small band of Masai, separated from their own +people, to seek to get home through Durumaland in its present agitated +condition; and if they must die, they would esteem it a greater honour to +die by the hand of so mighty a white <i>leibon</i> (magician) than to be slain +by the cowardly Wa-Duruma or Wa-Teita. As it was our intention to visit +their country very soon, we willingly permitted them to accompany us.</p> + +<p>Johnston's face beamed with delight at this auspicious beginning; but +towards the Masai he maintained a demeanour of absolute calm, and declared +in a dignified tone that what they asked was a great favour, and one of +which their previous behaviour had shown them to be so little worthy that +before he could give them a definite answer he must hold a <i>shauri</i> +(council) of his people. Leaving them standing where they were, he called +aside some twenty of us who were on horseback near him, and told us the +substance of the conversation. 'Of course, we will accede to the request of +the <i>leitunu</i>, who, judging from the large number of <i>el-moran</i> that follow +him, must be one of their most influential men. If he is completely won +over, he will bring over his countrymen with him. So now I will inform him +of the result of our council.'</p> + +<p>'Listen,' said he, turning to Mdango; 'we have decided to accede to your +request, for your brethren in Lytokitok shall not be able to say that we +have exposed you to a dishonourable death. But as we have directed our +weapons against you, though without shedding of blood, our customs forbid +us to admit you as guests to our camp and our table before you have fully +atoned for the outrage by which you have displeased us. This atonement will +have been made when each of you has contracted blood-brotherhood with him +who took you prisoner. Will you do this, and will you honourably keep your +word?'</p> + +<p>The <i>el-moran</i> very readily assented to this. Hereupon another council was +held among ourselves, and this was followed by the fraternisation--according +to the peculiar customs of the Masai--of the forty-three prisoners with +their captors; and we thereby gained forty-three allies who--as Johnston +assured us--would be hewed in pieces before they would allow any harm to +happen to us if they could prevent it.</p> + +<p>By this time it was nine o'clock, and, as the day promised to be glowing +hot, we had no desire to set foot upon the burning Duruma desert until the +sun was below the horizon. We therefore retired to our camp, which had not +been left by the sumpter beasts, and then we prepared our midday meal. In +honour of our bloodless victory, we prepared an unusually sumptuous repast +of flesh and milk--the only food of the Masai <i>el-moran</i>--followed by an +enormous bowl of rum, honey, lemons, and hot water, which was heartily +relished by our people, but which threw the Masai into a state of ecstasy. +The ecstasy knew no bounds when, the punch being drunk, the forty-three +blood-brethren were severally adorned with red breeches as a tribute of +friendship. The <i>leitunu</i> himself received an extra gift in the form of a +gold-embroidered scarlet mantle.</p> + +<p>The Duruma desert, which we entered about five o'clock, is quite +uninhabited, and during the dry months has the bad repute of being almost +absolutely without water. Now, however, immediately after the rainy season, +we found a sufficient quantity of tolerably good water in the many +ground-fissures and well-like natural pits, often two or three yards deep. +But we suffered so much from the heat before sunset, that we sacrificed our +night-rest in making a forced march to Taro, a good-sized pool formed by +the collected rain-water. We reached this towards morning, and rested here +for half a day--that is, we did not start again until the evening, +husbanding our strength for the worst part of the way, which was yet to +come. From this point the water-holes became less frequent, and the +landscape particularly cheerless--monotonous stony expanses alternating +with hideous thorn-thickets. Yet both men and beasts held out bravely +through those three miserable days, and on the 12th of May we reached in +good condition, though wetted to the skin by a sudden and unexpected +downpour of rain, the charming country of the Wa-Teita on the fine Ndara +range of hills.</p> + +<p>We here experienced for the first time the ravishing splendour of the +equatorial highlands. The Ndara range reaches a height of 5,000 feet and is +covered from summit to base with a luxuriant vegetation; a number of +silvery brooks and streams murmur and roar down its sides to the valleys; +and the view from favourably situated points is most charming. As we rested +here a whole day, most of us used the opportunity to make excursions +through the marvellous scenery, being most courteously guided about by +several Englishmen who had settled here for missionary and business +purposes. I could not penetrate so far as I wished into the tangle of +delicious shadowy valleys and hills which surrounded us, because I had to +arrange for the provisioning of the caravan both in Teita and for the +desert districts between Teita and the Kilimanjaro. But my more fortunate +companions scaled the neighbouring heights, spent the night either on or +just below the summits, refreshed themselves with the cool mountain air, +and came back intoxicated with all the beauty they had enjoyed. Even at the +foot of the Teita hills it was scarcely less charming. The bath under one +of the splashing waterfalls, fanned by the mild air and odours of evening, +would ever have been one of the pleasantest recollections of my life, if +Africa had not offered me still more glorious natural scenes.</p> + +<p>We spent the 14th and 15th in leisurely marches through this paradise, in +which a rich booty in giraffes and various kinds of antelopes fell to our +huntsmen. Everywhere we concluded friendly alliances with the tribes and +their chiefs, and sealed our alliances with presents. During the two +following days we worked our way through the uninhabited--but therefore the +richer in game--desert of Taveta, which in fact is not so bad as its +reputation; and on the afternoon of the 17th we approached the cool forests +of the foot-hills of the Kilima, where a strange surprise was hi store for +us.</p> + +<p>When we were a few miles from Taveta and--as is customary in Africa--had +announced the arrival of our caravan by a salvo from our guns, Johnston and +I, riding at the head of the train, saw a man galloping towards us with +loose rein, in whom we at once recognised the leader of our advance-guard, +Engineer Demestre. The haste with which he galloped towards us at first +gave us some anxiety; but his smiling face soon showed us that it was no +ill-luck which brought him to us. He signalled to me from a distance, and +cried as he checked his horse in front of us: 'Your sister and Miss Fox are +in Taveta.'</p> + +<p>Both Johnston and I must have made most absurd grimaces at this unexpected +announcement, for Demestre broke out into uproarious laughter, in which at +last we joined. Then he told us that, on the previous evening, when he and +his party arrived at Taveta, the two ladies had accosted him in the streets +as unconcernedly as if it were a casual meeting at home, had altogether +ignored the slight they had received, and, when asked, had told him in an +indifferent tone that they had travelled hither from Aden, whence they +started on the 30th of April--therefore while we were waiting at +Mombasa--to Zanzibar, whence, after a short stay, they went to Pangani and, +taking the route by Mkumbara and the Jipé lake, reached Taveta on the 14th +of May. They were accompanied by their servant and friend, Sam--a worthy +old negro who was Miss Fox's constant attendant--and four elephants upon +which they rode, to the boundless astonishment of the negroes. They were +quite comfortable in Taveta. 'Miss Clara sends greetings, and bids me tell +you that she longs to press you to her sisterly heart.'</p> + +<p>When I saw that Demestre was not joking I put spurs to my horse, and in a +few minutes found myself in a shady, bowery woodland road which led from +the open country into Taveta. Soon after I saw the two ladies, one of whom +ran towards me with outstretched arms and, almost before I had touched the +ground, warmly embraced me, she weeping aloud the while. After the first +storm of emotion was over, I tried to get from my sister a fuller account +of her appearance here among the savages; but I failed, for as often as the +good creature began her story it was interrupted by her tears and her +expressions of joy at seeing me again, as well as by thoughts of all the +dangers from which I--heedless boy!--had been preserved by nothing but my +good luck. In the meantime Miss Fox had come up to us. She returned my +greeting with a slight tinge of sarcasm, but none the less cordially; and I +at length learned from her all that I wished to know.</p> + +<p>I found that the two, at their very first meeting, had come to an +understanding and decided upon the principal features of their plot, +reserving the arrangement of details until we had left Europe. My sister +had found in Miss Fox the energy and the possession of the requisite +pecuniary means for the independent undertaking of an expedition, against +the will of the men; and Miss Fox had found in my sister the companion and +elder protectress, without whom even she would have shrunk from such a bold +enterprise. As Miss Fox was exactly informed of all our plans, she was able +to copy them in her own arrangements. She procured what she needed from the +manufacturers and brokers from whom we got our provisions, articles of +barter, and travelling necessaries. Like us, she substituted sumpter beasts +for <i>pagazis</i>; only, in order to be original in at least one point, she +chose elephants instead of horses, camels, or asses. She inferred that, as +elephants--though hitherto untamed--abounded in all the districts to which +we were going, Indian elephants would thrive well throughout Equatorial +Africa. A business friend of her late father's in Calcutta bought for her +four fine specimens of these pachyderms, and sent them with eight +experienced keepers and attendants to Aden, whence she took them with her +to Zanzibar. Here several guides and interpreters were hired; and, in order +not to come into collision with us too near the coast, she chose the route +by Pangani. The curiosity of the natives was here and there a little +troublesome; but, thanks mainly to the courteous attentions of the German +agents stationed in Mkumbana, Membe, and Taveta, the expedition had not met +with the slightest mishap. On their arrival at Taveta they had at once +dismissed their Swahili, and intended to join our expedition with the +elephants and Indians--unless we insisted on leaving them behind us alone +in Taveta.</p> + +<p>What was to be done under such circumstances? It followed as a matter of +course that the two Amazons must henceforth form a part of our expedition; +and, to tell the truth, I knew not how to be angry with either my sister or +Miss Fox for their persistency. The worst dangers might be considered as +averted by the affair with the Masai in Duruma; the difficulties of the +journey were, as the result showed, no more than women could easily brave. +Therefore I gave myself up without anxiety to the joy of the unexpected +reunion. I was gratified to note also that the other members of the +expedition welcomed this addition to our numbers. So the elephants with +their fair burdens--for it may be added in passing that my sister, +notwithstanding her thirty-eight years, still retains her good looks--had +their place assigned to them in our caravan.</p> + +<p>We bade farewell to our Masai friends outside Taveta. They were +commissioned to inform their countrymen that we should reach the frontier +of Lytokitok in eight or ten days, and that it was our intention to go +through the whole of Masailand in order to find a locality suitable for our +permanent settlement. This settlement of ours would be in the highest +degree profitable to the race in whose neighbourhood we should build our +dwellings, as we should make such race rich and invincible by any of their +foes. We should force no one to receive us and give us land, although we +possessed--as they were convinced--sufficient power to do so; and many +thousands of our brethren were only awaiting a message from us to come and +join us. If, however, a free passage were not peaceably granted to us +through any territory, we knew how to force it. We finally made our +blood-brethren solemnly engage to bring as many tribes as possible into +alliance with us, especially those who dwelt on the route to the Naivasha +lake, our route to the Kenia mountain; and we parted with mutual +expressions of good will. They had shown themselves most agreeable fellows, +and as parting mementos we gave them a number of what in their eyes were +very valuable presents for their beloved ones--the so-called 'Dittos'--such +as brass wire, brass bracelets and rings with imitation stones, +hand-mirrors, strings of glass pearls, cotton articles, and ribbons. These +gifts, which in Europe had not cost £20 altogether, were--as we afterwards +had occasion to prove--worth among the Masai as much as a hundred fat oxen; +and the <i>el-moran</i> were struck dumb with our generosity. But in their eyes +Johnston's final gift was beyond all price--a cavalry sabre with iron +sheath and a good Solingen blade for each of the departing heroes. To give +ocular demonstration of the quality of these weapons, Johnston got a +Belgian, skilled in such feats, to cut through at one stroke the strongest +of the Masai spears, the head of which was nearly five inches broad. He +then showed to the astonished warriors the still undamaged sword-blade. 'So +do our <i>simes</i> cut,' he said, 'when used in righteous battle; but beware of +drawing them in pillage or murder, for they will then shatter in your hands +as glass and bring evil upon your heads.' We then gave them a friendly +salute, and they were soon out of sight.</p> + +<p>We stayed in Taveta five days to give our animals rest after their trying +marches, and to refresh ourselves with the indescribable charms of this +country, which surpassed in pleasantness and tropical splendour, as well as +in the grandeur of the mountain-ranges, anything we had hitherto seen. We +wished also, with the assistance of the German agents settled here and in +the neighbouring Moshi, to complete our equipment for the rest of the +journey. These gentlemen, and not less the friendly natives, readily gave +us information as to what wares were then in special demand in Masailand; +and as we happened to have very few of a kind of blue pearls just then +fashionable among the Dittos, and not a single piece of a sort of cotton +cloth prized as a great novelty, we bought in Taveta several beast-loads of +these valuables.</p> + +<p>In our excursions from Taveta we saw for the first time the Kilimanjaro +mountain in all its overpowering majesty. Rising abruptly more than 13,000 +feet above the surrounding high land, this double-peaked giant reaches an +altitude of 19,000 feet above the sea, and bears upon its broad massive +back a stretch of snow with which in impressiveness neither the glaciers of +our European Alps nor, in a certain sense, those of the Andes and the +Himalayas, can compare. For nowhere else upon our earth does nature present +such a strong and sudden contrast between the most luxuriant and exuberant +tropical vegetation and the horrid chilling waste of broken precipices and +eternal ice as here in Equatorial Africa. The flora and fauna at the foot +of the Himalayas, for example, are scarcely less gorgeous than in the +wooded and well-watered country around Taveta; but while the snow-covered +peaks of the mountain-range of Central Asia rise hundreds of miles away +from the foot of the mountains, and it is therefore not possible to enjoy +the two kinds of scenery together, heightened by contrast, here one can, +from under the shade of a wild banana or mango-palm, count with a good +telescope the unfathomable glacier-crevasses--so palpably near is the world +of eternal ice to that of eternal summer. And what a summer!--a summer that +preserves its richest treasures of beauty and fruitfulness without relaxing +our nerves by its hot breath. These shady yet cheerful forests, these +crystal streams leaping everywhere through the flower-perfumed land, these +balmy airs which almost uninterruptedly float down from the near icefields, +and on their way through the mountain-gorges and higher valleys get laden +with the spicy breath of flowers,--all this must be seen and enjoyed in +order to know what Taveta is.</p> + +<p>This favoured land produces a superabundance of material enjoyments of a +tangible kind. Fat cattle, sheep and goats, poultry, dainty fishes from the +Jipé lake and the Lumi river, specially dainty game of a thousand kinds +from the banks of the smaller mountain-streams which flow down the sides of +the Kilimanjaro, satisfy the most insatiable longing for flesh food. The +vegetable kingdom pours forth not less lavishly from its horn of plenty a +supply of almost all the wild and cultivated fruits and garden-produce of +the tropics. At the same time everything is so cheap that the most +extravagant glutton could not exceed a daily consumption costing more than +a penny or two, even should the courteous and hospitable Wa-Taveta accept +payment at all--which, however, they seldom did from us. It is true that +the fame of our heroic deeds against the Masai had gone before us, and +particularly the assurance that we had delivered Taveta from these +unwelcome guests, who, it is true, had hitherto been kept away on every +attack by the impenetrable forest fastnesses of Kilima, but whose +neighbourhood was nevertheless very troublesome. Besides, our hands were +ever open to the men of Taveta, and still more generously to the women. +European goods of all kinds, articles of clothing, primitive ornaments, and +especially a selection of photographs and Munich coloured picture-sheets, +won the hearts of our black hosts, so that when, on the morning of the 23rd +of May, we at last set out on our way, we were as sorry to leave this +splendid woodland district as the Wa-Taveta were to lose us. These good +simple-minded men accompanied us over their frontier; and many of the by no +means ill-looking Taveta girls, who had lost their hearts to their white or +their Swahili guests, shed bitter tears, and told their woe preferably to +our two ladies, who fortunately did not understand a word of these effusive +demonstrations of the Tavetan female heart. Prudery is an unknown thing in +Equatorial Africa; and the Taveta fair ones would have been as little able +to understand why anyone should think it wrong to open one's heart to a +guest as their white sisters would have been to conceive of the possibility +of talking freely and in all innocence of such matters without giving the +least offence to friends and relatives.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<p> +There are two routes from Taveta to Masailand, one leading westward past +Kilima through the territory of the Wa-Kwafi, the other along the eastern +slopes of the mountain through the lands occupied by the various tribes of +the Wa-Chaga.</p> + +<p>Both routes pass through fertile and pleasant country; but we chose the +latter, because just then the Wa-Kwafi were at war with the Masai, and we +wished to avoid getting mixed up with any affair that did not concern us. +Moreover, we preferred to have dealings with the quiet and pacific Wa-Chaga +rather than with the swaggering Wa-Kwafi. By short day-marches we went on +past the wildly romantic Chala lake, shut in by dark perpendicular rocks, +through the wooded hillsides of Rombo and over the tableland of Useri. On +our way we crossed three considerable streams which unite to form the Tzavo +river. We also came upon numberless springs which sent their water down +from Kilima in all directions to irrigate the park-like meadows and the +well-cultivated fields of the natives. All along our route we exchanged +gifts and contracted alliances of friendship At times the chase was engaged +in, furnishing us with a great number of antelopes, zebras, giraffes, and +rhinoceroses.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of May we reached the frontier of Lytokitok, the south-eastern +boundary of Masailand. As we crossed the Rongei stream we met our friend +Mdango, accompanied by a large number of his warriors. His report was +gratifying. He had given his message, not only to the elders and warriors +of his own tribe, but to all the tribes from Lytokitok to the frontiers of +Kapté, and had invited them to a great <i>shauri</i> at the Minyenye hill, half +a day's march from the frontier in the direction of the Useri. The +invitation had been numerously accepted by both <i>el-morun</i> and +<i>el-moran</i>--<i>i.e.</i> married men and warriors--the latter attending to the +number of above 3,000 men; and two days before they had been in +consultation from morning until evening. The result was the unanimous +resolve to permit us to pass through; but they had not yet agreed whether +to insist upon the payment of the customary <i>hongo</i>, or tribute, exacted +from trade-caravans, or to await our spontaneous liberality. Indeed, +difficulties still stood in the way of a permanent alliance of friendship +with us, and it was mainly the majority of the <i>el-moran</i> who wanted to +treat us as strangers passing through Masailand were generally +treated--that is, to exhibit towards us a violent, arrogant, and +extortionate demeanour. They refused to believe in our great power, since +we had not killed even one Masai warrior, but had sent home in good +condition all who had fought against us, except sixteen--who had, however, +been killed by the Wa-Duruma and the Wa Teita, and not by us. This party +advanced the opinion that Mdango and his men had fled from us out of +childish alarm, which assertion nearly led to a sanguinary encounter +between the deeply incensed accused and their accusers. Since, however, +even the latter admitted that we must be very good fellows, inasmuch as we +had in no way abused our victory, they were, as already stated, not +disinclined graciously to permit our passage through their country. And +since Mdango consoled himself with the reflection that we could best +dispose of the braggarts who laughed at him, he had restrained himself, and +told the other party they had better meet us and try to frighten us; he and +his would remain neutral notwithstanding the blood-brotherhood he had +contracted with us, but he would have nothing to do with compelling us to +pay tribute. All his six hundred warriors would adhere to him, and nearly +as many <i>el-moran</i> from other tribes; the married men--the +<i>el-morun</i>--were, almost without exception, favourable to us. Thus stood +affairs, and we had to prepare ourselves to meet, hi a few hours, some +2,000 <i>el-moran</i>, to whom we must either pay heavy tribute or play the same +game as we had played with him and his in Duruma. Moreover, he gave us +plainly to understand that a few sharp shots from the cannons, or, still +better, a few rockets, would not be amiss.</p> + +<p>Johnston rejected this counsel of revenge, which was unworthy of a +blood-brother of white men, and pacified him by promising that the boasters +should be thoroughly shamed, and that the laughers in Masailand should be +those of Mdango's party. Thereupon Johnston very quietly made his +preparations. The sumpter beasts and their drivers occupied the well-fenced +camp prepared by our advance-guard; we whites, on the contrary, placed +ourselves conspicuously in the shade of some large isolated sycamores, with +our saddled horses a few yards behind us, where were also the limbered-up +guns and rocket-battery. Even the four elephants, which Johnston had +accustomed to fire in Taveta, had a <i>rôle</i> assigned to them in this +burlesque, and they were therefore sent with their attendants to feed in +the shade of a small wood close at hand. When all this was arranged, we +settled down quietly to our cooking, and did not allow ourselves to be +disturbed when the first band of <i>el-moran</i> became visible. Our apparent +indifference perplexed them, and while still a mile and a quarter from us +they held a consultation. Then a deputation of ten of their young warriors +approached, the rest of the band awaiting their companions who had not yet +appeared. The messengers addressed us with great dignity, and, after they +had been referred to Johnston as our <i>leitunu</i>, asked us what we wanted.</p> + +<p>'An unmolested passage through your country, and friendship with you,' was +the answer.</p> + +<p>Would we pay tribute?</p> + +<p>'Our brother Mdango has told you that for our friends we have rich +presents, but these presents are given voluntarily or for services +rendered. We have weapons for our foes, but tribute for no one.'</p> + +<p>The <i>el-moran</i> replied with dignity, but haughtily, that it was not the +custom of the country to allow travellers to pass through as they pleased; +we must either pay what was demanded, or fight.</p> + +<p>'Friends, consider well what you are doing. We do not wish to fight, but to +keep the peace and become your brethren. Go back to your kraals, and be +careful not to molest us. Tell this to your young warriors. If you go away, +we will take that as an indication of your friendly disposition, and there +shall no harm come to you. But if you come beyond that bush' (here Johnston +pointed to a small wood, a little over two hundred yards away from our +camp) 'we shall look upon it as an attack. I have spoken.'</p> + +<p>The <i>el-moran</i> went away with as much quiet dignity as they had exhibited +when they approached us. The number in sight had meantime increased to +nearly 2,000 men, who were arranged in tolerably good military order. When +they received our answer, they raised a not unmusical war-cry and, +extending their lances, hurried forward with a quick step. We sat still by +the side of our cooking-vessels as if the affair did not concern us, until +the foremost of the <i>el-moran</i> had reached the specified bush. Johnston +then caused the signal to be blown; quick as lightning we were in the +saddle, and, with the elephants in our midst, we galloped towards the +<i>el-moran</i>, whilst a quick fire with blank-cartridge opened upon them and +our artillery began to play. The effect was not less drastic than it had +been in the case of the followers of Mdango. The arrogant assailants beat a +noisy retreat, and--an unheard-of disgrace for fighting <i>el-moran</i>--many of +them let fall their lances and shields in the panic. The whole body of them +fled until they were completely out of our view; but we went back to our +cooking-utensils, where we found Mdango's followers and adherents, who had +been inactive spectators of the scene, convulsed with laughter. We invited +them within our fenced camp, where we loaded each man with presents. First +Mdango was rewarded for his diplomatic services with a bright-coloured +gold-embroidered robe of honour (where, in speaking of presents, 'gold' is +mentioned--which the Central African neither knows nor values--spurious +metal must be understood), a silver watch, a white-metal knife, fork, and +spoon, and several tin plates. The using of the last-named articles must +have been very difficult to him at first; but it ought to be stated that +his watch continued to go well, and on special occasions he made use of his +knife and fork with a great deal of dignity.</p> + +<p>Other Masai notables were honoured with choice presents, though not so +extravagantly as the much-envied Mdango. All the <i>el-moran</i> +received--besides strings of pearls and kerchiefs for their girls--the +much-coveted red breeches; each married man a coloured mantle; and every +woman, married or single, who honoured our camp with a visit was made glad +by gifts of pictures, pearls, and all kinds of bronze and glass +knickknacks. It took about fifty of us several hours to distribute these +presents. It was difficult to keep order in this surging mass of excited +and chattering men and women. It was almost sunset before the last of the +Masai men left our camp, whilst the prettiest of the girls and women showed +no inclination to return to their household gods.</p> + +<p>Under the pretence of doing honour to our new friends, but really in order +to show that, when necessary, our weapons could strike as well as make a +noise, we ordered a grand parade for the next forenoon. At this there were +present, not merely our adherents, but also most of our assailants of +yesterday. The latter were shy and confused, like whipped children; but +they were attracted both by curiosity and by the hope of yet winning the +favour of the magnanimous <i>mussungus</i> (whites). After manoeuvring for about +half an hour, we gave a platoon fire with ball-cartridge at a fixed target; +and then one of our sharpshooters smashed ten eggs thrown up in rapid +succession--a feat which won enthusiastic applause from the <i>el-moran</i>. +Even the ringleaders of yesterday's opponents, when this first part of the +play was over, declared that it would be madness to fight with such +antagonists; they saw clearly that we could have blown them all into the +air yesterday in ten minutes. The artillery portion of the spectacle +produced a still greater effect. About a mile and a quarter from our camp +Johnston had improvised several good-sized block-houses of heavy timber +covered with brushwood and dry grass, and had placed in them a quantity of +explosives. These structures, which were really of a substantial character, +were now subjected to a fire of grenades and rockets; and it can be readily +imagined that the ascending flames, the crackling of the falling timbers, +and the explosion of the enclosed fireworks, would strongly impress the +Masai. But the terrible fascination reached its climax when Johnston +brought into play a mine and an electric communication which had been +prepared during the night, and by means of which a hut stored with +fireworks was sent into the air. The Masai were now convinced that a +movement of our hands was sufficient alone to blow into the air any +enemies, however numerous they might be; and from that time to offer +violent resistance to us appeared to them as useless as to offer it to +supernatural powers.</p> + +<p>When we saw that they were thus sufficiently prepared, we proceeded to +conclude our alliance of peace and friendship. First of all, however, +Johnston announced to the abashed and silently retreating victims of +yesterday's sham fight that we whites had forgiven them, that in the solemn +act now beginning we wished to look upon none but contented faces, and that +therefore they were to have presents given them. When this had been +announced, Johnston required the kraals--seventeen from Lytokitok and four +from Kapté were represented--each to nominate the <i>leitunu</i> and <i>leigonani</i> +of its <i>el-moran</i> and two of its <i>el-morun</i> to draw up the contract with +us. The choice of these was soon finished, and an hour later the +deliberations--in which on our side only Johnston, myself, and six officers +took part--were opened by all sorts of ceremonies. First there were several +speeches, in which on our side were set forth the advantages which the +Masai would derive from our settling in their midst or on their frontiers; +and on the side of the Masai orators assurances of admiration and affection +for their white friends played the principal <i>rôle</i>. Then Johnston laid the +several points of the contract before them, as follows:</p> + +<p>1. The Masai shall preserve unbroken peace and friendship towards us and +our allies, who are the inhabitants of Duruma, Teita, Taveta, Chala, and +Useri.</p> + +<p>2. The Masai shall on no pretence whatever demand <i>hongo</i> (tribute) from +any caravan conducted by white men; but promise on the contrary to assist +by all means in their power the progress of such caravans, particularly in +furnishing them, as far as their supplies allow, with provisions at a fair +price.</p> + +<p>3. The Masai shall, when required by us at any time, place at our disposal +any number of <i>el-moran</i> to act as escort or sentinels, yielding military +obedience to us during the period of their service with us.</p> + +<p>4. In return we bind ourselves to recognise the Masai as our friends, to +protect them in their rights, and to aid them against foreign attacks.</p> + +<p>5. The <i>el-moran</i> of all the tribes in alliance with us shall receive every +man yearly two pair of good cotton trousers and fifty strings of glass +pearls to be chosen by themselves, or, if they wish, other articles of like +value. The <i>el-morun</i> shall receive every man a cotton mantle; the +<i>leitunus</i> and <i>leigonanis</i> trousers, pearls, and mantle.</p> + +<p>6. The <i>el-moran</i> who shall be called out for active service among us shall +every one receive, besides full rations in flesh and milk, a daily payment +of five strings of pearls, or their value.</p> + +<p>These conditions, which were received by the Masai present with signs of +undisguised satisfaction, were confirmed with great solemnity by the +symbolic ceremony of blood-fraternisation between the contracting parties. +As the multitude, who stood looking on at a respectful distance, greeted +the conditions, when read to them, with loud shouts of joy, we knew that +the public opinion of Lytokitok and of a portion of Kapté was completely +won.</p> + +<p>We told our new allies that it was our intention to pass Matumbato and +Kapté on our way to the Naivacha lake, to admit to the alliance as many as +possible of the Masai tribes dwelling on our route, and then proceed to the +Kenia either by Kikuyu or by Lykipia. To facilitate our entering into +friendly relations with the tribes through whose territories we should +pass, we asked for a company of fifty <i>el-moran</i> to precede us under the +leadership of our friend Mdango, who had risen very high in the estimation +of his countrymen. Our request was granted, and Mdango felt no little +flattered by the choice which had fallen on him. The fifty <i>el-moran</i> whom +we asked for grew to be above five hundred, for the younger warriors +contended among themselves for the honour of serving us. The Masai advised +us not to take the route by Kikuyu. The Wa-Kikuyu are not a Masai tribe, +but belong to quite a different race, and have from time immemorial been at +feud with the Masai. They were described to us as at once treacherous, +cowardly, and cruel, as people without truthfulness and fidelity, and with +whom an honourable alliance was impossible. But as we had already learnt, +in our civilised home, how much reliance is to be placed on the opinions +held of each other by antagonistic nations, the above description produced +no effect upon our minds beyond that of convincing us that the Wa-Kikuyu +and the Masai were hereditary foes. That we were correct in our scepticism +the result showed. Mdango was informed that we should adhere to our +original purpose. He was to precede us by forced marches, if possible to +the frontiers of Lykipia, then turn and await us on the east shore of the +Naivasha lake, where, in three weeks' time, we hoped to hold the great +<i>shauri</i> with the Masai tribes which he would then have got together and +won over to our wishes. As to the Wa-Kikuyu who occupied the territory to +the east of Naivasha, we ourselves would arrange with them.</p> + +<p>Mdango left next morning, while we remained until the 1st of June at +Miveruni, on the north side of the Kilimanjaro. The news of what had +happened had reached the neighbouring Useri, whose inhabitants--hitherto +living in constant feud with the Masai--now came in great numbers, under +the leadership of their Sultan, to visit us, and to be convinced of the +truth of what they had heard. They brought gifts for both ourselves and the +Masai, the gifts for the latter being tokens of their pleasure at the +ending of their feud. We received fifty cows and fifty bulls; the Masai +half the number. This gift suggested to the Masai elders the idea of +sending messengers with greetings from us, and with assurances of peace +henceforth, to the Chaga, Wa-Taveta, Wa-Teita, and Wa-Duruma; which +embassy, as we learnt afterwards, returned six weeks later so richly +rewarded that the inhabitants of Lytokitok gained more in presents than +they had ever gained in booty by their raids. And as these presents were +repeated annually, though not to so great an amount, the peace was in this +respect alone a very good stroke of business for our new friends. But the +tribes which had formerly suffered from the Masai when on the war-path +profited still more from the peace, for they were henceforth able to +pasture their cattle in security and to till their fields, whilst +previously just the most fertile districts had been left untilled through +dread of the Masai.</p> + +<p>As we were abundantly supplied with flesh and milk (for the Masai had given +us presents in return in the shape of fine cattle), we begged the Sultan of +Useri--who, of course, was not left unrewarded for his friendliness--to +hold his presents in his own keeping until we needed them. We intended to +use the cattle he offered us for the great caravans that would follow. For +the same purpose, we also left in charge of our Masai friends in Miveruni +three hundred and sixty head of cattle which we had not used of their +presents. We were not dependent upon our cattle for meat, as the chase +supplied us with an incredible abundance of the choicest dainties. For +instance, in three hours I shot six antelopes of different kinds, two +zebras, and one rhinoceros; and as our camp contained many far better +sportsmen than I am, it may be imagined how easy a matter it was to +provision us. In fact, though unnecessary slaughter was avoided as much as +possible, and our better sportsmen tried their skill upon only the game +that was very rare or very difficult to bring down, we could not ourselves +consume the booty brought home, but every day presented carcases of game to +our guest-friends. In particular, we shot rhinoceroses, with which the +country swarmed, solely for the use of our blacks, who were passionately +fond of certain portions of those animals, whilst no portion is palatable +to Europeans except in extreme need. When we were on the march it was often +necessary to kill these animals, because they--the only wild animals that +do it in Central Africa--have the inconvenient habit of attacking and +breaking through the caravans when they discover their neighbourhood by +means of the wind. This happened almost daily during the whole of our +journey, though only once a serious result followed, when a driver was +badly wounded and an ass was tossed and gored. But the inconvenience caused +by these attacks was always considerable, and we thought it better to shoot +the mischievous uncouth fellows rather than allow them an opportunity of +running down a man or a beast.</p> + +<p>We had hitherto seen only isolated footprints of elephants, but on the +northern declivities of the Kilimanjaro we found elephants in great +numbers, though not in such enormous herds as we were to meet with later in +the Kenia districts. They were the noble game to which the more fastidious +of our sportsmen confined their attentions, without, however, achieving any +great success; for the elephants here were both shy and fierce, having +evidently been closely hunted by the ivory-seekers. It was necessary to +exercise extreme caution; and thus it was that only three of our best and +most venturesome hunters succeeded in killing one each, the flesh of which +was handed over to the blacks, whilst the small quantity of ivory found its +way into our treasury. <i>A propos</i> of hunting, it may be mentioned here that +the lions, which were met with everywhere on our journey in great numbers, +sometimes in companies of as many as fifteen individuals, afforded the +least dangerous and generally the least successful sport. The lion of +Equatorial Africa is a very different animal from his North African +congener. He equals him in size and probably in strength, but in the +presence of man he is shyer and even timid. These lions will not attack +even a child; in fact, the natives chase them fearlessly with their +insignificant weapons when the lions fall upon their herds. All the many +lions upon which our huntsmen came made off quickly, and, even if wounded, +showed fight only when their retreat was cut off; in short, they are +cowards in every respect. The reason for this is to be sought in the great +abundance of their prey. As the table is always furnished for the 'king of +beasts,' and he need not run any danger or put forth any great effort in +order to satisfy his wants, he carefully avoids every creature that appears +seriously to threaten his safety. The buffalo, which is certainly the most +dangerous of all African wild beasts, is attacked by lions only when the +buffalo is alone and the lions are many in company.</p> + +<p>At four in the morning of the 1st of June we left Miveruni. A march of +several hours placed the last of the woodland belts of the Kilima +foot-hills behind us, and we entered upon the bare plains of the Ngiri +desert. The road through these and past the Limgerining hills by the high +plateau of Matumbato offered little that was noteworthy. On the 6th of June +we reached the hills of Kapté, along whose western declivities we passed at +a height of from 4,000 to 5,500 feet above the sea. On our left, beneath +us, were the monotonous plains of Dogilani, stretching farther than the eye +could reach, and on our right the Kapté hills, rising to a height of nearly +10,000 feet, their sides showing mostly rich, grassy, park-like land, and +their summits clothed with dark forests. Numerous streamlets, here and +there forming picturesque waterfalls, fell noisily down, uniting in the +Dogilani country into larger streams, which, as far as the eye could follow +them, all took their course westward to fall into the Victoria Nyanza, the +largest of all the great lakes of Central Africa. All the tribes on our way +received us as old friends, even those with whom we had not previously +contracted alliance. They had all heard the wonderful story of the white +men who wished to settle amongst them, and who were at once so mighty and +so generous. Mdango's invitation to the <i>shauri</i> at the Naivasha lake had +everywhere been gladly received; multitudes were already on their way, and +others joined us or promised to follow. There was no mention at all of +<i>hongo</i>; in short, our game was won in all parts of the country.</p> + +<p>On the 12th we reached the confines of the Kikuyu country, along which our +further route to the Naivasha led. The evil reports of the knavish, hateful +character of this people were repeated to us in a yet stronger form by the +Kapté Masai, their immediate neighbours. But we had in the meantime +received from another source a very different representation. Our two +ladies had with them an Andorobbo girl whom they had taken into their +service in Taveta. The Andorobbo are a race of hunters who, without settled +residence, are to be met with throughout the whole of the enormous region +between the Victoria Nyanza and the Zanzibar coast. Sakemba--as the girl of +eighteen was called--belonged to a tribe of this race that hunted elephants +in the districts at the foot of the Kenia to the north of Kikuyu. She had +been stolen two years before by the Masai, who had sold her to a Swahili +caravan, with which she had gone to Taveta. The girl had an invincible +longing for her home--a rare thing among these races; and as it was known +that my sister and Miss Ellen were awaiting a caravan that was going on to +the Kenia, the girl appealed to them to buy her from her master and take +her back to her home, where her relatives would gladly pay the cost in +elephants' teeth. Touched by the importunity of the girl, Clara and Miss +Fox bought her of her master, gave her her liberty, and engaged to take her +with them. The girl was very intelligent, and was well-informed concerning +the affairs of her native country. She had heard in Miveruni what evil +reports the Masai gave of the Wa-Kikuyu, and she took the first opportunity +of assuring her protectresses that the case was not nearly so bad as it was +made to appear. The Masai and the Wa-Kikuyu were old foes, and, as they +consequently did each other all the harm they could, they ascribed every +conceivable vice to each other. It was true that the Wa Kikuyu would rather +fight in ambush than in the open field, and they certainly were not so +brave as the Masai; but they were treacherous and cruel only to their +enemies, while those who had won their confidence could as safely rely upon +them as upon the members of any other nation. The Andorobbo would much +rather have dealings with the Wa-Kikuyu than with the Masai, because the +former were much more peaceable and less overbearing than the latter. Our +direct route to the Kenia lay through Kikuyu, whilst the route through +Lykipia would have taken at least six days longer on account of the +<i>détour</i> we should have to make around the Aberdare range of hills.</p> + +<p>As we had no reason to question the trustworthiness of this report, the +last--and to us most important--part of which was confirmed by a glance at +the map, we resolved at any rate to attempt the route through Kikuyu. +Therefore, whilst the greater part of the expedition continued to pursue, +under Johnston's guidance, the northerly route to the Naivasha lake, I with +fifty men and a quantity of baggage went easterly by the frontier place, +Ngongo-a-Bagas. My intention was to take with me merely Sakemba as one +acquainted with the country and the people, and to leave the two ladies in +Johnston's care until my return. But my sister declared that she would not +leave me on any account; and as the Andorobbo girl belonged to the women +and not to me, and moreover asserted that there would be absolutely no +danger for the women, since it had been from time immemorial an unbroken +custom for the Masai and the Wa-Kikuyu to respect each other's women in +time of war--an assurance which was confirmed on all hands, even by the +Masai themselves--my sister and Miss Ellen became members of our party.</p> + +<p>As soon as we entered the territory of Kikuyu we found ourselves in +luxuriant shady forests, which however could by no means be said to be +'impenetrable,' but were rather remarkable for being in very many places +cut through by broad passages, which had the appearance of having been made +by some skilful gardener for the convenience and recreation of +pleasure-seekers. These ways were not perfectly straight, but as a rule +they went in a certain definite direction. In breadth they varied from +three to twenty feet; at places they broadened out into considerable +clearings which, like the narrower ways, were clothed with a very fine and +close short grass, and were deliciously shady and cool. The origin of these +ways was, and is, an enigma to me. On each side of them there was underwood +between the stems of the tall trees. At places this underwood was very +thick, and we could plainly see that dark figures followed us on both +sides, watching all our movements, and evidently not quite sure as to what +our intentions were. The fact that we came from the hostile Masailand might +have excited mistrust, for we proceeded in this way a couple of hours +without an actual meeting between ourselves and any of our unknown escort.</p> + +<p>An end had to be put to this, for some unforeseen accident might lead to a +misunderstanding followed by hostilities. So I asked Sakemba if she dared +to go alone among the Wa-Kikuyu. 'Why not?' asked she. 'It would be as safe +as for me to go into the hut of my parents.' I therefore ordered a halt, +and the Andorobbo girl went fearlessly towards the bushes where she knew +the Wa-Kikuyu to be, and at once disappeared. In half an hour she returned +accompanied by several Wa-Kikuyu women, who were sent to test the truth of +Sakemba's story--that is, to see whether we were, with the exception of a +few drivers, all whites, and whether--which would be the most certain proof +of our pacific intentions--there were really two white women among us. +Uncertain rumours about us had already reached the ears of the Wa-Kikuyu; +but, as these reports had come through the hostile Masai, the Wa-Kikuyu had +not known how much to believe. But the deputation of women opened up +friendly relations between us; a few lavishly bestowed trinkets soon won us +the hearts and the confidence of the black fair ones. Our visitors did not +waste time in returning to the men, but signalled and called the latter to +come to them, with the result that we were immediately surrounded by +hundreds of admiring and astonished Wa-Kikuyu.</p> + +<p>I went among them, accompanied only by an interpreter, and asked where +their sultan and elders were. Sultan had they none, was the answer--they +were independent men; their elders were present among them. 'Then let us at +once hold a <i>shauri</i>, for I have something of importance to tell you.' No +African can resist a request to hold a <i>shauri</i>; so we immediately sat down +in a circle, and I was able to make known my wishes. First, I told them of +our victory over the Masai, and how we had forced them to preserve peace +with us and with all our allies, I also told them of our subsequent +generosity. I then assured them that we also wished to have the Wa-Kikuyu +as our allies, which would result in peace between them and the Masai, and +would bring great benefit to them from us. We asked for nothing, however, +in return but a friendly reception and an unmolested passage through their +territory. If they refused, we would force them to grant it, as we did the +Masai. 'Look here'--I took a repeating-rifle in my hand--'this thing hits +at any distance;' and I gave it to one of our best marksmen and pointed to +a vulture which sat upon a tree a little more than three hundred yards off. +The shot was heard, and the vulture fell down mortally wounded. The +Wa-Kikuyu showed signs of being about to run away, although they had +occasionally heard the reports of guns in their conflicts with Swahili +caravans. What frightened them was not the noise, but the certainty of the +aim. However, they were soon reassured, and I went on: 'We not only always +hit with our weapons, but we can shoot without cessation.' I had this +assertion demonstrated to them by a rapid succession of ten shots; and +again my hearers were seized with a horrible fright. 'We have fifty such +things here, a hundred and fifty more among the Masai, and many many +thousands where we come from. Besides, we carry with us the most dangerous +medicines--all to be used only against those who attack us. But we have +costly presents for those who are friendly towards us.' Then I ordered to +be opened a bale of various wares which had been specially packed for such +an occasion, and I said: 'This belongs to you, that you may remember the +hour in which you saw us for the first time. No one shall say, "I sat with +the white men and held <i>shauri</i> with them, and my hands remained empty." If +you wish to know how liberally we deal with those who become our allies, go +and ask the Masai.'</p> + +<p>The effect of this address, and still more of the openly displayed +presents, left nothing to be desired. The distribution of the presents gave +rise to a tremendous scramble among our future friends; but when this was +over--fortunately without any serious mischief--we were overwhelmed with +extravagant asseverations of affection and zealous service. First we were +invited to honour with our presence their huts, so ingeniously concealed in +the forest thickets, an invitation which we readily accepted. We were +careful, however, to take up our quarters in a commanding position, and to +keep ourselves well together. I also directed that several of our people +should, without attracting attention, keep constant watch. I left the +baggage in charge of four gigantic mastiffs which we had brought with us. +The former part of these precautions proved to be quite unnecessary; no one +harboured any evil design against us, and the anxious timidity which the +Wa-Kikuyu at first so manifestly showed quickly yielded to the most +complete confidence, in which change of attitude, it may be incidentally +remarked, the women led the way. On the other hand, it proved to be +extremely advisable to keep watch over the baggage. Desperate cries of +'Murder!' and 'Help!' were soon heard from a Wa-Kikuyu boy, who, thinking +our baggage was unwatched, had crept near it with a knife, but was very +cleverly fixed by one of the mastiffs. We released him, frightened nearly +to death, but otherwise quite unhurt, out of the clutches of the powerful +animal; and we were troubled by no further attempt upon our baggage.</p> + +<p>The next morning we asked our hosts to accompany us a few days' march +further into the interior of the country in the direction of the Kenia, and +to invite as many of their associated tribes as they could communicate with +in so short a time to meet us in a <i>shauri</i>, since we desired to contract +with them a firm alliance. This was readily promised, and so for two days +we were accompanied by several hundred Wa-Kikuyu through the magnificent +forest, in which the flora vied with the fauna in beauty and multiplicity +of species. The Wa-Kikuyu entertained us in a truly extravagant manner, +without accepting payment for anything. We were literally overloaded with +milk, honey, butter, all kinds of flesh and fowl, <i>mtama</i> cakes, bananas, +sweet potatoes, yams, and a great choice of very delicious fruits. We +wondered whence this inexhaustible abundance, particularly of wild fruits, +came; for in the forest clearings which we had passed through pasturage and +agriculture were evidently only subordinate industries. At the end of the +second day's march, however, the riddle was solved; for when we had reached +the considerable river called the Guaso Amboni, which falls into the Indian +Ocean, we found spreading out before us farther than the eye could reach a +high plateau which, so far as we could see, had the character of an open +park-land, bearing, especially where it touched the forest we had just +left, all the indications of a very highly developed agriculture. Here was +evidently the source of the Kikuyu's inexhaustible corn supply. Far in the +northern horizon we saw a large blue mountain-range, at least 50 or 60 +miles distant, which our guides and Sakemba said was the Kenia range. They +assured us that from where we were there could be seen in clear weather the +snowy peak of the principal mountain; but at that time it was hidden by +clouds.</p> + +<p>Here, then, lay before us the goal of our wanderings, and powerful emotion +seized us all as we, though only at a great distance, for the first time +looked upon our future home. The Kenia peak, however, remained wrapped in +clouds during the two days of our stay on the eastern outskirts of the +Kikuyu forest. We made our halt in a charming grove of gigantic bread-fruit +trees, where the Wa-Kikuyu placed their huts gratuitously at our disposal. +The place is called Semba, and had been selected as the meeting-place of +the great <i>shauri</i>. We found a great number of natives already assembled +there; and on the next day everything was arranged and confirmed between us +to our mutual satisfaction. Thus we were able to start on our return march +on the 16th of June. We did not go over the Ngongo, but followed a +tributary of the Amboni to its source--more than 7,000 feet above the +sea--and then dropped abruptly down from the edge of the Kikuyu tableland +and went direct to the Naivasha, which we reached on the evening of the +19th. We were somewhat exhausted, but otherwise in good condition and in +excellent spirits. We had discovered that we should be able to reach the +Kenia a good week earlier than would have been possible by the originally +chosen route through Lykipia.</p> + +<p>The Naivasha is a beautiful lake in the midst of picturesque ranges of +hills, the highest points of which reach 6,500 feet. The lake has a +superficies of about thirty square miles, and its characteristic feature is +a fabulous wealth in feathered game of all kinds. Here Johnston had made +all the necessary preparations for the great feast of peace and joy which +we purposed to give the Masai. The news that they had henceforth to reckon +the Wa-Kikuyu also among our friends was received by the <i>el-moran</i> with +mixed feelings; but they submitted to the arrangement without murmuring, +and at the feast, in which fifty of the principal men among the Wa Kikuyu +who had accompanied us took part, the new friendship between the two races +was more firmly established.</p> + +<p>The feast consisted of a two days' great carousing, at which we provided +enormous quantities of flesh, baked food, fruits, and punch for not less +than 6,000 guests, without reckoning women and children. The chief feature +consisted of some splendid fireworks. During these two days 150 fat young +bulls, 260 antelopes of various kinds, 25 giraffes, innumerable feathered +game, and an enormous quantity of vegetables were consumed. The punch was +brewed in 100 vessels, each holding above six gallons, and each filled on +the average four times. Nevertheless, this colossal hospitality--apart from +the fireworks--cost us nothing at all. The cattle were presents, and indeed +were a part of the number brought to us by numerous tribes as tokens of +grateful esteem; the game we had, of course, not bought, but shot; and the +vegetables were here, on the borders of Kikuyu, so cheap that the price may +be regarded as merely nominal. As to the punch, the chief ingredient, +rum--fortunately not a home production in Masailand and Kikuyuland--our +experts had made on the spot, without touching the nearly exhausted supply +we had brought with us. For among our other machinery there was a still. +This was unpacked, wild-growing sugar-cane was to be had in abundance, and +hence we had rum in plenty. Care was taken that the process was not so +watched by the natives as to be learnt by them, for we did not wish to +introduce among our neighbours that curse of negroland, the rum-bottle. The +hot punch which we served out to them did not contain more than one part of +rum to ten of water; yet nearly three hundred gallons of this noble spirit +had to be used in the improvised bowls during the two days of the feast. +The jubilation, particularly during the letting-off of the fireworks, was +indescribable; and when finally, after silence had been obtained by +flourish of trumpets, we had it proclaimed by strong-voiced heralds that +the nation of the Masai were invited by us to be our guests at the same +place every year on the 19th and 20th of June, the people nearly tore us to +pieces out of pure delight.</p> + +<p>The 21st of June was devoted to rest after the fatigues of the feast, and +to the arrangement of the baggage; on the 22nd the march to Kikuyu was +begun. To avoid taking the sumpter beasts over the steep acclivities of the +hills that skirted the Naivasha valley, we turned back towards +Ngongo-a-Bagas, which we reached on the 24th. Here we decided to establish +an express communication with the sea, in order that the news of our +arrival at our goal, which we expected to reach in a few days, might be +carried as quickly as possible to Mombasa, and thence to the committee of +the International Free Society. From Mombasa to Ngongo our engineers had +measured 500 miles; we had done the distance in 38 days--from May 5 to June +12--of which, however, only 27 were real marching days. We calculated that +our Arab horses, if put to the strain for only one day, could easily cover +more than 60 miles in the day, and that therefore the whole distance could +be covered in eight stages of a day each. Therefore sixteen of our best +riders, with twenty-four of the best-winded racers, were ordered back. +These couriers were directed to distribute themselves in twos at distances +of about sixty miles--where the roads were bad a little less, and where +they were good a little more. As baggage, besides their weapons and +ammunition, they were furnished with merely so much of European necessaries +and of articles for barter on the way as could be easily carried by the +eight supernumerary horses, which were at the same time to serve as a +reserve. For the rest we could safely rely upon their being received with +open arms and hospitably entertained by the natives they might meet with +along the route we had taken. A similar service of couriers was established +between Ngongo and the Kenia; as this latter distance was about 120 miles +it was covered by two stages. Thus there was a total of ten stages, and it +was anticipated that news from Kenia would reach Mombasa in ten days--an +anticipation which proved to be correct.</p> + +<p>The march through the forest-land of Kikuyu, which was entered on the 25th, +was marked by no noteworthy incident. When, early on the morning of the +27th, we reached the open, we found ourselves at first in a thick fog, +which was inconvenient to us Caucasians merely in so far as it hid the view +from us; but our Swahili people, who had never before experienced a +temperature of 53° Fahr. in connection with a damp atmosphere, had their +teeth set chattering. To the northerners, and particularly to the +mountaineers among us, there was something suggestive of home in the +rolling masses of fog permeated with the balmy odours of the trees and +shrubs. About eight A.M. there suddenly sprang up a light warm breeze from +the north; the fog broke with magical rapidity, and before us lay, in the +brilliant sunshine, a landscape, the overpowering grandeur of which mocks +description. Behind us and on our left was the marvellous forest which we +had not long since left; right in front of us was a gently sloping stretch +of country in which emerald meadows alternated with dark banana-groves and +small patches of waving corn. The ground was everywhere covered with +brilliant flowers, whose sweet perfume was wafted towards us in rich +abundance by the genial breeze. Here and there were scattered small groups +of tall palms, some gigantic wide-spreading fig-trees, planes, and +sycamores; and numerous herds of different kinds of wild animals gave life +to the scene. Here frolicked a troop of zebras; there grazed quietly some +giraffes and delicate antelopes; on the left two uncouth rhinoceroses +chased each other, grunting; about 1,100 yards from us a score of elephants +were making their way towards the forest; and at a greater distance still +some hundreds of buffaloes were trotting towards the same goal.</p> + +<p>This splendid country stretched out of sight towards the east and the +south-east, traversed by the broad silver band of the Guaso Amboni, which, +some five miles off, and perhaps at a level of above 300 feet below where +we were standing, flowed towards the east, and, so far as we could see, +received at least a dozen small tributaries from sources on both of the +enclosing slopes. The tributaries springing from the Kikuyu forest on the +southern side--on which we were--are the smaller; those from the northern +side are incomparably more copious, for their source is the Kenia range. +This giant among the mountains of Africa, which covers an area of nearly +800 square miles and rises to a height of nearly 20,000 feet, now--despite +the 50 miles between us and that--showed itself to our intoxicated gaze as +an enormous icefield with two crystalline peaks sharply projected against +the dark firmament.</p> + +<p>Even the Swahili, who are generally indifferent to the beauties of nature, +broke out into deafening shouts of delight; but we whites stood in +speechless rapture, silently pressed each other's hands, and not a few +furtively brushed a tear from the eye. The Land of Promise lay before us, +more beautiful, grander, than we had dared to dream--the cradle of a happy +future for us and, if our hopes and wishes were not vain, for the latest +generations of mankind.</p> + +<p>From thence onward it was as if our feet and the feet of our beasts had +wings. The pure invigorating air of this beautiful tableland, freshened by +the winds from the Kenia, the pleasant road over the soft short grass, and +the sumptuous and easily obtained provisions, enabled us to make our daily +marches longer than we had yet done. On the evening of the 27th we crossed +the eastern boundary of Kikuyu, where we had to lay in large stores of +provisions, because we then entered a district where the only population +consisted of a few nomadic Andorobbo. As far as we could see, the country +resembled a garden, but man had not yet taken possession of this paradise. +The 28th and the greater part of the 29th found us marching through flowery +meadows and picturesque little woodlands, and crossing murmuring brooks and +streams of considerable size; but the only living things we met with were +giraffes, elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, zebras, antelopes, and +ostriches, with hippopotamuses and flamingoes on the river banks. Most of +these creatures were so tame that they scarcely got out of our way, and +several overbold zebras accompanied us for some distance, neighing and +capering as they went along. On the afternoon of the 29th we entered the +thick highland forest, which stretched before us farther than we could see, +and through the dense underwood of which the axe of our pioneers had to cut +us a way. The ground had been gradually ascending for two days--that is, +ever since we had left the Amboni--and it now became steeper; we had +reached the foot of the Kenia mountain. The forest zone proved to be of +comparatively small breadth, and on the morning of the 30th we emerged from +it again into open undulating park-land. When we had scaled one of the +heights in front of us, there lay before us, almost within reach of our +hands, the Kenia in all the icy magnificence of its glacier-world.</p> + +<p>We had reached our goal!</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<p> +It was eight weeks since we had left Mombasa, a shorter time than had ever +been taken by any caravan in Equatorial Africa to cover a distance of more +than 600 miles. During the whole time we had all been, with unimportant +exceptions, in good health. There had been seven cases of fever among us +whites, caused by the chills that followed sudden storms of rain; the fever +in all these cases disappeared again in from two to eight days, and left no +evil results. Twice a number of cases of colic occurred among both whites +and blacks, on both occasions resulting simply from gastronomic excesses, +first in Teita and then at the Naivasha lake; and these were also cured, +without evil results, by the use of tartar emetic. These sanitary +conditions, exceptionally favourable for African journeys, even in the +healthy highlands, were the result of the judicious marching arrangements, +and, particularly among us whites, of the care taken to provide for all the +customary requirements of civilised men. Tea, coffee, cocoa, meat extract, +cognac to use with bad water, light wine for the evening meals, tobacco, +and cigars, were always abundantly within reach; our mackintoshes and +waterproof boots while marching, and the waterproof tents in camp, +protected us from the wet--the chief source of fever; and we were assisted +to bear our lesser privations and inconveniences by our zeal for our task, +and not least by the fine balmy air which, from Teita onwards, we almost +always breathed. Our saddle-horses and sumpter beasts also were, by the +nourishing feed and the judicious treatment which they received, enabled to +bear well the heavy labours of the march.</p> + +<p>I cannot forbear expressing the opinion that the heavy losses of other +caravans, which sometimes lose all their beasts in a few days, are to be +ascribed less to the climate or to the--in the lowlands, certainly very +troublesome--insect pests, than to the utter inexperience of the Swahili in +the treatment of animals. Had we relied merely upon our blacks, we should +have left most of our beasts, and certainly all our horses, on the road to +feed the vultures and hyenas. The horses would never have been allowed to +cool before they drank, they never would have been properly groomed, if we +had not continually insisted upon these things being done, and given a good +example by attending to our saddle-horses ourselves. That the 'white +gentleman' attended to his horse's wants before he attended to his own +wrought such an effect upon the Swahili that at last their care for their +beasts developed into a kind of tenderness. The consequence was that during +the whole journey we lost only one camel, three horses, and five asses--and +of these last only two died of disease, the other three having been killed +by wild beasts. Of the dogs, we lost three by wild beasts--one by a +rhinoceros, and two by buffaloes.</p> + +<p>From the moment of our arrival at the Kenia, the conduct of the expedition +devolved into my hands. My first care on the next morning was to despatch +to our friends in Europe my detailed journal of the events which had +already happened, together with a brief closing report. In the latter I +stated that we could undertake to have everything ready for the reception +of many thousands of our brethren by the next harvest--that is, according +to the African calendar, by the end of October. We could also undertake to +get finished a road suitable for slow-going vehicles from Mombasa to Kenia +by the end of September at the latest, with draught oxen in sufficient +number. I asked the managers of the Society, on their part, to have a +sufficient number of suitable waggons constructed in good time; and I, on +my part, engaged that, from and after the first of October, any number of +duly announced immigrant members should be conveyed to their new home +safely and with as little inconvenience as was possible under the +circumstances. In conclusion, I asked them to send at once several +hundredweight of different kinds of goods, accompanied by a new troop of +vigorous young members.</p> + +<p>The two couriers with this despatch--the couriers had always to ride in +twos--started before dawn on the 1st of July; punctually on the 10th the +despatch was in Mombasa, on the 11th at Zanzibar; on the same day the +committee received my report by telegraph from our agents in Zanzibar, and +the journal, which went by mail-ship, they received twenty days later. On +the evening of the 11th the reply reached Zanzibar; and on the 22nd I was +myself able to read to my deeply affected brethren these first tidings from +our distant friends. The message was very brief: 'Thanks for the joyful +news; membership more than 10,000; waggons, for ten persons and twenty +hundredweight load each, ordered as per request, will begin to reach +Mombasa by the end of September; 260 horsemen, with 300 sumpter beasts, and +800 cwt. of goods start end of July. Send news as often as possible.' I had +already anticipated the wish expressed in the last sentence, for not less +than five further despatches had been sent off between the 6th and the 21st +of July. What they contained will be best learnt from the following +narrative of our experiences and our labours; and from this time forward a +distinction has to be made between the work of preparing the new home on +the Kenia and the arrangements necessary for keeping up and improving our +communication with the coast.</p> + +<p>On the evening of the last day of June we had pitched our camp on the bank +of a considerable stream, the largest we had yet seen. Its breadth is from +thirty to forty yards, and its depth from one to three yards. The water is +clear and cool, but its current is strikingly sluggish. It flows from +north-west to south-east, through a trough-like plateau about eighteen +miles long, which bends, crescent-shaped, round the foot-hills of the +Kenia. The greatest breadth of this plateau in the middle is nearly nine +miles, whilst it narrows at the west end to less than a mile, and at the +east end to two miles and a half. This trough-like area of about 100 square +miles consists entirely of rich grass-land, with numerous small groves of +palms, bananas, and sycamores. It is bounded on the south by the grassy +hills which we had crossed over, on the west by abrupt rocky walls, on the +north partly by dark forest-hills, and partly by barren lofty rocks which +hide from view the main part of the Kenia lying behind them. On the east, +between the hills to the south and the rocks to the north, there is an +opening through which the stream finds its outlet by a waterfall of above +300 feet, and the thunder and plashing of which were audible at the great +distance at which we were. This river, which was later found to be the +upper course of the Dana, entering the Indian Ocean on the Witu coast, +enters our plateau by a narrow gate of rocks through which we were not at +first able to pass. From the north, down the declivities of the foot-hills +of the Kenia, four larger and many smaller streams hurry to the Dana, and +in their course through their rocky basins form a number of more or less +picturesque cascades. The height of this large park-like plateau above the +sea-level, measured at its lowest point--the stream-bed--is nearly 6,000 +feet.</p> + +<p>Whilst we were engaged in the detailed examination of this lofty plateau, I +sent out several expeditions, whose duty it was to penetrate as far as +possible into the Kenia range, in order to find elevated points from which +to make exact observations of the form and character of the district lying +around us. For though the country immediately about us charmed us so much, +yet I would not definitively decide to lay the foundation-stone of our +first settlement until I had obtained at least a superficial view of the +whole region of the Kenia. The information which Sakemba was able to give +us was but little, and insufficient. We were therefore much delighted when +eight natives, whom we recognised as Andorobbo, showed themselves before +our camp. They had seen our camp-fires on the previous night, and now +wished to see who we were, Sakemba, who went out to them, quickly inspired +them with confidence, and we now had the best guides we could have wished +for. With Sakemba's help we soon informed them of our first +purpose--namely, to send out eight different expeditions, each under the +guidance of an Andorobbo. The first expedition returned on the evening of +the same day, and the last at the end of a week, and all with tolerably +exhaustive reports.</p> + +<p>Not one of the expeditions had got near the summit of the Kenia. +Nevertheless, grand views had been obtained from various easily accessible +points of the main body of the mountain, some of them at an altitude of +above 10,000 feet. It had been found that the side of the Kenia best +adapted to the rearing of stock and to agriculture was that by which we had +approached it. To the eastward and northward were large stretches of what +appeared to be very fertile land; but that on the east was very monotonous, +and lacked the not merely picturesque, but also practically advantageous, +diversity of open country and forest, hill and plain, which we found in the +south. On the north the country was too damp; and on the west there spread +out an endless extent of forest broken by only a small quantity of open +ground. It might all be converted into most productive cultivated land at a +later date; but, at the outset, soil that was ready for use was naturally +to be preferred. The inner portions of the mountain district before us were +filled with wooded hills and rocks traversed by numberless valleys and +gorges. These foot-hills reached on all sides close to the abruptly rising +central mass of the Kenia; only in the south-west, about three miles from +the western end of our plateau, did the foot-hills retire to make room for +an extensive open valley-basin, in the middle of which was a lake, the +outflow from which was the Dana. Our experts estimated the superficies of +this valley at nearly sixty square miles; and all agreed that it was very +fertile, and that its situation made it a veritable miracle of beauty. The +best way into this valley was through the gorge by which the Dana flowed; +but, so long as we were without suitable boats, we were obliged to enter +the valley not directly from our plateau, but by a circuitous route through +a small valley to the south.</p> + +<p>I received this report on the morning of the 3rd of July. Next day, without +waiting for the return of two of the expeditions which were still absent, I +started for this much-lauded lake and valley. The indicated route, which +proved to be, in fact, a very practicable one, led from our camp to the +western end of the plateau, then bending towards the south and skirting a +small, rocky, wooded hill, it entered a narrow valley leading in a +northerly direction. This valley opened into the Dana gorge, which is here +neither so narrow nor so impassable as at its opening into the plateau. +Following this gorge upwards, in an hour we found ourselves suddenly +standing in the sought-for valley.</p> + +<p>The view was perfectly indescribable. Imagine an amphitheatre of almost +geometrical regularity, about eleven miles long by seven miles and a half +broad, the semicircle bounded by a series of gently rising wooded hills +from 300 to 500 feet high, with a background formed by the abrupt and +rugged precipices and cloud-piercing snowy summit of the Kenia. This +majestic amphitheatre is occupied on the side nearest to the Kenia by a +clear deep-blue lake; on the other side by a flowery park-land and meadows. +The whole suggests an arena in which a grand piece, that may be called 'The +Cascades of the Kenia Glaciers,' is being performed to an auditory +consisting of innumerable elephants, giraffes, zebras, and antelopes. At an +inaccessible height above, numberless veins of water, kissed by the +dazzling sunlight, spring from the blue-green shimmering crevasses. Foaming +and sparkling--now shattered into vapour reflecting all the hues of the +rainbow, now forming sheets of polished whiteness--they rush downwards with +ever increasing mass and tumult, until at length they are all united into +one great torrent which, with a thundering roar plainly audible in a +favourable wind six miles away, hurries from its glacier home towards the +precipitous rocks. There the whole colossal mass of water--which a few +miles off forms the Dana river--falls perpendicularly down from a height of +1,640 feet, so dashed into vapour-dust as to form a great rainbow-cloud. +The stream suddenly disappears in mid-air, and the eye seeks in vain to +track its course against the background of dark glistening cliffs until, +more than 1,600 feet below, the masses of falling vapour are again +collected into flowing water, thence, with the noise and foam of many +smaller cascades, to reach the lake by circuitous routes.</p> + +<p>Speechless with delight, we gazed long at this unparalleled natural +miracle, whose grandeur and beauty words cannot describe. The eye eagerly +took in the flood of light and glittering colour, and the ear the noise of +the water pealing down from a fabulous height; the breast greedily inhaled +as a cordial the odorous air which was wafted through this enchanted +valley. The woman who was with us--Ellen Fox--was the first to find words. +Like a prophetess in an ecstasy, she looked long at the play of the water; +then, suddenly, as a stronger breath of wind completely dissipated the +vaporous veil of the waterfall, which just before had formed a waving, +sabre-like, shimmering band, she cried, 'Behold, the flaming sword of the +archangel, guarding the gate of Paradise, has vanished at our approach! Let +us call this place Eden!'</p> + +<p>The name Eden was unanimously adopted. That this valley must be our future +place of abode was at once decided by all of us. A more careful examination +showed its superficies to be over sixty-two square miles. Allowing thirteen +miles for the elliptical lake stretching out under the Kenia cliffs, and +fifteen miles for the woods which clothed the heights around the valley, +there remained above thirty miles of open park-land surrounding the lake, +except where the Kenia cliffs touched the water, stretching in narrow +strips to the Kenia on the north-east, and broadening on the other sides to +from 1,100 yards to four miles. The glacier-water forming the Dana entered +the valley on the north-west, and left it on the south-east. The water, +which was not so cold when it entered the lake as might have been expected, +rapidly acquired a higher temperature in the lake; on hot days the lake +rose to 75° Fahr. Other streams fall into the lake, some of them from the +Kenia cliffs, and others from the various hills which surround the valley. +We counted not less than eleven such streams, among them a hot one with a +temperature of 125° Fahr.</p> + +<p>Naturally we had not been idle during the four days which preceded our +discovery of Eden Vale. On the 1st of July, a few hours after the couriers +with the first despatches, the expeditions appointed to establish regular +communication with Mombasa were sent off. There were two such expeditions: +one, under Demestre and three other engineers, had to construct the road; +and the other, under Johnston, had to procure the draught oxen--of which it +was estimated about 5,000 would be required--and to arrange for the +provisioning of the whole distance. To the first expedition were allotted +twenty of our members and two hundred of our Swahili men, with a train of +fifty draught beasts; with Johnston went merely ten of ourselves, twenty +draught beasts, and ten sheep-dogs. How these expeditions accomplished +their tasks shall be told later.</p> + +<p>I had now sent away altogether 58 of our own people, 200 Swahili men, and +181 saddle and draught beasts, besides having lost nine of the latter by +death during the journey. I had, therefore, now with me at the Kenia 149 +whites, 80 Swahili, and 475 beasts, besides the dogs and the elephants. In +addition to the above, we were offered the services of several hundred of +the Wa-Kikuyu, who had followed us. Of these latter I retained 150 of the +most capable; the others, in charge of five of ourselves, I sent back at +once to their home, with the commission to purchase and send on to the +Kenia 800 strong draught oxen, 150 cows, 400 oxen for slaughter, and +several thousand hundredweight of various kinds of corn and food. Having +attended to these things, I allotted and gave out to the most suitable +hands the many different kinds of work which had first to be done. One of +our workmen had charge of the forge and smithy, another the saw-mill, with, +of course, the requisite assistance. A special section was told off for the +tree-felling, and another section had to get ready and complete the +agricultural implements. One of the engineers who remained at the Kenia was +appointed, with one hundred blacks under him, to construct the requisite +means of communication in the settlement--particularly to build bridges +over the Dana.</p> + +<p>On the 5th of July we shifted our settlement to Eden Vale. The ground was +exactly measured, and on the shores of the lake the future town was marked +out, with its streets, open spaces, public buildings, and places of +recreation. In this projected town we allowed space for 25,000 family +houses, each with a considerable garden; and this covered thirteen square +miles. Outside of the building area--which could be afterwards enlarged at +pleasure--2,500 acres were selected for temporary cultivation, and +irrigated with a network of small canals; as soon as possible it was to be +fenced in to protect it against the incursions of the numberless wild +animals that swarmed around it, as well as from our domestic animals which, +though shut up at night in a strong pen, were allowed during the day, when +they were not in use, to pasture in the open country under the care of some +of the Swahili men and the dogs.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the saw-mill, which had been set up in the Dana plateau, +hard by the river, and had for its motive-power one of the rapid streams +that came down from the hills, had begun its work. The first timber which +it cut up was used in the construction of two large flat boats, in which +the transportation of the building timber up the river to the Eden lake was +at once begun. A few weeks later, on the shores of the lake, there had +arisen forty spacious wooden buildings, into which we whites removed from +the confined camp-tents we had previously occupied. The negroes preferred +to remain in the grass huts which they had made for themselves in the +shelter of a little wood. By this time the cattle were also furnished with +their pen, which was high and strong enough to offer an insurmountable +obstacle to any invasion by quadrupeds. In this pen there was room for +about two thousand beasts, and it was, moreover, provided with a covered +space for protection against rain.</p> + +<p>By the 9th of July, our smiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters had converted +ten of the ploughshares we had brought with us into ploughs, and by the +same date the first consignment of cattle had come in from Kikuyu--120 oxen +and 50 cows, together with 200 sheep and a large quantity of poultry. +Ploughing was at once attempted, under the direction of our agriculturists. +The Kikuyu oxen struggled a little against the yoke, and at first they +could not be made to keep in the furrow; but in three days we were able to +work them with ease in teams of eight to a plough. This expenditure of +force was necessary, as the black fat soil, matted by the thick virgin +turf, was extremely difficult to break up. At first it was necessary to +have a driver to every pair of oxen, and the furrows were not so straight +as if ploughed by long-domesticated oxen; but at any rate the ground was +broken up, and in a comparatively short time the beasts got accustomed to +their work and went through it most satisfactorily. On the 15th of July a +fresh arrival of oxen brought fifteen more ploughs into use; and again on +the 20th. By the end of the month, with these forty ploughs, some 750 acres +had been broken up. This was at once harrowed and prepared for the seed. It +was then sown with what seed-corn we had brought with us--chiefly wheat and +barley--supplemented to the extent of about three-fourths by African wheat +and <i>mtama</i> corn. The ground was then rolled again, and the work was +finished in the second half of August. The whole of the cultivated area was +then hedged in, and we cheerfully greeted the beginning of the shorter +rainy season.</p> + +<p>In the meantime a garden--provisionally of about twenty-five acres--had +been laid out, a little farther from the precincts of the town than the +arable land; for whilst the latter could easily be removed farther away as +the town increased, it was necessary to find for the garden as permanent a +site as possible--one therefore that lay outside of the range of the growth +of the town. As we had among us no less than eighteen skilled gardeners, +and as these had as much assistance as they required from the Swahili and +Wa-Kikuyu, the twenty-five acres were in a few months planted with the +choicest kinds of fruits and berries, vegetables, flowers--in short, with +all kinds of useful and ornamental plants which we had brought from our old +homes, had collected on our way, or had met with in the neighbourhoods in +which we had settled. The garden also was covered with a network of +irrigating canals, and enclosed against unwelcome intruders by a high and +strong fence.</p> + +<p>Against accidental inroads of monkeys there was no other protection than +the vigilance of our dogs and the guns of the gardeners. A war of +annihilation was therefore begun against the monkeys of the whole district, +of which there were untold legions in the woods that girdled Eden Vale and +in some small groves in the vale itself. While we shot other animals only +when we needed their flesh, the monkeys were destroyed wherever they showed +themselves in the neighbourhood of Eden Vale; and very soon the cunning +creatures began carefully to avoid the inhospitable valley, whilst outside +of it they retained their former daring. Several other animals were also +excluded from the general law of mercy, and that even more rigorously than +the monkeys, which were proscribed only within the boundaries of the +valley. These animals were leopards and lions, against which we organised, +whenever we had time, serious hunting expeditions. After a few months these +animals entirely disappeared from the whole district; and subsequently they +almost voluntarily forsook all the districts into which we penetrated with +our weapons and with our noisy activity. They have room enough elsewhere, +and hold it to be unnecessary to expose their skin to the bullets of white +men. On the other hand, we did not molest the hyenas; the harm which they +now and then did by the theft of a sheep was more than compensated for by +their usefulness as devourers of carrion. They are shy, cowardly beasts, +which do not readily attack anything that is alive; but in the character of +unwearied sanitary police they scour field and forest for dead animals. In +the list of beasts not to be spared stood at first the hippopotamuses, +which haunted the Eden lake and the Dana in large herds. We should have had +nothing to object to in these uncouth brutes if they had not molested our +boats and behaved aggressively towards our bathers. But, after our shells +had somewhat lessened their number, and in particular after certain +uncommonly daring old fellows had been disposed of, the rest acquired +respect for us and kept at a distance whenever they saw a man; we then +relaxed our severity, and for the time contented ourselves with keeping +them out of Eden Vale. But of course we showed no mercy to the numberless +crocodiles that infested the lake and the river. We attacked these with +bullet and spear, with hook and poison, day and night, in every conceivable +way; for we were anxious that our women and children, when they came, +should be able to bathe in the refreshing waters without endangering their +precious limbs. As the district which these animals frequented was in the +present case a very circumscribed one--fresh individuals could come neither +down from the Kenia nor over the waterfall at the end of the great +plateau--we soon succeeded in so thinning their numbers that only a few +examples were left, the destruction of which we handed over to our +Andorobbo huntsmen, whom we furnished with weapons for this Purpose, and to +whom we offered a large premium for every crocodile slain in the Eden lake +or in the Dana above the waterfall. As a fact, before the arrival of the +first caravan of immigrants, the last crocodile had disappeared from Eden +Vale and from the basin of the Dana.</p> + +<p>Agriculture, gardening, and the chase had not absorbed all the strength at +our disposal. We were at the same time busy constructing a number of +practicable roads round the lake, along the river-bank to the east end of +the plateau, and a number of branches from this main road to different +parts of our district. It must not be imagined that these roads were works +of art--they were merely fieldways, which, however, made it possible to +carry about considerable loads without the expenditure of an enormous +amount of force. In three places the Dana was bridged over for vehicular +traffic, and in two others for foot traffic. Only in two places was much +work required--at the end of the gorge through which the Dana passed from +Eden Vale into the great plateau, and at a place where the Kenia cliffs +touched the lake. At these places several cubic yards of rock had to be +blown away, in order to make room for a road.</p> + +<p>As in the meanwhile neither wheelwrights nor smiths had been standing +still, when the roads were ready there were also ready for use upon them a +number of stout waggons and barrows.</p> + +<p>The construction of the flour-mill demanded a greater expenditure of +labour. The mill was fixed on the upper course of the Dana, 1,100 yards +above the entrance of the river into the Eden lake, and was furnished with +ten complete sets of machinery. The site was chosen because just above +there was a strong rapid, while below the Dana flowed calmly with a very +trifling fall until it reached the great cataract. Thus we had, through the +whole of the provisionally occupied district, a splendid waterway to the +mill, and yet for the mill we could take advantage of the rapid flow of the +upper Dana. We had brought from Europe the more complicated and delicate +parts of this mill; but the wheels, shafts, and the ten millstones we +manufactured ourselves. This mill--which was provisionally constructed of +wood only--was ready by the end of September, thanks to the additional +assistance of the two instalments of members which had reached us in the +early part of the same month.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned that, as soon as we had reached the Kenia, I asked +our committee for fresh supplies and a fresh body of pioneers; and that the +committee had informed me that at the end of July there would start an +expedition of 260 horsemen and 800 cwt. of goods upon 300 beasts. This +expedition reached Mombasa on the 18th of August. Then it divided into two +groups: one group, containing the most adventurous 145 horsemen, started at +once on the 18th of August with fifty very lightly loaded led-horses--the +whole of the 300 sumpter beasts were horses--without taking with them a +single native except an interpreter. They relied upon the assistance of +those of our men who were constructing the roads, and of the population +friendly to us; but they were at the same time resolved to bear without +murmuring any deprivations and fatigue that might await them. A forced ride +of twenty days, with only a one day's rest at Taveta, brought these brave +fellows among us on the 9th of September. Five horses had died, seven +others had to be left behind knocked up; they themselves, however, all +reached us, except one who had broken his leg in a fall, and was left in +good hands in Miveruni, somewhat exhausted, but otherwise in good +condition. The newly arrived joined us heartily in our work two days after. +The 115 others reached us ten days later, with 250 sumpter horses and 100 +Swahili drivers. The greater part of the goods they had given to Johnston +on the way, who met with them at Useri, where he had been eagerly awaiting +them. The articles brought to us at the Kenia--in all something over 300 +cwt.--contained a quantity of tools and machinery; these, and especially +the considerable addition of workmen, contributed in no small degree to +expedite our various works.</p> + +<p>The flour-mill was--as has been stated--ready by the end of September. It +at once found abundant employment. It is true that our harvest was not yet +gathered in; but we had been gradually purchasing different kinds of +grain--to the amount of 10,000 cwt.--of the Wa-Kikuyu, and had stored it +near the lake in granaries, for which the saw-mill had supplied the +building material. All this grain was ground by the end of October; and, +even if our harvest had failed, the first few thousands of those who were +coming would not have had to suffer hunger.</p> + +<p>But our harvest did not fail. A few weeks after the beginning of the hot +season--which begins in October--the fertile soil, which had been +continuously kept moist by our system of irrigation, blessed us with a crop +that mocked all European conceptions. Every grain sowed yielded on an +average a hundred and twenty fold. Our 750 acres yielded 42,000 cwt, of +different kinds of grain, for each haulm ended, not in single lean ears, +but in thick heavy bunches of ears--our European wheat and barley not less +than the African kinds. We had fortunately made ample preparation for the +work of the harvest. Before the end of August a machine-factory had been +erected a few hundred yards above the flour-mill. Water-power was used, and +the work of manufacture began at once. Partly of materials brought with us, +but mainly of materials prepared by ourselves, we had constructed several +reaping-machines and two threshing-machines, worked by horse-power.</p> + +<p>Our factories were able to produce these machines because our geologists +had discovered, among other valuable mineral treasures, iron and coal in +our district. The coal lay in one of the foot-hills of the Kenia, on the +Dana plateau, nearly two miles from the river; the iron in one of the +foot-hills which the Dana in its upper course had cut through, a mile and a +quarter above Eden Yale. The coal was moderately good anthracite, and the +iron ore was a rich forty-percent. ferro-manganese. A smelting and refining +furnace, as well as an iron-works, were at once put up near the source of +the iron; they were of a, primitive and provisional character, but they +sufficed to supply us with serviceable cast and wrought iron, and thus to +make us at once independent of the supplies brought from Europe. We now +possessed a small but independent iron industry, and this enabled us to +gather in and work up within a few weeks the unexpectedly rich harvest.</p> + +<p>A further use which we immediately made of our increased powers of +production was to put up two new saw-mills and a brewery. The saw-mills +were needed to supply material for the shelter of the continually +increasing stream of fresh arrivals; and the brewery was intended to serve +as a means of agreeably surprising the new-comers with a welcome draught of +a familiar beverage with which most of them would be sorry to dispense. As +soon as the barley was cut and threshed, it was malted. Our gardeners had +grown hops of very acceptable quality on the sides of the Kenia foot-hills; +and soon a cool cellar, made by utilising some natural caverns, was filled +with casks of the noble drink.</p> + +<p>By the end of October we were able to contemplate our four months' labours +with a restful satisfaction. Six hundred neat block-houses awaited as many +families; 50,000 cwt. of corn and flour, copious supplies of cattle for +slaughter and draught, building material and tools, were ready for the +food, shelter, and equipment of many thousands of members. The garden had +been not less successfully cultivated, and its dainty gifts were already +beginning to be enjoyed. Our own garden-produce did not, as yet, suffice to +cover our anticipated requirements; but it continued to be supplemented by +a brisk barter trade with the Wa-Kikuyu. For these natives we had +established a regular weekly market in Eden Vale, which several hundreds of +them attended, bringing with them their goods upon ox-carts, the use of +which we had introduced among them and had made possible by means of the +roads our engineers had constructed through their country. Since we had set +up our iron-works, the Wa-Kikuyu came to us principally for iron either in +a raw condition or made up into tools. For this they at first bartered +cattle and vegetables; afterwards, when we no longer needed these things, +they offered mainly ivory, of which we had already acquired 138 tons, +partly through our trade with the Wa-Kikuyu and the Andorobbo, and partly +as the fruits of our own hunting. For ivory is as cheap here as +blackberries; the Wa-Kikuyu and the Andorobbo are glad to buy our wrought +iron for double its weight in the material which is so valuable in the +West. An iron implement, whether hammer, nail, or knife, is exchanged for +from ten to twenty times its weight in ivory. Thus almost the whole cost of +our expedition was already covered by our ivory--the cattle and provisions, +the implements and machinery, not to speak of the land, being thrown in +gratis.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<p> +Whilst we at the Kenia were thus busily preparing a comfortable home for +our brethren who were expected from the Old World, our colleagues, under +the direction of Demestre and Johnston, were working not less successfully +on the tasks allotted to them.</p> + +<p>Demestre had nothing to do with the construction of roads within the Kenia +district; his work began with the great forests that girdled this district. +The execution of the work from thence to the boundary between Kikuyu and +Masailand, at Ngongo, he deputed to the engineer Frank, an American; the +second section, from Ngongo to Masimani in Masailand, midway between Ngongo +and Taveta, was allotted to the engineer Möllendorf, a German; the third +section, from Masimani to Taveta, to Lermanoff, a Russian, as his name +shows; the last and most difficult section, from Taveta to Mombasa, +including two of the worst deserts, Demestre reserved to himself. To each +of the four sections five whites were appointed. His 200 Swahili, +strengthened by double that number of Wa-Kikuyu hired on the march through +their land, Demestre divided between the first two sections, allotting 50 +Swahili and 300 Wa-Kikuyu to the first in Kikuyuland, and 150 Swahili and +100 Wa-Kikuyu to the second in Masailand. The third section was organised +from Taveta. Lermanoff and a companion rode thither from Kenia, by making +use of our courier-stages, in six days. He engaged 100 Swahili men in +Taveta--where Swahili caravans are always to be met with--and 250 natives +in Useri and Chaga. In the meantime his four colleagues had arrived and +brought with them the pack-horses allotted to his--as to each--section; and +the work from Taveta to Useri was begun on the 15th of July. Demestre also +made use of the courier-stages, and rode, with no other breaks than +night-rests, first to Teita, where he hired 400 Wa-Teita, whom he at once +set to work, under the direction of one of his colleagues, upon the road +between Teita and Taveta. He then hastened on to Mombasa, and by the 20th +of July he was able to put 500 people of the coast upon the most difficult +part of the work--the road from Mombasa to Teita.</p> + +<p>The work to be done in all cases was threefold. First, in the places where +there was a deficiency of water--of which places there were several in the +lower sections, particularly in the deserts of Duruma, Teita, and +Ngiri--wells had to be dug and, where there was no spring-water, cisterns +made capacious enough to supply water sufficient not merely for the workmen +during the construction of the road, but afterwards for the men and cattle +of the caravans that passed that way. As there occur in Equatorial Africa +at all seasons of the year heavy storms of rain, which in the so-called hot +season are only much less frequent than in the so-called rainy season, +there was no danger that large cisterns draining the rain-water from a +sufficiently wide area would be exhausted even in the hot months; but the +cisterns had to be protected from the direct rays of the sun as well as +from impurities. The former was effected by providing the cisterns with +covering and shelter; the second by making the rain-water filter through +layers, several yards thick, of sand and gravel. The natural water-holes, +which are found in all deserts, but which dry up in times of protracted +drought, indicated the spots where it would be most practicable to +construct cisterns, for such spots were naturally the lowest points. The +larger of these water-holes needed only to be deepened, the evaporation of +the water guarded against, and the cisterns surrounded by the +above-mentioned natural filter, and the work was then finished. Of these in +the different sections twenty five were dug, with a depth of from nine to +sixteen yards and a diameter of from two to nine yards. Of ordinary wells +with spring-water thirty-nine were made. Each of these artificial supplies +of water was placed under the protection of a watchman.</p> + +<p>In the second place, there was the road-making itself. In general, the +route which the expedition had taken from Mombasa to the Kenia was chosen, +and merely freed from obstacles and widened to twice its original width +where it led through bush. But at certain places, particularly where steep +heights had to be traversed, it was necessary to look for a fresh and less +hilly track. That several bridges had to be built scarcely need be +mentioned.</p> + +<p>The third part of the work consisted in the erection of primitive houses of +shelter, at suitable places, for both men and cattle. Accommodation for +several hundred men, pens for cattle, and storehouses for provisions, were +constructed at sixty-five stations, at distances varying from seven to +twelve miles.</p> + +<p>These works were all completed between Mombasa and Teita by the end of +September, and in all the other sections fourteen days later. The workmen, +however, were not discharged, as a part of them were required for guarding +and maintaining the road and buildings, and another part found occupation +in the transport service on the newly made highway. The cost of +construction for the whole by no means small undertaking was £14,500, half +of which went in wages and half in rations; the material used in the work +cost nothing.</p> + +<p>By this time Johnston had completed the purchase of the draught-beasts +required for the transport service, and had organised the commissariat of +the caravans. His Masai friends procured for him in a few weeks the +originally ordered 5,000 head of cattle; and as every despatch from the +committee of the Free Society reported a larger and larger number of +members on their way to the settlement, our order was increased to 9,000, +exclusive of the 750 head of cattle, the unused remnant of our presents +which we had left behind us in Useri and Masailand. As the committee had +reason to anticipate that by the end of October the number of members +intending at once to join the colony would reach 20,000, they had enlarged +their orders for waggons to 1,000, and announced that fact to us in the +course of September. Therefore, as every waggon--which weighed 14 cwt., and +would carry ten persons, with 20 cwt. of luggage--would require four yoke +of oxen, the total number of draught-oxen needed would be 8,000, in +addition to a reserve of 200 head, and 1,550 oxen and cows for slaughter. +Johnston received this message on the southern frontier of Masailand, and, +as there was not time to return, he had to complete his provisioning in the +districts of Kilima and Teita. Nevertheless he succeeded in collecting the +full number of cattle and distributing them along the sixty-five stages +between Mombasa and the Kenia without materially raising prices by his +purchases in these favoured districts. He bought 8,500 oxen and 500 cows, +and the cost--including the travelling expenses and wages of the buyers and +drivers--amounted to no more than £8,650--that is, the goods which we +bartered for them had cost us this amount. Each head of cattle cost on the +average a little over eight shillings, half of which represented incidental +expenses, the bare selling price being less than four shillings a head.</p> + +<p>Johnston so arranged the transport service that every day twenty-five +waggons left Mombasa, and at every one of the sixty-five stations found +fresh draught-oxen ready. Arrived at Eden Vale, the waggons had to return +to Mombasa in the same manner. By this simple and practical arrangement, +all the waggons were kept constantly in motion between Mombasa and the +Kenia, whilst the draught-oxen merely moved to and fro in fixed teams +between neighbouring stations. In this way 250 persons could be conveyed +every day, and to convey 20,000--the total number of members reported by +the committee--would require eighty days, unless some of them made the +journey on horseback.</p> + +<p>The waggons constructed in England, America, and Germany arrived punctually +at Mombasa. They were in every respect models of skilful construction, +solidly and yet, in proportion to their size, lightly built, affording many +conveniences without sacrificing simplicity. Each one accommodated ten +persons with sitting space in the day and with good sleeping space at +night. By a very simple alteration of the seats, room could be made for ten +persons--four above and six beneath. Strong springs made the riding easy, a +movable leathern covering gave shelter from rain or sun, and the mattrasses +which served as beds at night were by day so buckled on the under-side of +the leathern covering as to afford double protection against the heat of +the sun. Accommodation for the baggage was provided in a similarly +practical manner.</p> + +<p>The first ship, with 900 members, arrived on the 30th of September. This +ship, like all that followed, was the property of the Society. Anticipating +that the stream of emigrants would not soon cease, would probably continue +to increase, and desirous to keep the transportation of the emigrants as +much as possible in their hands, the Society had bought twelve large, +swift-sailing steamships, averaging 3,500 tons burden, and had had them +adapted to their purpose. They could do this without overstraining their +resources; for, though the £940,000 which these twelve steamers cost +exceeded the amount actually in hand, the Society could safely reckon that +the deficit would soon be made good by the contributions of new members, to +accommodate whom the vessels and all the other provisions were intended. In +fact, by the middle of September the number of members exceeded 20,000, and +the property of the Society had grown to £750,000. Of this amount, however, +£150,000 had been spent independently of the purchase of the ships, and a +similar amount would in the immediate future be required for the general +purposes of the Society; thus less than half of the cost of the ships was +in hand and available for payment. But the sellers readily gave the Society +credit, and handed over the vessels without delay, even before any money +was paid. They risked nothing by this, for the Society's executive were +fully justified in calculating that the future income from new members +would be at least £100,000 a month, while the Society's property was quite +worth all the money they had hitherto spent upon it.</p> + +<p>The chief thing, however, was that people were getting to have more and +more faith in the success of the Society's undertaking, and to look upon +that undertaking as representative of the great commonwealth of the future. +Several governments already offered their assistance to the committee, who +accepted those offers only so far as they afforded a moral support. A +number of scientific and other public associations took a most lively +interest in the aims of the Society. For example, the Geographical +Societies of London and Rome gave, the one £4,000 and the other 50,000 +lires, merely stipulating in return that a periodical report should be sent +to them of all the scientifically interesting experiences of the Society. +That the business world should also interest themselves in the Society's +doings is not surprising. For the vessels which had been bought the Society +made an immediate payment of forty per cent., and undertook to pay the +remainder within three years. The whole was, however, paid off before the +end of the second year.</p> + +<p>The ships thus bought were employed to convey the emigrant members from +Trieste to Mombasa. As each vessel carried from 900 to 1,000 passengers, +while the waggons could convey 200 persons daily from Mombasa to the +settlement, it was necessary that two ships should reach Mombasa per week; +it being assumed that a part of the emigrants would prefer to travel from +Mombasa on horseback. And as the average length of a voyage to Mombasa and +back was thirty-five days, the twelve vessels were sufficient to maintain a +continuous service, with an occasional extra voyage for the transport of +goods, particularly of horses. There was no distinction of class on board +the vessels of the Society; no fee was taken from anyone, either for +transport or for board during the whole voyage, and everyone was therefore +obliged to be content with the same kind of accommodation, which certainly +was not deficient in comfort. On deck were large dining-rooms and rooms for +social intercourse; below deck was a small sleeping-cabin for each family, +comfortably fitted up and admirably ventilated. The members were received +on board in the order in which they had entered the Society, the earlier +members thus having the priority. Of course it was optional for any member +to make the voyage on any ship not belonging to the Society, without losing +his place in the list of claimants when he arrived at Mombasa.</p> + +<p>At Mombasa everyone was at liberty to continue his journey either on +horseback or in a waggon. The horsemen might either accompany the caravans +or ride in advance in such stages as they pleased, only the horses must be +changed regularly at the sixty-five stations, provision being made for a +sufficient supply of horses. The travellers in waggons had, moreover, the +option of going on night and day uninterruptedly, pausing only to effect +the necessary changes of oxen; or of travelling more deliberately, halting +as long as they pleased at the midday or the night stations. In the former +case they could, in favourable weather, reach Eden Vale in fourteen days, +or even less; in the latter case twenty days or more would be spent on the +journey.</p> + +<p>All the arrangements were perfectly carried out. There was no hitch +anywhere. The commissariat left nothing to be desired. An escort of ten +Masai, which Johnston had organised for each station, kept guard against +wild beasts during the night journeys, and had to serve as auxiliaries in +any difficulty; while four commissioners sent from among our members, and +located respectively at Teita, Taveta, Miveruni, and Ngongo, superintended +the whole. The natives greeted the first train of waggons with jubilant +astonishment, but received all with the greatest friendliness and +helpfulness. Particularly the Wa-Taveta, the Sultan of Useri, and the Masai +tribes did not fail to overwhelm our travellers with proofs of their +respect and love for the white brethren who had 'settled on the great +mountain.'</p> + +<p>The first new arrivals--among them our beloved master--entered Eden Valley +on the 14th of October; they were followed by an uninterrupted series of +fresh companies. But, before the story of this new era in the history of +our undertaking is told, a brief account must be given of what had been +taking place at the Kenia.</p> + +<p>As early as August, a numerous deputation of Masai tribes from Lykipia--the +country to the north-west of the Kenia--and from the districts between the +Naivasha and the Baringo lakes, arrived at Eden Vale offering friendship, +and asking to be admitted into the alliance between us and the other Masai. +This very affecting request was made with evident consciousness of its +importance, and the granting of it certainly placed us under new and heavy +obligations. Yet I granted it without a moment's hesitation, and my act +received the approval of all the members. For the pacification of the most +quarrelsome and unquestionably the bravest of all the tribes of the +equatorial zone was not too dearly bought by the sacrifice of a few +thousand pounds sterling per annum. We now had a satisfactory guarantee +that civilisation would gradually develop in these regions, which had +hitherto been cursed by incessant feuds and pillage; that we should be able +so to educate the black and brown natives that they would become more and +more useful associates in our great work; and that, in proportion as we +taught them to create prosperity and luxury for themselves, we should be +increasing the sources of our own prosperity. So I addressed to the brown +warriors a flattering panegyric, declared myself touched by the friendly +sentiments they had expressed, and promised with all speed to send an +embassy to them in order to conclude the treaty of alliance and to do them +honour. They were sent away richly laden with presents; and they on their +part had not come empty-handed, for they brought with them a hundred choice +beasts, and two hundred fat-tailed sheep. Johnston, whom I at once informed +of the incident, undertook the fulfilment of the promise I had given. I +have already stated that for this purpose he provided himself with a full +supply of the necessary goods from the baggage of the expedition which he +met with in September on its way to the Kenia. When his task in the +road-stages was finished, he started, about the beginning of October, for +the Naivasha lake, and went thence through the extensive and, for the most +part, exceedingly fertile high plateau--6,000 feet above the sea--which, +bounded by hills from 3,300 to 6,600 feet higher, contains the elevated +lakes of Masailand--namely, not only the Naivasha lake, the marvellous +Elmeteita lake, and the salt lake of Nakuro, but also a series of smaller +basins. On the 20th of October he reached the Baringo lake, on the northern +limit of Masailand, a lake that covers 77 square miles in a depression of +the land not more than 2,500 feet above the sea. Thence, in a westerly +direction, he went over ground, rising again, past the grand Thomson Falls, +through the wooded and well-watered Lykipia, and in the second week of +November he reached us at the Kenia, having on the way contracted alliance +with all the Masai tribes through whose lands he had passed, as well as +with the 'Njemps' at the Baringo lake.</p> + +<p>In the next place an account has to be given of the successful attempts +made, at the instigation of our two ladies, to tame several of the wild +animals indigenous to the Kenia. The idea was originated by Miss Fox, who +in the first instance wished merely to provide pleasure for the women and +children of the expected new arrivals. Miss Fox won over my sister, a great +friend to animals, to this idea; and so they hired several Andorobbo and +Wa-Kikuyu to capture monkeys and parrots, of which in Eden Vale there were +several very charming species. The attempts to tame these creatures were +successful beyond expectation--so much so that after a few weeks the +captives, when let loose, voluntarily followed their mistresses. This +excited the ambition of both of the ladies, and the Andorobbo were +commissioned to capture some specimens of a particularly pretty species of +antelope, which our naturalists decided to be a variety of the tufted +antelope (<i>Cephalophus rufilatus</i>), which is almost peculiar to Western +Africa. This attempt was also successful. It is true that the old animals +proved to be so shy and intractable that they were at last allowed to go +free; but several young ones became attached to their guardians with +surprising rapidity, and followed them like dogs. These antelopes are not +larger than a medium-sized sheep, and the young ones in particular look +exceedingly pretty with their red tufts, and disport themselves like frisky +kids. Miss Ellen and my sister soon had about them a whole menagerie of +antelopes, monkeys, and parrots, trained to perform all sorts of tricks for +the delectation of the children who were expected.</p> + +<p>Thus matters stood when one of the elephant-keepers whom Miss Ellen had +brought with her to the Kenia, and who had given up all thoughts of +returning to their home, ventured to ask his 'mistress'--for the Indians +could not accustom themselves to the idea that they were perfectly +independent men--whether she would not like an elephant-baby also as a pet? +Receiving an affirmative answer, he undertook to capture one or more, if he +were allowed to go with the four elephants and their keepers into the woods +for a few days. As Miss Ellen had allowed her elephants to be employed in +the building operations, where these interesting colossi were of invaluable +service, and as the work could not be interrupted for the sake of a +plaything, she told the Indian that she would forego her wish, or at least +would wait until the elephants could be more easily spared from the work. +The Indian went away, but the idea that his beloved mistress should be +deprived of anything that would--as he had at once perceived--have given +her great pleasure, roused him out of his customary fatalistic indolence. +He brooded over the matter for a couple of days, and on the third he +appeared with the proposal to make good the loss of time occasioned by the +temporary absence of the four elephants by capturing, with the aid of the +other Cornaks, not only a young elephant, but also several old elephants, +and training them for work. 'But African elephants cannot be trained like +the Indian ones,' objected Miss Ellen. The Indian ventured to question +this, and his seven colleagues were all of his opinion. Elephants were +elephants; they would like to see an animal with a trunk that they could +not tame in a few weeks if he only got into their hands. 'If it is really +so, why have you not said so before; for you must have seen what good use +can be made of elephants here?' asked the American, and received for answer +merely a laconic 'Because you have not asked us.'</p> + +<p>Miss Ellen did not know what to do. The idea of furnishing the colony of +Eden Vale with herds of tame elephants--for if these animals could be +tamed, there might as well be thousands as one--did not allow her to rest. +On the other hand, she remembered to have read, in her natural-history +studies, that African elephants were untameable. We all, when she asked us, +were obliged to affirm that there were no tame elephants anywhere in +Africa. She thought over this problem until she began to grow melancholy; +evidently she was anxious that a trial should be made. But the Indians +insisted upon the impossibility of capturing wild elephants without the +assistance of the tame ones; and she shrank the more from using the latter +in a doubtful attempt at a time when work urgently required doing, because +the tame elephants were her own property, and therefore the decision +depended entirely upon herself. Just then our zoologist, Signor Michaele +Faënze, returned from a long excursion to the central mass of the Kenia; +and when Miss Fox took him into her confidence, he at once sided with the +Indians. He admitted that, as a matter of fact, there were no tame African +elephants; but he maintained that this was simply because the Africans had +forgotten how to make the noble beast serviceable to man. The reason did +not lie in the character of the African elephant, for in the days of the +Romans trained elephants were as well known in Africa as in Asia. They +should let the Indians make an attempt; if the latter understood their +business they would succeed as well in Africa as in India.</p> + +<p>And so it turned out. The eight Cornaks with their four elephants went into +the neighbouring forests; and when, as soon happened, they had found a herd +of wild elephants, they did with them exactly as they had learnt to do at +home. The tame elephants were sent without their attendants into the midst +of the herd of wild ones, by whom they were at first greeted with some +signs of surprise, but were ultimately received into companionship. The +crafty animals then fixed their attention upon the leader of the herd, the +strongest and handsomest bull, caressed him, whisked the flies off him, but +in the meantime bound, with some strong cord they had taken with them, one +of his legs to a stout tree. Having done this, they uttered their cry of +alarm--a sharp trumpet-like sound--and ran off as if they had discovered +some danger. On this signal, the Indians rushed forward with loud cries and +the firing of guns, and thus caused the whole herd to rush off after the +tame elephants. The poor prisoner, of course, could not run off with the +rest, desperately as he strained at the ropes; and the Indians allowed him +to stamp and trumpet, without for a while troubling themselves about him. +Their next care was to follow the track of the escaped herd. In the course +of an hour they had again crept up to it, to find that in the meantime the +four tame elephants had repeated the same trick with a new victim, which +was also fettered and then left in the same manner. In the course of the +day three more elephants shared the same fate; and by that time the herd +appeared to have grown suspicious, for their betrayers returned alone to +their keepers.</p> + +<p>Now first was a visit paid to the five captives, among whom was a female +with a yearling about the size of a half-grown calf. The tame elephants +went straight to the captives straining at the ropes, and bound their +fore-feet tightly together. This was not done without furious resistance on +the part of the betrayed beasts; but this resistance was overcome in a most +brutal way by strokes of the trunk and by bites. Thereupon the merciless +captors busied themselves removing from within their victims' reach +everything that is pleasant to an elephant's palate--grass, bushes, and +tree-twigs; and what their trunks could not do they enabled the keepers to +do with axe and hatchet by dragging the captives down upon their sides.</p> + +<p>When night came, all five captives were securely bound and deprived of +every possibility of getting food. They were watched, however, to secure +them from being attacked by lions or leopards. The next morning the tame +elephants again visited their captive brethren one after the other, helped +the fallen ones to get up--which was not effected without a good deal of +thrashing and pushing--and then again left them to their fate.</p> + +<p>This went on for three days; the poor captives suffered from hunger and +thirst, and received barbarous blows from their treacherous brethren +whenever the latter came near them. By the fourth day they had become so +weak and subdued that they no longer roared, but pitifully moaned when +their tormentors approached, which nevertheless fell upon them fiercely +with trunk and teeth. Now a rescuing angel appeared to them, in human form. +An Indian, with threatening actions and several noisy blows, drove the +captors from their victim, and offered to the latter a vessel of water. If +the wild elephant, struck with astonishment, took time to survey the +situation, the tragi-comedy was over--the beast was tamed. For, in this +case, he would, after a little hesitation, accept the proffered drink, and +then a little food; he could afterwards be fed and watered without danger, +and, under the escort of the tame elephants, led home for further training. +If, on the contrary, the sight of the man maddened him--as was the case +with three out of the five--the thrashing-and-hunger treatment had to be +continued until the elephant began to understand that release from his +situation could be afforded only by the terrible biped.</p> + +<p>At last all the captives submitted to their fate. The only danger in this +process consists in the necessity, on the part of the hunter, of relying +upon the accuracy of his judgment concerning the captive's character when +he first approaches him. It is true that the tame elephants stand by +observant and ready to help; but as a single thrust of the tusk of an +enraged animal may be fatal, the business requires a great deal of courage +and presence of mind. However, the Indians asserted that anyone only +partially accustomed to the ways of elephants could tell with certainty +from the look of the animal what he meant to do; it was therefore necessary +merely to take the precaution not to get very close to a captive elephant +before reading in his eye submission to the inevitable, and then there was +nothing to fear.</p> + +<p>After an absence of six days, the expedition returned with the five +captives, which were certainly not yet trained and serviceable for work, +but were so far tame that they quietly allowed themselves to be shut up, +fed, watered, and taught. In the course of another fortnight they were +ready for use in all kinds of work, particularly when they had one of the +veterans by their side. Miss Ellen had a double triumph: she possessed a +charming baby elephant, which was certainly a little too clumsy for a +lap-dog, but was nevertheless as droll a creature as could be, and soon +made itself the acknowledged favourite of all Eden Vale; and she had +besides opened out for the Society an inexhaustible source of very valuable +motive power, of which no one would have thought but for her.</p> + +<p>From that time forth we actively carried on the capture of elephants, so +that in a little while the elephant was the chief draught-beast in the +Kenia, and could be employed wherever heavy weights had to be removed to +short distances or to places inaccessible to waggons.</p> + +<p>This successful experiment with the elephants suggested to us the taming of +other animals, for purposes, not merely of pleasure, but of utility. The +first attempt was made upon the zebra, and was successful. Though the old +animals were useless, the foals, when captured quite young, were tolerably +tractable and not particularly shy; and in the second generation our tame +zebras were not distinguishable from the best mules, except in colour. +Ostriches and giraffes came next in the order of our domestic animals; but +our trainers achieved their greatest triumph in taming the African buffalo. +This is the most vicious, uncontrollable, and dangerous of all African +beasts; and yet it was so thoroughly domesticated that in the course of +years it completely supplanted the common ox as a draught-beast. The bulls +that had grown up in a wild condition were, and remained, perfect devils; +but the captured cows could be so thoroughly domesticated that they would +eat out of their attendants' hands, and the buffaloes bred in a state of +domestication exhibited exactly the same character as the ordinary domestic +cattle. The bulls, especially when old, continued to be somewhat +unreliable; but the cows and oxen, on the other hand, were as gentle and +docile as any ruminant could be. They were never valued among us as milch +kine--for, though their milk was rich, it was not great in quantity--but +they were incomparable as draught-beasts. They were higher by half a foot +than the largest domestic cattle; they measured two feet across the +shoulders, and their horns were too thick at the base to be spanned by two +hands. No load was too heavy for these gigantic beasts; two buffaloes would +keep up their steady pace with a load that would soon have disabled four +ordinary oxen. They bore hunger, thirst, heat, and rain better than their +long-domesticated kindred; in short, they proved themselves invaluable in a +country where good roads were not everywhere to be found.</p> + +<p>The third incident--But this really concerns only me personally, and +belongs to this narrative merely so far as it relates to the mode of life +and the social conditions of Eden Vale. It will therefore be best if I next +tell how we lived, what our habits were, and how we worked in the new home, +before the arrival of the main body of our brethren.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<p> +The colonists in Eden Vale looked upon me--the Society's plenipotentiary, +who had organised our expedition to the Kenia and procured the necessary +means--as their president in the full sense of the word: I might have +commanded and I should have been obeyed. But, on the other hand, I acted +not only in harmony with my own inclination, but also according to the +evident intention of the committee, when I assumed merely the position of +president of an association of men who had power to manage their own +affairs. Whenever it was possible, I consulted my colleagues previous to +making any arrangements, and acted in accordance with the will of the +majority; and only in the most urgent cases, or when orders had to be given +to persons who were absent, did I act independently. The distribution of +the work to different groups was made by arrangement between all the +members concerned, and the superintendents of the several branches of work +were elected by their special colleagues. Though in all essential matters +the views and proposals of myself and of those more particularly in my +confidence were always carried out (so that if in what I have written I +had, for brevity's sake, said 'I arranged,' 'I designed,' it would have +been essentially correct), yet this was due entirely to the fact that my +confidants were the intellectual leaders of the colony, and the others +voluntarily subordinated themselves to them. Moreover, we all knew that the +present was only a provisional arrangement. In the meanwhile, no one worked +for himself; all that we produced belonged not to the producer, not even to +the whole of the producers, but to the undertaking upon the common property +of which we were, in return, all living. In a word, the Free Society which +we wished to found was not yet founded--it was in process of forming; and +for the time we were, in reference to it, nothing more than persons +employed according to the old custom, and differed from ordinary +wage-earners simply in the fact that it was left to ourselves to decide +what we should keep for our own maintenance and what we should set apart as +the employer's share of the gains. If any evil-intentioned colleague had +compelled me to do so, I not only had the right, but was resolved, to +assume the attitude of the 'plenipotentiary.' That I was able to avoid +doing this contributed no little to heighten the mutual pleasure we all +experienced, and very materially facilitated the transition to the ultimate +form of our organisation; but this did not alter the fact that our life and +work, both on the journey and at the Kenia, were carried on under the +social forms of the old system.</p> + +<p>During this period the hours of work, whether of overseer or simple +workman, white or negro, at Eden Vale were alike for all--from 5 A.M. to 10 +A.M. and from 4 P.M. to 6 P.M.; only in the harvest-time were one or two +hours added. All work ceased on Sundays.</p> + +<p>The order of the day was as follows: We rose about 4 A.M. and took a bath +in Eden Lake, where several bathing houses had been constructed. The +washing and repairing of clothes was attended to--under the superintendence +of a member who was an expert in such matters--by a band of Swahili, to +whom this work was allotted as their sole duty. We wore every day the +clothes which had been cleansed on the previous day, and which were brought +to the owner in the course of the day to be ready for him in the morning. +After the toilet came the breakfast, the preparation of which, as well as +of all the other meals, was also the special duty of a particular band of +Swahili. In initiating them into the mysteries of French cookery my sister +was of great service. This first breakfast consisted, according to +individual taste, of tea, chocolate, coffee--black or <i>au lait</i>--milk, or +some kind of soup; to these might be added, according to choice, butter, +cheese, honey, eggs, cold meat, with some kind of bread or cake. After this +first breakfast came work until 8, followed by a second breakfast, +consisting of some kind of substantial hot food--omelets, fish, or roast +meat--with bread, also cheese and fruits; the drinks were either the +delicious spring-water of our hills, or the very refreshing and agreeable +banana-wine made by the natives. Fifteen or twenty minutes were usually +spent over this breakfast, and work followed until 10 A.M. Then came the +long midday rest, when most of us, particularly in the hotter months, took +a second bath in the lake, followed by private recreation, reading, +conversation, or games. As a rule, the heat in this part of the day was +great; in the hot season the thermometer frequently measured 95° Fahr. in +the shade. It is true that the heat out of doors was prevented from +becoming unendurable by cool breezes, which, in fine weather, blew +regularly between 11 A.M. and 5 P.M. from the Kenia, and these breezes were +the stronger the hotter the day; but it was most agreeable and most +conducive to health to spend the midday hours under cover. At 1 P.M. the +principal meal was taken, consisting of soup, a course of meat or fish with +vegetables, sweet pastry, and fruit of many kinds, with banana-wine or, +when our brewery had been set to work, beer. The meal over, some would +sleep for half an hour, and the rest of the time would be filled up with +conversation, reading, and games. When the fiercest heat was over, the two +hours of afternoon work would be gone through. After this a few indulged in +a third and hasty bath. At 7 P.M. a meal similar to the first breakfast was +taken, out of doors if it did not rain, and in large companies. It should +be stated that, with reference to the meals and to all other means of +refreshment, everyone could choose what and how much he pleased. It was +only in the matter of alcoholic drinks that there was any restriction, and +that for easily understood reasons. Later, when everyone acted for himself, +even in this matter there was perfect liberty; but so long as we were under +the then existing obligations to the Society it was necessary to observe +restrictions for the sake of the negroes.</p> + +<p>The evenings were generally devoted to music. We had some very skilful +musicians, an excellent orchestra of wind and string instruments numbering +forty-five performers, and a fine choir; and these performed whenever the +weather permitted. The air would grow cool two or three hours after sunset; +on some nights the thermometer would measure over 70° Fahr., but it +occasionally sank to less than 60° Fahr., so that the night-rest was always +refreshing.</p> + +<p>Sundays were given up to recreation and instruction: excursions into the +adjoining woods, hunting expeditions, concerts, public lectures, addresses, +&c.</p> + +<p>The block-houses in which we dwelt were intended to serve each family as a +future--though merely provisional--home. Each stood in a garden of 1,200 +square yards; and with its six rooms--living-room, kitchen, and four +bedrooms--covered 150 square yards. At this time each such house was +occupied by four of us; to the two women and Sakemba--the latter had been +visited by her parents and their family, and had induced them to put up +their grass hat in Eden Vale--a separate house was of course allotted.</p> + +<p>This last arrangement, however, did not please my sister at all. During the +journey she had yielded to the necessity of being separated from me, the +darling ward given into her charge by our sainted mother. Arrived at Eden +Vale, she expected to resume her old rights of guardianship and domestic +superintendence; but she found herself prevented from carrying out her +wishes by her duty towards a second, who in the meantime had become a +favourite with her--namely, Miss Fox. She could not possibly leave this +young woman alone among so many men; but as little could she bring us both +into the same house, though in her eyes we were mere children. What would +her friends in Paris have said to that? I spent all my leisure time in the +women's house, whither I was unconsciously more and more strongly +attracted, not less by the young American's conversation--which was a +piquant mixture of animated controversy and unaffected chatter--than by her +harp-playing and her clear alto voice. But this did not satisfy sister +Clara, who at last hit upon the plan of marrying us. Our common +'foolishness'--that is, our social ideas--made us, she thought, mutually +suitable; and though, in her opinion, we should make a pair entirely +lacking in sound domestic common sense, <i>she</i> was there to think and act +for both of us.</p> + +<p>Having once conceived this purpose, she, as a prudent and discreet person +who rightly foresaw that in this matter she could not expect implicit +obedience from either Miss Fox or myself, placed us under close +observation. Though she was peculiarly lacking in personal experience in +matters of love, yet, by means merely of that delicate sensibility peculiar +to woman, she made the startling discovery that we were already over head +and ears in love with each other. At first she was so astonished at this +discovery that she would not believe her own eyes. But the thing was too +clear to make mistake possible. We two lovers had ourselves not the +remotest suspicion of our condition; but to anyone who knew Miss Fox so +well as several months of unbroken companionship with the open-hearted and +ingenuous young American had enabled my sister to do, there could be no +difficulty in understanding what was the matter when a young woman, who had +hitherto lived only for her ideals, freedom and justice, whose idol had +been humanity, but who had shown no interest in any individual man apart +from the ideas to which he devoted himself, was thrown into confusion as +often as she heard the footsteps of a certain man, and in her confidential +intercourse with my sister, instead of talking of the grandeur of our +principles, preferred to talk of the excellences of him who in Eden Vale +was the leading exponent of those principles. As to my own feelings, sister +Clara knew too well that hitherto woman had interested me merely on account +of her position in human society not to feel as if scales had fallen from +her eyes when one day, after long and devotedly watching Miss Fox as she +was busying herself about something, I broke out with the words, 'Is not +every movement of that girl music?'</p> + +<p>So my sister took us each aside and told us we must marry. But she met with +a check from both of us. On hearing of the proposal, Miss Ellen, though she +became alternately crimson and pale, at once exclaimed that she would +rather die than marry me. 'Would not those arrogant men who deny us women +any sense of the ideal, any capacity for real effort, and look upon us as +the slaves of our egoistic impulses--would they not triumphantly assert +that my pretended enthusiasm for our social undertaking was merely passion +for a man; that it was not for the sake of an idea, but for the sake of a +man, that I had run off to Equatorial Africa? No--I don't love your +brother--I shall never love, still less marry!' This heroic apostrophe was, +however, followed by a flood of tears, which, when sister Clara wished to +interpret them in my favour, were declared to be signs of emotion at the +offensive suspicion. I received the proposal in a similar way. When Clara +hinted to me that I was in love with Miss Fox, I laughed at her heartily, +and declared that what she took to be symptoms of my passion were merely +signs of psychological interest in a woman who was capable of a genuine +enthusiasm for abstract ideas.</p> + +<p>But a motherly sister who has once conceived the purpose of getting her +brother--and her female friend as well--married, is not so easily driven +from the field: at least, not when she has such good and manifold grounds +to adhere to her intention. As she could not gain her end in a direct way, +she tried a circuitous one--not a new one, but one often tried: she made us +both jealous. She told each of us in confidence that she had given up her +'stupid plan,' as the other party was no longer free. As she slily added to +me that she had devised her project merely to be able to come into my house +with my young wife and to resume her motherly care over me, and as this was +evidently the truth, I also gave credence to the invention that Ellen had +left a betrothed lover in America, who was about to appear in Eden Vale. +'Only think, Ellen never made this confession until I approached her with +my plan of getting her married! It is very lucky that you, my boy, care +nothing for the sly little creature; it would have been a pretty business +if you had set your heart upon Ellen!'</p> + +<p>I declared myself perfectly satisfied with this turn of affairs; but at the +same time I felt as if a knife had pierced my heart. Suddenly my love stood +clear and distinct before my mind's eye--a glowing boundless passion, such +as he only can feel whose heart has remained six-and-twenty years +untouched. It seemed to me an unalterable certainty that, though I might +still live and struggle, I could never more enjoy life and life's battles! +But was my fate so certain and inevitable? Was it not possible to drive +from the field this lover who had exposed his betrothed to all the dangers +of an adventurous journey, to all the temptations of her unprotected +condition, and who was now about to appear and snatch the bliss from my +Eden? Was it at all conceivable that Ellen--this Ellen--such as I had known +her for months, would love such a wretched fellow? Away to her, to learn +the truth at any price!</p> + +<p>I rushed over to the neighbouring house. There in the meantime my sister +had been telling a similar tale to Ellen. She had, she said to Ellen, +conceived the idea of making us man and wife; and therefore, in the hope +that my wooing would overcome her (Ellen's) resistance, she had also told +me of her plan; and when I hesitated she had urged it more strongly, until +at last I had confessed that, unknown to her, I had become betrothed in +Europe. The bride would reach Eden Vale with the next party that +arrived.... Clara had got so far when my appearance interrupted the story.</p> + +<p>Deadly pale, Ellen turned towards me. She tried to speak, but her voice +failed her. My half-sad, half-angry inquiry after the American betrothed +first gave her speech. In a moment she found the key to the situation--that +I loved her, and that my sister had deceived us both. What followed can be +easily imagined. Thus it came to pass that Ellen was my betrothed when Dr. +Strahl arrived at Eden Vale; and this is the third incident which I was +about to narrate above.</p> + +<p>Whether the joy with which I for the first time pressed to my heart the +woman of my love was greater than that with which I welcomed the friend of +my soul, the idol of my intellect, to the earthly paradise to which he had +shown us the way--this I cannot venture to decide.</p> + +<p>When, in the eyes of my revered friend, as he looked upon our new home and +the strongly pulsing joyous life that already filled it, I saw tears of +joy, and in those tears a sure guarantee of immediate success, I was not +seized with such an extravagant delight--almost more than the breast which +felt it for the first time could bear--as I felt a few days before when my +beloved revealed to me the secret of her heart. But when my hair shall have +grown white and my back shall be bent with years, and the recollection of +those lover's kisses may no longer drive my blood so feverishly through my +veins as to-day, yet the thought of the hour in which, hand in hand with my +friend, I experienced the proud pure joy of having accomplished the first +and most difficult step towards the redemption of our suffering +disinherited brethren out of the tortures of many thousands of years of +bondage--the thought of that hour will never lose its bliss-inspiring power +as long as I am among the living.</p> + +<p>Long, long stood the master on the heights above Eden Vale, eagerly taking +in every detail of the charming picture. Then, turning to us standing +around him he asked if we had given a name to the country that stretched +out before us on all sides, and which was to be our home. When I said that +we had not, and added that to him, who had given words to the idea that had +led us hither, also belonged the office of finding a word for the country +in which that idea was to be realised, he cried out: 'Freedom will find its +birthplace in this country; <span class="name">Freeland</span> we will name it.'</p> + + +<h2><i>BOOK II</i></h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<p> +We now resume the thread of our narrative where Ney's journal left off.</p> + +<p>With the President there had arrived in Eden Vale three members of the +executive committee; five others followed a few days after with the first +waggon-caravan from Mombasa; so that, including Ney, Johnston, and Demestre +(the last of whom had been co-opted at the suggestion of the two former), +twelve were now in Freeland. As hie committee at that time consisted of +fifteen members, there still remained three at a distance, of whom one was +in London, another at Trieste, and the third at Mombasa, at which places +they were for the present to act as the committee's authorised agents in +the foreign affairs of the Society. Their duty was to receive fresh +members, to collect and provisionally to have charge of the funds, and to +superintend the emigrations to Eden Vale.</p> + +<p>Their instructions respecting applications for membership were to receive +every applicant who was not a relapsed criminal, and who could read and +write. The former condition needs no justification. We had an unqualified +confidence in the ennobling influence of our social reforms, because those +reforms removed the motive that impelled to most vices; we were perfectly +satisfied that Freeland would produce no criminals, and would even, if it +were not beyond the bounds of possibility, wean from vice those who had +been previously made criminals by misery and ignorance; but we wished, in +the beginning, to avoid being swamped by bad elements, and, in view of the +excusable attempts of certain States to rid themselves in some way or +another of their relapsed criminals, we were compelled to exercise caution.</p> + +<p>It may seem a greater hardship that the perfectly illiterate were excluded. +But this was a necessary requirement of our programme. We wished to +transfer the right of the absolute free self-control of the individual to +the domain of labour from that of the relation of servitude which had +existed for thousands of years. We wished to transform the worker who had +been dependent upon his employer for his bread into the independent +producer acting at his own risk in free association with free colleagues. +It follows, as a matter of course, that in this our work we could use only +such workers as were raised above at least the lowest stage of brutality +and ignorance. That we thus excluded the most miserable of the miserable, +is true; but, apart from the fact that generally the ignorant man lacks a +clear consciousness of his misfortune and degradation, and his sufferings +are therefore, as a rule, rather of a physical than of a moral nature, we +could not allow ourselves to be so led astray by pity as to endanger the +success of our work. The ignorant man <i>must</i> be under authority; and as it +was not our purpose to educate our members gradually to become free +producers, but to introduce them immediately to a system of free +production, we were compelled to protect ourselves against ignorance as +well as against crime.</p> + +<p>Should it, on the other hand, be contended that ability to read and write +is of itself by no means a sufficient evidence of the possession of that +degree of culture and intelligence which must be presupposed in men who are +to exercise control over their own work, the answer is that for such a +purpose a very high degree of intelligence is certainly requisite, yet not +in all, but only in a relatively not large number of the workers, who thus +organise themselves, whilst the majority need not possess more than that +moderate amount of mental capacity and mental training which is enough to +enable them to look after their own interests. When a hundred or a thousand +workers unite to work for their common profit and at their common risk, it +is not every one of them that can or need have the abilities requisite to +organise and superintend this common production--it is merely necessary +that a very few possess this higher degree of intelligence; whilst it is +enough for the majority that they are able rightly to judge what ought to +be and is the result of the production in common, and what characteristics +those must possess in whose hands the guardianship of the common interest +is placed. But just here is the knowledge of letters absolutely +indispensable, for it is the printed word alone which makes man and his +judgment independent of the accidental influences of immediate surroundings +and first opens his mind to instruction. It will later on be seen in how +large a measure the most comprehensive publicity of all the proceedings +connected with this productive activity--a publicity possible only through +writing and print--contributed to the success of our work.</p> + +<p>Of course these two conditions which applicants for membership had to +satisfy had from the beginning been insisted upon by the committee, and the +second condition at first very strictly so. It had been found, however, +that the intellectual level of most of the applicants was surprisingly +high. In the main, from among the class of manual labourers it was only the +<i>élite</i>, who in any numbers interested themselves in our undertaking; and +as, when the membership had gone beyond 20,000, a slight leaven of +ignorance could not be very dangerous, the committee contented itself with +requiring that the application should be made in the applicant's own +handwriting.</p> + +<p>The number of applicants--women and children are always reckoned +in--continued to increase, particularly after the publication of the first +report of the settlement of the colony at the Kenia. When the +committee--with the exception of the delegates left behind--embarked at +Trieste, the rate of increase of members had reached 1,200 weekly; three +months later it had risen to 1,800 weekly. The European agents had to +register the new members--as had previously been done with the old +members--carefully, according to sex, age, and calling, and at every +opportunity to despatch the lists to Freeland; they had also to organise +and superintend the transport to Mombasa, which in all cases was +gratuitous; and they were authorised to pay all necessary expenses, in case +of need even to buy new ships, subject to subsequent examination and +approval of the accounts. It was also the duty of the agents to advise and +help the members when they were preparing for the journey; and they had +authority to give material assistance to needy comrades. The members' +contributions showed a tendency to increase similar to that of the number +of members. It was evident that the interest in and the understanding of +the character of our undertaking grew not merely among the working classes, +but also among the wealthy; the weekly addition to the funds increased from +£20,000 at the end of September to £30,000 at the end of December. These +funds, after payment of the expenses incurred by the agents, were under the +control of the committee, whose executive organ, however, in this respect +also, for the payment of debts incurred outside of Freeland, were the +delegates who had been left behind.</p> + +<p>On the 20th of October the committee held its first sitting in Eden Vale, +for the purpose of drawing up such rules as were required to regulate the +constitution of the free associations that were henceforth to be +responsible for all production in Freeland. Hitherto the sittings of the +committee had been so far public that every member of the Society had +access to them, and this was to continue to be the case; but a provisional +regulation was now adopted by which the audience might take part in the +proceedings, though simply as consultative members. This regulation was to +be in force until the press could perform its news-spreading and +controlling functions. At the same time it was found that, whilst the +committee had long been unanimous in holding that the Society's +programme--that is, the organisation of production upon the basis of +absolute individual independence on the one hand, and the securing to every +worker the full and undiminished produce of his work on the other +hand--should be carried out as soon as the committee had reached the new +home, a part of the members of the Society still wished to continue the +provisional organisation for at least a few months. In favour of this it +was alleged that the executive knew best what were the needs as well as the +capabilities of the gradually assembling community; the colonists should be +allowed time to become accustomed to their new conditions and to acquire +confidence in themselves; the committee had hitherto exhibited so much +discretion in all their measures, that it was their duty to keep for some +time longer the absolute direction of affairs in their own hands. It was +particularly the members who had just arrived in Eden Vale who exhibited +this dread of immediate and absolute independence. They thought they should +not be able at once to act wisely for themselves; it would be cruel to +pitch them as it were head-over-heels into the water, forcing upon them the +alternative of swimming or sinking, when they themselves did not know +whether they could swim or not. Ney, as the director of the works at the +Kenia, was especially importuned by these faint hearted ones to manage +their affairs for them, and not to force upon them an independence for +which they did not yet feel themselves qualified.</p> + +<p>The committee were prepared for this demand, and had no difficulty in +dispelling the fears thus expressed. In the first place, the timid members +were made to understand that to continue production as the common +undertaking of the whole community after the Society, as such, had settled +in Freeland, would be sheer Communism. The 200 pioneers of the first +expedition, and the 260 of the second, were simply functionaries appointed +by the Society, whose relation to the Society was not altered in the least +by the fact that they were at the Kenia, while the committee were in +Europe. The pioneers were well aware of this before they left the Old +World. But the case was different with all who now came to the settlement. +Those who came now were not the officials, but the members of the Society; +they did not come to do something at the bidding of the Society, but to +work on their own account on the basis of the Society's principles of +organisation. We had therefore no further right to utilise the first comers +for the benefit of those who came after them. Even if we had such a right, +it would be a fatal mistake to exercise it. For those that came now were no +longer the carefully selected small band with whom we formerly had to do, +but persons who, though influenced by one great common idea, were yet a +thoroughly heterogeneous crowd accidentally thrown together, whom it would +be a very dangerous experiment to entrust with an anti-egoistic system of +production. The first 400 were--at least, in their character of +workers--mainly men of one mould, similar in their capacities and in their +requirements; the few leaders found ready obedience because no one +questioned their intellectual superiority, and chiefly because every one +who took part in the two expeditions was, as it were, pledged beforehand to +obedience. The new-comers, on the contrary, were persons of very various +capacities, and still more diverse in their requirements: there were among +them women and old persons, fathers with numerous children. There might +also be among them--and this was the greatest danger--ambitious persons, to +whom one could not assign the right place because their capacities would +not be known, and who would certainly refuse to obey.</p> + +<p>Thus, Communism would most probably in a very short time produce universal +dissatisfaction, and that would lead to chaos. Consequently we had as +little power as we had right to introduce it. But we had not the least +occasion to do so. Why should not that take place at once which must take +place sooner or later--namely, the organisation of free labour, with all +the profits taken by the workers themselves? Because there was not yet +enough human material for the organisation of all the branches of industry? +What necessity was there to organise all branches at once; and, on the +other hand, what certainty was there that it would be possible or useful to +do so in the course of several weeks or months? To take an example: there +were several weavers among us, for whom at present there were no +companions, and who therefore were not in a position to start their +industry with reasonable hopes of success. What was there to prevent these +weavers, in the meantime, from engaging in some other occupation; and who +would guarantee that a little later on there would be weavers enough to set +up a factory; and that, should such a factory be set up, the conditions of +the settlement would be such as to make weaving sufficiently profitable to +justify the carrying of it on? And while it was admitted that there would +be at first more such torsos--such insufficient fragments--of future +branches of industry than there would be later on, this inconvenience was +more than counterbalanced by the fact that it was easier to begin a new +organisation among a small than among a large number of men. In every +respect it appeared advisable at once to organise production upon the basis +of free individual action. Of course it did not follow that the committee +did not possess, not merely the right, but also the duty, of making all the +provision in its power to facilitate and promote the work of organisation. +They would not confine themselves to the work of smoothing the way for the +members of the Society, but would utilise their knowledge and experience in +pointing out to the members the best way. They would assume no compelling +authority, but claimed to be the best--because the best-informed--advisers +of the members. Further, there was no doubt that the whole of the hitherto +acquired property, whether derived from the contributions of the members or +created in Freeland, since it belonged to the whole community and not to +the individual members, was at the disposal of the committee, and that the +committee would make a legitimate use of this its responsibility. The +members might therefore rest assured that no one should be left uncared for +or exposed to blind accident. The committee would act as advisers and +helpers to anyone who wished for their advice and help, not only now, but +at any time. In truth, what the committee purposed to do--conformably to +the Society's programme--differed from the above-mentioned demands in only +two points. The committee offered their advice, whilst they were asked to +command and to allow no scope to other and probably, in many points, better +counsel; and they offered both advice and help in the interest of each +separate individual, whilst they were asked to act in the interest of the +whole community alone.</p> + +<p>These explanations gave general satisfaction, and afterwards, when those +detailed regulations had been decided upon which were partly in +contemplation and partly already in operation for the establishment of the +new forms of organisation, the last remnant of fear and hesitation +vanished.</p> + +<p>The fundamental feature of the plan of organisation adopted was unlimited +publicity in connection with equally unlimited freedom of movement. +Everyone in Freeland must always know what products were for the time being +in greater or less demand, and in what branch of production for the time +being there was a greater or less profit to be made. To the same extent +must everyone in Freeland always have the right and the power--so far as +his capabilities and his skill permitted--to apply himself to those +branches of production which for the time being yield the largest revenue, +and to this end all the means of production and all the seats of production +must be available to everyone. The measures required, therefore, must first +of all have regard to these two points. A careful statistical report had to +register comprehensively and--which is the chief point--with as much +promptitude as possible every movement of production on the one hand and of +consumption on the other, as well as to give universal publicity to the +movement of prices of all products. In view of the great practical +importance of this system of public advertisement, care would have to be +taken to exclude deception or unintentional errors--a problem which, as +what follows will show, was solved in the most perfect yet simple manner.</p> + +<p>And in order that the knowledge thus made common to everyone may be +actually and profitably made use of by everyone--which is possible only +when everyone is placed in a position to apply his capabilities to those +among the branches of labour in which he is skilled, and which for the time +being yield the highest revenue--provision must be made that everyone shall +always be able to obtain possession of the requisite means of production. +Of these means of production there are two classes--the powers of nature +and capital. Without these means of production, the most exact information +as to which are the branches of labour whose products are in greatest +demand, and which, therefore, yield the highest profits, would be of as +little use as the most perfect skill in such branches of production. A man +can utilise his power to labour only when he has command both of the +materials and forces supplied by nature, and of the appropriate instruments +and machines; and if he is to compete with his fellow-workers he must +possess both classes of the means of production as fully and as completely +as they. In order to grow wheat, a man must not only have land at his +command, but he must have land that is equally good for growing wheat as is +the land of the other wheat-growers, otherwise he will labour with less +profit and possibly with actual loss. And possession of the most fertile +land will not make the work possible, or at any rate equally profitable, +unless the worker possesses the requisite agricultural implements, or if he +possesses them in a less degree than his competitors.</p> + +<p>Then as to capital: the Free Society undertook to place it at the disposal +of everyone who wished for it, and that without interest, on condition that +it was reimbursed out of the proceeds of production within a period the +length of which was to be determined by the nature of the proposed +investment. As the instruments of labour and the other capitalistic aids to +labour could be provided to any amount and of any quality, one part of the +problem was thereby solved.</p> + +<p>The case was different with the natural powers, as representative of which +we will take the land with which those powers are bound up. No one has +produced the land, therefore no one has a claim of ownership upon it, and +everyone has a right to use it. But not merely has no one produced the +land, no one can produce it; the land, therefore, exists in a limited +quantity, and, moreover, the existing land is not all of the same quality. +Now, in spite of all this, how is it possible to satisfy everyone's claim +not merely to land, but to produce-bearing land?</p> + +<p>In order to make this clear, the third and, in reality, most fundamental +predicate of economic justice must be expounded. When every worker is +promised the undiminished produce of his own labour, it is necessarily +assumed that the worker himself is the sole and exclusive producer of the +whole of this produce. But this he was, by no means, according to the old +economic system. The worker as such produced only a part of the product, +while another part was produced by the employer, whether he was landowner, +capitalist, or undertaker. Without the organising disciplinary influence of +the latter the toil of the worker would have been fruitless, or at least +much less fruitful; formerly the worker supplied merely the power, while +the organising mind was supplied by the employer.</p> + +<p>It is not implied by this that the more intellectual element in the work of +production was formerly to be found exclusively or necessarily on the side +of the employer: the technicians and directors who superintend the great +productive establishments belong essentially to the wage-earners; and it +will be readily admitted that in many cases the higher intelligence is to +be found not in the employers, but in the workers. Nevertheless, in all +cases where a number of workers have had to be brought together and +accustomed to work in common, this work of organising has been the business +of the employer. Hitherto the worker has been able to produce for himself +only in isolation; whenever a number had to be brought together, in one +enterprise, a 'master' has been necessary, a master who with the +whip--which may be made either of thongs or of the paragraphs in a set of +factory regulations--has kept the rebellious together, and <i>therefore</i>--not +because of his higher intelligence--has swept the profits into his own +pocket, leaving to the workers, whether they belonged to the proletariat or +to the so-called intelligent classes, only so much as sufficed to sustain +them. Hitherto the workers have made no attempt to unite their productive +labours without a master, as free, self-competent men, and not as servants. +The employment of those powerful instruments and contrivances which science +and invention have placed in the hands of men, and which so indefinitely +multiply the profits of human activity, presupposes the united action of +many; and hitherto this united action has been taken only hand in hand with +servitude. The productive associations of a Schulze-Delitzsch and others +have effected no change in the real character of servitude; they have +merely altered the name of the masters. In these associations there are +still the employers and the workers; to the former belongs the profit, the +latter receive stall and manger like the biped beasts of burden of the +single employer or of the joint-stock societies whose shareholders do not +happen to be workers. In order that labour may be free and +self-controlling, the workers must combine as such, and not as small +capitalists; they must not have over them any employer of any land or any +name, not even an employer consisting of an association of themselves. They +must organise themselves as workers, and only as such; for only as such +have they a claim to the full produce of their labour. This organisation of +work without the slightest remnant of the old servile relationship to an +employer of some kind or other, is the fundamental problem of social +emancipation: if this problem be successfully solved, everything else will +follow of itself.</p> + +<p>But this organisation was not nearly so difficult as it appears to be at +first sight. The committee started from the principle that the right forms +of the organisation of free labour were best found through the free +co-operation of all those who shared in this organisation. No special +difficulties were discovered in this. The questions which had to be dealt +with were of the simplest nature. For example: in order to set up an +iron-works, it was not at all necessary that the workers should all +understand the whole mechanism of the manufacture of iron. Two things only +were necessary--first, that the men should know what sort of persons they +ought to set at the head of their factory; and, secondly, that on the one +hand they should give those persons sufficient authority properly to +control the work, and, on the other hand, they should reserve to themselves +sufficient authority to hold the reins of their undertaking in their own +hands. Doubtless, very serious mistakes might be made in the organisation +of the managing as well as of the overlooking organs--there might be a +serious misproportion in the powers conferred. But the previously mentioned +unlimited publicity of all productive operations, which on other grounds +also would be demanded in the interest of the commonwealth, materially +lightened the task of the associations of workers; and as all the members +of each such productive association had in this decisive point exactly the +same interests, and their whole attention was always directed to these +interests, they learnt with remarkable speed to correct the mistakes they +had made, so that after a few months the new apparatus worked tolerably +well, and in a remarkably short time reached a high degree of perfection. +From the beginning there was nothing left to desire in the industry and +diligence of all the associates--a fact which might have been anticipated +in view of the full play given to self-interest as well as of the incessant +mutual encouragement and control of men who had equal rights and were +equally interested.</p> + +<p>The committee therefore drew up a 'Model Statute' for the use of the +associations, not at all anticipating that it would really be preserved as +a model, but merely for the sake of making a beginning and of providing a +formula which the associations might use as the skeleton of the schemes of +organisation that their experience would enable them to devise. As a matter +of fact this 'Model Statute,' which was at first accepted almost unaltered +by all the associations, was in less than twelve months so much altered and +enlarged that little more than the leading principles of its original form +remained. These, however, were the following:</p> + +<p>1. Admission into every association is free to everyone, whether a member +of any other association or not; and any member can leave any association +at any time.</p> + +<p>2. Every member has a claim upon such a share of the net profits of the +association as is proportionate to the amount of work he has contributed.</p> + +<p>3. Every member's contribution of work shall be measured by the number of +hours he has worked; the older members receiving more than those who have +joined the association later, in the proportion of a premium of <i>x</i> per +cent. for every year of seniority. Also, a premium can be contracted for, +in the way of free association, for skilled labour.</p> + +<p>4. The labour contribution of superintendents or directors shall, according +to a voluntary arrangement with every individual concerned, be reckoned us +equal to a certain number of hours of work per day.</p> + +<p>5. The profits of the association shall be calculated at the end of every +year of business, and, after deducting the repayment of capital and the +taxes paid to the Freeland commonwealth, divided. During each year the +members shall receive, for every hour of work or of reckoned work, advances +equal to <i>x</i> per cent. of the net profits of the previous year.</p> + +<p>6. The members shall, in case of the dissolution or liquidation of on +association, be liable for the contracted loan in equal proportions; which +liability, so far as regards the still outstanding amount, attaches also to +newly entering members. When a member leaves, his liability for the already +contracted loan shall not cease. This liability for the debts of the +association shall, in case of dissolution or liquidation, be in proportion +to the claim of the liable member upon the existing property.</p> + +<p>7. The highest authority of the association is the general meeting, in +which every member possesses an equal active and passive vote. The general +meeting carries its motions by a simple majority of votes; a majority of +three-fourths is required for the alteration of statutes, dissolution, or +liquidation.</p> + +<p>8. The general meeting exercises its rights either directly as such, or +through its elected functionaries, who are responsible to it.</p> + +<p>9. The management of the business of the association is placed in the hands +of a directorate of <i>x</i> members, elected for <i>x</i> years by the general +meeting, but their appointment can be at any time rescinded. The +subordinate business functionaries are nominated by the directorate; but +the fixing of the salaries--measured in hours of work--of these +functionaries is the business of the general assembly on the proposition of +the directorate.</p> + +<p>10. The general meeting annually elects a council of inspection consisting +of <i>x</i> members, to inspect the books and take note of the manner in which +the business is conducted, and to furnish periodical reports.</p> + +<p>It will strike the reader at once that only with reference to the possible +dissolution of an association (section 6) is there a mention of what should +apparently be regarded as the principal thing--namely, of the 'property' of +the associations and of the claims of the members upon this property. The +reason of this is that any 'property' of the association, in the ordinary +sense, does not exist. The members, it is true, possess the right of +usufruct of the existing productive capital; but as they always share this +right with every newly entering member, and are themselves bound to the +association by nothing except their interest in the profits of their +labour, so there can be no property-interest in the association so long as +they are carrying on their work. And, in fact, that which everyone can use +cannot constitute property, however useful it maybe. There are no +proprietors--merely usufructuaries of the association's capital. And should +it be thought that this is in contradiction to the obligation to reimburse +the loaned productive capital of the associations, it ought not to be +overlooked that even this repayment of capital--except in the already +mentioned case of a liquidation--is done by the members merely in their +capacity of usufructuaries of the means of production. As the reimbursed +capital is derived from the profits, and these are divided among the +members in proportion to each one's contribution of work, every member +contributes to the reimbursement in proportion to the amount of work he +does. And when the subject is looked at more closely it will be seen that +the repayments are ultimately derived from the consumers of the commodities +produced by the associations; they form, of course, a part of the cost of +production, and must necessarily be covered by the price of the product. +That this shall take place fully and universally is ensured with infallible +certainty by the free mobilisation of labour. A production in which these +repayments were not completely covered by the price of the commodities +produced would fail to attract labour until the diminished supply of the +commodities had produced the requisite rise in price. When the repayments +have all been made, this part of the cost of production ceases; the +association capital may be regarded as amortised, and the prices of the +commodities produced sink--again under the influence of the free +mobilisation of labour; so that the members of the association individually +profit as little by the employment of burdenless capital as they suffered +before by the liquidation of their burden. Profit and loss are always +distributed--still thanks to the mobilisation of labour--equally among all +the workers of Freeland.</p> + +<p>Thus it is seen that, in consequence of this simple and infallibly +operative arrangement, productive capital is, strictly speaking, as +ownerless as the land; it belongs to everyone, and therefore to no one. The +community of producers supplies it and employs it, and it does both in +exact proportion to the amount of work contributed by each individual; and +payment for the expenditure is made by the community of consumers--again by +each one in exact proportion to the consumption of each individual.</p> + +<p>That an absolute and universally uniform level of profits should result +from this absolutely free mobility of labour neither was expected, nor has +it been attained. Often the inequality is not discovered until the +balance-sheets are drawn up, and therefore cannot until then be removed by +the ebb and flow of labour. But, besides this, there is an important and +continuous difference of gains--a difference which it is impossible to +equalise, and which has its intrinsic foundation in the difference in the +amount of effort and inconvenience involved in engaging in the different +branches of labour. Certainly it is not the same in Freeland as in other +parts of the world, where only too often the burden of labour is in inverse +ratio to its profitableness; with us difficult, burdensome, unpleasant +kinds of labour must without exception obtain larger gains than the easier +and more agreeable--so far as the latter do not demand special +skill--otherwise everyone would at once forsake the former and apply +themselves to the latter. Moreover, the premium allowed to the older +members in section 3--which varies in different associations from one to +three per cent. for each year, and therefore, in cases of long-continued +labour, amounts to a very respectable sum, and is intended to attach the +proved veteran of labour to the undertaking--prevents an absolute +equalisation of gains even in associations of exactly similar constitution.</p> + +<p>Section 5 of the statutes requires a brief explanation. In the first year, +the calculation of the advances to be made to the association members could +not, of course, be based upon the net profits of the previous year, and the +committee therefore suggested a fixed sum of one shilling per hour. This +strikingly high rate will perhaps excite surprise, particularly in view of +the scale of prices that prevailed at the Kenia; and it may reasonably be +asked whence the committee derived the courage to hope for such a high rate +of profits as would justify the payment of such an advance. But this +valuation was not recklessly made, it was in truth the expression of +extreme prudence. The results of the associated productive labour hitherto +in operation had actually been much more favourable. The corn industry, for +example, had yielded a gross return of a little over 41,000 cwt. of +different cereals for a total expenditure of 44,500 hours of labour. The +average price of these cereals in Eden Vale at that time was not quite 3s. +per cwt., as we had grown more than we needed, and the export through +Mombasa yielded only 3s. on account of the still very primitive means of +transport. We had therefore, in round figures, agricultural produce worth +£6000. The cost of producing this was: materials £400, amortisation of +invested capital (implements and cattle) £300; so that £5,300 remained as +net profit. As a tax to cover all those expenses which, in accordance with +our programme, had to be incurred by the commonwealth, and which will be +spoken of further on, not less than thirty-five per cent. was set aside. +Thus a round sum of £3,400 remained as disposable profit. Divided by the +44,500 hours of labour, this gave 1s. 6d. for each hour. This was also +approximately the average profit of the other kinds of production, so far +as it was possible to assess it in the absence of a general market at the +Kenia. Thus it could be assumed with the utmost confidence that, had we +been able to control the prices of all commodities by means of supply and +demand, there would either have been paid, or might have been assessed, at +least a price equivalent to that which produced the agricultural profit. +For we could at once have produced--as far as our supply of labour +went--and disposed of cereal crops valued at 3s. per cwt. at Eden Vale; +therefore, in the period of work through which we had already passed +everyone was able to earn at least 1s. 6d. by one hour's labour. But, as +will presently be seen, we were entering upon the next period of work with +much improved means; therefore, apart from unforeseen contingencies, the +productiveness of our labour must very considerably increase, so that, in +granting an advance of one shilling for each hour of labour, we calculated +that we were advancing scarcely the half of the actual earnings--an +assumption that was fully borne out by the result. In later seasons it +became the practice of most associations to make the advance as much as +ninety per cent. of the net profits of the previous year.</p> + +<p>As to the salaries of the directorate, these were from the beginning very +different in different associations. Where no extraordinary knowledge and +no special talent were necessary, the overseers were content to have their +superintendence valued at the price of from eight to ten hours of work per +diem. There were directors who received as much as the value of twenty-four +hours of work per diem, and in the very first year this amounted to an +income of about £850. The functionaries of a lower grade received, as a +rule, the value of from eight to ten hours of work per diem. In most cases +the controlling council of inspection received no extra remuneration for +their duties.</p> + +<p>The credit granted to the associations in the first year of work reached an +average amount of £145 per head of the participating workers; and if it be +asked whence we derived the funds to meet the requirements of the total +number of our members, the answer is, from the members themselves. And the +reference here is not merely to those voluntary contributions paid by the +members on their joining the International Free Society, for these +contributions were in the first instance devoted to the transport service +between Trieste and Freeland, and would not have sufficed to supply our +associations with capital if they had all been devoted to that purpose. The +credit required in the course of the first year rose to nearly two million +pounds sterling, while the voluntary contributions up to that date did not +much exceed one million and a-half. The principal means which enabled us to +meet the requirements of our members were supplied us, on the one hand by +the Society's property hi disposable materials, and on the other hand by +the members' tax.</p> + +<p>It should be mentioned here that, for the first year, the committee +reserved to itself the right of deciding the amount and the order of +granting the credit given. This, though merely negative, interference with +the industrial relations of the associations was not in harmony with the +principle of the producers' right of unconditioned self-control; but was so +far unavoidable, inasmuch as our commonwealth had not yet actually attained +to that high degree of productiveness of labour which is the assumed result +of the perfect realisation of all the fundamental principles of that +commonwealth. Later, when we were more fully furnished with the best means +of production which technical progress placed within our reach, and we were +consequently no longer occupied in provisionally completing and improving +what already existed, there could never be any question whether the surplus +of the current production would suffice to meet the heaviest fresh claims +for capital that could arise. It was different at the beginning, when the +need for capital was unlimited, and the means of supplying that need as yet +undeveloped. The Free Commonwealth could not offer more than it could +supply, and it had therefore to reserve to itself a right of selection from +among the investments that applied for credit. Thanks to the thorough +solidarity of interests created by the free mobility of labour, this could +happen without even temporarily affecting the essential material interests +of the producers by giving some a dangerous advantage over others. For if, +as was scarcely to be avoided, certain productions were helped or hindered +by the giving or withholding of credit, this was immediately and naturally +followed by such a shifting of labour as at once restored the equilibrium +of profits.</p> + +<p>But this interference during the first year extended only to the +controlling of the amount and order of granting the credit asked, for, and +not to the way in which it was used. In this respect, from the very +beginning the principle of the producers' responsibility was carried out to +the fullest extent. As it was necessary for the producers to be successful +in order to repay the capital taken up, so it was their business to see +that care was taken to make a profitable use of such capital. It is true +that--as has been already stated--the consumers ultimately bear the cost of +production; but they do this, of course, only when and in so far as the +processes employed in production have been useful and necessary. If an +association should procure unnecessary or defective machinery, it would be +impossible for it to transfer to the purchasers of its commodities the +losses thus occasioned; the association would not have increased, but +diminished, its gains by such investments. It can therefore be left to the +self-interest of those who are concerned in the associations to guard +against such a waste of capital.</p> + +<p>We now come to the question how it is possible to guarantee the equal right +of everyone to equally fertile land. This problem also is solvable in the +simplest manner by the free mobility of labour involved in the principle of +free association. As everywhere else in the world, there was in Freeland +richer and poorer land; but as more workers were attracted to the better +land than to the worse, and as, according to a well-known economic law, a +greater expenditure of labour upon an equal extent of land is followed by +<i>relatively diminishing</i> returns, so the individual worker obtained no +higher net profit per hour of labour on the best land than upon the worst +land which could be cultivated at all.</p> + +<p>On the Dana plateau, for example, by the expenditure of 32 hours of labour +48 cwt. of wheat could be produced per acre; in Eden Vale the same +expenditure of labour would produce merely 36 cwt. Therefore, as the cwt. +of wheat was worth 3s. 1-1/2d., and 1-1/2d. was sufficient to cover all +expenses, the land association in the Dana plateau had at the end of the +year a return of 4s. 6d. for every hour of work, and, after deduction of +tax and repayment of capital, 2s. 9d. for division among the members. The +members of the Eden Vale association, on the other hand, had only 2s. per +hour of labour to divide among the members; and as careful investigation +proved that this difference was due neither to accidental uncongeniality of +the weather nor to a less amount of labour, but to the character of the +soil, the consequence was that in the next year the newly arrived +agriculturists preferred the better land of the Dana plateau. There was now +an average expenditure of 42 hours of labour to the acre in the Dana +plateau, but in Eden Vale only 24; yet in the former place the additional +10 hours of labour did not yield the 1-1/2 cwt. per hour, as was the case +when the expenditure of labour was only 32 hours, but merely a scant 3 +qrs.; that is, the returns did not rise from 48 cwt. to 63 cwt., but merely +to 55 cwt.--sank therefore to 1.34 cwt. per hour of labour. The consequence +was that the returns, notwithstanding the considerable increase in the +price of grain due to the improved means of communication, rose merely to +5s., of which 3s. per hour of labour was available for division among the +members. In Eden Vale, on the other hand, the gross returns were lessened +merely 3 cwt. by the withdrawal of eight hours of labour per acre; the +produce therefore now was 33 cwt. for 24 hours of labour, or 1.37 cwt. per +hour of labour. The Eden Vale association therefore numbered a trifle more +than that of Dana; and as Eden Vale was a more desirable place of +residence, and had more conveniences than the Dana plateau, the stream of +agriculturists flowed back to Eden Vale until, after two other harvests, +there remained a difference of profit of about five per cent. in favour of +the Dana plateau, and this advantage, with slight variations, continued +permanently.</p> + +<p>But just as the principle of the solidarity of interests brought about by +the mobility of labour placed him who used the actually worse land in the +enjoyment of the advantages of the better land, so everyone, whatever +branch of production he might be connected with, participated in all the +various kinds of advantages of the best land; and, on the other hand, every +cultivator of the soil, like every other producer, derived profit from all +the increased productiveness of labour, in whatsoever branch of labour in +our commonwealth it might arise, just as if he were himself immediately +concerned in it. <i>All</i> means of production are common property; the use +which any one of us may make of this common property does not depend upon +the accident of possession, nor upon the superintending care of an +all-controlling communistic authority, but solely upon the capacity and +industry of each individual.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<p> +As already stated, the fundamental condition of the successful working of +the simple organisation described above was the completest publicity of all +industrial proceedings. The organisation was in truth merely a mode of +removing all those hindrances that stand in the way of the free realisation +of the individual will guided by a wise self-interest. So much the more +necessary was it to give right direction to this sovereign will, and to +offer to self-interest every assistance towards obtaining a correct and +speedy grasp of its real advantage.</p> + +<p>No business secrets whatever! That was at once the fundamental law of Eden +Vale. In the other parts of the world, where the struggle for existence +finds its consummation not merely in exploiting and enslaving one another, +but over and above this in a mutual industrial annihilation--where, in +consequence of the universal over-production due to under-consumption, +competition is synonymous with robbing each other of customers--there, in +the Old World, to disclose the secrets of trade would be tantamount to +sacrificing a position acquired with much trouble and cunning. Where an +immense majority of men possess no right to the increasing returns of +production, but, not troubling themselves about the productiveness of +labour, must be content with 'wages'--that is, with what is necessary for +their subsistence--there can be no sufficient demand for the total produce +of highly productive labour. The few wealthy cannot possibly consume the +constantly growing surplus, and their endeavour to capitalise such +surplus--that is, to convert it into instruments of labour--is defeated by +the impossibility of employing the means of a production the products of +which cannot be consumed. In the exploiting world, therefore, there +prevails a constant disproportion between productive power and consumption, +between supply and demand; and the natural consequence is that the disposal +of the products gives rise to a constant and relentless struggle between +the various producers. The principal care of the exploiting producers is +not to produce as much and as well as possible, but to acquire a market for +as large as possible a quantity of their own commodities; and as, in view +of the disproportion above explained, such a market can be acquired and +retained only at the expense of other producers. There necessarily exists a +permanent and irreconcilable conflict of interest. It is different among +us. We can always be sure of a sale, for with us no more can be produced +than is used, since the total produce belongs to the worker, and the +consumption, the satisfaction of real requirements, is the exclusive motive +of labour. Among us, therefore, the disclosure of the sources of trade can +rob no one of his customers, since any customers whom he may happen to lose +must necessarily be replaced by others.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, what reason has the producer in the world outside to +communicate his experiences to others? Can those others make any use of the +knowledge they would thus acquire, except to do him injury? And can he use +any such information when communicated to him, except to the injury of +others? Does he allow others to participate in his business when his is the +more profitable, or does another let him do so with the business of that +other when the case is reversed? If the demand for the commodities of a +producer increases, the labour market is open to him, where he can find +servants enough ready to work without inquiring about his profits so long +as they receive their 'wages.' Thus, elsewhere in the world, not even are +the consumers interested in the publication of trade practices, which +publication, moreover, as has already been said, would be a matter of +impossibility. Quite different is this among us in Freeland. We allow +everyone to participate in our trade advantages, and we can therefore +participate in the trade advantages of everyone else; and we are compelled +to publish these advantages because, in the absence of a market of +labourers who have neither will nor interest of their own, this publicity +is the only way of attracting labour when the demand for any commodities +increases.</p> + +<p>And--which is the principal thing--whilst elsewhere no one has an interest +in the increase of production by others, among us every one is most +intensely interested in seeing everyone produce as easily and as well as +possible. For the classical phrase of the solidarity of all economic +interests has among us become a truth; but elsewhere it is nothing more +than one of those numerous self-deceptions of which the political economy +of the exploiting world is composed. Where the old system of industry +prevails, universal increase of production of wealth is a chimera. Where +consumption by the masses cannot increase, there cannot production and +wealth increase, but can be only shifted, can only change place and owner; +in proportion as the production of one person increases must that of some +one else diminish, unless consumption increases, which, where the masses +are excluded from enjoying the increasing returns of labour, can happen +only accidentally, and by no means step by step with the increasing power +of productiveness of labour. With us in Freeland, on the contrary, where +production--in view of the necessary growth of the power of consumption in +exactly the same proportion--can and does increase indefinitely so far as +our facilities and arts permit, with us it is the supreme and most absolute +interest of the community to see that everyone's labour is employed +wherever it can earn the highest returns; and there is no one who is not +profited when the labour of all is thus employed to the completest extent +possible. The individuals or the individual associations which, by virtue +of our organisation, are compelled to share an accidentally acquired +advantage with another, certainly suffer a loss of gain by this +circumstance looked at by itself; but infinitely greater is the general +advantage derived from the fact that the same thing occurs everywhere, that +productiveness is constantly increasing, and their own advantage therefore +compels the occurrence of the same everywhere. To how undreamt-of high a +degree this is the case will be abundantly shown by the subsequent history +of Freeland.</p> + +<p>It remains now to say something of the measures adopted to ensure the most +extensive publicity of industrial proceedings. We start from the principle +that the community has to concern itself with the affairs of the individual +as little as possible in the way of hindering or commanding, but, on the +other hand, as much as possible in the way of guiding and instructing. +Everyone may act as he pleases, so far as he does not infringe upon the +rights of others; but, however he acts, what he does must be open to +everyone. Since he here has to do not with industrial opponents, but only +with industrial rivals, who all have an interest in stimulating him as much +as possible, this publicity is to his own advantage. In conformity with +this principle, when a new member was admitted by the outside agents, his +industrial specialty was stated, and the report sent as quickly as possible +to the committee. This was not done out of idle curiosity, nor from a +desire to exercise a police oversight; rather these data were published for +the use and advantage of the productive associations as well as of the new +members themselves. The consequence was that, as a rule, the new members on +their arrival at the Kenia found suitable work-places prepared for them, +such as would enable them at once to utilise their working capacity to the +best advantage. No one forced them to accommodate themselves to these +arrangements made without their co-operation, but as these arrangements +served their advantage in the best conceivable way, they--with a few +isolated exceptions--accepted them with the greatest pleasure.</p> + +<p>The second and most important subject of publication were the trade reports +of the producers, of the associations as well as of the comparatively few +isolated producers. Of the former, as being by far the more important and +by their very nature compelled to adopt a careful system of bookkeeping, a +great deal was required--in fact the full disclosure of all their +proceedings. Gross returns, expenses, net returns, purchases and sales, +amount of labour, disposal of the net returns,--all must be published in +detail, and, according to the character of the respective data, either +yearly, or at shorter intervals--the amount of labour, for example, weekly. +In the case of the isolated producers, it sufficed to publish such details +as would be disclosed by the regulation about to be described.</p> + +<p>The buying and selling of all conceivable products and articles of +merchandise in Freeland was carried on in large halls and warehouses, which +were under the management of the community. No one was forbidden to buy and +sell where he pleased, but these public magazines offered such enormous +advantages that everyone who did not wish to suffer loss made use of them. +No fee was charged for storing or manipulation, as it was quite immaterial, +in a country where everyone consumed in proportion to his production, +whether the fees were levied upon the consumers as such, or upon the same +persons in their character as producers in the form of a minimal tax. What +was saved by the simplification of the accounts remained as a pure gain. +Further, an elaborate system of warranty was connected with these +warehouses. Since the warehouse officials were at the same time the channel +through which purchases were made, they were always accurately informed as +to the condition of the market, and could generally appraise the warehoused +goods at their full value. The sales took place partly in the way of public +auction, and partly at prices fixed by the producers; and here also no +commission was charged to either seller or buyer.</p> + +<p>The supreme authority in Freeland was at the same time the banker of the +whole population. Not merely every association, but every individual, had +his account in the books of the central bank, which undertook the receipts +and the disbursements from the millions of pounds which at a later date +many of the associations had to receive and pay, both at home and abroad, +down to the individual's share of profits on labour and his outlay on +clothes and food. A 'clearing system,' which really included everything, +made these numberless debit and credit operations possible with scarcely +any employment of actual money, but simply by additions to and subtractions +from the accounts in the books. No one paid cash, but gave cheques on his +account at the central bank, which gave him credit for his earnings, +debited his spendings to him, and gave him every month a statement of his +account. Naturally the loans granted by the commonwealth as capital for +production, mentioned in the previous chapter, appeared in the books of the +bank. In this way the bank was informed of the minutest detail of every +business transaction throughout the whole country. It not only knew where +and at what price the producers purchased their machinery and raw material +and where they sold their productions, but it knew also the housekeeping +account, the income and cost of living of every family. Even the retail +trade could not escape the omniscience of this control. Most of the +articles of food and many other necessaries were supplied by the respective +associations to their customers at their houses. All this the bank could +check to a farthing, for both purchases and sales went through the books of +this institution. The accounts of the bank had to agree with the statements +of the statistical bureau, and thus all these revelations possessed an +absolutely certain basis, and were not merely the results of an approximate +valuation. Even if anyone had wished to do so, it would have been simply +impracticable to conceal or to falsify anything.</p> + +<p>This comprehensive and automatically secured transparency of the whole of +the productive and business relations afforded to the tax assessed in +Freeland a perfectly reliable basis. The principle was that the public +expenditure of the community should be covered by a contribution from each +individual exactly in proportion to his net income; and as in Freeland +there was no source of income except labour, and the income from this was +exactly known, there was not the slightest difficulty in apportioning the +tax. The apportionment of the tax was very simply made as soon as the +income existed, and that through the medium of the bank; and this was done +not merely in the case of the associations, but also of the few isolated +producers. In fact, by means of its bank the community had everyone's +income in hand sooner than the earners themselves; and it was merely +necessary to debit the earners with the amount and the tax was paid. Hence +in Freeland the tax was regarded not as a deduction from net income, but as +an outlay deducted from the gross product, just like the trade expenses. In +spite of its high amount, no one looked upon it as a burden, because +everyone knew that the greater part of it would flow back to him or to his, +and every farthing of it would be devoted to purposes of exclusively public +utility, which would immediately benefit him. It was therefore quite +correct to recognise no difference whatever between productive outlay by +the commonwealth and the more private outlay of the associations and +individuals, and accordingly to designate the former not as 'taxes,' but as +'general expenditure.'</p> + +<p>This general expenditure, however, was very high. In the first year it +amounted to thirty-five per cent. of the net profits, and it never sunk +below thirty per cent., though the income on which the tax was levied +increased enormously. For the tax which the community in Freeland had +imposed upon themselves for the very purpose of making this increase of +wealth possible was so comprehensive in its objects as to make a most +colossal amount necessary.</p> + +<p>One of its objects was to create the capital required for the purposes of +production. But it was only at first that the whole of this had to be met +out of the current tax, as afterwards the repayment of the loans partly met +the new demands.</p> + +<p>A constantly increasing item of expenditure was the cost of education, +which swallowed up a sum of which no one outside of Freeland can have any +conception.</p> + +<p>The means of communication also involved an expenditure that rose to +enormous dimensions, and the same has to be said of public buildings.</p> + +<p>But the chief item of expenditure in the Freeland budget was under the head +of 'Maintenance,' which included the claims of those who, on account of +incapacity for work or because they were by our principles released from +the obligation of working, had a right to a competence from the public +funds. To these belonged all women, all children, all men over sixty years +of age, and of course all sick persons and invalids. The allowances to +these different classes were so high that not merely urgent necessities, +but also such higher daily needs as were commensurate with the general +wealth in Freeland for the time being, could be met. With this view the +allowances had to be so calculated that they should rise parallel with the +income of the working part of the population; the amounts, therefore, were +not fixed sums, but varied according to the average income. The average net +profit which fell to the individual from all the productive labour in the +country, and which increased year by year, was the unit of maintenance. Of +this unit every single woman or widow--unless she was a teacher or a nurse, +and received payment for her labour--was allotted thirty per cent.; if she +married, her allowance sank to fifteen per cent.; the first three children +in every household were allowed five per cent. each. Parentless orphans +were publicly supported at an average cost of twelve per cent. of the +maintenance unit. Men over sixty years and sick persons and invalids +received forty per cent.</p> + +<p>It may at once be remarked that it would startle those unaccustomed to +Freeland ideas to hear the amounts of these allowances. In the first year +the maintenance unit reached £160; therefore an unmarried woman or a widow +received £48; a married woman £24; a family with three children and a wife +£48; an old man or invalid £64, which, in view of the prices that then +prevailed among us, was more than most European States give as pensions to +the highest functionaries or to their widows and orphans. For a cwt. of +fine flour cost, in that first year at the Kenia, 7s., a fat ox 12s.; +butter, honey, the most delicious fruits, were to be had at corresponding +prices. Lodgings cost not more at most than £2 a year. In brief, with her +£48 a single woman could live among us in the enjoyment of many luxuries, +and need not deny herself to any material extent of those conveniences and +enjoyments which at that time were obtainable at all in Eden Vale. And +afterwards, when prices in Freeland were somewhat higher, the profits of +labour, and consequently the percentage of the maintenance allowance, +quickly rose to a much greater extent, so that the purchasing power of the +allowance constantly became more pronounced. But this was the intention of +the people of Freeland. Why? In the proper place this subject will be again +referred to, and then will in particular be explained why the women, +without exception, receive a maintenance allowance, and why teaching and +nursing are the only occupations of women that are mentioned. Here we +merely state that it naturally required a constantly increasing tax to +cover all these expenses.</p> + +<p>Considerable items of expenditure were to be found under the heads, +'Statistics,' 'Warehouses,' and 'Bank'; but the relative cost of these +branches of the executive--notwithstanding their great absolute +growth--fell so rapidly in comparison with the taxable income, that in a +few years it had sunk to a minimal percentage of the total expenditure.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the departments of justice, police, military, and +finance, which in other countries swallow up nine-tenths of the total +budget, cost nothing in Freeland. We had no judges, no police organisation, +our tax flowed in spontaneously, and soldiers we knew not. Yet there was no +theft, no robbery, no murders among us; the payment of the tax was never in +arrears; and, as will be shown later on, we were by no means defenceless. +Our stores of weapons and ammunition, as well as our subsidies to the +warlike Masai, might be reckoned as a surrogate for a military budget. As +to the lack of a magistracy, we were such arrant barbarians that we did not +even consider a civil or a criminal code necessary, nor did we at that time +possess a written constitution. The committee, still in possession of the +absolute authority committed to it at the Hague, contented itself with +laying all its measures before public meetings and asking for the assent of +the members, which was unanimously given. For the settlement of +misunderstandings that might arise among the members, arbitrators were +chosen--at the recommendation of the committee--who should individually and +orally, to the best of their knowledge, give their judgment, and from them +appeal was allowed to the Board of Arbitrators; but they had as good as +nothing to do. Against vices and their dangerous results to the community, +we did not exercise any right of <i>punishment</i>, but only a right of +<i>protection</i>; and we esteemed <i>reformation</i> the best and most effectual +means of protection. Since men with a normal mental and moral character, in +a community in which all the just interests of every member are equally +recognised, cannot possibly come into violent collision with the rights of +others, we considered casual criminals as mentally or morally diseased +persons, whose treatment it was the business of the community to provide +for. They were therefore, in proportion to their dangerousness to the +community, placed under surveillance or in custody, and subjected to +suitable treatment as long as seemed, in the judgment of competent +professional men, advisable in the interest of the public safety. +Professional men in the above sense, however, were not the justices of the +peace, who merely had to decide <i>whether</i> the accused individual should +undergo the reforming treatment, but medical men specially chosen for this +purpose. The man who was under surveillance or in custody had the right of +appealing to the united Board of Medical Men and Justices of the Peace, and +publicly to plead his case before them, if he thought that he had been +injured by the action of the medical man set over him.</p> + +<p>The appointment of the officers for public buildings, means of +communication, statistics, warehouses, central bank, education, &c., was +vested provisionally in the committee. The salaries were reckoned in +hour-equivalents, like those of the functionaries of the associations; and +these salaries ranged from 1,200 to 5,000 labour hours per annum, which in +the first year amounted to from £150, to £600. The agents in London, +Trieste, and Mombasa were each paid £800 per annum. These agents remained +only two years at their foreign posts, and then had a claim to +corresponding positions in Freeland. To each of its own members the +committee gave a salary of 5,000 hour-equivalents.</p> + +<p>Each member of the committee was president of one of the twelve branches +into which the whole of the public administration of Freeland was +provisionally divided. These branches were:</p> + +<ol type="1"> + <li>The Presidency.</li> + <li>Maintenance.</li> + <li>Education.</li> + <li>Art and science.</li> + <li>Statistics.</li> + <li>Roads and means of communication.</li> + <li>Post--including later the telegraph.</li> + <li>Foreign affairs.</li> + <li>Warehouses.</li> + <li>Central bank.</li> + <li>Public undertakings.</li> + <li>Sanitation and administration of justice.</li> +</ol> + +<p>These are, in general outlines, the principles upon which in the beginning +Freeland was organised and administered. They stood the test of experience +in all respects most satisfactorily. The formation of the associations was +effected without the slightest delay. As the majority of the members who +successively arrived were unknown to each other, it was necessary in +filling the more responsible positions provisionally to follow the +recommendations of the committee; in most cases, therefore, provisional +appointments were made which could be afterwards replaced by definitive +ones. The already mentioned kinds of productive labour--agriculture, +gardening, pasturage, millering, saw-mills, beer-brewing, coal-mining, and +iron-working--were considerably enlarged and materially improved by the +increase of labour which daily arrived with the Mombasa caravans. A great +number of new industries were immediately added. Ono of the first--most of +the material of which was imported and only needed completing--was a +printing-office, with two cylinder machines and five other machines; and +from this office issued a daily journal. Then came in quick succession a +machine-factory, a glass-works, a brickyard, an oil-mill, a chemical-works, +a sewing and shoe factory, a carpenter's shop, and an ice-factory. On the +first day of the new year the first small screw steamboat was launched for +towing service in the Eden lake and the Dana river. This was at short +intervals followed by other and larger steamers for goods and passengers, +all constructed by the ship-building association, which, on account of its +excellent services, increased with extraordinary rapidity.</p> + +<p>At the same time the committee employed a not inconsiderable part of the +newly arriving strength in public works; and the workers thus employed had +naturally to be paid at a rate corresponding to the average height of the +general labour-profit, and even at a higher rate when specially trying work +was required. These public works were, in the first instance, the +provisional house-accommodation for the newly arriving members. It was +arranged that every family should be furnished with a separate house, +whilst for those who were single several large hotels were built. The +family houses were of different sizes, containing from four to ten +dwelling-rooms, and each house had a garden of above 10,000 square feet. +Every new-comer could find a house that was convenient to him as to size +and situation, and might pay for it either at once or by instalments. Not +fewer than 1,500 such houses had to be got ready per month; they were +strongly built of double layers of thick plunks, and the average cost was +about £8 10s. per room. For the use of hotel rooms, sixpence per week per +room was sufficient to cover the amortisation of the capital and the +expenses of management.</p> + +<p>Together with the dwelling-houses, the building of schools was taken in +hand; and as it was anticipated that for some time from 1,000 to 1,200 +fresh school-children would arrive per month, it was necessary to make +provision to secure a continuous increase of accommodation. These schools, +as well as the private houses, were of course erected, some in Eden Vale +and some on the Dana plateau, and were only of a provisional character, but +light, airy, and commodious. It was also necessary to secure a timely +supply of teachers, a task the accomplishment of which the committee +connected with another scarcely less important question. There was in +Freeland a great disproportion in the comparative number of the sexes, +particularly of young men and young marriageable women. Of the 460 pioneers +who had reached the Kenia between June and September, very few had either +wives or betrothed in the old home; and among the later arrivals there was +a preponderance of young unmarried men. It was not to be expected that the +immediate future would bring an adequate number of young unmarried women +unless some special means were adopted; but this forced celibacy could not +continue without danger of unpleasant social developments in a community +that aimed at uniting absolute freedom with the strictest morality. In +Taveta and Masailand, a few isolated cases of intrigue with native girls +and wives had occurred. At the Kenia, our young people had, without +exception, resisted the enticements of the ugly Wa-Kikuyu women; but our +young people could not permanently be required to exercise a self-denial +which, particularly in this luxurious country, would be contrary to nature. +It was therefore necessary to attract to Freeland young women who would be +a real gain not only to the men whom they married, but also to the country +that received them. We had merely to make the state of affairs known in +Europe and America, and to announce that women who remained single were in +Freeland supported by the State, and we should very soon have had no reason +to complain of a lack of women. But whether we should have been pleased +with those whom such an announcement might bring is another question. We +preferred, therefore, to instruct our representatives in the old home to +engage women-teachers for Freeland. The salary--£180 for the first +year--was attractive, and we had a choice of numberless candidates. It was +therefore to no one's injury if these highly cultured women, most of whom +were young, gave up their teaching vocation not long after they reached +Freeland and consented to make some wooer happy. The vacated place was at +once filled by a new teacher, who quite as quickly made room for a fresh +successor.</p> + +<p>In this way, for several years Freeland witnessed a constant influx of +quickly marrying women-teachers, though our representatives had no +instructions to make their choice of the candidates for our teacherships +depend in any way upon the suitability of such persons as candidates for +matrimony. Our announcement in the leading newspapers of the old home was +seriously meant and taken. 'Well-qualified cultured women-teachers wanted. +Salary £180 for the first year; more afterwards.' Elderly women who seemed +suitable for teachers were sometimes appointed; but young, sprightly women +are in the nature of things better fitted than old and enfeebled ones to +educate children, and thus we obtained what we needed without exhibiting +the least partiality. Later, this announcement was no longer needed; for it +gradually became known, especially in England, France, and Germany, that +young women-teachers found in Freeland charming opportunities of becoming +wives; so that the permanent preponderance of men among the general +immigrants was continually balanced by this influx of women-teachers.</p> + +<p>The next problem to which special attention was given during this first +year of the new government was that of the post. The courier-service +between Eden Vale and Mombasa no longer sufficed to meet the demands of the +increased intercourse. The mails had grown to be larger in quantity than +could be transported in saddlebags, and they had to be more quickly +carried. It was most desirable that letters and despatches should pass +between Mombasa and Freeland at a more rapid rate than a little over sixty +miles a day, which had hitherto been the maximum. With this in view, the +road to Mombasa was thoroughly repaired. It should be remembered that this +road had not been 'constructed' in the Western sense of the term, but was +mainly in the condition in which nature had left it, nothing having been +done but to remove wood that stood in the way, fill up holes, and build +bridges. As the so called dry season extends from September to February, +very little rain had yet fallen; nevertheless our heavy waggons, which were +daily passing to and fro, had in places, where the ground was soft, made +deep ruts; and it was to be expected that the long rainy season beginning +in March would completely stop the traffic in some places if the road was +not seen to in time. Demestre, the head of the department for road +construction, therefore engaged 2,000 Swahili, Wa-Kikuyu, and Wa-Teita in +order at once to repair the worst places, and afterwards to improve the +whole of the road.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, our general postmaster, Ferroni, had organised a threefold +transport and post service. For ordinary goods a luggage-service was +established, running uninterruptedly day and night, the oxen teams being +still retained. The old waggons, carrying both passengers and luggage, had +been obliged to halt longer at certain stations in the day than at others, +for the meal-times; and, apart from this, they were often delayed on the +way by the travellers. The new luggage-waggons stayed nowhere longer than +was necessary to give time to change the oxen and the attendants, and thus +gained an average of four hours a day, so that under favourable conditions +they could reach Eden Vale in twelve days. Of course passengers were not +taken. A second kind of service was arranged for express goods, and here +elephants were the motive power. Mrs. Ellen Ney's Indians, assisted by +several of our own people, who had been initiated into the secrets of the +catching and taming of these pachyderms, had trained several hundred of +these animals. Thirty-five elephants were placed at stages between Eden +Vale and Mombasa, and upon their backs from ten to twelve hundredweight of +the most various kinds of goods were daily carried in both directions. This +elephant-post covered the 600 miles and odd between the coast and Eden Vale +in seven or eight days. For the third and fastest service mounted couriers +were employed; only there were twenty-two instead of only ten relays, and +sixty-five fresh horses were used, so that, with an average speed of over +eleven miles an hour, the whole journey was made in two days and a half. +They carried merely despatches and letters; but from Mombasa they also +carried a packet of European and American newspapers for our Eden Vale +newspaper. (All newspapers sent to private persons were carried by the +elephant-post.) A few months later, our representative in Mombasa effected +an arrangement between the Sultan of Zanzibar and the English and the +German governments, in accordance with which a telegraph-line was +constructed between Mombasa and Zanzibar at the common cost of the +contracting parties. This very soon made it possible for us to communicate +with and receive answers from all parts of the civilised world in five or +six days; and our newspaper was able every Wednesday--its publishing +day--to report what had happened three days before in London or New York, +Paris or Berlin, Vienna or Rome, St. Petersburg or Constantinople. For +passengers, besides the oxen-waggons, which, on account of their greater +comfort, were retained for the use of women and children, there were +express-waggons drawn by horses, which made the journey in ten days.</p> + +<p>For the rest, the mode of life at the Kenia had meanwhile altered but +little, with the exception of the fact that Eden Vale, which before the +arrival of the first waggon-caravan was only a large village, in the course +of a few months grew to be a considerable town of more than 20,000 +inhabitants. On the Dana plateau, where at first there were only a few +huts, two large villages had sprung up--one at the east end near the great +waterfall, and inhabited by the workers in several factories; the other +nearer to Eden Vale, and the home of an agricultural colony. A very +noticeable air of untroubled joyousness and unmistakable comfort was common +to all the inhabitants of Freeland. The manner of life was still very +primitive, in harmony with the provisional character of the houses and the +dress; on the other hand, as to meat and drink there was abundance, even +luxury. The meals were in the main still arranged as they had been at first +by the earliest comers; only the women had soon invented a number of fresh +and ingenious modes of utilising the many delicate products of the country. +The list of aesthetic and intellectual enjoyments within reach had not been +considerably enlarged. The journal; a library founded by the Education +Bureau, and daily enriched by newly arriving chests of books, so that by +the New Year it contained 18,000 volumes, which did not by any means meet +the demand for reading, particularly during the hot midday hours; several +new singing and orchestral societies; reading or debating circles; and two +dozen pianos--these were all that had been added to the original stock of +means of recreation. But there was frequent hunting in the splendid woods; +and excursions to the more accessible points of view were the order of the +day. In short, the Freelanders endeavoured to make life as pleasant as +possible with such a temporarily small variation in the programme of +pleasures and intellectual recreation. In spite of all drawbacks, happiness +and content reigned in every house.</p> + +<p>With respect also to the hours of labour, the system originally adopted was +on the whole retained. The men worked for the most part between 5 and 10 +A.M. and between 4 and 6 P.M.; the women, assisted by natives, took care of +the home and of the children when they were not at school. Yet no one felt +bound to observe these hours--everyone worked when and as long as he +pleased; and several associations, the work of which would not well bear +the interruption of meal-times, introduced a system of relays which ensured +the presence of a few hands at work during the hot hours. But as no one +could be compelled to work during those hours, it became customary to pay +for the more burdensome midday work a higher rate than for the ordinary +work, and this had the effect of bringing the requisite number of +volunteers. The same held good for the night work that was necessary in +certain establishments.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<p> +At the end of our first year of residence at the Kenia, Freeland possessed +a population of 95,000 souls, of whom 27,000 were men belonging to 218 +associations and engaged in eighty-seven different kinds of work. In the +last harvest--there are here two harvests in the year, one in October after +the short rainy season, and the other in June after the long rainy +season--36,000 acres had yielded nearly 2,000,000 cwt. of grain, +representing in value the sum of £300,000, and giving to the 10,800 workers +an average profit of nearly 2s. 6d. for every hour of labour. But it must +not be supposed that all these workers spent their whole time in +agricultural pursuits; except during sowing and harvest a great many +agriculturists found profitable employment for the labour which would have +been superfluous in the fields in the neighbouring industrial +establishments. The average profit of all the industries was a little +higher than that of agriculture; and as it was usual to work about forty +hours a week, the average weekly earnings of an ordinary worker of moderate +application were £5 5s.</p> + +<p>Next to agriculture, the iron-works and machine-factories gave employment +to the greatest number; in fact, if we take not the temporary employment of +a large number of men, but the total number of labour-hours devoted to the +work, as our measure, then these latter industries employed much more +labour than agriculture. And this is not to be wondered at, for all the +associations needed machinery in order to carry on their work to the best +advantage. In other countries, where the wages of labour and the profit of +labour are fundamentally different things, there is a fundamental +distinction between the profitableness of a business and the theoretical +perfection of the machinery used in it. In order to be theoretically useful +a machine must simply save labour--that is, the labour required for +producing and working the machine must be less than that which is saved by +using it. The steam-plough, for example, is a theoretically good and useful +machine if the manufacture of it, together with the production of the coal +consumed by it, swallows up less human labour than on the other hand is +saved by ploughing with steam instead of with horses or cattle. But the +actual profitableness of a machine is quite another thing--out of Freeland, +we mean, of course. In order to be profitable, the steam-plough must save, +not labour, but value or money--that is, it must cost less than the labour +which it has saved would have cost. But elsewhere in the world it by no +means follows that it costs less because the amount of labour saved is +greater than that consumed by the manufacture of the steam-plough and the +production of the coal it uses. For whilst the labour which the improved +plough saves receives merely its 'wages,' with the bought plough and the +bought coal there have to be paid for not only the labour required in +producing them, but also three items of 'gain'--namely, ground-rent, +interest, and undertaker's salary. Thus it may happen that the +steam-plough, between its first use and its being worn out, saves a million +hours of labour, whilst in its construction and in the total quantity of +coal it has required, it may have consumed merely 100,000 hours of labour; +and yet it may be very unprofitable--that is, it may involve very great +loss to those who, relying upon the certainty of such an enormous saving of +labour, should buy and use it. For the million hours of labour saved mean +no more than a million hours of <i>wages</i> saved; therefore, for example, +£10,000, if the wages are merely £1 for a hundred hours of labour. For the +construction of the plough and for the means of driving it 100,000 hours of +labour are required, which alone certainly will have cost £1,000. But then +the rent which the owners of the iron-pits and the coal-mines charge, and +the interest for the invested capital, must be paid, and finally the +profits of the iron-manufacturer and the coal-producer. All this may, under +certain circumstances, amount to more than the difference of £9,000 between +cost of labour in the two cases respectively; and when that is the case the +Western employer loses money by buying a machine which saves a thousand per +cent. of his labour. With us the case is quite different: the living labour +which the steam-plough spares <i>us</i> is hour for hour exactly as valuable as +the labour-time which has been bestowed upon the plough and has been +transformed into commodities; for in Freeland there is no distinction +between the profit of labour and the wages of labour, and in Freeland, +therefore, every theoretically useful--that is, every really +labour-saving--machine is at the same time, and of necessity, profitable. +This is the reason why in Freeland the manufacture of machines is +necessarily of such enormous and constantly increasing importance. One half +of our people are engaged in the manufacture of ingenious mechanical +implements, moved by steam, electricity, water, compressed or rarefied air, +by means of which the other half multiply their powers of production a +hundredfold; and it follows as a natural consequence that among us the +employment of machinery has developed a many-sidedness and a perfectness of +which those who are outside the limits of our country have no conception.</p> + +<p>The most important manufacture taken in hand before the end of this first +year was that of steam-ploughs and--worked provisionally by animal +labour--seed-drills and reaping-machines sufficient for the cultivation of +the 64,000 acres which were to be brought under the plough for the October +harvest. We calculated that, by the initial expenditure of 3,500,000 hours +of labour, we should save at least 3,000,000 hours of labour yearly. In +other parts of the world that would have been a great misfortune for the +workers who would thus have been rendered superfluous, while the community +would not have profited at all. We, on the contrary, were able to find +excellent employment for the labour thus saved, which could be utilised in +producing things that would elevate and refine, and for which the increased +productiveness of labour had created a demand.</p> + +<p>A second work, which had to be carried out during the next year, was the +improvement of the means of communication by deepening the bed of the Dana +from the flour-mill above the Eden lake to the great waterfall on the Dana +plateau, and by the construction of a railway across the Dana plateau. With +this were to be connected rope-lines on several of the Kenia foot-hills for +the use of the miners and the foresters.</p> + +<p>That all the existing industries were enlarged, and a great number of new +ones started, will be taken for granted. It should be mentioned that only +such factories were erected in Eden Vale or on the upper course of the Dana +as would pollute neither the air nor the water; the less cleanly +manufactures were located at the east end of the Dana plateau, close upon +or even below the waterfall. Later, means were found of preventing any +pollution whatever of the water by industrial refuse.</p> + +<p>The town of Eden Vale had grown to contain 48,000 souls and covered more +than six square miles, with its small houses and gardens, and its numerous +large, though still primitively constructed, wooden public buildings. The +herds of cattle, and the horses, asses, camels, elephants, and the newly +imported swine--all of which had increased to an enormous extent--were for +the main part transferred to the Dana plateau, while the wild animals were +excluded by a strong stockade drawn round the heights that encircled Eden +Vale.</p> + +<p>We were driven to this last somewhat costly measure by an incident which +fortunately passed off without serious consequences, but which showed the +necessity of being protected against marauding animals. The noise of the +town had for months made the wild animals which once abounded in Eden Vale +avoid our immediate neighbourhood. But in the surrounding woods and copses +there were still considerable numbers of antelopes, zebras, giraffes, +buffaloes, and rhinoceroses; the elephants alone had completely +disappeared. One fine evening, just before sunset, an enterprising old +rhinoceros bull approached the town, and, enraged by some dogs--of which we +had imported a good number, besides those that were descended from the dogs +we brought with us--made his way into one of the principal streets of the +town. This street led to a little grove which was a favourite playground +for children, especially in the evening, and which was full of children +when the savage brute suddenly appeared among them. The children were in +charge of several women-teachers, who, as well as the children, lost their +heads at sight of the monster, which was snorting and puffing like a +steam-engine. Teachers and children fled together, chased by the +rhinoceros, which, singling out a little fugitive, tossed her like a +feather into the air. Seeing one of the teachers, who had fallen in her +fright, lying motionless on the ground, the rhinoceros chose her as his +next victim, and was within a few steps of her when the dogs, which had so +far contented themselves with barking, now fell in a body upon the beast as +if they recognised the danger of the women and children, and, by biting its +ears and other tender parts, drew its fury upon themselves. The struggle +was an unequal one, and in a few moments the rhinoceros had slain two of +the brave dogs and severely wounded three others; but the rest persisted in +their attack, and thus gave the children and their attendants time to save +themselves. The little girl who had been tossed was merely frightened, and +found safety in one of the houses near by. The rhinoceros, when he had put +several more of the dogs <i>hors de combat</i>, trotted off, and was soon out of +sight of the men who had hastened to the rescue with all kinds of weapons.</p> + +<p>Such a scene could not be allowed to be repeated. The next day it was +resolved to surround Eden Vale with a fence, and the work was at once +begun. As the Kenia rocks formed a secure defence on one side, it was +necessary only to construct a semicircular barrier. On the ridge of the +surrounding heights, with timber obtained on the spot, a barrier five feet +high was constructed, strong enough to resist the attacks of any wild +beast, and extending about twenty miles. This protection was intended +simply to keep out rhinoceroses, elephants, and buffaloes; antelopes, +zebras, even giraffes and such like, if they had a fancy for leaping the +barrier, could do no harm. Nor did we need any protection against beasts of +prey--lions and leopards--for these had for months entirely left the +neighbourhood. When this barrier was completed, except for a distance of +about 220 yards, we had a great hunt, by which all the wild beasts that +were still in the valley were driven to this opening and then chased out. +The chain of hunters was so close that we had every reason to be sure that +not an animal was left behind. Two rhinoceroses and a buffalo made an +attempt to break the chain, but were shot down. The opening in the barrier +was then closed up, and there was no longer any wild quadruped worth +mentioning in the whole of Eden Vale.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the groves and woods within the barrier became +increasingly populous with tame antelopes of all kinds, which were +accustomed to return to their owners in the evening. Very soon there was +not a family--particularly with children--in Eden Vale which did not +possess one or more tame antelopes, monkeys, or parrots; and elephant cubs, +under two years of age, wandered by dozens in the streets and in the public +places, the pampered pets of the children, who were remarkably attached to +these little proboscidians. An elephant cub is never better pleased than +when he has as many children as he can carry upon his back, and he will +even neglect his meals in order to have a frolic with his two-legged +comrades.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the second year our European agents informed us that +the rate of increase of members had assumed very large proportions. The +notices of Freeland which had been published in the journals--correspondents +of some of the principal European and American journals had visited us--had +naturally very powerfully quickened the desire to emigrate; and if all the +indications did not deceive us, we had to expect, during the second year of +our residence at the Kenia, an influx of at least twice, probably thrice, +as many as had come during the first year. Provision had, therefore, to be +made for the requisite means of transport. As many of the more wealthy new +members paid for passages in ships belonging to foreign companies, instead +of waiting to take their turn in our own ships, the most urgent part of the +work was that of increasing the means of transport from Mombasa. A thousand +new waggons were therefore purchased as speedily as possible, together with +the requisite number of draught-cattle; and they were set to work in the +order of purchase from March onwards. At the same time our London agent +bought first six, and shortly afterwards four more, steamships of from +4,000 to 10,000 tons burden, and adapted them to our requirements so that +each ship could carry from 1,000 to 3,000 passengers. By means of these new +steamships the traffic through Trieste was increased; the largest ships +took passengers from thence as the most favourably situated point of +departure for the whole of the middle of Europe. Twice a week, also, a ship +went from Marseilles, and once a month another from San Francisco across +the Pacific Ocean. After a third set of a thousand waggons had been ordered +to provide for emergencies, we thought we had made adequate provision for +the transport of immigrants during the second year.</p> + +<p>So stood affairs when Demestre approached the committee with the +declaration that our primitive method of transport from Mombasa could not +possibly suffice to meet the requirements of the strong permanent tide of +immigration which promised to set in. We must at once think about +constructing a railway between Eden Vale and the coast. The cost would be +covered by the immigrants alone, and the incalculable advantage that would +accrue to the whole of our industry would be clear profit. When he spoke of +the covering of the cost by the immigrants he did not mean to propose that +they should pay for travelling on the railway. The fare, however high it +were fixed, would not suffice to cover the cost; and he did not propose to +levy any direct payment for transport by rail, any more than had been done +for transport by waggon. What he referred to was the saving of time. The +waggons did the journey on an average in fourteen days, and after the +fatigues of the journey the immigrants needed a rest of several days before +they were ready for work. By rail the 600 miles and odd could comfortably +be done in twenty-four hours; there would thus be an average saving of +twelve labour-days. When it was considered that, among the 250,000 or +300,000 immigrants who might be expected to arrive yearly for some time to +come, there would be between 70,000 and 80,000 persons able to work, the +railway would mean a gain for them of from 800,000 to 1,000,000 +labour-days. At present the average daily earnings amounted to 15s., and +the 800,000 labour-days therefore represented a total value of £600,000. +But before the railway was finished the average value of labour in Freeland +would probably have doubled; and when he said that the railway would in the +first year of its working yield to the immigrants at least a million pounds +sterling he was certainly within the mark. Every year would this gain +increase in proportion to the increased productiveness of labour in +Freeland.</p> + +<p>On the other side was the cost of construction of the line; he would not +speak of the cost of working, for, though there was no doubt that it would +be less than the cost of working the transport services hitherto in +operation, yet the saving might be left out of sight as not worth +mentioning. The cost of constructing a railway to the coast could not be +definitely calculated, particularly as the route was not yet decided upon. +Whether the route of our caravan-road should be, with slight alterations, +retained; whether another route to Mombasa should be chosen; or whether the +coast should be reached at quite another point, nobody could say at +present, when only one of the routes had been surveyed at all, and that +only very imperfectly. But on the supposition that no better route could be +found than the old one, or that this should be ultimately chosen on +technical grounds, he could positively assert that the railway could not +possibly cost nearly so much as the savings of the immigrants would amount +to in the course of a few years. And, in consequence of the way in which +labour was organised in Freeland, every increase in the produce of labour +was converted into immediate gain to the whole community.</p> + +<p>We should therefore proceed at once to construct the railway, even if it +were merely to the advantage of the immigrants. That it was not merely to +their advantage, however, was self-evident, since the profit which the +community would derive from the cheapening and facilitating of the goods +traffic would be infinitely greater--so great that it could not be even +approximately calculated. He merely wished to throw a few rays of light +upon the economic result of the railway. Assuming that the line would be +completed in three years, we should then have a population of about a +million, and there was no doubt that when we had sufficient means of +transport we should be able easily to produce ten million hundredweight of +grain for export. Such a quantity of grain at the Kenia then represented +one and a-half million pounds sterling. If the cost of transport sank from +five or six shillings per cwt., the current price--independently of the +fact that a greater quantity could not then be conveyed--to one shilling, +or at most eighteen-pence, which might be looked upon as the maximum +railway freight for 600 miles, then the value of the above quantity of +grain would be raised to a round two million pounds sterling. In short, he +was firmly convinced that the railway, even at the highest probable cost, +must fully pay for itself in three or four years at the latest. He +therefore proposed that they should at once send out several expeditions of +skilled engineers to find the most suitable route for the future line. They +should not proceed too cautiously, for even a considerable difference in +cost would be preferable to loss of time.</p> + +<p>Everything that Demestre urged in support of his project was so just and +clear that it was unanimously adopted without debate; in fact, everyone +secretly wondered why he had not himself thought of it long before. The +only thing to do now, therefore, was to trace the route of the future +railway. In the first place, there was the old route through Kikuyu into +Masailand, thence to the east of Kilimanjaro, past Taveta and Teita, to +Mombasa. A second and possibly more favourable route was thought of, which +led also southwards, and reached the coast at Mombasa, but took a direction +two degrees further east, through Kikuyu, into the country of the Ukumbani, +and thence followed the valley of the Athi river to Teita. This track might +probably shorten the distance by more than a hundred miles. The third, the +shortest route to the ocean, led directly east, following the Dana, through +the Galla lands, to the Witu coast; here eventually nearly half the +distance might be saved, for we were but about 280 miles from the coast in +a straight line.</p> + +<p>It was decided that these three routes should be examined as carefully as +would be possible in the course of a few months; for the beginning of the +construction of the line was not to be delayed more than half a year. +Demestre was appointed to examine the old route, with which he was already +well acquainted. Two other skilful engineers were sent to the Athi and the +Dana respectively, each accompanied, as was Demestre, by a staff of not +less qualified colleagues. But these two latter expeditions, having to +explore utterly unknown districts, inhabited by probably hostile tribes, +had to be well armed. They were each 300 strong, and, besides a sufficient +number of repeating-rifles, they took with them several war elephants, some +cannons, and some rockets. All these expeditions were accompanied by a +small band of naturalists, geologists in particular. They started in the +beginning of May, and they were instructed to return, if possible, in +August, before the short rainy season.</p> + +<p>Whilst our attention was fixed principally upon the east in making +provision for the enormous influx expected from Europe and America, an +unexpected complication was brought about in the west by means of our +allies, the Masai. In order to find a new field for their love of +adventure, which they could no longer bring into play against the Swahili, +Wa-Duruma, Wa-Teita, Wa-Taveta, and Wa-Kikuyu, whom we had made their +allies, the Masai fell upon the Nangi and Kavirondo, who live west of Lake +Baringo, and drove off a large number of their cattle. But when the +patience of these large tribes was exhausted, they forgot for a time their +mutual animosities, turned the tables upon the Masai, and overran their +country. In this war the Masai suffered a great deal, for their opponents, +though not equal to them in bravery, far surpassed them in numbers. If the +Masai had but got together in time, they might have easily collected in +their own country an army equal to the 18,000 Kavirondo and Nangi who took +the field against them: but they were thrown into confusion by the +unexpected attack, got together a poor 7,000 <i>el-moran</i>, and suffered utter +defeat in two sanguinary engagements. More than a thousand of their +warriors fell, and the swarms of the victors poured continuously over the +whole country between the Lakes Baringo and Naivasha, sweeping all the +Masai before them, and getting an immense booty in women, children, and +cattle. This was at the beginning of May; and the Masai, who knew not how +to escape from their exasperated foes except by our aid, sent couriers who +reached the Kenia with their petitions for help on the 10th of the month.</p> + +<p>This help was of course at once granted. On the day after the messengers +reached us, 500 of our horsemen, with the still available cannons and +rockets, and with twenty-four elephants, started in forced marches for the +Naivasha, where the Masai, favoured by the character of the country, +thought they could hold out for a time. Our men reached their destination +on the 16th, just after our allies had met with another reverse and were +scarcely able to hold out another day. Johnston, who led our little army, +scarcely waited to refresh his horses before he sent word to the Kavirondo +and the Nangi that they were to cease hostilities at once; he was come, not +as their enemy, but as arbitrator. If they would not accept his mediation, +he would at once attack them; but he warned them beforehand that successful +resistance to his weapons and to those of his people was impossible. +Naturally, this threat had no effect upon the victorious blacks. It is true +they had already heard all sorts of vague rumours about the mysterious +white strangers; and the elephants and horses, which they now saw, though +at a distance, were not likely to please them. But their own great numbers, +in comparison with the small body of our men, and chiefly their previous +successes, encouraged them, after their elders had held a short <i>shauri</i>, +to send a defiant answer. Let Johnston attack them; they would 'eat him up' +as they meant to eat up the whole of Masailand.</p> + +<p>Johnston anticipated such an answer, and had made the necessary +preparations. As soon as he had received the challenge he caused his men to +mount at once, told the Masai not to join in the fight at all, and then he +attacked the Kavirondo and Nangi. This time he did not rely upon the effect +of blank-cartridges, not because an entirely bloodless battle would +scarcely have satisfied the Masai's longing for revenge, but because he +wished to end the whole war at a single stroke. He therefore allowed his +men to approach within 550 yards of the blacks, who kept their ground; and +then, whilst the horsemen charged the enemy's centre, he directed several +sharp volleys from the cannons and rockets against them. Naturally, the +whole order of battle was at once broken up in wild flight, though not many +men fell. Those who fled westward Johnston allowed to escape; but the main +body of the enemy, who tried to get away along the banks of the Naivasha to +the north, were cut off by 400 of our men, whilst he kept with the other +hundred between the blacks and the Masai, principally for the purpose of +preventing the latter from falling upon the conquered. Our 400 horsemen, +who made a wide circle round the fugitives, much as sheep-dogs do around a +scattering flock of sheep, soon brought the Kavirondo and Nangi to a stand, +who, when they found themselves completely surrounded, threw down their +weapons and begged for mercy. Johnston ordered them to send their elders to +him, as he did not intend to do them any further harm, but merely wished to +bring about peace between them and the Masai.</p> + +<p>As might be supposed, the peace negotiations were brief, for Johnston did +not require anything unjust from the conquered, who were completely at his +mercy. They were to give up all their prisoners and booty; and, after they +had taken an oath to keep the peace with us and the Masai, they should +remain unmolested. In the meantime, however, until the prisoners and the +booty had been given up--for only a part of both had fallen into our hands, +the Kavirondo having sent off the greater part to their own country several +days before--they were to remain upon one of the Naivasha islands as our +prisoners. Those who thus remained numbered more than 10,000, and included +some of the chief men of their nation. The Kavirondo and Nangi accepted +these terms; in the course of the afternoon and night they were ferried +across to one of the neighbouring islands, and twelve of their number were +sent home to bring back the booty.</p> + +<p>Johnston, having caused the Masai leaders to be brought before him, +administered to them a very severe reprimand. Did they think that we should +continue to be friends with thieves and robbers? Had he not told them that +the swords which we had given to their <i>leitunus</i> would snap asunder like +glass if drawn in an unrighteous cause? And in the war with the Kavirondo +and Nangi were not the Masai in the wrong? 'We have saved you from the just +punishment with which you were threatened, for the alliance which we had +contracted still stood good when you were defeated; but we dissolve that +alliance! I stay here until the Kavirondo and Nangi have brought back their +booty, which shall be handed over to you in its entirety; but, after that, +do not expect anything more from us. We can live in friendship with only +peaceable honourable people. Henceforth the Kavirondo and Nangi are our +friends; woe to you in the future if you ever break the peace; our anger +will shatter you as the lightning shatters the sycamore-tree!'</p> + +<p>The Masai were completely cowed. This unlooked-for dissolution of a +friendship which had for a year past been their chief pride, and which had +just been their salvation in extremity, was more than they were able to +bear. But Johnston preserved a severe attitude towards them, and finally +insisted upon their leaving his camp. When the <i>leitunus</i> and <i>leigonanis</i> +returned to their people with the terrible news that their friendship with +the white brethren was at an end there were exhibited the most extravagant +signs of distress. The whole camp of the Masai rushed over to ours; but +Johnston ordered them to be told that, weaponless though they were, he +would fire upon them if they dared to come near. This was repeated several +times during the next few days. The Masai sent messengers throughout the +whole country, called together the wisest of their elders, and again and +again endeavoured to induce Johnston to treat with them; but he remained +inexorable, had his camp entrenched, and threatened to shoot every Masai +who attempted to enter it.</p> + +<p>In ten days the Kavirondo and Nangi messengers returned with the prisoners +and the cattle. Johnston now bade the Masai elders appear before him that +he might hand over to them what he had won for them in battle. The Masai +came, and took advantage of the opportunity of making their last attempt to +appease the terrible white man. Johnston might keep all that he--not +they--had recovered; they were willing to regard the loss they had suffered +as the just punishment of their crime; they were ready to do yet more if he +would but forgive them and give them his friendship again. It was to this +point that Johnston had wished to bring these people, whom he knew right +well. He showed himself touched by their appeal, but said that he could +grant nothing without the knowledge and consent of the other leaders in +Eden Vale. He would report to the great council the repentance of the Masai +people; and it was for the council to decide what was to be done. On the +19th and 20th of June, the days appointed for the commemoration of the +alliance with us, they were to come with their fellow-countrymen to the +place of rendezvous on the south shore of Naivasha lake; there should they +receive an answer.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to say that Johnston's threats were not seriously meant. +The alliance with the Masai was of too much importance to us for us to wish +it dissolved. But Johnston had been instructed by the committee to use +every means to restrain the Masai from plundering in the future and to +induce them to keep the peace with all their neighbours. And the committee +were well aware that extreme measures were necessary to attain these ends, +for to convert the Masai into a peaceable people meant nothing less than to +divest them of their characteristic peculiarities. They are in truth a +purely military nation. War is their peculiar business--their organisation +and habits of life all have reference to war. They differ from all their +neighbours, being ethnographically distinct, for they are not negroes, but +a bronze-coloured Hamitic race evidently related to the original +inhabitants of Egypt. They carry on no industry, even their cattle-breeding +being in the hands of their captured slaves; while they themselves are in +youth exclusively warriors, and in age dignified idlers. The warriors, the +<i>el-moran</i>, live apart and unmarried--though by no means in celibacy--in +separate kraals; the older married men--the <i>el-morun</i>--also live in +separate villages. They buy their weapons of the Andorobbo who live among +them; and the small amount of corn which the married men and their wives +consume--for the <i>el-moran</i> eat only milk and flesh--they buy of +neighbouring foreign tribes. Their morals are exceptionally loose, for the +warriors live in unrestrained fellowship with the unmarried girls--the +Dittos; and the married women allow themselves all conceivable liberties, +without any interference on the part of their husbands. Notwithstanding all +this, these dissolute plundering earls form the finest nation of the whole +district east of the Victoria Nyanza--brave, strong, ingenuous, +intelligent, and, when they are once won, trustworthy. To convert them into +industrious and moral men would be a grand work and would make our new +home, in which we could not go far without coming into collision with them, +truly habitable to us.</p> + +<p>But it was very difficult to accomplish this. Their military organisation +had to be broken up, their immorality suppressed, their prejudice against +labour overcome. That this was by no means impossible was proved by many +past examples. The Wa-Kwafi, living to the south and west of them, as well +as the Njemps on the Baringo lake, are either of pure Masai extraction or +have much Masai blood in their veins; yet they practise agriculture and +know nothing of the <i>el-moran</i> and Ditto abuse. But the change had been +effected among these by the agency of extreme want. It was only those Masai +tribes who were completely vanquished by other Masai and robbed of all +their cattle that were dispersed among agricultural negro tribes, whose +customs they had to adopt, while they unfortunately gave up their good +characteristics along with their bad ones. Johnston's task now was to see +if it wore not possible by rational compulsion to effect such a change in +them as in other instances had been effected by want. How he prosecuted his +attempt we have seen.</p> + +<p>When Johnston released the Kavirondo and Nangi prisoners, he invited them +to send, on the 19th, as numerous an embassy as possible of their elders to +Naivasha, where we would confirm the newly formed alliance and seal it with +rich presents. He left the whole of his army at Naivasha, partly to cover +the retreat of the discharged prisoners, and partly to watch the booty (the +Masai still hesitated to take back the booty, and even forbade their +captured wives and children to leave our camp), while he himself, +accompanied by only a few horsemen, hastened to Eden Vale, there to get +further instructions. The proposal which he laid before the committee was +that everything should now be demanded from the Masai--the iron could be +forged if struck when it was hot; and as conditions of the renewal of +friendship he suggested the following three points: dissolution of the +<i>el-moran</i> kraals, emancipation of all slaves whatever, formation of +agricultural associations. Of course we were not to be content with the +statement of these demands, but must ourselves take in hand the work of +carrying them out. Particularly would it be necessary to assist the Masai +in the organisation of the agricultural associations, to furnish them with +suitable agricultural implements, and to give them instruction in rational +agriculture. Finally, and chiefly, was it necessary to win over the +<i>el-moran</i> by employing them in relays as soldiers for us. The ideal of +these brown braves was the routine of a military life. The alliance with +the Kavirondo and Nangi might lead to hostile complications with Uganda, +the country adjoining Kavirondo, when we could very well make use of a +Masai militia, and thus accomplish two ends at once--viz. the complete +pacification and civilisation of Masailand, and assistance against Uganda, +the great raiding State on the Victoria Nyanza, with which sooner or later +we must necessarily come into collision.</p> + +<p>The committee adopted these suggestions after a short deliberation. Five +hundred fresh volunteers (as a matter of course, all our expeditions +consisted of volunteers) from among our agriculturists were placed under +Johnston's orders, as agricultural teachers for the Masai; whilst a part of +the five hundred men already at Naivasha were selected to superintend the +military training of the <i>el-moran</i>. Further, Johnston received for his +work the whole of the ploughs which had been thrown out of use in Freeland +by the introduction of steam-machinery. There were not less than 3,000 of +these ploughs, as well as a corresponding number of harrows and other +agricultural implements. With these were also granted 6,000 oxen accustomed +to the plough, as well as supplies of seeds, &c. The committee at once +telegraphed to Europe for 10,000 breechloaders and a million cartridges, +with 10,000 sidearms, which were supplied cheaply by the Austrian +Government out of the stock of disused Werndl rifles, and could reach +Naivasha by the end of June. Five complete field-batteries and eight +rocket-batteries were at the same time ordered in Europe; these, however, +were not for the Masai militia, but for our own use in any future +contingencies. An English firm promised to deliver two weeks later 10,000 +very picturesque and strikingly designed complete uniforms, of which, +moreover, our Eden Vale sewing-factory speedily got ready several hundred +made of our large stores of brightly coloured woollen goods, so that the +<i>el-moran</i> were able to see, on the 19th and 20th of June, the splendours +in store for them.</p> + +<p>Thus furnished, Johnston left Eden Vale on the 12th of June, and reached +the shore of the Naivasha on the 16th, leaving his caravan of goods a few +days' march behind him. The elders and <i>leitunus</i> of all the Masai tribes, +as well as the ambassadors of the Kavirondo and Nangi, already awaited him. +The negotiations with the latter were soon ended: the conditions of +alliance were again discussed, rich presents exchanged (the Kavirondo had +brought several thousand head of cattle for their magnanimous victors), and +on this side nothing further stood in the way of the approaching +covenant-feast. We had thus secured trustworthy friends as far as the +Victoria Nyanza, a great part of the shore of which was in the hands of the +Kavirondo; in return for which, it is true, we had undertaken--what we did +not for a moment overlook--the heavy responsibility of protecting the +Kavirondo against all foes, even against the powerful Uganda.</p> + +<p>The Masai, on the other hand, were at first greatly troubled by the +conditions demanded of them. Johnston's eloquence, however, soon convinced +them that their acceptance of these conditions was not merely unavoidable, +but would be very profitable to themselves. He overcame their prejudice +against labour by showing them that an occupation to which we powerful and +rich white men were glad to devote ourselves could be neither degrading nor +burdensome. They were not to suppose that we intended them to grub about in +the earth, like the barbarous negroes, with wretched spades; the hard work +would be done by oxen; they need only walk behind the implements, which +were already on the way ready to be distributed among them. A few hours' +light work a day for a few months in the year would suffice to make them +richer than they had ever been made by the labour of their slaves. Even the +<i>el-moran</i> were won over without very much difficulty by the promise that, +if they would only work a little in turns, they should now be trained to +become invincible warriors like ourselves, and should receive fine clothing +and yet finer weapons. And when at last the endless caravan with the oxen +and the agricultural implements arrived; when the wonderful celerity with +which tire ploughs cut through the ground was demonstrated; and when +Johnston dressed up a chosen band of <i>el-moran</i> in the baggy red hose and +shirts, the green jackets, and the dandyish plumed hats, with rifle, +bayonet, and cartridge-box, and made them march out as models of the future +soldiery, the resignation which had hitherto been felt gave way to +unrestrained jubilation. The Masai had originally yielded out of fear of +our anger, and more still of the danger lest our friendship to the +surrounding tribes might lead to the unconditional deliverance of the Masai +into the hands of their hereditary foes. The numerous embassies which had +appeared from all points of the compass (for the Wa-Kikuyu, Wa-Taveta, +Wa-Teita, and Wa-Duruma--even the Wa-Kwafi and Swahili tribes--had sent +representatives laden with rich presents to take part in the Naivasha +festival) were significant reminders to them. But now they accepted our +terms with joy, and were not a little proud of being able to show to the +others that they were still the first in our favour.</p> + +<p>And as the Masai, when they have made any engagement, are honourably +ambitious--unlike the negroes--to keep it, the carrying out of the +stipulations was a comparatively easy and speedy matter. A hasty census, +which we made for several purposes, showed that there were some 180,000 +souls in the twelve Masai tribes scattered over a district of nearly 20,000 +square miles, from Lykipia in the extreme north to Kilimanjaro in the +south. The country, although dry and sterile in the south-west, is +exuberantly fertile in the east and north, and--particularly around the +numerous ranges of hills, which rise to a height of 15,000 feet--equals in +beauty the Teita, Kilima, and Kenia districts, and could well support a +population a hundred times as large as the present one; but the perpetual +wars and the licentiousness of the people have hitherto limited the +increase of the population. Among the 180,000 were about 54,000 men capable +of labour, the <i>el-moran</i> being included in that number. We handed over to +the Masai 12,000 yoke-oxen, in exchange for which we received the same +number of oxen for fattening. Our 500 agricultural instructors now looked +out for the most suitable arable ground for their pupils, whom they +organised into 280 associations similar to ours, without a right of +property in the soil and with the amount of labour as the sole measure of +the distribution of produce. The instructors taught them the use of the +implements; and were able, two months later, to report to Eden Vale, with +considerable satisfaction, that above 50,000 acres had been sown with all +kinds of field-produce. The harvest proved to be abundantly sufficient not +only to cover all the needs of the Masai, but also to secure to their white +teachers, both agricultural and military, the payment then customary in +Freeland.</p> + +<p>While in this way, on the one hand, the agricultural associations were set +to work, on the other hand some 300 military instructors initiated relays +of 6,500 <i>el-moran</i> into the mysteries of the European art of war. The +26,000 Masai warriors were divided into four companies, each of which was +put into uniform and exercised for a year. The rifles remained our +property, the uniforms became the property of the Masai warriors, but could +be worn only when the owners were on duty. There was no pay for peace +duty--rather, as above mentioned, the Masai defrayed the cost of their +military training out of the proceeds of their agriculture.</p> + +<p>The agricultural as well as the military instructors made themselves useful +in other ways, by imparting to their pupils all kinds of skill and +knowledge. There were no specially learned men among them, but they opened +up a new world to the Masai, exercised a refining and ennobling influence +upon their habits and morals, and in a surprisingly short time made +tolerably civilised men of them. The Masai, on their part, enjoyed their +new lives very much. They were well aware that their altered condition made +them the object of all their neighbours' envy, whilst they were still more +highly respected than before. And, what was the main thing--at the +beginning at least--they enjoyed their new wealth and their increased +honour without finding their labour at all painful to those needs. For in +this fortunate country it required very little labour expended in a +rational way to get from the fruitful soil the little that was there looked +upon as extraordinary wealth. He who twice a year spent a few weeks in +sowing and harvesting could for the rest of the year indulge in the still +favourite luxury of <i>dolce far niente</i>. In later years, when the needs of +the Masai had been largely multiplied by their growing culture, more labour +was required to satisfy those needs; but in the meantime our pupils had got +rid of their former laziness; and it may be confidently asserted that not +one of them ever regretted that we had imposed our civilisation upon his +nation. On the contrary, the example of the Masai stimulated the +neighbouring peoples; and, in the course of the following years, the most +diverse tribes voluntarily came to us with the request that we would do +with them as we had done with the Masai. The suppression of property in the +soil among those negro races who--unlike the Masai and most of the other +peoples of Equatorial Africa--possessed such an institution in a developed +form, in no case presented any great difficulty: the land was voluntarily +either given up or redefined. Nowhere was property in land able to assert +itself along with labour organised according to our principles.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<p> +The meeting of the International Free Society at the Hague had, as the +reader will remember, conferred full executive power upon the committee for +the period of two years. This period expired on the 20th of October, when +the Society would have to give itself a new and definitive constitution, +and the powers hitherto exercised by the committee would have to be taken +over by an administrative body freely elected by the people of Freeland. On +the 15th of September, therefore, the committee called together a +constituent assembly; and, as the inhabitants were too numerous all to meet +together for consultation, they divided the country into 500 sections, +according to the number of the inhabitants, and directed each section to +elect a deputy. The committee declared this representative assembly to be +the provisional source of sovereign authority, and required it to make +arrangements for the future, leaving it to decide whether it would empower +the committee to continue to exercise its executive functions until a +constitution had been agreed upon, or would at once entrust the +administration of Freeland to some new authority. After a short debate, the +assembly not only decided unanimously to adopt the former course, but also +charged the committee with the task of preparing a draft constitution. As +such a draft had already been prepared in view of contingencies, the +committee at once accepted the duty imposed upon it. Dr. Strahl, in the +name of the committee, laid the draft constitution 'upon the table of the +House.' The assembly ordered it to be printed, and three days after +proceeded to discuss it. As the proposed fundamental law and detailed +regulations were extremely simple, the debate was not very long-winded; +and, on the 2nd of October, the laws and regulations were declared to be +unanimously approved, and the new constitution was put in force.</p> + +<p>The fundamental laws were thus expressed:</p> + +<p>1. Every inhabitant of Freeland has an equal and inalienable claim upon the +whole of the land, and upon the means of production accumulated by the +community.</p> + +<p>2. Women, children, old men, and men incapable of work, have a right to a +competent maintenance, fairly proportionate to the level of the average +wealth of the community.</p> + +<p>3. No one can be hindered from the active exercise of his own free +individual will, so long as he does not infringe upon the rights of others.</p> + +<p>4. Public affairs are to be administered as shall be determined by all the +adult (above twenty years of age) inhabitants of Freeland, without +distinction of sex, who shall all possess an equal active and passive right +of vote and of election in all matters that affect the commonwealth.</p> + +<p>5. Both the legislative and the executive authority shall be divided into +departments, and in such a manner that the whole of the electors shall +choose special representatives for the principal public departments, who +shall give their decisions apart and watch over the action of the +administrative boards of the respective departments.</p> + +<p>In these five points is contained the whole substance of the public law of +Freeland; everything else is merely the natural consequence or the more +detailed expression of these points. Thus the principles upon which the +associations were based--the right of the worker to the profit, the +division of the profit in proportion to the amount of work contributed, and +freedom of contract in view of special efficiency of labour--are naturally +and necessarily implied in the first and third fundamental laws. As the +whole of the means of labour were accessible to everyone, no one could be +compelled to forego the profit of his own labour; and as no one could be +forced to place his higher capabilities at the disposal of others, these +higher capabilities--so far as they were needed in the guidance and +direction of production--must find adequate recompense in the way of +freedom of contract.</p> + +<p>With reference to the right of maintenance given to women, children, old +men, and men incapable of working, by the second section, it may be +remarked that this was regarded, in the spirit of our principles, as a +corollary from the truth that the wealth of the civilised man is not the +product of his own individual capabilities, but is the result of the +intellectual labour of numberless previous generations, <i>whose bequest +belongs as much to the weak and helpless as to the strong and capable</i>. All +that we enjoy we owe in an infinitely small degree to our own intelligence +and strength; thrown upon these as our only resources, we should be poor +savages vegetating in the deepest, most brutish misery; it is to the rich +inheritance received from our ancestors that we owe ninety-nine per cent. +of our enjoyments. If this is so--and no sane person has ever questioned +it--then all our brothers and sisters have a right to share in the common +heritage. That this heritage would be unproductive without the labour of us +who are strong is true, and it would be unfair--nay, foolish and +impracticable--for our weaker brethren to claim an <i>equal</i> share. But they +have a right to claim a fraternal participation--not merely a charitable +one, but one based upon their right of inheritance--in the rich profits won +from the common heritage, even though it be by <i>our</i> labour solely. They +stand towards us in the relation, not of medicant strangers, but of +co-heirs and members of our family. And of us, the stronger inheritors of a +clearly proved title, every member of the common family demands the +unreserved recognition of this good title. For we cannot prosper if we +dishonour and condemn to want and shame those who are our equals. A healthy +egoism forbids us to allow misery and its offspring--the vices--to harbour +anywhere among our fellows. Free, and 'of noble birth,' a king and lord of +this planet, must everyone be whose mother is a daughter of man, else will +his want grow to be a spreading ulcer which will consume even us--the +strong ones.</p> + +<p>So much as to the right of maintenance in general. As to the provision for +women in particular, it was considered that woman was unfitted by her +physical and psychical characteristics for an active struggle for +existence; but was destined, on the one hand, to the function of +propagating the human race, and, on the other hand, to that of beautifying +and refining life. So long as we all, or at least the immense majority of +us, were painfully engaged in the unceasing and miserable struggle to +obtain the barest necessities of animal life, no regard could be paid to +the weakness and nobility of woman; her weakness, like that of every other +weak one, could not become a title to tender care, but became inevitably an +incitement to tyranny; the nobility of woman was dishonoured, as was all +purely human and genuine nobility. For unnumbered centuries woman was a +slave and a purchasable instrument of lust, and the much-vaunted +civilisation of the last few centuries has brought no real improvement. +Even among the so-called cultured nations of the present day, woman +remained without legal rights, and, what is worse, she was left, in order +to obtain subsistence, to sell herself to the first man she met who would +undertake to provide and 'care for' her for the sake of her attractions. +This prostitution, sanctioned by law and custom, is in its effects more +disastrous than that other, which stands forth undisguised and is +distinguished from the former only in the fact that here the shameful +bargain is made not for life, but only for years, weeks, hours. It is +common to both that the sweetest, most sacred treasure of humanity, woman's +heart, is made the subject of vulgar huckstering, a means of buying a +livelihood; and worse than the prostitution of the streets is that of the +marriage for a livelihood sanctioned by law and custom, because under its +pestilential poison-breath not only the dignity and happiness of the +living, but the sap and strength of future generations are blasted and +destroyed. As love, that sacred instinct which should lead the wife into +the arms of the husband, united with whom she might bequeath to the next +generation its worthiest members, had become the only means of gain within +her reach woman was compelled to dishonour herself, and in herself to +dishonour the future of the race.</p> + +<p>Happiness and dignity, as well as the future salvation of humanity, equally +demanded that woman should be delivered from the dishonourable necessity of +seeing in her husband a provider, in marriage the only refuge from material +need. But neither should woman be consigned to common labour. This would be +in equal measure prejudicial both to the happiness of the living and to the +character and vigour of future generations. It is as useless as it is +injurious to wish to establish the equality of woman by allowing her to +compete with man in earning her bread--useless, because such a permission, +of which advantage could be taken only in exceptional cases, would afford +no help to the female sex as a whole; injurious, because woman cannot +compete with man and yet be true to her nobler and tenderer duties. And +those duties do not lie in the kitchen and the wardrobe, but in the +cultivation of the beautiful in the adult generation on the one hand, and +of the intellectual and physical development of the young on the other. +Therefore, in the interests not only of herself, but also of man, and in +particular of the future race, woman must be altogether withdrawn from the +struggle for the necessaries of life; she must be no wheel in the +bread-earning machinery, she must be a jewel in the heart of humanity. Only +one kind of 'work' is appropriate to woman--that of the education of +children and, at most, the care of the sick and infirm. In the school and +by the sick-bed can womanly tenderness and care find a suitable +apprenticeship for the duties of the future home, and in such work may the +single woman earn wages so far as she wishes to do so. At the same time, +our principles secured perfect liberty to woman. She was not forbidden to +engage in any occupation, and isolated instances have occurred of women +doing so, particularly in intellectual callings, but public opinion in +Freeland approved of this only in exceptional cases--that is, when special +gifts justified such action; and it was our women chiefly who upheld this +public opinion.</p> + +<p>The fact that the maintenance allowance for women was fixed at one-fourth +less than that for men--and the constituent assembly confirmed not only the +principle, but the proposed ratio of the different maintenance +allowances--was not the expression of any lower estimate of the <i>claim</i> of +woman, but was due simply to the consideration that the <i>requirements</i> of +woman are less than those of man. We acted upon the calculation that a +woman with her thirty per cent. of the average labour-earnings of a +Freeland producer was as well provided for as a maintenance-receiving man +with his forty per cent.; and experience fully verified this calculation.</p> + +<p>Not only had the single woman or the widow a right to a maintenance, but +the married woman also had a similar right, though only to one-half the +amount. This right was based upon the principle that even the wife ought +not to be thrown upon the husband for maintenance and made dependent upon +him. As in housekeeping the woman's activity is partly called forth by her +own personal needs, it was right that some of the burden of maintenance +should be taken from the husband, and only a part of it left as a common +charge to both. With the birth of children, the family burden is afresh +increased, and, as this is specially connected with the wife, we increase +her maintenance allowance until it reaches again the full allowance of a +single woman--that is, thirty per cent. The allowances would be as follows:</p> + +<table border="0"> + <tr><td colspan="2">A childless family </td><td class="right">15</td><td class="center">per cent.</td></tr> + <tr><td>A family with</td><td>one child </td><td class="right">20</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " </td><td>two children </td><td class="right">25</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " </td><td>three or more children </td><td class="right">30</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td>A working widow with</td><td>a child </td><td class="right"> 5</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " " </td><td>two children </td><td class="right">10</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " " </td><td>three or more children </td><td class="right">15</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">An independent woman </td><td class="right">30</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " " </td><td>with a child </td><td class="right">35</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " " </td><td>with two children </td><td class="right">40</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td class="center"> " " " </td><td>with three or more children</td><td class="right" style="padding-left:1em">45</td><td class="center">"</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Just as the women's and children's maintenance-claims accumulated according +to circumstances, so was it with those claims and the claims of men unable +to work, and old men. The maximum that could be drawn for maintenance was +not less than seventy per cent. of the average income, and this happened in +the cases--which were certainly rare--in which a married man who had a +claim had three or more children under age.</p> + +<p>The fourth fundamental principle--the extension of the franchise to adult +women--calls for no special comment. It need only be remarked that this law +included the negroes residing in Freeland. This was conditioned, of course, +by the exclusion from the exercise of political rights of all who were +unable to read and write--an exclusion which was automatically secured by +requiring all votes to be given in the voter's own handwriting. We took +considerable pains not only to teach our negroes reading and writing, but +also to give them other kinds of knowledge; and as our efforts were in +general followed by good results, our black brethren gradually participated +in all our rights.</p> + +<p>A more detailed explanation is, however, required by the fifth section of +the fundamental laws, according to which the community exercised their +control over all public affairs not through <i>one</i>, but through several +co-ordinated administrative boards, elected separately by the community. To +this regulation the administrative authorities of Freeland owed their +astonishing special knowledge of details, and the public life of Freeland +its equally unexampled quiet and the absence of any deeply felt, angry +party passions. In the States of Europe and America, only the executive +consists of men who are chosen--or are supposed to be thus chosen--on +account of their special knowledge and qualification for the branches of +the public service at the head of which they respectively stand. Even this +is subject to very important limitations; in fact, with respect to the +parliamentary constitutions of Europe and America, it can be truthfully +asserted that those who are placed at the head of the different branches of +the administration only too often know very little about the weighty +affairs which they have to superintend. The assemblies from which and by +whose choice parliamentary ministers are placed in office are, as a rule, +altogether incapable of choosing qualified men, for the reason that +frequently there are none such in their midst. It does not follow from this +that parliamentary orators and politicians by profession do not generally +understand the duties of their office better than those favourites of power +and of blind fortune who hold the helm in non-parliamentary countries; but +experts they are not, and cannot be. Yet, as has been said, the organs of +the executive at least <i>ought</i>, to be such, and by a current fiction they +are held to be such; and a man who specially distinguishes himself in any +department thereby earns a claim--though a subordinate one--to receive +further employment in that department of the public service. For the +legislative bodies outside of Freeland, on the other hand, special +knowledge is not even theoretically a qualification. The men who make laws +and control the administration of them, need, in theory, to have not the +least knowledge of the matters to which these laws refer. The support of +the electors is usually quite independent of the amount of such knowledge +possessed by the representatives, who are chosen not as men of special +knowledge, but as men of 'sound understanding.'</p> + +<p>But this is followed by a twofold evil. In the first place, it converts the +public service into a private game of football, in which the players are +Ignorance and Incapacity. The words of Oxenstiern, 'You know not, my son, +with how little understanding the world is governed,' are true in a far +higher degree than is generally imagined. The average level of capacity and +special knowledge in many of the branches of public service in the +so-called civilised world is far below that to be found in the private +business of the same countries. In the second place, this centralised +organisation of the public administration, with an absence of persons of +special qualification, converts party spirit into an angry and bitter +struggle in which everything is risked, and the decision depends very +rarely upon practical considerations, but almost always upon already +accepted political opinions. Incessant conflict, continuous passionate +excitement, are therefore the second consequence of this preposterous +system.</p> + +<p>An improvement is, however, simply impossible so long as the present social +system remains in force. For, so long as this is the case, the public +welfare is better looked after by ignorant persons who act independently of +professional knowledge than it would be if professional men had power to +further the interests of their own professions at the expense of the +general public. For the interests of specialists under an exploiting system +of society are not merely sometimes, but generally, opposed to those of the +great mass of the people. Imagine a European or American State in which the +manufacturers exercised legislative and executive control over +manufactures, agriculturists over agriculture, railway shareholders over +the means of transport, and so forth--the specialist representatives of +each separate interest making and administering the laws that particularly +concerned their own profession! As under the exploiting system of society +the struggle for existence is directed towards a mutual suppression and +supplanting, so must the consequences of such a 'constitution' as we have +just supposed be positively dreadful. In those cases which are grouped +together under the heading of 'political corruption,' where isolated +interests have succeeded in imposing their will upon the community, the +shamelessness of the exploitage has exceeded all bounds.</p> + +<p>But it is different in Freeland. With us no separate interest is +antagonistic to or not in perfect harmony with the common interest. +Producers, for example, who in Freeland conceive the idea of increasing +their gains by laying an impost upon imports, must be idiotic. For, to +compel the consumers to pay more for their manufactures would not help +them, since the influx of labour would at once bring down their gains again +to the average level. On the other hand, to make it more difficult for +other producers to produce would certainly injure themselves, for the +average level of gain--above which their own cannot permanently rise--would +be thereby lowered. And exactly the same holds good for all our different +interests. In consequence of the arrangement whereby every interest is open +to everyone, and no one has either the right or the might to reserve any +advantage to himself alone, we are fortunately able to entrust the decision +of all questions affecting material interest to those who are the most +directly interested--therefore, to those who possess the most special +knowledge. Not merely do the legislature and the executive thereby acquire +in the highest degree a specialist character, but there disappears from +public life that passionate prepossession which elsewhere is the +characteristic note of party politics. As a well-understood public interest +and sound reason decide in all matters, we have no occasion to become +heated. At our elections our aim is not 'to get in one of our party,' but +the only thing about which opinions may differ is which of the candidates +happens to be the most experienced, the most apt for the post. And as, in +consequence of the organisation of our whole body of labour, the +capabilities of each one among us must in time be discovered, mistakes in +this determining point in our public life are scarcely possible.</p> + +<p>As the constituent assembly retained the twelvefold division of the +governing authority, there were henceforth in Freeland, besides the twelve +different executive boards--which in their sphere of action were to some +extent analogous to the ministries of Western nations--twelve different +consultative, determining, and supervising assemblies, elected by the whole +people, in place of the single parliament of the Western nations. These +twelve assemblies were elected by the whole of the electors, each elector +having the right to give an equal vote in all the elections; but the +distribution of the constituencies was different, and the election for each +of the twelve representative bodies took place separately. Some of these +elections--those, namely, for the affairs of the chief executive and +finance, for maintenance, for education, for art and science, for +sanitation and justice--took place according to residence; the elections in +the other cases according to calling. For the latter purpose, the whole of +the inhabitants of Freeland were divided, according to their callings, into +larger or smaller constituencies, each of which elected one or more +deputies in proportion to its numbers. Of those callings which had but few +followers, several of the more nearly allied were united into one +constituency. Membership of the respective constituencies depended upon the +will of the elector--that is, every elector could get his or her name +entered in the list of any calling with which he or she preferred to vote, +and thus exercise the right of voting for the representative body elected +by the members of that calling.</p> + +<p>The highest officers in the twelve branches of the executive were appointed +by the twelve representative bodies; the appointment of the other officers +was the business of the chiefs of the executive. In all the more important +matters all these had to consult together beforehand upon the measures that +were to be laid before the representative bodies.</p> + +<p>The discussions of the different representative bodies, as a rule, took +place apart, and generally in sessions held at different periods. Several +of the bodies sat permanently, others met merely for a few days once a +year. The numerical strength of these specialist parliaments was different: +the smallest--that for statistics--consisted of no more than thirty +members, the four largest of a hundred and twenty members each. When +matters which interested equally several different representative bodies +had to be discussed, the bodies thus interested sat together. Disputes as +to the competency of the different bodies were impossible, as the mere wish +expressed by any representative body to take part in the debates of another +sufficed to make the subject under consideration a common one.</p> + +<p>The natural result of this organisation was that every inhabitant of +Freeland confined his attention to those public affairs which he +understood, or thought he understood. In each branch of the administration +he gave his vote to that candidate who in his opinion was the best +qualified for a seat in that branch of the administration. And this, again, +had as a consequence a fact to Western ideas altogether incredible--namely, +that every branch of the public administration was in the hands of the most +expert specialists, and the best qualified men in all Freeland. Very soon +there was developed a highly remarkable kind of political honour, +altogether different from anything known in Western nations. Among the +latter, it is held to be a point of honour to stick to one's party +unconditionally through thick and thin, to support it by vote and influence +whether one understands the particular matter in question or not. The +political honour of a citizen of Freeland demands of him yet more +positively that he devote his attention and his energy to public affairs; +but public opinion condemns him severely if--from whatever motive--he +concerns himself with matters which he plainly does not understand. Thus it +is strictly required that the elector should have some professional +knowledge of that branch of the administration into which he throws the +weight of his vote. The elections, therefore, are in very good hands; +attempts to influence the electors by fallacious representations or by +promises would, even if they were to be made, prove resultless. There is no +elector who would vote in the elections of the whole twelve representative +bodies. The women, in particular, with very few exceptions, refrain from +voting in the elections in which the separate callings are specially +concerned; on the other hand, they take a lively interest in the elections +in which the electors vote according to residence; and in the elections for +the board of education their votes turn the scale. Their passive franchise +also comes into play, and in the representative bodies that have charge of +maintenance, of art and science, of sanitation and justice, women +frequently sit; and in that which has charge of education there are always +several women. They never take part in the executive. By way of completing +this description, it may be mentioned that the elected deputies are paid +for their work at the rate of an equivalent of eight labour-hours for each +day that they sit.</p> + +<p>After the constituent assembly had passed the constitution it dissolved +itself, and the election of the twelve representative bodies was at once +proceeded with. Punctually on the 20th of October these bodies met, and the +committee handed its authority over into their hands. The members of the +committee were all re-elected as heads of the different branches of the +administration, except four who declined to take office afresh. The +government of Freeland was now definitively constituted.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the three expeditions sent to discover the best route for +a railway to the coast had returned. The expedition which had been +surveying the shortest route--that through the Dana valley to the Witu +coast--had met with no exceptional difficulty as to the land, and the +expectation that this, by far the shortest, would prove to be also +technically preferable had been verified. Nor in any other respect had any +serious difficulty been encountered within about 125 miles from Kenia. But +from thence to the coast the Galla tribes offered to the expedition such a +stubborn and vicious opposition that the hostilities had not ceased at the +end of two months, and several conflicts had taken place, in which the +Galla tribes had always been severely punished; but this did not prevent +the expedition from having to carry out its thoroughly peaceful mission in +perpetual readiness to fight. A railway through that region would have had +to be preceded by a formal campaign for the pacification or expulsion of +the Galla tribes, and could then have been constructed only in the midst of +a permanent preparedness for war. This route had therefore, provisionally +at least, to be rejected.</p> + +<p>There were not less weighty reasons against the route over Ukumbani along +the Athi river. Along the river-valley the road could have been made +without special technical difficulty, but, particularly on the second half +of it, the route lay through unhealthy swamps and jungles, which could not +immediately be brought under cultivation. And if a route were chosen which +would leave the valley proper and pass among the adjoining hills, the +technical conditions would not be more favourable, nor the estimated cost +less, than a line along the third route following the old road to Mombasa. +This third route was therefore unanimously fixed upon. It had in its favour +the important circumstance that it passed through friendly districts, which +at no very distant future would most probably be settled by Freeland +colonists. That it was the longest and the most expensive of the three +could not, therefore, prevent us from giving it the preference, unless the +difference in cost proved to be too great--which, as the event showed, was +not the case.</p> + +<p>The work was begun forthwith. Powerful and novel machines of all kinds +were, in the meantime, constructed in great number by our Freeland +machine-factories, and, furnished with these, 5,000 Freeland and 8,000 +negro workers began the work at eighteen different points, not including +the eleven longer and the thirty-two shorter tunnels--with a total length +of twenty-four miles--each of which formed a separate part of tin work. The +rails, of the best Bessemer metal, were partly made by ourselves, and were +partly--those for the distance between Mombasa and Taveta--brought from +Europe. Two years after the turning of the first sod the part between Eden +Vale and Ngongo was ready for traffic; three months later the part between +Mombasa and Taveta; and nine months later still the middle portion between +Ngongo and Taveta. Thus exactly five years after our pioneers had first set +foot in Freeland, the first locomotive, which the day before had seen the +waves of the Indian Ocean breaking upon the shore at Mombasa, greeted the +glaciers of the Kenia with its shrill whistle.</p> + +<p>That this extensive work could be completed in so short a time and with so +little expenditure of labour we owed to our machinery; which also enabled +us to keep the cost within comparatively moderate limits, despite the fact +that we had necessarily to pay our workers at a rate at which no railway +constructors were ever paid before. Our Freeland railway constructors, who +had at once formed themselves into a number of associations, earned in the +first year 22s. a day each, and in the third year 28s. a day, though they +worked only seven hours a day. Notwithstanding this, the whole 672 miles, +most of it tolerably difficult work through hills, cost only £9,500,000, or +a little over £14,000 per mile. Our 13,000 workers did more with their +magnificent labour-sparing machines than 100,000 ordinary workers could +have done with pick and barrow; and the employment of this colossal +'capital'--valued at £4,000,000--was profitable because labour was paid at +so high a rate.</p> + +<p>As a matter of course, a telegraph was laid between Eden Vale and Mombasa +together with this double-railed railway.</p> + +<p>Whilst these works were in progress and the incessantly growing population +of Freeland was brought into closer connection with the old home, important +changes had been brought about in our relations with our native African +neighbours--changes in part pacific, in part warlike, and which exercised a +not less important influence upon the course of development of our +commonwealth.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the Masai of Lykipia and the lake districts between +Naivasha and Baringo, had, at their own initiative and at their own cost, +though under the direction of some of our engineers, constructed a good +waggon-road, 230 miles long, through their whole district from the Naivasha +lake northwards, and then eastwards through Lykipia as far as Eden Vale. +They declared that their honour and their pride were offended by having to +pass through a foreign district when they wished to visit us, the only +practicable road having been one through the country of the Wa-Kikuyu. So +strong was their desire to be in immediate touch with our district that, +when a part of the hired Wa-Taveta road-makers, on account of some +misunderstanding, left them in the lurch, the Masai themselves took their +places, and, taking turns to the number of 3,000, they carried on the work +with an energy which no one could have supposed to be possible in a people +who not long before had been so averse to labour. We decided to reward this +proof of strong attachment and of great capacity by an equally striking act +of recognition. When the Masai road was finished, and a deputation of the +elders and leaders of all the tribes made a jubilant and triumphant entry +by it into Eden Vale, we received them with great honour, and gave them +presents for the whole Masai people which were worth about as much as the +new road had cost. In addition, the 6,500 Werndl rifles, which had hitherto +been only lent to the Masai, and 2,000 horses were given them as their own +property in token of our friendship and respect. It goes without saying +that the weapons were received by this still martial people with great +enthusiasm. And the horses were almost more valuable still in their eyes; +for riding was the one among all our arts which the Masai most admired, and +among all our possessions which they esteemed most highly were our horses. +But we had hitherto been very frugal with our horses, and we had given away +only a few to individual natives in Masailand and Taveta in recognition of +special services. The number of horses in Freeland had, partly by breeding, +but mainly by continuous systematic importation, increased during the first +two years to 26,000; but we expected at first to make more use of horses +than was afterwards found to be necessary, and that was the reason why this +noble animal, which we had been the first to establish in Equatorial +Africa, was still a much-admired rarity everywhere outside of Freeland, +particularly in Masailand, where the horse was regarded as the ideal of +martial valour.</p> + +<p>In the second place, it should be mentioned that the civilisation of the +Masai, as well as of the other tribes in alliance with us, made rapid +progress. The <i>el-moran</i>, when once they had become accustomed to light +work, and had given up their inactive camp-life, allowed themselves to be +induced by us to enter early upon the married state. Our women succeeded in +uprooting the Ditto abuse. Several of the ladies, with Mrs. Ney at their +head, undertook a tour through Masailand, and offered to every Masai girl +who made a solemn promise of chastity until marriage, admission into a +Freeland family for a year, and instruction in our manners, customs, and +various forms of skilled labour. So great was the number who accepted this +offer, that they could not all be received into Freeland at once, but had +to be divided into three yearly groups. Yet even those who could not be +immediately received were decorated with the insignia of their new +honour--a complete dress after the Freeland pattern, their barbarian wire +neck-bands, leg-chains, and ear-stretchers, as well as their coating of +grease, being discarded--and they were solemnly pronounced to be 'friends +of the white women.' So permanent was the influence of this distinction +upon the Masai girls, who had not given up their ambition along with their +licentious habits, that not one of them proved to be unworthy of the +friendship of the virtuous white ladies. The Masai youth were so zealous in +their efforts to win the favour of the girls who were thus distinguished, +that the latter were all very soon married. That at the end of the year +there was an eager competition for the girls who were returning home is as +much a matter of course as that those who in the meantime had married, even +if they had had children, had not forfeited their right to a residence in +Freeland--a circumstance that led to not a few embarrassments. The ultimate +result was that in a very short time the once so licentious Masailand was +changed into a model country of good morals. The hitherto prevalent +polygamy died out, and several hundred good schools arose in different +parts of the country, which in that way made gigantic strides towards +complete civilisation.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, in the north-west, among our Kavirondo friends on the +north shore of the Victoria Nyanza, events of another kind were preparing. +The Kavirondo, a very numerous and peaceable agricultural and pastoral +tribe, touched Uganda, where, during recent years, there had been many +internal struggles and revolutions. Unlike the other peoples whom we have +become acquainted with, and who lived in independent, loosely connected, +small tribes under freely elected chiefs with little influence, the +Wangwana (the name of the inhabitants of Uganda) have been for centuries +united into a great despotically governed State under a <i>kabaka</i> or +emperor. Their kingdom, whose original part stretches along the north bank +of the Victoria Nyanza, has been of varying dimensions, according as the +fierce policy of conquest of the <i>kabaka</i> for the time being was more or +less successful; but Uganda has always been a scourge to all its +neighbours, who have suffered from the ceaseless raids, extortions, and +cruelties of the Wangwana. Broad and fertile stretches of country became +desert under this plague; and as for many years the <i>kabaka</i> had been able, +by means of Arab dealers, to get possession of a few thousand (though very +miserable) guns, and a few cannons (with which latter he had certainly not +been able to effect much for want of suitable ammunition), the dread of the +cruel robber State grew very great. Just at the time of our arrival at the +Kenia there was an epoch of temporary calm, because the Wangwana were too +much occupied with their own internal quarrels to pay much attention to +their neighbours. After the death of the last <i>kabaka</i> his numerous sons +terribly devastated the country by their ferocious struggles for the rule, +until in the previous year one of the rivals who was named Suna (after an +ancestor renowned both for his cruelty and for his conquests) had got rid +of most of his brothers by treachery. The power was thenceforward +concentrated more and more in the hands of this <i>kabaka</i>, and the raids and +extortions among the neighbouring tribes at once recommenced. Suna's anger +was directed particularly against the Kavirondo, because these had allowed +one of his brothers, who had fled to them, to escape, instead of having +delivered him up. Repeatedly had several thousand Wangwana fallen upon the +Kavirondo, carried off men and cattle, burnt villages, cut down the +bananas, destroyed the harvests, and thus inflicted inhuman cruelty. In +their necessity the Kavirondo appealed to the northern Masai tribes for +help. They had heard that we had supplied the Masai with guns and horses; +and they now begged the Masai to send a troop of warriors with European +equipments to guard their Uganda frontier. As payment, they promised to +give to every Masai warrior who came to their aid a liberal maintenance and +an ox monthly, and to every horseman, two oxen.</p> + +<p>Less on account of this offer than to gratify their love of adventure, the +Masai, having first consulted us in Freeland, consented. We saw no +sufficient reason to keep them from rendering this assistance, although we +were by no means so certain as to the result as were our neighbours, who +considered themselves invincible now they were in possession of their new +weapons. We offered to place several experienced white leaders at the head +of the troops they sent to Kavirondo; but as we saw that our martial +friends looked upon this as a sign of distrust and were a little displeased +at the offer, we simply warned them to be cautious, and particularly not to +be wasteful of the ammunition they took with them.</p> + +<p>At first everything went well. Wherever the Wangwana marauders showed +themselves they were sent home with bleeding heads, even when they appeared +in large numbers; and after a few months it seemed almost as if these +severe lessons had induced the Wangwana to leave the Kavirondo alone in +future, for a long time passed without any further raids. But suddenly, +when we were busy getting in our October harvest, there reached us the +startling news of a dreadful catastrophe which had befallen our Masai +friends in Kavirondo. The <i>kabaka</i> Suna had only taken time to prepare for +an annihilating blow. While the former raids had been made by bodies of +only a few thousand men, this time Suna had collected 30,000, of whom 5,000 +bore muskets; and, placing himself at their head, he had with these fallen +upon the Kavirondo and Masai unexpectedly. He surprised a frontier-camp of +900 Masai with 300 horses when they were asleep, and cut them to pieces +before they had time to recover from their surprise. The Masai thus not +only lost more than a third of their number, but the remainder of them were +divided into two independent parts, for the surprised camp was in the +middle of the cordon. But, instead of hastily retreating and waiting until +the remaining force had been able to unite before taking the offensive, one +of the Masai leaders, as soon as he had hurriedly got some 500 men +together, was led by his rage at the overthrow of so many of his comrades +to make a foolhardy attack upon the enormously over-numbering force of the +enemy; he thereby fell into an ambush, and, after having too rashly shot +away all his cartridges, was, together with his men, so fearfully cut down +that, after a most heroic resistance, only a very few escaped. Our friend +Mdango, who now took the command, was able to collect only 1,100 or 1,200 +Masai on the other wing; and with these he succeeded in making a tolerably +orderly retreat into the interior of Kavirondo, being but little molested +by Suna, whose eye was kept mainly fixed upon collecting the colossal +booty.</p> + +<p>Our ultimatum was despatched to Suna on the very day on which we received +this sad news. We told the Masai, who offered to send the whole body of +their warriors against Uganda, that 1,000 men, in addition to the 1,200 at +present in Kavirondo, would be sufficient. We placed these 2,200 Masai +under our Freeland officers, chose from among ourselves 900 volunteers, +including 500 horsemen, and added twelve cannons and sixteen rockets, +together with thirty elephants. On the 24th of October Johnston, the leader +of this campaign, started for Kavirondo along the Masai road.</p> + +<p>There he found, around the camp of the <i>el-moran</i>--now, when it was too +late, very carefully entrenched and guarded--unnumbered thousands of +Kavirondo and Nangi, armed with spear and bow. These he sent home as a +useless crowd. On the 10th of November he crossed the Uganda frontier; six +days later Suna was totally overthrown in a brief engagement near the Ripon +falls, his host of 110,000 men scattered to the winds, and he himself, with +a few thousand of his bodyguard armed with muskets and officered by Arabs +from the coast, taken prisoner.</p> + +<p>On the second day after the fight our men occupied Rubaga, the capital of +Uganda. Thither came in rapid succession all the chief men of the country, +promising unconditional submission and ready to agree to any terms we might +offer. But Johnston offered to receive them into the great alliance between +us and the other native nations--an offer which the Wangwana naturally +accepted with the greatest joy. The conditions laid upon them were: +emancipation of all slaves, peaceful admission of Freeland colonists and +teachers, and reparation for all the injury they had done to the Kavirondo +and the Masai. In this last respect the Wangwana people suffered nothing, +for the countless herds of cattle belonging to their <i>kabaka</i> which had +fallen into our hands as booty amply sufficed to replace what had been +stolen from the Kavirondo and as indemnity for the slain Kavirondo and +Masai warriors. Suna himself was carried away as prisoner, and interned on +the banks of the Naivasha lake.</p> + +<p>The subsequent pacific relations were uninterrupted except by an isolated +attempt at resistance by the Arabs that had been left in the country; but +this was promptly and vigorously put down by the Wangwana themselves +without any need of our intervention. What contributed largely to inspire +respect in the breasts of the Wangwana were a military road which the +Kavirondo and Nangi constructed from the Victoria Nyanza to the Masai road +on the Baringo lake, and a Masai colony of 3,000 <i>el-moran</i> on the +Kavirondo and Uganda frontier. But on the whole, after the battle at the +Ripon falls, the mere sound of our name was sufficient to secure peace and +quiet in this part also of the interior of Equatorial Africa. All round the +Victoria Nyanza, whose shores from time immemorial had been the theatre of +savage, merciless fighting, humane sentiments and habits gradually +prevailed; and as a consequence a considerable degree of material +prosperity was developed with comparative rapidity among what had +previously been the wildest tribes.</p> + +<p>Even apart from its size, the Victoria Nyanza is the most important among +the enormous lakes of Central Africa. It covers an area of more than 20,000 +square miles, and is therefore, with the exception of the Caspian, the Sea +of Aral, and the group of large lakes in North America, the largest piece +of inland water in the world. It is larger than the whole of the kingdom of +Bavaria, and its depth is proportionate to its size, for the plummet in +places does not touch the ground until it has sunk 250 fathoms; it lies +4,400 feet above the sea-level--more than 650 feet above the Brocken, the +highest hill in Middle Germany. This lake is nearly encircled by ranges of +hills which rise from 1,500 to 5,000 feet above its surface; so that the +climate of the immediately contiguous country, which is healthy without +exception and quite free from swamp, is everywhere temperate, and in some +districts positively Arcadian. And this magnificent, picturesque, and in +many places highly romantic lake is the basin source of the sacred Nile, +which, leaving it at the extreme northern end by the Ripon falls, flows +thence to the Albert Nyanza, which is 1,500 feet lower, and thence +continues its course as the White Nile.</p> + +<p>Two months after we had established ourselves in Kavirondo and Uganda a +screw steamer of 500 tons burden was ploughing the sea-like waves of the +Victoria Nyanza, and before the end of the next year our lake flotilla +consisted of five ships. These were well received everywhere on the coast, +and the brisk commerce created by them proved to be one of the most +effective of civilising agencies. The fertility of the lands surrounding +this splendid lake is positively unbounded. A few hundred square yards of +well-watered ground are sufficient to supply the needs of a large family; +and when we had once instructed the natives in the use of agricultural +implements, the abundance of the choicest field and garden produce was +unexampled. But the growth of higher needs, particularly among the tribes +that dwelt on the western shores of the lake, remained for a long time +remarkably behind the improvement in the means of production. These simple +tribes produced more than sufficient to supply their wants, almost without +any expenditure of labour, and often out of mere curiosity to see the +results of the improved implements which had been furnished to them. As +they had no conception of property in land, and the non-utilisable +over-production could not, therefore, with them--as would unquestionably +have happened elsewhere--beget misery among the masses, here for years +together the fable of the Castle of Indolence became a reality. The idea of +property was almost lost, the necessities of life became valueless, +everyone could take as much of them as he wished to have; strangers +travelling through found everywhere a well-spread table; in short, the +Golden Age seemed about to come to the Victoria Nyanza. This absolute lack +of a sense of higher needs, however, proved to be a check to further +progress, and we took pains--not altogether without regret--so far to +disturb this paradisiacal condition as to endeavour to excite in the tribes +a taste for what they had not got. Our endeavours succeeded, but the +success was long in coming. With the advent of more strongly felt needs a +higher morality and intellectual culture at once took root in this corner +of the earth.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XII</h3> + +<p> +One of the principal tasks of the Freeland government, and one in which, as +a rule, the ministries for art and science and for public works +co-operated, was the thorough investigation and survey of our new home: +first of the narrower district of the Kenia, and then of the neighbouring +regions with which we were continually coming into closer relationship. The +orographic and hydrographic systems of the whole country were determined; +the soil and the climate were minutely examined. In doing this, both the +higher scientific standpoint and that of prosaic utility were kept in view. +For scientific purposes there was constructed an accurate map of the whole +of the Masai and Kikuyu territories, showing most of the geographical +details. All the more prominent eminences were measured and ascended, the +Kenia not excepted.</p> + +<p>The view from the Kenia is magnificent above measure; but, apart from the +mountain itself and its glaciers, it offers little variety. In a circle, as +far as the eye can reach, spreads a most fertile country, intersected by +numerous watercourses, which nowhere, except in a great trough-like basin +of about 1,900 square miles in extent in the north-west, give rise to +swamps. The most striking feature of the whole region is the tableland +falling away in a number of terraces, and broken by the shoulders of +massive hills. The foot-hills proper of the Kenia begin with the highest +terrace, where they form a girdle of varying breadth and height around the +central mass of the mountain, which rises with a steep abrupt outline. This +central mass, at a height of from 16,000 to 18,000 feet, bears a number of +gigantic glacier-fields, from the midst of which the peak rises abruptly, +flanked at some distance by a yet steeper, but small, horn.</p> + +<p>A very different character marks the next in importance of the +mountain-formations that belong to the district of Freeland--namely, the +Aberdare range, about forty-five miles west of the Kenia, and stretching +from north to south a distance of more than sixty miles, with an average +breadth of twelve and a-half miles. The highest peak of this chain reaches +nearly 15,000 feet above the sea; and while the Kenia everywhere bears an +impress of grandeur, a ravishing loveliness is the great characteristic of +the Aberdare landscapes. It is true that here also are not wanting colossal +hills that produce an overwhelming impression, but the chief peculiarity is +the charming variety of romantic billowy-outlined hills, intermingled with +broad valleys, covered in part with luxuriant but not too dense forests, in +part spreading out into emerald flowery pastures everywhere watered by +numberless crystal-clear brooks and rivers, lakes and pools. This +mountain-district of nearly 800 square miles resembles a magnificent park, +from whose eminences the mighty snow-sea of the Kenia is visible to the +east, and the emerald-and-sapphire sheen of the great Masai +lakes--Naivasha, El-Meteita, and Nakuro--to the west. And this marvellously +lovely landscape, which combines all the charms of Switzerland and India, +bears in the bosom of its hills immense mineral treasures. Here, and not at +the Kenia, as our geologists soon discovered, was the future seat of the +Freeland industry, particularly of the metallurgic industry. Beds of coal +which in extent and quality at least equalled the best of England, +magnetite containing from fifty to seventy per cent. of iron, copper, lead, +bismuth, antimony, sulphur in rich veins, a large bed of rock-salt on the +western declivity just above the salt lake of Nakuro, and a number of other +mineral treasures, were discovered in rapid succession, and the most +accessible of them were at once taken advantage of. In particular, the +newly opened copper-mines had a heavy demand made upon their resources when +the telegraph was laid to the coast; the demand was still heavier as +electricity became more and more largely used as a motive force.</p> + +<p>For great changes had meantime taken place at the Kenia. New-comers +continued to arrive in greater and greater numbers. At the close of the +fourth year the population of Freeland had risen to 780,000 souls. A great +part of Eden Vale had become a city of villas, which covered forty square +miles and contained 58,000 dwelling-houses, whose 270,000 occupants devoted +themselves to gardening, industrial, or intellectual pursuits. The +population of the Dana plateau had risen to 140,000, who, besides +cultivating what land was still available there for agriculture, gave by +far the greater part of their attention to various kinds of industries. The +main part of the agriculture had been transferred to a plain some 650 feet +lower down, beyond the zone of forest. This lower plateau extended, with +occasional breaks, round the whole of the mountain, and offered in its +3,000 square miles of fertile soil abundant agricultural ground for the +immediate future.</p> + +<p>Here some 240,000 acres were at first brought under the plough after they +had--like all the cultivated ground in Freeland--been protected against the +visits of wild animals by a strong timber fence. The smaller game, which +could not be kept away from the seed by fencing, had respect for the dogs, +of which many were bred and trained to keep watch at the fences as well as +to guard the cattle. This protection was amply sufficient to keep away all +the creatures that would have meddled with the seed, except the monkeys, +some of which had occasionally to be shot when, in their nocturnal raids, +they refused to be frightened away by the furious barking of the +four-footed guardians.</p> + +<p>Steam was still provisionally employed as motive power in agriculture; but +provision was being made on a very large scale to substitute electric for +steam force. The motive power for the electric dynamos was derived from the +Dana river where, after being supplemented by two large streams from the +hills just below the great waterfall, it was broken into a series of strong +rapids and cataracts as it hurried down to the lower land. These rapids and +cataracts were at the lower end of the tableland which, as indicative of +the use we made of it, we named Cornland. It was these rapids and smaller +cataracts, and not the great waterfall of 800 feet, that were utilised for +agricultural purposes. These afforded a total fall of 870 feet; and, as the +river here already had a great body of water, it was possible, by a +well-arranged combination of turbines and electro-motors, to obtain a total +force of from 500,000 to 600,000 horse-power. This was far more than could +be required for the cultivation of the whole of Cornland even in the +intensest manner. The provision made for the next year was calculated at +40,000 horse-power. Well-isolated strong copper wires were to convey the +force generated by twenty gigantic turbines in two hundred dynamos to its +several destinations, where it had to perform all the labours of +agriculture, from ploughing to the threshing, dressing, and transport of +the corn. For a network of electrical railways was also a part of this +system of agricultural mechanism.</p> + +<p>The great Dana cataract, with what was calculated to be a force of 124,000 +horse-power, was utilised for the purposes of electric lighting in Eden +Vale and in the town on the Dana plateau. For the time being, for the +public lighting it sufficed to erect 5,000 contact-lamps a little more than +100 feet high, and each having a lighting power of 2,000 candles. These +used up a force of 12,000 horse-power. For lighting dwelling-houses and +isolated or night-working factories, 420,000 incandescent-lamps were +employed. This required a force of 40,000 horse-power; so that the great +cataract had to supply a force of 52,000 horse-power to the electro-motors. +This was employed during the day as the motive power of a net of railways, +with a total length of a little over 200 miles, which traversed the +principal streets and roads in the Dana plateau and Eden Vale. In the +evening and at night, when the electricity was used for lighting purposes, +the railways had to be worked by dynamos of several thousand horse-power. +In this way altogether nearly two-fifths of the available force was called +into requisition at the close of the fifth year; the remaining three-fifths +remained for the time unemployed, and formed a reserve for future needs.</p> + +<p>The fourth and fifth years of Freeland were also marked by the construction +of a net of canals and aqueducts, both for Eden Vale and for the Dana +plateau. The canals served merely to carry the storm-water into the Dana; +whilst the refuse-water and the sewage were carried away in cast-iron pipes +by means of a system of pneumatic exhaust-tubes, and then disinfected and +utilised as manure. The aqueducts were connected with the best springs in +the upper hills, and possessed a provisional capacity of supplying +22,000,000 gallons daily, and were used for supplying a number of public +wells, as well as all the private houses. By the addition of fresh sources +this supply was in a short period doubled and trebled. At the same time all +the streets were macadamised; so that the cleanliness and health of the +young towns were duly cared for in all respects.</p> + +<p>The board of education had made no less vigorous efforts. A public opinion +had grown up that the youth of Freeland, without distinction of sex and +without reference to future callings, ought to enjoy an education which, +with the exception of the knowledge of Greek and Latin, should correspond +to that obtainable, for example, in the six first classes in a German +gymnasium. Accordingly, boys and girls were to attend school from the age +of six to that of sixteen years, and, after acquiring the elements, were to +be taught grammar, the history of literature, general history, the history +of civilisation, physics, natural history, geometry, and algebra.</p> + +<p>Not less importance was attached to physical education than to intellectual +and moral. Indeed, it was a principle in Freeland that physical education +should have precedence, since a healthy, harmoniously developed mind +presupposed a healthy harmoniously developed body. Moreover, in the +cultivation of the intellect less stress was laid upon the accumulation of +knowledge than upon the stimulation of the young mind to independent +thought; therefore nothing was more anxiously and carefully avoided than +over-pressure of mental work. No child was to be engaged in mental +work--home preparation included--longer than at most six hours a day; hence +the hours of teaching of any mental subject were limited to three a day, +whilst two other school hours were devoted daily to physical +exercises--gymnastics, running, dancing, swimming, riding; and for boys, in +addition, fencing, wrestling, and shooting. A further principle in Freeland +education was that the children should not be <i>forced</i> into activity any +more than the adults. We held that a properly directed logical system of +education, not confined to the use of a too limited range of means, could +scarcely fail to bring the pliable mind of childhood to a voluntary and +eager fulfilment of reasonably allotted duties. And experience justified +our opinion. Our mode of instruction had to be such as would make school +exceedingly attractive; but, when this had been achieved, our boys and +girls learnt in half the time as much, and that as thoroughly, as the +physically and intellectually maltreated European boys and girls of the +same age. For health's sake, the teaching was carried on out of doors as +much as possible. With this in view, the schools were built either in large +gardens or on the border of the forest, and the lessons in natural history +were regularly, and other lessons frequently, given in connection with +excursions into the neighbourhood. Consequently our school children +presented a different appearance from that we had been accustomed to see in +our old home, and especially in its great cities. Rosy faces and figures +full of robust health, vigour, and the joy of living, self-reliance, and +strong intelligence were betrayed by every mien and every movement. Thus +were our children equipped for entering upon the serious duties of life.</p> + +<p>Naturally such a system of instruction demanded a very numerous and highly +gifted staff of teachers. In Freeland there was on an average one teacher +to every fifteen scholars, and the best intelligence in the land was +secured for the teaching profession by the payment of high salaries. For +the first four classes, which were taught chiefly by young women--single or +widowed--the salaries ranged from 1,400 to 1,800 labour-hour equivalents; +for the other six classes from 1,800 to 2,400. In the fifth year of the +settlement these salaries, reckoned in money, amounted to from £350 to +£600.</p> + +<p>But even such a demand for high intelligence Freeland was determined to +meet out of its own resources. In the third year, therefore, a high school +was founded, in which all those branches of knowledge were taught which in +Europe can be learnt at the universities, academies, and technical +colleges. All the faculties were endowed with a liberality of which those +outside of Freeland can have scarcely any conception. Our observatories, +laboratories, and museums had command of almost unlimited means, and no +stipend was too high to attract and retain a brilliant teacher. The same +held good of the technical, and not less of the agricultural and +commercial, professorial chairs and apparatus for teaching in our high +school. The instruction in all faculties was absolutely untrammelled, and, +like that in the lower schools, gratuitous. In the fifth year of the +settlement the high school had 7,500 students, the number of its chairs was +215; its annual budget reached as high as £2,500,000, and was rapidly +increasing.</p> + +<p>The means for all this enormous outlay was furnished in rich abundance by +the tax levied on the total income of all producers; for this income grew +amazingly under the double influence of the increasing population and the +increasing productiveness of labour. When the railway to the coast was +finished and its results had begun to make themselves felt, the value of +the average profit of a labour-hour quickly rose to 6s.; and as at this +time, the end of the fifth year in Freeland, 280,000 workers were +productively engaged for an average of six hours a day--that is, for 1,800 +hours in the year--the total value of the profit of labour that year in +Freeland amounted to 280,000 × 1,800 × 6s.--that is, to a round sum of +£150,000,000. Of this the commonwealth reserved thirty-five per cent. as +tax--that is, in round figures, £52,500,000; and this was the source from +which, after meeting the claims for the maintenance allowances--which +certainly absorbed more than half--all the expenses it was held desirable +to indulge in were defrayed.</p> + +<p>In fact, the growth of revenue was so certain and had reached such large +proportions that, at the end of the fifth year, the executive resolved to +place before the representative bodies, meeting together for the purpose, +two measures of great importance: first, to make the granting of credits to +the associations independent of the central authority; and, secondly, to +return the free contributions of the members who had already joined, and in +future to accept no such contributions.</p> + +<p>For the reasons given in the eighth chapter, the amount and order of the +loans for productive purposes had hitherto been dependent upon the decision +of the central authority. The stock of capitalistic aids to labour, and +consequently the productive means of the community, had now, however, +reached such a stage as to make any limit to the right of free and +independent decision by the workers themselves quite unnecessary. The +associations might ask for whatever they thought would be useful to +themselves, the capital of the country being considered equal to any +demands that could be reasonably anticipated. And this confidence in the +resources of Freeland proved to be well grounded. It is true that twice, in +the years that immediately followed this resolution, it happened that, in +consequence of unexpectedly large demands for capital, the portion of the +public revenue used for that purpose considerably exceeded the normal +proportion; but, thanks to the constant increase in all the profits of +production, this was borne without the slightest inconvenience. Later, the +reserves in the hands of the commonwealth sufficed to remove even this +element of fluctuation from the relations between the demand for capital +and the public revenue.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, this resolution called forth a remarkable attempt to +swindle the commonwealth by means of the absolute freedom with which loans +were granted. In America a syndicate of speculative 'men of business' was +formed for the purpose of exploiting the simple-minded credulity of us +'stupid Freelanders.' Their plan was to draw as large a sum as possible +from our central bank under the pretence of requiring it to found an +association. Forty-six of the cleverest and most unscrupulous Yankees +joined in this campaign against our pockets. What they meant to do, and how +far they succeeded, can be best shown by giving the narrative written by +their leader, who is at present the honoured manager of the great saltworks +on the Nakuro lake:</p> + +<p>'After we had arrived in Eden Vale, we decided to try the ground before we +proceeded to execute our design. We noticed, to our great satisfaction, +that the mistrust of the Freelanders would give us very little trouble. The +hotel in which we put up supplied us with everything on credit, and no one +took the trouble to ask we were. When I remarked to the host in a paternal +tone that it was a very careless procedure to keep a pump indiscriminately +free to any stroller who might come along, the host--I mean the director of +the Eden Vale Hotel Association--laughed and said there was no fear of +anyone's running away, for no one, whoever he might be, ever thought of +leaving Freeland. "So far, so good," thought I; but I asked further what +the Hotel Association would do if a guest <i>could</i> not pay? "Nonsense," said +the director; "here everyone can pay as soon as he begins to work." "And if +he can't work?" "Then he gets a maintenance allowance from the +commonwealth." "And if he won't work?" The man smiled, slapped me on the +shoulder, and said, "Won't work won't last long here, you may rely upon it. +Besides, if one who has sound limbs <i>will</i> be lazy--well, he still gets bed +and board among us. So don't trouble yourself about paying your score; you +may pay when you can and will."</p> + +<p>'He made a curious impression upon us, this director. We said nothing, but +resolved to sound these Freelanders further. We went into the great +warehouses to get clothes, linen, &c., on credit. It succeeded admirably. +The salesmen--they were clerks, as we found--asked for a draft on the +central bank; and when we replied that we had no account there as yet, they +said it did not matter--it would be sufficient if we gave a written +statement of the amount of our purchases, and the bank, when we had an +account there, would honour it. It was the same everywhere. Mackay or Gould +cannot get credit in New York more readily than we did in Freeland.</p> + +<p>'After a few days, we began to take steps towards establishing our +association. As I have said, we had at first no fear of exciting distrust. +But it was inconvenient that the Freeland constitution insisted upon +publicity in connection with every act, date, and circumstance connected +with business. We knew that we had nothing to fear from police or courts of +justice; but what should we do if the Freeland public were to acquire a +taste for the proposed association and wish to join it? Naturally we could +not admit outsiders as partners, but must keep the thing to ourselves, +otherwise our plan would be spoilt. We tried to find out if there were any +means of limiting the number of participators in our scheme. We minutely +questioned well-informed Freelanders upon the subject. We complained of the +abominable injustice of being compelled to share with everybody the benefit +of the splendid "idea" which we had conceived, to reveal our business +secrets, and so forth. But it was all of no use. The Freelanders remained +callous upon this point. They told us that no one would force us to reveal +our secrets if we were willing to work them out with our own resources; but +if we needed Freeland land and Freeland capital, then of course all +Freeland must know what we wanted to do. "And if our business can employ +only a small number of workers--if, for example, the goods that we wish to +make, though they yield a great profit, yet have a very limited +market--must we also in such a case let everybody come in?" "In such a +case," was the answer, "Freeland workers will not be so stupid as to force +themselves upon you in great numbers." "Good!" cried I, with dissembled +anger; "but if more should come in than are needed?" The people had an +answer even to this; for they said that those workers that were not needed +would withdraw, or, if they remained, they would have to work fewer hours, +or work in turns, or do something of that sort; opportunity of making +profitable use of spare time was never lacking in Freeland.</p> + +<p>'What was to be done? We should be obliged to give our plans such a +character as to prevent the Freeland workers from having any wish to share +in them. But this must not be done too clumsily, as the people would after +all smell a rat, or perhaps join us out of pure philanthropy, in order to +save us from the consequences of our folly. We ultimately decided to set up +a needle-factory. Such a factory would be obviously--in the then condition +of trade--unprofitable, but the scheme was not so absolutely romantic as to +bring the inquisitive about our necks. We therefore organised ourselves, +and had the satisfaction of having no partners except a couple of +simpletons who, for some reason or other, fancied that needle-making was a +good business; and it was not very difficult to pet rid of these two. The +next thing was to fix the amount of capital to be required for the +business--that is, the amount of credit we should ask for at the central +bank. We should very naturally have preferred to ask at once for a million +pounds sterling; but that we could not do, as we should have to state what +we needed the money for, and a needle-factory for forty-eight workers could +not possibly have swallowed up so much without bringing upon us a whole +legion of investigating critics in the form of working partners. So we +limited our demand to £130,000, and even this amount excited some surprise; +but we explained our demand by asserting that the new machines which we +intended to use were very dear.</p> + +<p>'But now came the main anxiety. How were we to get this £130,000, or the +greater part of it, into our pockets? Our people had elected me director of +the first "Eden Vale Needle-factory Association," and, as such, I went the +next day into the bank to open our account there and to obtain all the +necessary information. The cashier assured me that all payments authorised +by me should be at once made; but when I asked for a "small advance" of a +few thousand pounds, he asked in astonishment what was to be done with it. +"We must pay our small debts." "Unnecessary," was his answer; "all debts +are discharged here through the bank." "Yes, but what are my people and I +to live upon in the mean time, until our factory begins to work?" I asked +with some heat. "Upon your work in other undertakings, or upon your +savings, if you have any. Besides, you cannot fail to get credit; but we, +the central bank, give merely productive credit--we cannot advance to you +what you consume."</p> + +<p>'There we were with nothing but our credit for £130,000, and we began to +perceive that it was not so easy to carry off the money. Certainly we could +build and give orders for what we pleased. But what good would it do us to +spend money upon useless things?</p> + +<p>'The worst was that we should have to begin to work in earnest if we would +not after all excite a general distrust; so we joined different +undertakings. But we would not admit that we were beaten, and after mature +reflection I hit upon the following as the only possible method of carrying +out the swindle we had planned. The central bank was the channel through +which all purchases and sales were made, but, as I soon detected, did not +interfere in the least with the buyer or the person who ordered goods in +the choice of such goods as he might think suitable. We had, therefore, the +right to order the machinery for our needle-factory of any manufacturers we +pleased in Europe or America, and the central bank would pay for it. We, +therefore, merely had to act in conjunction with some European or American +firm of swindlers, and share the profits with them, in order to carry off a +rich booty.</p> + +<p>'At the same time, it occurred to me that it would be infinitely stupid to +make use of such a method. It was quite plain that very little was to be +gained in that way; but, even if it had been possible for each of us to +embezzle a fortune, I had lost all desire to leave Freeland. The chances +were that I should be a loser by leaving. I was a novice at honest work, +and any special exertion was not then to my taste. Yet I had earned as much +as 12s. a day, and that is £180 a year, with which one can live as well +here as with twice as much in America or England. Even if I continued to +work in the same way, merely enough to keep off <i>ennui</i>, my income would +very soon increase. In the worst case, I could live upon my earnings here +as well as £400 or £500 would enable me to live elsewhere; and there was +not the slightest prospect of being able to steal so much. The result was +that I declined to go away. Firstly, because I was very happy here; +intercourse with decent men was becoming more and more pleasant and +attractive to the scoundrel, which I then was; and then--it struck me as +rather comical--I began to get ashamed of my roguery. Even scoundrels have +their honour. In the other parts of the world, where <i>everyone</i> fleeces his +neighbour if he can, I did not think myself worse than the so-called honest +people: the only difference was that I did not adhere so closely to the +law. There, all are engaged in hunting down their dear neighbours; that I +allowed myself to hunt without my chart did not trouble my conscience much, +especially as I only had the alternative of hunting or being hunted. But +here in Freeland no one hunted for his neighbour's goods; here every rogue +must confess himself to be worse than all the rest, and indeed a rascal +without necessity, out of pure delight in rascality. If one only had the +spur of danger which in the outer world clothed this hunting with so much +poetry! But here there was not a trace of it! The Freelanders would not +even have pursued us if we had bolted with our embezzled booty; we might +have run off as unmolested as so many mangy dogs. No; here I neither would +nor could be a rascal. I called my companions together to tell them that I +resigned my position as director, withdrew altogether from the company, and +meant to devote myself here to honest work. There was not one who did not +agree with me. Some of them were not quite reconciled to work, but they all +meant to remain. One specially persistent fellow asked whether, as we were +once more together by ourselves, and might not be so again, it would not be +a smart trick if we were to embezzle a few thousand pounds before we became +honest folks; but it did not even need a reference to the individual +responsibility of the members of the association for the debts that the +association contracted in order to dispose of the proposition of this last +adherent to our former rascality. Not only would they all stay here, but +they would become honest--these hardened rogues, who a few weeks before +were wont to use the words <i>honest</i> and <i>stupid</i> as synonyms. So it came to +pass that the fine plan, in devising which the "smartest fellows" of New +England had exhausted their invention, was silently dropped; and, if I am +well informed, not one of the forty-six of us has ever uttered a +complaint.'</p> + +<p>The second proposal brought before the united representatives of +Freeland--the repayment of the larger or smaller contributions which most +of the members had up to then paid on admission into the Society--involved +the disbursement of not less than £43,000,000. The members had always been +told that their contributions were not repayable, but were to be a +sacrifice towards the attainment of the objects of the Society. +Nevertheless, the government of Freeland considered that now, when the new +commonwealth no longer needed such a sacrifice, it was only just to +dispense with it, both prospectively and retrospectively. The generous +benefactors had never based any claim to special recognition or higher +honour upon the assistance they had so richly afforded to the poorer +members; in fact, most of them had even refused to be recognised as +benefactors. Neither was this assistance in any way inconsistent with the +principles upon which the new community was founded; on the contrary, it +was quite in harmony with those principles that the assistance afforded by +the wealthy to the helpless should be regarded as based upon sound rational +self-interest. But when the time had come when, as a consequence of this so +generously practised rational egoism, the commonwealth was strong enough to +dispense with extraneous aids, and to repay what had been already given, it +seemed to us just that this should be done.</p> + +<p>This proposal was unanimously accepted without debate, and immediately +carried into execution. All the contributors received back their +contributions--that is, the amounts were placed to their credit in the +books of the central bank, and they could dispose of them as they pleased.</p> + +<p>With this, the second epoch of the history of Freeland may be regarded as +closed. The founding of the commonwealth, which occupied the first epoch, +was effected entirely by the voluntary sacrifices of the individual +members. In the second period, this aid, though no longer absolutely +necessary, was a useful and effective means of promoting the rapid growth +of the commonwealth. Henceforth, grown to be a giant, this free +commonwealth rejected all aid of whatever kind that did not spring out of +its regular resources; and, recompensing past aid a thousand-fold, it was +now the great institution upon whose ever-inexhaustible means the want and +misery of every part of the world might with certainty reckon.</p> + + +<h2><i>BOOK III</i></h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3> + +<p> +Twenty years have passed away--twenty-five years since the arrival of our +pioneers at the Kenia. The principles by which Freeland has been governed +have remained the same, and their results have not changed, except that the +intellectual and material culture, and the number and wealth of the +inhabitants have grown in a continually increasing ratio. The immigration, +by means of fifty-four of the largest ocean steamers of a total of 495,000 +tons register, had reached in the twenty-fifth year the figure of 1,152,000 +heads. In order to convey into the heart of the continent as quickly as +possible this influx to the African coast from all parts of the world, the +Freeland system of railways has been either carried to or connected with +other lines that reach the ocean at four different points. One line is that +which was constructed in the previous epoch between Eden Vale and Mombasa. +Four years later, after the pacification of the Galla tribes, the line to +the Witu coast through the Dana valley was constructed. Nine years after +that, a line--like all the other principal lines in Freeland, +double-railed--along the Nile valley from the Victoria Nyanza and the +Albert Nyanza, through the equatorial provinces of Egypt, Dongola, the +Soudan, and Nubia, was connected with the Egyptian railway system, and thus +brought Freeland into railway communication with the Mediterranean. +Finally, in the twenty-fourth year, the finishing touch was given to the +great Equatorial Trunk Railway, which, starting from Uganda on the Victoria +Nyanza, and crossing the Nile where it leaves the Albert Nyanza, reaches +the Atlantic Ocean through the valleys of the Aruwhimi and the Congo. Thus +we possess two direct railway communications with the Indian Ocean, and one +each with the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Naturally, the +Mombasa line was largely superseded by the much shorter Dana line; our +passenger trains run the 360 miles of the latter in nine hours, while the +Mombasa line, despite its shortening by the Athi branch line, cannot be +traversed in less than double that time. The distance by rail between Eden +Vale and Alexandria is 4,000 miles, the working of which is in our hands +from Assuan southward. On account of the slower rate of the trains on the +Egyptian portion, the journey consumes six days and a half; nevertheless, +this is the most frequented route, because it shortens the total journey by +nearly two weeks for all the immigrants who come by the Mediterranean +Sea--that is, for all Europeans and most of the Americans. The Grand +Equatorial Trunk Line--which, by agreement with the Congo State, was +constructed almost entirely at our cost and is worked entirely by us--has a +length of above 3,000 miles, and travellers by it from the mouth of the +Congo can reach Eden Vale in a little less than four days.</p> + +<p>Eden Vale, and the Kenia district generally, have long since ceased to +receive the whole influx of immigrants. The densest Freeland population is +still to be found on the highlands between the Victoria Nyanza and the +Indian Ocean, and the seat of the supreme government is now, as formerly, +in Eden Vale; but Freeland has largely extended its boundaries on all +sides, particularly on the west. Freeland settlers have spread over the +whole of Masailand, Kavirondo, and Uganda, and all round the shores of the +Victoria Nyanza, the Mutanzige, and the Albert Nyanza, wherever healthy +elevated sites and fruitful soil were to be found. The provisional limits +of the territory over which we have spread are formed on the south-east by +the pleasant and fertile hill-districts of Teita; on the north by the +elevated tracts between the lakes Baringo and Victoria Nyanza and the Galla +countries; on the west by the extreme spurs of the Mountains of the Moon, +which begin at the Albert lake; and on the south by the hilly districts +stretching to the lake Tanganika. This makes an area of about 580,000 +square miles. This area is not, however, everywhere covered with a compact +Freeland population; but in many places our colonists are scattered among +the natives, whom they are everywhere raising to a higher and freer +civilisation. The total population of the territory at this time under +Freeland influence amounts to 42,000,000 souls, of whom 26,000,000 are +whites and 10,000,000 black or brown natives. Of the whites 12,500,000 +dwell in the original settlement on the Kenia and the Aberdare range; +1,500,000 are scattered about over the rest of Masailand, on the north +declivities of the Kilimanjaro and in Teita; the hills to the west and +north of Lake Baringo have a white population of 2,000,000; round the +Victoria Nyanza have settled 8,500,000; among the hills between that lake +and Lakes Mutanzige and Albert 1,500,000; on the Mountains of the Moon, +west of Lake Albert Nyanza, 3,000,000; and finally, to the south, between +these two lakes and Lake Tanganika, are scattered 2,000,000.</p> + +<p>The products of Freeland industry comprehend almost all the articles +required by civilised men; but mechanical industry continues to be the +chief branch of production. This production is principally to meet the home +demand, though the productive capacity of Freeland has for years materially +surpassed that of all the machine-factories in the rest of the world. But +Freeland has employment for more machinery than the whole of the rest of +the world put together, for the work of its machines takes the place of +that of the slaves or she wage-labourers of other countries; and as our +26,000,000 whites--not to reckon the civilised negroes--are all +'employers,' we need very many steel and iron servants to satisfy our +needs, which increase step by step with the increase of our skill. +Therefore comparatively few of our machines--except certain specialties--go +over our frontiers. On the contrary, agriculture is pursued more largely +for export than for home consumption; indeed, it can with truth be asserted +that the whole of the Freeland corn-produce is available for export, since +the surplus of the corn-production of the negroes which reaches our markets +is on an average quite sufficient to cover our home demand. In the +twenty-fourth year there were 22,000,000 acres of land under the plough, +which in the two harvests produced 2,066,000,000 cwt. of grain and other +field-produce, worth in round figures £600,000,000. To this quantity of +agricultural produce must be added other export goods worth £550,000,000; +so that the total export was worth £1,150,000,000. On the other hand, the +chief item of import goods was that of 'books and other printed matter'; +and next to this followed works of art and objects of luxury. Of the +articles which in other countries make up the chief mass of outside +commerce, the Freeland list of imports shows only cotton goods, cotton +being grown at home scarcely at all. This item of import reached the value +of £57,000,000. The import of books--newspapers included--reached in the +previous year £138,000,000, considerably more than all the rest of the +world had in that same year paid for books. It must not be inferred that +the demand for books in Freeland is entirely, or even mainly, covered by +the import from without. The Freeland readers during the same year paid +more than twice as much to their home publishers as to the foreign ones. In +fact, at the date of our writing this, the Freelanders read more than three +times as much as the whole of the reading public outside of Freeland.</p> + +<p>The above figures will show the degree of wealth to which Freeland has +attained. In fact, the total value of the productions of the 7,500,000 +producers during the last year was nearly seven milliard pounds sterling +(£7,000,000,000.) Deducting from that amount two milliards and a-half to +cover the tax for the purposes of the commonwealth, there remained four +milliard and a-half as profit to be shared among the producers, giving an +average of £600 to each worker. And to produce this we worked only five +hours a day on the average, or 1,500 hours in the year; so that the average +net value of an hour's labour was 8s.--little less than the average weekly +wage of the common labourer in many parts of Europe.</p> + +<p>Almost all articles of ordinary consumption are very much cheaper in +Freeland than in any other part of the civilised world. The average price +of a cwt. of wheat is 6s; a pound of beef about 2-1/2d., a hectolitre +(twenty-two gallons) of beer or light wine 10s., a complete suit of good +woollen clothing 20s. or 80s., a horse of splendid Arab stock £15, a good +milch cow £2, &c. A few articles of luxury imported from abroad are +dear--<i>e.g.</i> certain wines, and those goods which must be produced by +hand-labour--of which, however, there are very few. The latter were all +imported from abroad, as it would never occur to a Freelander to compete +with foreigners in hand-labour. For though the harmoniously developed, +vigorous, and intelligent workers of our country surpass two- or three-fold +the debilitated servants of Western nations in the strength and training of +their muscles, they cannot compete with hand-labour that is fifty- or a +hundred-fold cheaper than their own. Their superiority begins when they can +oppose their slaves of steel to the foreign ones of flesh and bone; with +these slaves of steel they can work cheaper than those of flesh and bone, +for the slaves which are set in motion by steam, electricity, and water are +more easily satisfied than even the wage-labourers of 'free' Europe. These +latter need potatoes to fill their stomach, and a few rags to cover their +nakedness; whilst coal or a stream of water stills the hunger of the +former, and a little grease suffices to keep their joints supple.</p> + +<p>This superiority of Freeland in machinery, and that of foreign countries in +hand labour, merely confirms an old maxim of experience, which is none the +less true that it still escapes the notice of the so-called 'civilised +nations.' That only the relatively rich nations--that is, those whose +masses are relatively in the best condition--very largely employ machinery +in production, could not possibly long escape the most obtuse-minded; but +this undeniable phenomenon is wrongly explained. It is held that the +English or the American people live in a way more worthy of human nature +than, for example, the Chinese or the Russians, because they are richer; +and that for the same reason--namely, because the requisite capital is more +abundant--the English and Americans use machinery while the Chinese and +Russians employ merely human muscles. This leaves unexplained the principal +question, whence comes this difference in wealth? and also directly +contradicts the facts that the Chinese and the Russians make no use of the +capital so liberally and cheaply offered to them, and that machine-labour +is unprofitable in their hands as long as their wage-earners are satisfied +with a handful of rice or with half-rotten potatoes and a drop of spirits. +But it is a part of the <i>credo</i> of the orthodox political economy, and is +therefore accepted without examination. Yet he who does not use his eyes +merely to shut them to facts, or his mind merely to harbour obstinately the +prejudices which he has once acquired, must sooner or later see that the +wealth of the nations is nothing else than their possession of the means of +production; that this wealth is great or small in proportion as the means +of production are many and great, or few and small; and that many or few +means of production are needed according as there is a great or a small use +of those things which are created by these means of production--therefore +solely in proportion to the large or small consumption. Where little is +used little can be produced, and there will therefore be few instruments of +production, and the people must remain poor.</p> + +<p>Neither can the export trade make any alteration; for the things which are +exported must be exchanged for other things, whether food, or instruments +of labour, or money, or some other commodity, and for that which is +imported there must be some use; which, however, is impossible if there is +no consumption, for in such a case the imported articles will find as +little sale as the things produced at home. Certainly those commodities +which are produced by a people who use neither their own productions nor +those of other people, may be lent to other nations. But this again depends +upon whether foreigners have a use for such a surplus above what is +required at home; and as this is not generally the case, it remains, once +for all, that any nation can produce only so much as it has a use for, and +the measure of its wealth is therefore the extent of its requirements.</p> + +<p>Naturally this applies to only those nations whose civilisation has reached +such a stage that the employment of complex instruments of labour is +prevented, not by their ignorance, but simply by their social political +helplessness. To such nations, however, applies in full the truth that they +are poor simply because they <i>cannot</i> eat enough to satisfy themselves; and +that the increase of their wealth is conditioned by nothing else than the +degree of energy with which the working classes struggle against their +misery. The English and the Americans <i>will</i> eat meat, and therefore do not +allow their wages to sink below the level at which the purchase of meat is +possible; this is the only reason why England and America employ more +machinery than China and Russia, where the people are contented with <i>rice</i> +or <i>potatoes</i>. But we in Freeland have brought it to pass that our working +classes are secure of obtaining the whole profit of their labour, however +great that profit may be; what, therefore, could be more natural than that +we should employ as much machinery as our mechanicians can invent?</p> + +<p>Nothing can permanently prevent the operation of this first law of +economics. Production exists solely for the sake of consumption, and must +therefore--as ought long since to have been seen--depend, both in its +amount and in the character of its means, upon the amount of consumption. +And if some tricksy Puck were to carry off overnight to some European +country all our wealth and all our machinery, without taking to that +country our social institutions as well, it is as certain that that country +would not be a farthing richer than it was before, as it is that China +would not be richer if all the wealth of England and America were carried +thither without allowing the Chinese labourers more than boiled rice for +food and a loin-cloth for clothing. Just as in this case the English and +American machinery would become mere useless old iron in China, so in the +former case would our machinery in Europe or America. And just as the +English and the Americans, if their working classes only retained their +present habits, would very quickly produce fresh machinery to take the +place of that which had been spirited away to China, and would thereby +regain their former level of wealth, so it would not be difficult for us to +repeat what we have already effected--namely, to place ourselves afresh in +possession of all that wealth which corresponds to <i>our</i> habits of life. +For the social institutions of Freeland are the true and only source of our +wealth; that we can <i>use</i> our wealth is the <i>raison d'etre</i> of all our +machinery.</p> + +<p>Under the name of machinery we here include everything which on the one +hand is not a free gift of nature, but the outcome of human effort, and on +the other hand is intended to increase the productiveness of human labour. +This power has grown to colossal dimensions in Freeland. Our system of +railways--the lines above-named are only the four largest, which serve for +communication with other countries--has reached a total length of road of +about 358,000 miles, of which less than 112,000 miles are main lines, while +about 248,000 miles are lines for agricultural and industrial purposes. Our +canal system serves mainly for purposes of irrigation and draining, and the +total length of its numberless thousands of larger and smaller branches is +beyond all calculation, but these canals are navigable for a length of +86,000 miles. Besides the passenger ships already mentioned, there are +afloat upon the seas of the world nearly 3,000 of our freight steamers with +a total registered tonnage of 14,500,000. On the lakes and rivers of Africa +we possess 17,800 larger and smaller steamers with a total register of +5,200,000 tons. The motive power which drives these means of communication +and the numberless machines of our agriculture and our factories, our +public and private institutions, reaches a total of not less than +245,000,000 horse-power--that is, fully twice the mechanical force employed +by the whole of the rest of the world. In Freeland there is brought into +use a mechanical force of nearly nine and a-half horse-power per head of +the population; and as every registered horse-power is equal to the +mechanical force of twelve or thirteen men, the result in labour is the +same as if every Freelander without exception had about 120 slaves at his +disposal. What wonder that we can live like masters, notwithstanding that +servitude is not known in Freeland!</p> + +<p>The value of the above enormous investments of all kinds can be calculated +to a farthing, because of the wonderful transparency of all our industrial +operations. The Freeland commonwealth, as such, has, during the twenty-five +years of its existence, disbursed eleven milliards sterling for investment +purposes. The disbursement through the medium of associations and of +individual workers (the latter in relatively insignificant numbers) has +amounted to twenty-three milliards sterling. So that the total investments +represent a sum of thirty-four milliards, all highly profitable capital, +despite--or rather because of--the fact that it belongs to no one +particular owner; for this very absence of private proprietorship of the +total productive capital is the reason why any labour power can avail +itself of those means of production by the use of which the highest +possible profit can be realised. Every Freelander is joint-possessor of +this immense wealth, which amounts--without taking into account the +incalculable value of the soil--to £1,300 per head, or £6,000 per family. +Thus, in these twenty-five years we have all become in a certain sense +quite respectable capitalists. This capital does not bear us interest; but, +on the other hand, we owe to it the labour-profit of seven milliards +sterling, which gives an average of £270 per head for the 26,000,000 souls +in Freeland.</p> + +<p>But, before we describe the Freeland life which has developed itself upon +the foundation of this abundance of wealth and energy, it will be necessary +to give a brief outline of Freeland history during the last twenty years.</p> + +<p>In the former section we had reached the first railway connection with the +Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the campaign against Uganda, with the +first colonisation of the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, on the other. The +attention of our explorers was next directed to the very interesting +hill-country north and north-west of Lake Baringo, particularly Elgon, the +district on the frontier of Uganda, which rises to an elevation of some +14,000 feet. Here was a large field for future settlement equal to the +Kenia and Aberdare ranges in fertility, climate, and beauty of scenery. In +variety, the view from the summit of Elgon surpassed anything we had before +seen. To the south-west stretched the sea-like expanse of the Victoria +Nyanza, bounded only by the horizon. To the north, forty miles away rose +the snow-covered peak of Lekakisera. To the east, the eye ranged over +immense stretches of forest-hills, whilst the smiling highlands of Uganda +closed the view to the west.</p> + +<p>The very evident traces of the former activity of a highly developed +civilised people stimulated the spirit of investigation of our +archaeologists. The great caves which had been noticed by earlier +travellers in the foot-hills around the Elgon had every appearance of being +of an artificial origin. It was quite as evident that none of the races +dwelling within thousands of miles of these caves could have excavated +them. They are all in a hard agglomerate, and their capacity varies from +about 25,000 to 125,000 cubic yards. Their purpose was as enigmatical as +their origin. For the most part they are to be found on steep, scarcely +accessible, precipitous mountain-sides, but, without exception, only in a +thick layer of breccia or agglomerate interposed between a trachytic and a +volcanic stone. At that time they were inhabited by a race of a very low +type, subsisting solely upon the chase and pasturage, and who were utterly +incapable of making such dwellings, and declared that the caves had existed +from the beginning. But who made them, and for what purpose were they +originally made? That they were to be found only in one particular stratum +naturally gave rise to the supposition that they were made by mining +operations. They must have been opened in a past age for some kind of ore +or other mineral product, and have been worked with a great expenditure of +labour and for a very long period; for the caves are so many and so large +that, even with modern appliances, it would have needed thousands of men +for many decades to excavate them in the hard agglomerate of sand and +pebbles. The excavation had been made, however, not with powder and +dynamite, but with chisel and pickaxe; the caves must therefore have been +the work of thousands of years. There was only <i>one</i> people who could here +have expended upon such a work sufficient strength for a sufficient +time--the Egyptian. This most ancient civilised people in the world, whose +history covers thousands of years, must have excavated these caves; of this +there was no doubt among our archaeologists.</p> + +<p>That in the grey antiquity the Egyptians penetrated to the sources of their +holy river (it may be remarked in passing that the Ripon falls, where the +Nile flows out of the Victoria Nyanza, are in clear weather very plainly to +be seen from the Elgon) has nothing in it so remarkable, even though modern +historical investigation has not been able to find any trace of it. But +wherever the Egyptians penetrated, and particularly wherever they built, +one is accustomed to find unmistakable traces of their activity. It behoved +us, therefore, to search for such traces, and then to discover what the +Pharaohs of the ancient dynasties had sought for here. Our researches were +successful as to the first object, but not as to the second. In two places, +unfortunately outside of the entrances to the caves in question, where +atmospheric and perhaps other influences had been destructively at work, +there were found conically pointed basalt prisms, which exhibited +unmistakable traces of hieroglyphic writing. These inscriptions were no +longer legible; and though our Egyptologists, as well as those of London +and Paris, agreed in thinking that the inscription on one stone distinctly +referred to the goddess Hathor, this view is rather the verdict of a kind +of archaeological instinct than a conclusion based upon tangible evidence. +That the stones bore Egyptian inscriptions, and had stood for thousands of +years at the entrances to these caves, was plain enough, even to the eyes +of laymen. Parenthetically it may be remarked that this discovery throws +light upon the origin of the Masai, of whom it has already been said that +they were not negroes, but a bronze-coloured race showing the Hamitic type. +Plainly the Masai are Egyptians, who, in a forgotten past, were cut off +from the rest in the highlands south of the Baringo lake. Their martial +habits would suggest descent from the ancient Egyptian warrior caste, +possibly from those discontented warriors who, twenty-five centuries ago, +in the days of Psammetichus I., migrated to Ethiopia, when Pharaoh had +offended them by the employment of Greek mercenaries.</p> + +<p>But this did not tell what the Egyptians, in honour either of Hathor or of +some other celestial or terrestrial majesty, were looking for on the Elgon. +We spared no pains in seeking further evidence; both in the caves and in +other parts of the agglomerate in which they were excavated, we diligently +looked for something to throw light upon the subject. But we found nothing, +at least nothing that appeared to be of any special use to the Egyptians, +either in the way of metals or of precious stones. We were finally +compelled to content ourselves with the supposition that some of the +variously coloured stones which were present in the formation in great +number and variety were highly valued in the days of the Pharaohs, without +the knowledge of the fact having descended to our days. There would be +nothing remarkable in this, for neither would it have been the first +instance in which men have for thousands of years reckoned as very precious +that upon which subsequent generations scarcely deigned to glance, nor do +we know enough of the life of the ancient Egyptians to be able positively +to assert that every object in the inscriptions and papyrus-rolls means +this or that. It is therefore very possible that in many of the Egyptian +inscriptions which have come down to us a great deal is told of the stones +found here on the Elgon, whilst we, misled by the great value which the +narrator ascribes to the said stones, think that some precious stone now +highly valued was referred to, and that generations of Egyptian slaves have +spent their lives here in cruel toil, in order to procure for their masters +an object of luxury which we to-day carelessly kick aside when it +accidentally comes in our way.</p> + +<p>Let this be as it may, we found nothing of any value in the agglomerate in +which the Egyptians had excavated. But, in the immediate neighbourhood of +the cave-hills, we found something else: something that men coveted +thousands of years ago, as they do to-day, but which, singularly enough, +escaped the miners of the Pharaohs, and was not looked for by them on the +Elgon--namely, gold, and that in large rich veins. It was accidentally +discovered by one of the engineers engaged in the examination of the caves, +who, significantly, was at first seized with horror at his discovery. He +was an enthusiastic young Spaniard, who had only recently reached Freeland, +and he saw in his discovery a great danger for those Freeland principles +which were so passionately worshipped by him, and he therefore at first +resolved to keep it secret. He reflected, however, that some one else would +soon come upon the same trace, and that the evil which he dreaded would +become a fact. He therefore decided to confide in those under whom he was +acting, and to point out to them the danger that threatened the happiness +of Freeland. It was very difficult to make Nunez--as this young enthusiast +was named--understand that there would be little hope for the security and +permanent vitality of the institutions of Freeland if the richest possible +discovery of gold were able to put them in jeopardy, and to convince him +that gold-mining was like any other kind of work--that labour would flow to +the mines as long as it was possible to earn as much there as in any other +branch of production, and the result of his discovery could only be that of +slightly raising the average earnings of Freeland labour.</p> + +<p>And so it was. Nunez had not erred in his estimate of the productiveness of +the mines; the newly opened gold-diggings soon yielded some £12,000,000 a +year.</p> + +<p>The managers of the central bank utilised this new source of wealth in gold +for the establishment of an independent Freeland coinage. Hitherto the +English sovereign had been our gold currency, and we had reckoned in +English pounds, shillings, and pence. Now a mint was set up in Eden Vale, +and the coinage underwent a reform. We retained the sterling pound and the +shilling, but we minted our pound nearly one per cent. lighter than the +English one, so that it might be exactly equal to twenty-five francs of the +French or decimal system of coinage; the shilling we divided, not into +twelve parts, but into a hundred.</p> + +<p>Of these Freeland pounds, which in the course of a few years acquired +undisputed rank as a cosmopolitan coin, and passed current everywhere, only +a comparatively small number circulated in Freeland itself. We needed in +our domestic transactions scarcely any cash. All payments were made through +the bank, where every one--our civilised negroes not excepted--had an +account, and which possessed branches all over the country. At first the +coins were used for paying small amounts, then cheques came into general +use for these, and later still it came to be sufficient, to write a simple +order on the bank. The coinage was therefore almost exclusively needed for +foreign use; in the course of sixteen years the mint has issued some +£130,000,000 of which scarcely seven per cent. remained in Freeland, and +all except a very small portion of this lies in the bank cellars, where its +repose is never disturbed. For with us there are no fluctuations of the +money market, since there exists scarcely any demand for money in Freeland. +Gold is our measure of value, and will remain so as long as there is no +commodity discovered better fitted to perform this function--that is, +exposed to less variation in value--than this metal. The instrument of +<i>transferring</i> value among us is not money, but paper, ink, and pen. +Scarcity and superfluity of gold are therefore in Freeland as meaningless +conceptions as would be a scarcity or superfluity of metres in Europe.</p> + +<p>The gold discoveries on the Elgon at any rate contributed towards hastening +the settlement of those splendid highlands lying to the north-west of Lake +Baringo. The adjacent Uganda was used as a seat of agriculture, whilst the +towns, essentially copies of Eden Vale, whose wooden houses had meanwhile +given place to elegant villas of stone and brick, wore located on the +cooler heights of the wooded hills.</p> + +<p>Our pioneers pursued their way ever farther and farther. There was still +abundant room in the older settlements; but the spirit of discovery, +together with the fascination of novelty that hung around the distant +districts, continually led new bands farther and farther into the 'Dark +Continent.' When the shores of the Victoria Nyanza no longer contained +anything unknown, our pathfinders penetrated the primitive forests of the +hilly districts between Lakes Mutanzige and Albert Nyanza. Here, for the +first time, we came into contact with cannibal races, the subjection of +whom was no small task and was not accomplished without bloodshed. From the +Albert Nyanza, the east shores of which are mostly bare and barren, we +obtained an enticing view of the Mountains of the Moon, whose highest point +rises above 13,000 feet, and in the cool season frequently shows a cap of +snow. Down the picturesque declivities that look towards the lake fall from +incredible heights a number of powerful cataracts, giving rise to pleasant +inferences as to the nature of the district in which the streams have their +source. Naturally they did not long remain unvisited, and the fame of the +new marvels of natural beauty found there soon drew hundreds of thousands +of settlers thither. There also we came into collision with cannibal races, +some of which still carry on their evil practices in secret. From hence our +pioneers turned southwards, everywhere making use of the hill-ranges as +highways. Six years ago our outposts had reached Lake Tanganika, where they +gave preference to the western heights that rise in places 3,000 feet above +the level of the lake, which is itself about 5,000 feet above the sea. At +present hundreds of thousands of our people are settled on the lovely +shores of this the longest, though only the second largest, of the +equatorial lakes. Lake Tanganika is not quite half so large as the Victoria +Nyanza, and is nowhere too broad for a good eye to see the opposite hills, +but its length reaches 360 miles, about three-fourths as long as the +Adriatic Sea, and the fastest of the 286 steamers which at this time +navigate it at our charge takes nearly twenty-four hours to go from end to +end.</p> + +<p>We now came more and more into immediate contact with colonies under +European influence. In the south and east we touched German and English +interests and spheres of influence; in the north-east, more or less +directly, French and Italian; in the north Egyptian; in the west the +vigorously developing Congo State. Our intercourse was everywhere directed +by the best and most accommodating intentions, but a number of questions +sprang up which urgently demanded a definitive solution. For instance, the +neighbouring colonies found it inconvenient to be in close proximity to +Freeland settlements; their population was drawn away by us like iron +filings by a magnet. Wherever a Freeland association established itself +near a foreign colony, nothing of that colony was left after a little +while, except the empty dwellings and the forsaken plantations: the +colonists had settled among us and become Freelanders. At the same time, +the foreign governments neither could nor wished to do anything, since the +interests of their subjects were not damaged; but with respect to the +establishment of their power in the countries in question, the foreign +governments were necessarily made uncomfortable by the impossibility of +asserting themselves in our neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>We were also compelled to moot the question, what would happen if +Freelanders wore to settle in any district belonging to a Western nation? +We had hitherto purposely avoided doing this, but ultimately it would be +unavoidable. What would happen then? Should we, in possession of the +stronger form of civilisation, yield to the weaker and more backward one? +Could we do so, even if we were willing? Freeland is not a state in the +ordinary sense of the word. Its character does not lie in dominion over a +definite territory, but in its social institutions. These institutions are +in themselves quite compatible with foreign forms of government, and for +the sake of keeping peace with our neighbours we were compelled to try to +obtain legal recognition of our institutions, in the first place, in the +neighbouring colonial districts.</p> + +<p>And not merely upon the continent of Africa, but in other parts of the +world also, there came into existence a number of questions between +ourselves and various governments, which urgently needed settling. On +principle we avoided getting mixed up with any of the political affairs of +foreign countries; but we held it to be our right and our duty to help with +our wealth and power our needy brethren, in whatever part of the inhabited +world they might live. Freeland money was to be found wherever want had to +be relieved and the disinherited and wretched to be aided against +exploitage. Our offices and our ships were gratuitously at the service of +all who wished to flee to us out of the sorrow of the old system of +society; and we never wearied in our efforts to make the blessings of our +institutions more and more accessible to our suffering brethren. All this, +as has been said, we considered to be both our duty and our right, and we +were not disposed to allow ourselves to be turned aside from the fulfilment +of our mission by the protests of foreign Powers. But it became impossible +not to perceive that the relations between us and several European and +Asiatic governments were getting more and more strained. In the democratic +west of Europe, in America, and in Australia, public opinion was too strong +in our favour for us to fear any--even passive--resistance to our efforts +from those countries. But the case was different with several Eastern +States. Particularly since our means, and consequently our propagandist +activity, had attained the colossal dimensions of the last few years, with +a promise of continued growth, it had been here and there seriously asked +whether, and by what means, it was possible to keep out Freeland money and +to counteract Freeland influence. For a time the governments in question +avoided an open breach with us, partly on account of the public opinion +which was powerful in our favour even in their countries, and partly on +account of the large financial resources which were in our hands. They did +not wish to have us as avowed enemies, but they wished to control the +influx of Freeland money and the purposes to which it was applied, and to +check the emigration to Freeland.</p> + +<p>We were not disposed to stand and look upon such attempts with folded arms. +The right to spring to the aid of our enslaved fellow-men, or to keep open +to them a refuge in Freeland, we were determined to defend to the utmost of +our strength; and no one in Freeland doubted that we were strong enough in +case of need to resist any attempts by foreign Powers to limit our +activity. But all in Freeland were agreed that every conceivable pacific +means must be tried before we appealed to arms. And the difficulty in the +way of a bloodless settlement of the quarrel lay in the fact that the +Freelanders and the foreigners held opposite views concerning the military +strength of Freeland. Whilst we, as has been said, were convinced that we +were as strong as any military State in the world--nay, as several of them +put together--those very foreign governments with whom we were at variance +looked upon us as powerless from a military point of view. We were +therefore convinced that a definitive threat by our plenipotentiaries would +not be taken seriously, and that on this very account any attempt +energetically to maintain our position could produce the requisite effect +only by actual war. And a war it was that confirmed our position everywhere +abroad, though not with either an European or an Asiatic, but with an +African power--a war which, though it had a very indirect bearing upon the +subject in question, yet brought this question to a decision.</p> + +<p>How this came about will be told in the letters given in the following +chapters. These letters were written by Prince Carlo Falieri, a young +Italian diplomatist, who has since settled in Freeland, but who at the time +to which these letters refer was visiting Eden Vale in his country's +service. This correspondence will, at the same time, give a vivid picture +of Freeland manners and life in the twenty-fifth year of its history.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: July 12, ----</p> + +<p>After a silence of several months I am writing to you from the chief city +in Freeland, where my father and I have already been for some days. What +has brought us to the country of social liberty? You know--or perhaps you +do not know--that my chiefs at Monte Citorio have for some time not known +how to deal with the brown Napoleon of the East Coast of Africa, the Negus +John V. of Abyssinia; and that our good friends in London and Paris have +experienced the same difficulty. So the cabinets of the three Western +Powers have agreed to seek an African remedy for the common African malady. +To find this we are here. Lord E---- and Sir W. B---- are sent on the part +of England; Madame Charles Delpart and M. Henri de Pons on the part of +France; while Italy is represented by Prince Falieri and his son--my +littleness. We are commissioned to represent to the Freelanders that it +would be to their interest as well as to ours if they allowed their country +to be the theatre of war against Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>Those of us among Europeans who have possessions on the African coast of +the Red Sea and south of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb have had much trouble +with the Negus. During the late war he kept the allied armies of England, +France, and Italy in check; and, had it not been for the intervention of +our Italian fleet, those armies would narrowly have escaped the fate of +that Egyptian host which, according to the Bible, was drowned in the Red +Sea 3,300 years ago. The Negus--plainly with the aid of certain friends of +his in Europe--has utilised the five years' peace (which was not a very +creditable one for us) in perfecting his already powerful army and +organising it according to the Western pattern. He now possesses 300,000 +men armed with weapons of the best and most modern construction, an +excellent cavalry of at least 40,000, and an artillery of 106 batteries, +which our representatives describe as quite equal to any European troops. +What John means to do with an armament so enormously beyond the needs of +poor Abyssinia has been rendered plain by the events of the last five +years. He wishes to take from us and the English the coast towns on the Red +Sea, and from the French their province south of Bab-el-Mandeb. Our coast +fortresses and fleet will not be able in the long run to prevent this, +unless we can defeat the Abyssinians in the open field. But how are armies, +equal to the reorganised Abyssinian forces, to be maintained on those +inhospitable coasts? How can a campaign be carried on, with nothing but the +sea at the rear, against an enemy of whose terrible offensive strength we +have already had only too good proof? Yet the Negus must be met, cost what +it will; for with the sacrifice of the coast towns the connection with East +Asia, and with that part of East Africa which during the last twenty years +has become one of the principal seats of commerce, will be lost to all +European Powers. We know only too well that John V. has been making the +most extensive preparations. To-day his agents in Greece, Dalmatia, and +even North America are engaging sailors by thousands, who are evidently +intended to man a fleet of war as soon as the possession of the points on +the coast makes it possible for the Abyssinians to keep one. Whether he +will buy his fleet abroad or build it himself is at present an enigma. If +he did the former, it could not possibly escape the knowledge of the Powers +threatened by this future fleet; but none of the great shipwrights of the +world have any warships of unknown destination, in course of construction. +If the Abyssinian fleet is to be built in the Red Sea after the coast has +passed into the possession of Abyssinia, why does he want so many sailors +at once? This enigma is by no means calculated to lay our fears as to the +ultimate aims of Abyssinia. In short, it has been decided in London, Paris, +and Rome to take the bull by the horns, and to begin offensive operations +against the East African conqueror. The three cabinets will together +furnish an expedition of at least 300,000 men, and immediately after the +close of the five years' peace--that is, at the end of September +next--attack Abyssinia. But Freeland, and not this time our own coast +possessions, is to form the basis of the operations. This will give the +allied armies a secure rear for provisioning and retreat; and our task as +diplomatists is to win over the Freeland government to this project. We ask +for nothing but passive co-operation--that is, a free passage for our +troops. Whether our instructions go so far as to compel this passive +assistance in case of need I do not know; for not I, but merely my father, +is initiated into the most secret views of the leaders of our foreign +politics; and though my well-known enthusiasm for this land of Socialists +has not prevented our government from appointing me as <i>attaché</i> to my +father's mission, yet I imagine I shall not be admitted to share the more +important secrets of our diplomacy.</p> + +<p>Now you know, my friend, <i>why</i> we have come to Freeland. If you are curious +to know <i>how</i> we got here, I must tell you that we came from Brindisi to +Alexandria by the 'Uranus,' one of the enormous ships which Freeland keeps +afloat upon all seas for the mail and passenger service. With us came 2,300 +immigrants to Freeland; and if these find in the new home only one-half of +what they promised themselves, Freeland must be a veritable paradise. My +father, who at first hesitated to entrust himself to a Freeland steamer +which carries all its passengers free of charge and, as is well known, +makes no distinction in the treatment of those on board, admitted, when he +had been two days on the voyage, that he did not regret having yielded to +my entreaty. Our cabins were not too small, were comfortable, and most +scrupulously clean; the cooking and commissariat in general left nothing to +be desired; and--what surprised us most--the intercourse with the very +miscellaneous immigrants proved to be by no means disagreeable. Among our +2,300 fellow-voyagers were persons of all classes and conditions, from +<i>savants</i> to labourers; but even the latter showed themselves to be so +inspired by the consciousness that they were hastening to a new home in +which all men stood absolutely on an equality, that not the slightest +rowdyism or disturbance was witnessed during the whole voyage.</p> + +<p>At Alexandria we took the first express-train to the Soudan, which, +however, until it reached Assuan--that is, as long as it was in the hands +of Egyptian conductors and drivers--was express in little more than the +name. At Assuan we entered a Freeland train; and we now went on with a +punctuality and speed elsewhere to be met with only in England or America. +Sleeping, dining, and conversation cars, furnished with every convenience +and luxury, took us rapidly up the Nile, the line crossing the giant stream +twice before we reached Dongola. It was characteristic that no fare was +charged above Assuan. The food and drink consumed in the dining-cars or in +the stations had to be paid for--on the 'Uranus' even the board was given +for nothing--but travelling accommodation is provided gratuitously by the +Freeland commonwealth, on land as well as at sea.</p> + +<p>You will allow me to omit all description of land and people in Egypt and +its dependencies. In the last decade, and especially since the completion +of the Freeland Nile line, there has been some change for the better; but +on the whole I found the misery of the fellahs still very severe, and only +different in degree and not in essence from what has been so often +described by travellers in these regions. A picture of a totally different +kind presented itself to the eye when we neared the Albert Nyanza and +reached Freeland territory. I could scarcely trust my senses when, on +awaking on the morning of the fifth day of our railway journey, I looked +out of the car and, instead of the previous scenery, I caught sight of +endless cultivated fields pleasantly variegated by luxuriant gardens and +smiling groves, among which elegant villas, here scattered and there +collected into townships, were conspicuous. As the train stopped soon after +at a station the name of which was a friendly omen for an +Italian--Garibaldi--we saw for the first time some Freelanders in their +peculiar dress, as simple as it is becoming, and, as I at once perceived, +thoroughly suitable to the climate.</p> + +<p>This costume is very similar to that of the ancient Greeks; even the +sandals instead of shoes are not wanting, only they are worn not on the +naked foot, but over stockings. The dresses of the Freeland women are, for +the most part, more brightly coloured than those of the men, which latter, +however, do not exhibit the dull and monotonous tints of the dress of men +in the West. In particular, the Freeland youths are fond of bright clear +colours, the younger women preferring white with coloured ornaments. The +impression which the Freelanders made upon me was quite a dazzling one. +Full of vigour and health, they moved about with cheerful grace in the +simile of the trees in the station-garden; they showed such an aristocratic +self-possessed bearing that I thought at first that this was the rendezvous +of the leaders of the best society of the place. This notion was +strengthened when several Freelanders entered the train, and I discovered, +in conversation with them as the train went on, that their culture fully +corresponded to their appearance. Yet these were but ordinary country +people--agriculturists and gardeners, with their wives, sons, and +daughters.</p> + +<p>Not less astonishing was the respectability of the negroes scattered among +and freely mingling with the whites. Their dress was still lighter and +airier than that of the whites--mostly cotton garments instead of the +woollen clothes worn by the latter; for the rest, these natives had the +appearance of thoroughly civilised men. From a conversation which I held +with one in the train I found that their culture had reached a high +stage--at any rate, a much higher one than that of the rural population in +most parts of Europe. The black with whom I conversed spoke a fluent, +correct English, had a Freeland newspaper in his hand, and eagerly read it +during the journey; and he showed himself to be well acquainted with the +public affairs not only of his own country, but also of Europe. For +instance, he gave expression to the opinion that our difficulties with +Abyssinia had evidently been occasioned by the Russian government, who +necessarily wished to make it difficult for the Western Powers, and +particularly England, to communicate with India; and he justified this +opinion in a way that revealed as much knowledge as soundness of judgment.</p> + +<p>Towards noon, at the station 'Baker,' we reached the Albert lake, just +where the White Nile flows out of it. Here a very agreeable surprise +awaited me. You remember David Ney, that young Freeland sculptor with whom +we trotted about Rome together last autumn, and to whom I in particular +became so much attached because the splendid young fellow charmed me both +by his outward appearance and by the nobility of his disposition. What you +probably did not know is that, after David left Europe at the close of his +art studies in Rome, we corresponded; and he was therefore informed of my +intended visit. My friend had taken the trouble to make the thirty hours' +journey from Eden Vale, where he lives with his parents--his father is, as +you know, a member of the Freeland government--to the Albert Nyanza, had +got as far as 'Baker' station, and the first thing I noticed as we entered +the station was his friendly, smiling face. He brought to my father and me +an invitation from his parents to be their guests while we remained in Eden +Vale. 'If you, your grace,' said he to my father, 'will be content with the +house and entertainment which a citizen of Freeland can offer you, you will +confer a very great favour upon all of us, and particularly upon me, who +would thus have the privilege of undisturbed intercourse with your son. The +splendour and magnificence to which you are accustomed at home you will +certainly miss in our house, which scarcely differs from that of the +simplest worker of our country; but this deprivation would be imposed upon +you everywhere in Freeland; and I can promise that you shall not want for +any real comfort.' To my great satisfaction, after a moment's reflection my +father cordially accepted this invitation.</p> + +<p>I will not now enlarge upon what I saw during the day and a half's journey +from the Albert lake to Eden Vale, as I shall have occasion to refer to it +again. Indeed, this my first Freeland letter will swell to far too great a +size if I give you only a superficial report of what first interested me +here--that is, of the daily life of the Freelanders. Our express flew in +mad speed past the cornfields and plantations that clothe the plains of +Unyoro and the highlands of Uganda; then ran for several hours along the +banks of the billowy Victoria Nyanza, through a lovely country of hill and +mountain--the whole like one great garden. Leaving the lake at the Ripon +falls, we turned into the wildly romantic mountain district of Elgon, with +its countless herds and its rich manufacturing towns, skirted the +garden-fringed Lake Baringo, and sped through the Lykipia to the Alpine +scenery of the Kenia. Towards nine in the evening of the sixth day of our +railway journey we at length reached Eden Vale.</p> + +<p>It was a splendid moonlit night when we left the station and entered the +town; but brighter than the moon shone the many powerful electric +arc-lamps, so that nothing escaped the curious eye. Even if I wished to do +it now, I could not describe to you in detail the impression made upon me +by this first Freeland town into which I had been. Imagine a fairy garden +covering a space of nearly forty square miles, filled with tens of +thousands of charming, tastily designed small houses and hundreds of +fabulously splendid palaces; add the intoxicating odours of all kinds of +flowers and the singing of innumerable nightingales--the latter were +imported from Europe and Asia in the early years of the settlement and have +multiplied to an incredible extent--and set all this in the framework of a +landscape as grand and as picturesque as any part of the world can show; +and then, if your fancy is vigorous enough, you may form some mild +conception of the delight with which this marvellous city filled me, and +fills me still more and more the longer I know it. The streets and open +places through which we passed were apparently empty; but David assured us +that the shores of the lake were full of life every evening until midnight. +In many of the houses which we passed could be heard sounds of mirth and +gaiety. On broad airy terraces and in the gardens around them sat or +sauntered the inhabitants in larger or smaller groups. The clinking of +glasses, music, silvery laughter, fell upon the ear: in short, everything +indicated that here the evenings were devoted to the most cheerful +sociality.</p> + +<p>After a rapid ride of about half an hour, we reached the home of our hosts, +near the centre of the town and not far from the lake. The family Ney +received us in the most cordial manner; nevertheless their dignified +bearing very profoundly impressed even my proud father. The ladies in +particular were so much like princesses in disguise that my father at once +transformed himself into the inimitable gallant Paladin of chivalry you +have known him to be in Rome, London, and Vienna. Father Ney betrayed, at +the first glance, the profound thinker accustomed to serious work, but who +by no means lacked the mien of agreeable self-possession. Judging from the +fact that he had been six-and-twenty years in the service of the Freeland +commonwealth, he must be at least fifty years old, but he looks to be +scarcely forty. The younger of the sons, Emanuel, technician by calling, is +a complete duplicate of David, though a little darker and more robust than +the latter, who, as you know, is no weakling. The mother, Ellen by name, an +American by birth, who--thanks, evidently, to David's reports of +me--received me with a truly motherly welcome, must be, judging from the +age of her children, about forty-five, but her youthful freshness gives her +the appearance rather of a sister than a mother of her children. She is +brilliantly beautiful, but is rendered specially charming by the goodness +and nobility of mind impressed upon her features. She introduced to us +three girls between eighteen and twenty years of age as her daughters, of +whom only one--Bertha--resembled her and her sons. This one, a young copy +of the mother, at once embarrassed me by the indescribable charm of her +presence. She was so little like the others--Leonora and Clementina--that I +could not refrain from remarking upon it to David. 'These two are not +blood-relations to us, but pupil daughters of my mother; what that means I +will tell you by-and-by,' was his answer.</p> + +<p>As, despite the comfort of Freeland cars, we were naturally somewhat +exhausted by our six days' railway journey, after a short conversation with +our hosts we begged to be allowed to retire to our rooms. David acted as +our guide. After leaving the spacious garden-terrace upon which we had +hitherto lingered, we passed through a simple but tastefully arranged +drawing-room and a stately dining-hall which communicated, as I noticed, +with a large room used as a library on the right, and with two smaller +rooms on the left. These latter rooms were, David told us, his parents' +workrooms. We then came into a richly decorated vestibule, from which +stairs led above to the bedrooms. Here David took us into two bedrooms with +a common anteroom.</p> + +<p>Then followed a short explanation of the many provisions for the comfort of +the users of the rooms. 'Pressure upon this button on the right near the +door-post,' demonstrated David, 'lights the electric chandelier; a touch on +the button near the bedside-table lights the wall-lamp over the bed. Here +the telephone No. 1 is for use within the house and for communication with +the nearest watch-room of the Association for Personal Service. A simple +ringing--thus--means that some one is to come hither from the watch-room. +All these buttons--they are known by their distinctive borders--here and +there about the walls, there by the writing, desk and here by the bed, are +connected with this telephone-bell. Thus, whenever you wish to call a +member of this association, which always has persons on duty, you need not +move either from the arm-chair in which you may be sitting or from the bed +on which you are resting. Every telephone and every signal has its number +in the watch-room as well as on a list in the vestibule we have just left; +in two minutes at the longest after you have rung, a messenger of the +association will have hastened to wait on you.'</p> + +<p>'That is a wonderful arrangement,' I remarked, 'which secures for you all +the convenience of having a <i>valet-de-chambre</i> ready to obey every hint of +yours, without being obliged to put up with the trouble which our valets +cost us. But this luxury must be very costly, and therefore not commonly +enjoyed.'</p> + +<p>'The cost is very moderate, just because everybody makes use of this public +service,' answered my friend. 'There is one such watch-room with three +watchers for every 600 or 800 houses. The attendance is paid for--or rather +calculated--according to the length of time during which it is required, +and, as is customary with us, the rate of payment is measured by the +average value of an hour's work as shown by the accounts published every +year by our central bank. In the past year, when an hour's work was worth +8s., we had to pay about 5d. for every three minutes--for that is the unit +upon which this association bases its calculation. Those who ring often and +keep the association busy have to pay a larger share at the end of the +year, and those who ring seldom a smaller share. But in all cases the +association must come upon them for its expenses and for the payment of its +nine watching members--for the three watchers change morning, noon, and +evening. Last year the amount required for each watch-room was in round +figures £6,000; and as, for example, the time-bills of the 720 families of +our radius amounted to not quite two-thirds of that sum, the remaining +£2,000 had to be assessed in proportion to the use made of the service by +each family. Our family makes comparatively little demand upon the service +of this association; we paid, for example, last year £6 in all--that is, £4 +direct payment for time, and £2 additional assessment--for we used the +service only 203 times during the whole year.'</p> + +<p>'Why,' asked my father, 'is there comparatively less use of the service in +your house than elsewhere?'</p> + +<p>'Because our household always contains two or three young women, who make +it their pleasant duty to give to my parents all that personal attendance +which is befitting well-bred cultured women. Those two girls--for a year +they have been assisted by my sister--are young Freelanders such as are to +be found in every Freeland house whose housewife has a special reputation +for intelligence and refined manners; pardon me for classing my mother +among these exceptions. Every young woman of Freeland esteems it a special +honour and a great privilege to be received into such a house for at least +a year, because it is universally acknowledged that nothing refines the +intellect and the manners of developing girls more than the most intimate +intercourse possible with superior women. As a matter of course such young +ladies are regarded and treated exactly as if they were children of the +family; and they render to their adoptive parents the same service as +thoughtful and affectionate daughters. Father and mother can scarcely feel +a wish which is not divined and gratified.'</p> + +<p>'Ah, that is exactly our institution of royal maids of honour,' said my +father, smiling.</p> + +<p>'Certainly; but I very much doubt whether your royal pair are so +thoroughly, and in particular so tenderly, confided in as my parents always +are by these pupil-daughters of my mother. During the past eighteen +years--which is the age of this institution in Freeland--not less than +twenty-four of these young ladies have passed through our house; and they +all still maintain filial relations with my parents and sisterly ones with +us. Those who are at present with us--Leonora and Clementina--you have +already seen.'</p> + +<p>'You said just now,' said my father, 'that your whole household--four +ladies and three gentlemen--during a whole year, called for your +ministering spirits by means of this alarum only two hundred times three +minutes. You mentioned, besides, the service rendered by those charming +young ladies. But who does all that coarser work, which even the spirit of +Aladdin's lamp could scarcely get through in 600 minutes, or ten hours, a +year in such a house as this? It seems to me that you have some ten or +twelve dwelling-rooms. It is true the floor is of marble, but it must be +swept. Everywhere I see heavy carpets--who keeps these clean? In a word, +who does the coarser work in this comfortably furnished house, which one +can see at a glance is kept most carefully in order?'</p> + +<p>'The association with whose watch-room I have already made you acquainted. +Only we do not need to ring in order to get our regular requirements +attended to. The household work is done on the basis of a common tariff +without any trouble on our part, and with a punctuality that leaves nothing +to be desired. The association possesses duplicates of the house-keys and +room-keys of all the houses that it serves. Early in the morning, when we +are most of us still asleep, its messengers come noiselessly, take the +clothing that has to be cleaned--or rather that has to be exchanged, for we +Freelanders never wear the same garment on two successive days--from where +they were left the previous evening, put the clean clothes in the proper +place, get ready the baths--for in most Freeland houses every member of the +family has a separate bath which is daily used, unless a bath in the lake +or the river is preferred--clean the outer spaces and some of the rooms, +take away the carpets, and disappear before most of us have had any +knowledge of their presence. And all this is done in a few minutes. It is +almost all done by machinery. Do you see that little apparatus yonder in +the corridor? That is a hydraulic machine brought into action by the +turning of that tap there, which places it in connection with the +high-pressure service from the Kenia cascades. (In other towns, where a +hydraulic pressure of thirty-five atmospheres is not so easily to be had, +electric or atmospheric motors are employed.) Here the steel shaft in the +hollow in the floor covered with that elegant grating, and there near the +ceiling the bronze shaft that might be mistaken for a rod on which to hang +mirrors or pictures--these transmit the motion of the hydraulic machine to +every room in the house, from the cellar to the rooms under the roof. And +there, in that room, are a number of machines whose uses I can scarcely +explain to you unless you see them at work. The three or four messengers of +the association bring a number of other implements with them, and when +these machines are brought into connection with the shafts above or below, +and the tap of the water-motor is opened, the room is swept and washed +while you can turn round, and the heaviest articles set in their places; in +short, everything is put right silently and with magical rapidity, though +human hands could have done it only slowly and with a great deal of +disagreeable noise.</p> + +<p>'A little later the workers of the association reappear in order to clean +the rest of the rooms, to lay the carpets in their places, and prepare +everything in the kitchen and the breakfast-room for breakfast. And so +these people come and go several times during the day, as often as is +agreed upon, in order to see that all is right. Everything is done without +being asked for, silently, and with the speed of lightning. Our house +belongs to the larger, and our style of living to the better, in Freeland; +the association has, therefore, more to do in few houses than in ours; +nevertheless, last year, for all these services they charged us for not +more than 180 hours, for which, according to the tariff already mentioned, +we had to pay £72. I question if any house equal to ours in Europe or +America could be kept in a like good condition for double or treble this +sum. And instead of having to do with troublesome "domestics," we are +served by intelligent, courteous, zealous men of business who are compelled +by competition--for we have six such associations in Eden Vale--to do their +utmost to satisfy the families that employ them. The members of these +associations are "gentlemen" with whom one can very properly sit at the +same table, the table which they have themselves just prepared, and neither +our two "maids of honour" nor my sister would have the slightest objection +to wait upon, among other guests, members of the Association for Personal +Services.</p> + +<p>'You will soon become acquainted with the gentlemen of the association, for +the members that have charge of our house will come immediately to obtain +the most exact information as to all your special wishes. You must not grow +impatient if <i>you</i> have to undergo a somewhat circumstantial examination; +it will be for your comfort, and will not be repeated. When you have once +been subjected to the association's questions, which leave out nothing +however trivial, it will never, so long as you are in Freeland, happen to +you to find the wrong garments brought you, or your bath a degree too hot +or too cold, or your bed not properly prepared, or any of those little +items of neglect and carelessness on the absence of which domestic +happiness in no small degree depends.</p> + +<p>'That is enough about the Association for Rendering Personal Services. I +can now go on with my explanation of our domestic arrangements. This other +telephone has the same use as the telephone in Europe, with this +difference, that here everyone possesses his own telephone. That screw +there opens the cold-air service, which brings into every room artificially +cooled and slightly ozonised air, should the heat become unpleasant; and as +this sometimes happens even at night--as when in the hot months a nocturnal +storm rises--the screw is placed near the bed.'</p> + +<p>I give you all these details because I think they will interest you as +showing how marvellously well these Freelanders have understood how to +substitute their 'iron slaves' for our house slaves. I will merely add that +the Association for Rendering Personal Services satisfied even my father's +very comprehensive demands. He declares that he never found better +attendance at the Bristol Hotel in Paris.</p> + +<p>Not to weary you, I will spare you any description of the first and second +breakfast on the next day, and will only make your mouth water by +describing the principal meal, taken about six o'clock in the evening. But +first I must introduce you to two other members of the Ney family with whom +we became acquainted in the course of our second day. These are David's +aunt Clara, his father's sister, and her husband, Professor Noria, both +originals of a very special kind. Aunt Clara, at heart an ardent +Freelander, has a passion for incessantly arguing about the equality which +here prevails, in which 'truly high-toned' sentiments and manners cannot +possibly permanently exist. But woe to anyone who would venture to agree +with her in this. In spite of her sixty years, she is still a resolute +lively woman, with a very respectable remnant of what was once great +beauty. Nineteen years ago she married the professor, first because in him +she found an indefatigable antagonist in her attacks upon Freeland, and +next because he realised in a very high degree her ideal of manly +'distinction.' For Professor Noria is passionately fond of studying +heraldry, has all kinds of chivalrous and courtly ceremonials, from the +days of King Nimrod down to the present, at his fingers' ends, but has +always been too proud to degrade his knowledge by selling it for filthy +lucre. Being an enthusiast in the cause of equality and freedom he came to +Freeland, where for a few hours at morn and eve he works at gardening, and +thereby comfortably supports himself and his wife--children they have none; +but through the day he labours at his great heraldic work, which, if it is +ever finished, is to prove to the world that all the ills it has hitherto +suffered can be explained by the facts expressed in heraldry.</p> + +<p>But now for our dinner. David admitted, when I questioned him, that in +honour of us a fifth course was added to the customary four. But the charm +of the meal consisted, not in the number, but in the superiority of the +dishes, and not less in the absence of the attendants, who, not belonging +to the society at table, necessarily are a disturbing element. I may say, +without exaggeration, that I have seldom seen a meal so excellently +prepared, and never one consisting of such choice material. The flesh of +young oxen fattened upon the aromatic pastures of the higher hills and of +the tame antelopes cannot be matched anywhere else; the vegetables throw +the choicest specimens of a Paris Exhibition in the shade; but the special +pride of Freeland is the choiceness and multiplicity of its fruits. And now +for the mysterious mode of serving. A cupboard in the wall of the +dining-room yielded an apparently inexhaustible series of eatables. First +Miss Bertha fetched from this cupboard a tureen, which she had to lift +carefully by its ivory handles, and which when uncovered was found to +contain a delicious soup. Then from another compartment of the same +cupboard was brought a fish as cold as if it had just come from the ice. +Then followed, from yet another compartment, a hot ragout, followed by a +hot joint, with many vegetables and a salad. Next came ices, with pastry, +fruits, cheese. The meal was ended with black coffee made in the presence +of the guests, and choice cigars, both, like the beer and the wine, of +Freeland growth and manufacture. There was no attendance visible during the +meal; the three charming girls fetched everything either out of the +mysterious cupboard or from a side-table.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Ney now became the cicerone. 'This wall-cupboard,' she explained, 'is +one-half ice-cellar--that is, it is cooled by cold air passing through it; +the other half is a kind of hearth--that is, it is furnished with an +electrical heating apparatus. Between the two compartments, and divided +from them by non-conducting walls, is a neutral space at the ordinary +temperature. The cupboard has also the peculiarity of opening on two +sides--here into the dining-room, and outside into the corridor. Whilst we +were at table the Food Association brought in quick succession the dishes +which had been ordered, in part quite ready, in part--as, <i>e.g.</i>, the roast +meat and the vegetables--prepared but not cooked. The food that was ready +was placed in the respective compartments of the cupboard from the +corridor; a member of the association cooked the meat and vegetables in a +kitchen at the back of the house, furnished also with electrical cooking +apparatus. This is not the usual order; when we are alone the cooking is as +a rule done in the cupboard, and attended to by my daughters. It takes but +a little time, and the smell of the cooking is never perceptible, as the +cupboard is both hearth and ice-cellar in one, and therefore possesses the +character of a good ventilator. Washing the dishes, &c., is the business of +the association, as is also attendance at table if it is required.'</p> + +<p>Coffee was taken out-of-doors on one of the terraces, where the ladies sang +to the harp and the piano. Meantime Mr. Ney told us the family +relationships of the two pupil-daughters. Leonora is the child of an +agriculturist in Lykipia, Clementina the daughter of one of his heads of +departments. The latter information surprised us. 'Why,' I asked, 'do these +ladies forsake the parental houses, which must be highly respectable ones?' +Mr. Ney explained that it was not a respectable house that the +pupil-daughters sought, but simply the cultured, intellectual housewife. +The husband may be ever so famous and learned, but if the housewife is only +an ordinary character, no pupil-daughters will ever cross the threshold. +The institution was intended to afford girls the benefit of a higher +example, of an ennobling womanly intercourse, and not the splendour of +richer external surroundings; which, it may be remarked, had no application +to the prevailing circumstances in Freeland, as, generally speaking, all +families here live on the same footing. Clementina's mother is a brave +woman with a good heart, but after all only a good practical housekeeper, +'therefore,' said he, with a sparkle in his eye,' she begged my Ellen, who +is reckoned among the noblest women in this country which is so rich in +fine women, to take her Clementina for a couple of years as a favour.'</p> + +<p>I must now conclude for to-day, for I am tired; but I have a great deal +more to tell you of my experiences both inside and outside of the house of +the Neys.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XV</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: July 18, ----.</p> + +<p>To-day I take up again the report of our experiences here, which I began a +week ago. You will readily imagine that my father and I were both full of +curiosity to see the town. Guessing this, Mr. Ney next morning invited us +to join him and his son on a tour round Eden Vale. The carriage was already +waiting! It was a light and elegant vehicle with steel wheels like those of +a velocipede, and with two seats each comfortably accommodating two +persons. As we, in response to David's signal, exhibited some hesitation +and made no effort to get into the vehicle, David perceived that we +missed--the horses! He explained to us that in Freeland, and particularly +in the towns, the use of animals to draw vehicles was for many reasons +given up in favour of mechanical power, which was safer, cleaner, and also +cheaper. This vehicle was a kind of <i>draisine</i>, and the driver, whose place +is on the right side of the front seat, has nothing to do but to press +lightly downwards upon a small lever at his right hand, in order to set the +machine in motion, the speed depending upon the strength of the pressure. +The upward motion of the lever slacks the speed or brings the vehicle to a +standstill; while a turning to right or left is effected by a corresponding +rotary motion of the same lever. The motive power is neither steam nor +electricity, but the elasticity of a spiral spring, which is not +inseparably attached to the vehicle, but can be inserted or removed at +will.</p> + +<p>'The cylindrical box, a little over half a yard long and about eight inches +deep, here over the front axle,' demonstrated my friend, 'contains the +spiral spring. Before being used the spring is wound up and that very +tightly--an operation which is effected by steam-engines in the workshops +of the Association for Transport, the energy present in the steam being +thus converted into the energy of the tension of the spring. The power thus +laid up in the spring is transferred to the axle by a very simple +mechanism, and is sufficient to make the wheel revolve ten thousand times +even if the vehicle is tolerably heavily loaded; and as the wheel has a +circumference of about six feet and a half, the spring will carry the +vehicle a distance of about twelve miles and a half. The speed depends, on +the one hand, upon the load in the vehicle, and on the other hand upon the +amount of pressure upon the regulating lever. The maximum speed attained by +these ordinary <i>draisines</i>, on a good road and with a moderate load, is two +and a half revolutions--that is, about thirteen feet--in the second, or a +little over eleven miles an hour. But we have what are called racing +carriages with which we can attain nearly twice that speed. The force of +the spring is exhausted when the wheel has made ten thousand revolutions, +which in slow travelling occurs in from one and a quarter to one and a half +hours. On longer or more rapid journeys provision must therefore be made +for sufficient reserve force, and this is done in various ways. One can +take with him one or more springs ready wound up, for carrying which +surplus boxes are attached to the back of the vehicle. When the spring is +wound up and the escapement secured, it will retain its energy for years. +But as every spring weighs at least nearly eighty pounds, this mode of +providing reserve power has its limits. Besides, the changing of the +springs is no little trouble. As a rule, a second method is preferred. The +Transport Association has a number of station-houses for other purposes, on +all the more frequented roads. These stations are indicated by flags, and +travellers in the <i>draisines</i> can halt at these and get their springs +changed. Every station always has on hand a number of wound-up springs; and +so travellers can journey about at any time without let or hindrance, +particularly if they are prudent enough to furnish themselves with a +reserve spring for emergencies. Such stations exist not merely in and +around Eden Vale, but in and around all the towns in Freeland as well as on +all the more frequented country roads. And as the different associations +carrying on the same industry all over the country were shrewd enough to +adopt the same measure for all their springs, it is possible to travel +through the whole of Freeland certain of finding everywhere a relay of +springs. But if one would be absolutely sure, he can bespeak the necessary +springs for any specified route through the agency of his own association; +and in this case nothing would prevent him from leaving the highways and +taking the less frequented byways so far as they are not too rough and +steep--a contingency which, in view of the perfect development of the +Freeland system of roads, is not to be feared except among the most remote +mountain-paths. In this way, two years ago, our family went through the +whole of the Aberdare and Baringo districts, travelling a distance of above +a thousand miles, and doing the whole journey most comfortably in a +fortnight.'</p> + +<p>At last, with a shake of the head, we consented to get into the automatic +carriage. My father sat in front with Mr. Ney, and David and I behind; a +pressure by Ney upon the lever, and the machine noiselessly moved off +towards the Eden lake. The banks of this lake--except on the north-western +side, where quays for the merchant traffic stretch for more than three +miles--are bordered by a fourfold avenue of palm-trees, and are laid out in +marble steps reaching down to the water, except where occupied by piers +covered with lines of rails. At these piers the passengers are landed from +the steamers which navigate the lake in all directions, but which, in order +not to pollute the balmy air, are provided with perfectly effective +smoke-consuming apparatus. Even the discordant shriek of the steam-whistle +has been superseded in Freeland. For the Eden lake is only incidentally a +seat of traffic; its chief character is that of an enormous piece of water +for pleasure and ornament. A large portion of the shore is taken up by the +luxuriously furnished bathing-establishments which stretch far out into the +lake and are frequented by thousands at all times in the day. These baths +are for the most part surrounded by shady groves, and near them are to be +found the theatres, opera-houses, and concert-halls of Eden Vale, to the +number of sixteen, which we on this occasion saw only on the outside. Our +hosts told us that the lake looked most charming by moonlight or under the +electric light, and that therefore we would visit it in the course of a few +evenings.</p> + +<p>We then turned away from the lake, and went to the heights which rose in a +half-crescent form around Eden Vale. Here we perceived at once, even at a +distance of nearly two miles, a gigantic building which must constantly +excite the admiration of even those who are accustomed to it, and which +fairly bewildered us strangers. It is as unparalleled in size as it is +incomparable in the proportions and harmonious perfection of all its parts. +It gives at once the impression of overpowering majesty and of fairy-like +loveliness. This wonderful structure is the National Palace of Freeland, +and was finished five years ago. It is the seat of the twelve supreme +Boards of Administration and the twelve Representative Bodies. It is built +entirely of white and yellow marble, surpasses the Vatican in the area it +covers, and its airy cupolas are higher than the dome of St. Peter's. That +it could be built for £9,500,000 is explained only by the fact that all the +builders as well as all the best artists of the country pressed to be +employed in some way in its erection. And--so David told me--the motive +that prompted the artists and builders to do this was not patriotism, but +pure enthusiasm for art. Freeland is rich enough to pay any price for its +National Palace, and no one had a thought of lessening the cost of the +building; but the peculiar and impressive beauty of the work as seen in the +design had fascinated all artists. David described the feverish excitement +with which the commissioners appointed to decide upon the designs sent in +announced that a plan had been presented, by a hitherto unknown young +architect, which was beyond description; that a new era had been opened in +architecture, a new style of architecture invented which in nobility of +form rivalled the best Grecian, and in grandeur the most massive Egyptian +monuments. And all who saw the design shared in this enthusiasm. The +competitors--there were not less than eighty-four, for there had already +been a great deal of beautiful building in Eden Vale--without exception +withdrew their designs and paid voluntary homage to the new star that had +risen in the firmament of art.</p> + +<p>We were loth to turn away and look at any other buildings. Not until we had +three times been round the National Palace did we consent to leave it. I +will spare you the catalogue of the numberless handsome buildings which we +hurriedly passed by; I will only say that I was quite bewildered by the +number and magnificence of the public buildings devoted to different +scientific and artistic purposes. The academies, museums, laboratories, +institutions for experiment and research, &c., seemed endless; and one +could see at a glance that they were all endowed with extravagant +munificence. I must confine myself to a description of the largest of the +three public libraries of Eden Vale, the interior of which we were invited +to inspect. I was at once struck with the great number of visitors, and +next with the fact that only a part of the magnificent rooms were devoted +exclusively to reading, other rooms being filled with guests who were +enjoying ices or coffee, or with readers of both sexes who were smoking, or +again with people talking and laughing. 'It seems,' said I to Mr. Ney, +'that in Freeland the libraries are also <i>cafés</i> and conversation +<i>salons</i>.' He admitted this, and asked if I supposed that the number of +serious readers was affected by this arrangement. As I hesitated to answer, +he told me that at first a considerable party in Freeland saw in this +combination of reading with recreative intercourse a desecration of +science. But all opposition was given up when it was seen that the +possibility of alternating study with cheerful conversation very largely +increased the number of readers. Of course the Association for Providing +Refreshments--for this, and not the library executive, provide the +refreshments--was not allowed to enter a certain number of reading-rooms, +and in certain of the rooms where refreshments and smoking were allowed +talking was forbidden. Thus people visited the library either to study, to +amuse themselves with a book, or to converse with acquaintances, according +to their mood. The magnificent airy rooms, particularly those with large +verandahs communicating with the central pillared court laid out with +flower-beds and shrubs, formed, even in the heat of mid-day, a pleasant +rendezvous; so that in the public life of Eden Vale the libraries played +somewhat the same <i>rôle</i> as the Agora in that of ancient Athens or the +Forum in that of ancient Rome. At times there were as many as 5,000 persons +of both sexes assembled in this building: at least, our host assured us, as +many as that might be found in the two smaller libraries at the northern +and western ends of the city; and anyone who cared to take the trouble to +examine the eighty-two rooms of the building would probably find that quite +one half of those present made a considerable use of the 980,000 volumes +which the institution already possessed.</p> + +<p>After we had passed numberless public buildings, the purposes of some of +which I could scarcely understand, as our 'civilised' Europe possesses +nothing like them--I mention, as an example, merely the Institute for +Animal Breeding Experiments, the work of which is, by experiment and +observation, to establish what influence heredity, mode of life, and food +exercise upon the development of the human organism--it occurred to me that +we had not passed a hospital. As I was curious to see how the +world-renowned Freeland benevolence, which for years past had richly +furnished half the hospitals of the world with means, dealt with the sick +poor in its own country, I asked David to take me to at least one hospital. +'I can show you a hospital as little as I can a prison or a barracks, in +Eden Vale, for the very simple reason that we do not possess one in all +Freeland,' was his answer.</p> + +<p>'The absence of prisons and barracks I can understand; we knew that you +Freelanders can manage without criminal laws or a military administration; +but--so I thought--sickness must exist here: that has nothing to do with +your social institutions!'</p> + +<p>'Your last sentence I cannot unconditionally assent to,' said Mr. Ney, +joining in our conversation. 'Even diseases have decreased under the +influence of our social institutions. It is true they have not +disappeared--we have sick in Freeland--but no poor sick, for we have no +poor at all, either sick or sound. Therefore we do not possess those +reservoirs of the diseased poor which in other countries are called +"hospitals." We certainly have institutions in which sick persons can, at +good prices, procure special and careful treatment, and they are largely +patronised, particularly in cases requiring surgical operations; but they +are private institutions, and they resemble both in their constitution and +their management your most respectable sanatoria for "distinguished +patients."'</p> + +<p>I was satisfied with this explanation so far; but now another doubt +suggested itself. Without public hospitals there could be no proper medical +study, I thought; and anatomy in particular could not be studied without +the corpses of the poor for dissecting purposes. But Mr. Ney removed this +doubt by assuring me that the so-called clinical practice of Freeland +medical men was in many respects far superior to that of the West, and even +anatomical studies did not suffer at all. It had become the practice, both +in Eden Vale and in all Freeland university towns, for medical students in +their third year to assist practising physicians, whom, with the permission +of the patients and under pledge of behaving discreetly, they accompanied +in their visits to the sick, of course only in twos, or at most in threes, +if the patient required the assistance of several persons. As all the +physicians approved of this practice, which secured to them very valuable +gratuitous assistance of various kinds, and as the patients also for the +same reason profited much by it, the people rapidly became accustomed to +it. In difficult cases these assistants were a great boon to the sick, to +whom they ministered with indefatigable care, and whose kindness in +allowing them to be present they thus repaid by their skilful attention. +When you reflect that in Freeland only <i>one</i> commodity is dear and scarce, +the labour of man, it can easily be estimated how valuable, as a rule, such +assistance is both to the physician and to the patient. And in this way on +the average the young medical men learn more than is learnt by hospital +practice. They do not see so many sick persons, but those whom they do see +they see and treat more fully and more considerately. As a layman, he--Mr. +Ney--could not perhaps give sufficiently exhaustive proof of the fact, but +he knew that men who had been trained in hospitals admitted that +physicians educated as they were in Freeland became better diagnosticians +than hospital students. As to anatomical studies, he said, in the +first place, that preparations and models afforded--certainly very +expensive--substitutes for many school dissections, and in numerous +instances were to be preferred; and, in the next place, that the scarcity +of subjects for dissection was by no means so extreme in Freeland as I +seemed to think. It was true there were no poor who, against their own will +and that of their friends, could be subjected to the dissecting-knife; but +on this very account there was to be found here no such foolish prejudice +against dissection as was elsewhere entertained by even the so-called +cultured classes. The medical faculty received great numbers of subjects; +and it could scarcely be a detriment to study that the students were +compelled to treat these subjects with more respect, and to restore them in +a short time to their surviving friends for cremation.</p> + +<p>David further told me that in Freeland the physician is not paid by the +patient, but is a public official, as is also the apothecary. The study of +medicine is nevertheless as free in the universities here as any other +study, and no one is prevented from practising as a physician because he +may not have undergone an examination or passed through a university. This +is the inevitable consequence of the principles of the commonwealth. On the +other hand, however, the commonwealth exercises the right of entrusting the +care of health and sanitation to certain paid officials, as in every other +kind of public service. These appointments are made, according to the +public needs, by the head of the Education Department, who, like all other +heads of departments, is responsible to his own representative board--or +parliament of experts, as we may call it. It is the practice for the +professors to propose the candidates, who, of course, undergo many severe +examinations before they are proposed. Anyone who fails to get proposed +<i>may</i> practise medicine, but as the public knows that the most skilful are +always chosen with the utmost conscientiousness conceivable, this liberty +to practise is of no value. Anyone who thus fails to get proposed, and has +neither the energy nor the patience to attempt to wipe off his disgrace at +the next opportunity, simply hangs his medical vocation on a nail and turns +to some other occupation. The elected physicians are not allowed to receive +any payment whatever from their patients. At first their salary is +moderate, scarcely more than the average earnings of a worker--that is, +1,800 hour-equivalents per annum; but it is increased gradually, as in the +cases of the other officials, and the higher sanitary officials are taken +from among the physicians. As the payments are controlled by the +departmental parliament, and as this is elected by the persons who in one +way or another are interested in this branch of the government, the best +possible provision is made to prevent the physicians from assuming an +unbecoming attitude towards their patients. No one is obliged to call in +any one particular physician. The physicians live in different parts of +each town, as conveniently distributed as possible; but everyone calls in +the physician he likes best; and as physicians are naturally elected as far +as possible upon the Representative Board for Sanitation--whose sittings, +it may be remarked in passing, are generally very short--the number of +votes which the representatives receive is the best evidence of their +relative popularity. It goes without saying that foreign physicians also, +if they are men of good repute and do not object, have the same right as +the Freeland physicians to submit their qualifications to the proposing +body of professors. It should be added that in the larger towns, besides +the ordinary physicians and surgeons, specialists are also appointed for +certain specific diseases.</p> + +<p>We had now been in our carriage for four hours, and were tired of riding, +as was natural, notwithstanding the easy motion and comfort of the vehicle. +The Neys proposed that we should send the carriage home and return on foot, +to which we assented. We left the carriage at one of the stations of the +Transport Association, and walked, under the shady alleys with which every +street in Eden Vale is bordered. We now had leisure to examine more closely +the elegant private houses, which, while they all showed the Eden Vale +style of architecture--half-Moorish half-Grecian in its character--were for +the rest alike neither in size nor in embellishment. The most conspicuous +charm of these villas consists in their wonderfully lovely gardens, with +their choice trees, their surpassingly beautiful flowers, the white marble +statuary, the fountains, and the many tame animals--especially monkeys, +parrots, brightly coloured finches, and all sorts of song-birds--which were +sporting about in them among merrily shouting children. We were astonished +at the extraordinary cleanness of the streets; and the chief reason of this +was said to be that, since the invention of automatic carriages, no draught +animals kicked up dust or dropped filth in the streets of Freeland towns.</p> + +<p>'Are there no horses here?' I asked; and I was told that there were a great +number, and of the noblest breed; but they were used only for riding +outside of the town, among the neighbouring meadows, groves, and woods.</p> + +<p>'But that must be a very expensive luxury here,' I said. 'The horse itself +and its keep may be cheap enough; but, as human labour is the dearest thing +in Freeland, I cannot understand how any Freeland income can support the +cost of a groom. Or do such servants receive exceptionally low wages here?'</p> + +<p>'The last would be scarcely possible among us,' answered Mr. Ney, smiling; +'for who would be willing to act as groom in Freeland? We are obliged to +give those who attend to horses the same average payment as other workers; +and if, for the seven saddle, horses which I keep in the stables of the +Transport Association, I had to pay for servants after the scale of Western +lands, the cost would be more than the whole of my income. But the riddle +is easily solved: the work in the stables is done by means of machinery, so +that on an average one man is enough for every fifty horses. You shake your +heads incredulously! But when you have soon in how few minutes a horse can +be groomed and made to look as bright as a mirror by our enormous +cylindrical brushes set in rotation by mechanism; in how short a time our +scouring-machines and water-service can cleanse the largest stable of dung +and all sorts of filth; and how the fodder is automatically supplied to the +animals, you will not only understand how it is that we can keep horses +cheaply, but you will also perceive that in Freeland even the "stablemen" +are cultured gentlemen, as deserving of respect and as much respected as +everybody else.'</p> + +<p>Conversing thus we reached home, where a hearty luncheon was taken, and +some matters of business attended to. After the dinner described in my +last, our hosts and we went again to the lake, and visited first the large +opera-house, where, on that day, the work of a Freeland composer was given. +This piece was not new to us, for it is one of the many Freeland +compositions which have been well received and are often performed in other +countries. But we were astonished at the peculiar--yet common to all +Freeland theatres--arrangement of the auditorium. The seats rise in an +amphitheatre to a considerable height; and the roof rests upon columns, +between which the outer air passes freely. As many as ten thousand persons +can find abundant room in the larger of these theatres, without an +accumulation of vitiated air or any excessive heat.</p> + +<p>The performance was excellent, the appointments in every respect brilliant; +yet the price--which was not varied by any difference of rank--was +ridiculously low according to Western notions. A seat cost sixpence--that +is in the large opera-house; the other theatres are considerably cheaper. +The undertakers are in all cases the urban communes, and the performers, as +well as the managers, act as communal officials. The theatres are all +conducted on the economic principle that the cost and maintenance of the +building fall upon the communal budget; and the door-money has to cover +merely the hire of the performers and the stage expenses.</p> + +<p>I learnt from David that Eden Vale possessed, besides the grand opera, also +a dramatic opera, and four theatres, as well as three concert-halls, in +which every evening orchestral and chamber music and choruses are to be +heard. But as a Freeland specialty he mentioned five different theatres for +instruction, in which astronomical, archaeological, geological, +palaeontological, physical, historical, geographical, natural history--in +short, all conceivable scientific lectures were delivered, illustrated by +the most comprehensive display of plastic representative art. The lectures +are written by the most talented specialists, delivered by the most +eloquent orators, and placed on the stage by the most skilful engineers and +decorators. This kind of theatre is the most frequented; as a rule, the +existing accommodation is not sufficient, hence the commune is building two +new lecture-houses, which will be opened in the course of a few months. The +grandeur of these presentations--as I learnt for myself the next +evening--is really astounding; and though the young generally compose the +greater part of the audience, adults also attend in large numbers.</p> + +<p>When we left the theatre, the Neys engaged one of the gondolas which an +association keeps there in readiness, and which is propelled by a screw +worked by an elastic spring; and we steered out into the lake. The lake +was lit up as brilliantly as if it were day, by elevated electric lights, +with reflectors all round the shore. We had that evening the special +pleasure of hearing a new cantata by Walter, the most renowned composer +of Freeland, performed for the first time by the members of the Eden +Vale Choral Society. This society, which generally chooses the Eden +lake as the scene of its weekly performances, makes use on such occasions +of a number of splendid barges, the cost of whose--often positively +fairylike--appointments is defrayed by the voluntary contributions of its +members and admirers.</p> + +<p>Was it the influence of the very peculiar scenery, or was it the beauty of +the composition itself?--certainly the effect which this cantata produced +upon me was overwhelming. On the way home I confessed to David that I had +never before been so struck with what I might call the transcendental power +of music as during the performance on the lake. I seemed to hear the +World-spirit speaking to my soul in those notes; and I seemed to understand +what was said, but not to be able to translate it into ordinary Italian or +English. At the same time I expressed my astonishment that so young a +community as that of Freeland should have produced not merely notable works +in all branches of art, but in two--architecture and music--works equal to +the best examples of all times.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Ney was of opinion that this was simply a necessary consequence of the +general tendency of the Freeland spirit. Where the enjoyment of life and +leisure co-exist the arts must flourish, since the latter are merely +products of wealth and noble leisure. And it could be easily explained how +it was that architecture and music were the first of the arts to develop. +Architecture necessarily and at once received a strong stimulus from the +needs of a commonwealth of a novel and comprehensive character; and in the +case of Freeland the influence of the grand yet charming nature of the +country was unmistakable. On the other hand, music is the earliest of all +forms of art--that to which the genius of man first turns itself whenever a +new era of artistic creation is introduced by new modes of feeling and +thinking.</p> + +<p>'From the circumstance that your greatest master has to-day given the +public a gratuitous first performance of his new composition, one might +almost conclude that in this country the composers, or at any rate some of +them, are also public officials. Is it so?' asked my father.</p> + +<p>Mr. Ney said it was not so, and added that composers, poets, authors, and +creative artists in general, when they produced anything of value, could +with certainty reckon upon making a very good income from the sale of their +works. As all Freeland families spent large sums in purchasing books, +journals, musical compositions, and works of art of all kinds, the +conditions of the art-world could not be correctly measured by Western +standards. The artistic productions sold during the previous year had +realised £300,000,000. Of this sum, however, the greater part represented +the cost of reproductions, particularly in the case of printed works; yet +the author of an only tolerably popular composition, book, or essay was +sure of a very considerable profit. Editions numbering hundreds of +thousands were here not at all remarkable; and editions of millions were by +no means rare. For instance, Walter had hitherto composed in all six larger +and eighteen smaller works, and for the sale of them the Musical Publishing +Association had, up to the end of the last year, paid him £21,000. In fact, +it could be positively asserted that an author of any kind, who produced +only one exceptionally good work, could live very comfortably upon the +proceeds of its sale. It had even happened that the public libraries had +bought 50,000 copies of a single book. Freeland possesses 3,050 such +institutions, and the larger of them are sometimes compelled to keep many +hundred copies of books which are much sought after. When the interest of +the reading public diminishes, the libraries withdraw a part of these +copies, and there are yearly large auctions of such withdrawn books, +without, however, diminishing the sales of the publishing associations. +Moreover, the authors of Freeland are continuously and profitably kept busy +by thousands of journals of all conceivable kinds which, so far as they +offer what is of value, have a colossal sale. Capable architects, +sculptors, painters can always reckon upon brilliant successes, for the +demand for good and original plans and beautiful statues and pictures is +always greater than the supply. The <i>grand</i> art, it is true, finds +employment only in public works, but here, as we have seen, it finds it on +a most magnificent and most profitable scale. In Freeland they attach +extraordinary importance to the cultivation of the beautiful and the noble; +they hold the grand art to be one of the most effectual means of ethical +culture; and as the community is rich enough to pay for everything that it +thinks desirable, the public outlay for monumental buildings and their +adornment finds its limits only in the capacities of the creative artists. +And the happy organisation of the departments which have these things in +charge has--hitherto at any rate--preserved the Freelanders from serious +blunders. Not everything that has been produced at the public cost is +worthy of being accepted as perfect--many works of art thus produced have +been thrown into the shade by better ones; but even those subsequently +surpassed creations were at the time of their production the best which the +existing art could produce, and to ask for more would be unjust. And I +could not avoid perceiving that the population of Freeland are not merely +proud of their public expenditure in art, but that they thoroughly enjoy +what they pay for; and in this respect they are comparable to the ancient +Athenians, of whom we are told that, with solitary exceptions, they all had +an intense appreciation of the marvellous productions of their great +masters.</p> + +<p>'With such a universal taste for the beautiful among your people,' said my +father to Mrs. Ney, 'I am surprised that so little attention is given to +the adornment of the most beautiful embellishment of Freeland--its queenly +women. Certainly their dress is shapely, and I have nowhere noticed such a +correct taste in the choice of the most becoming forms and colours; but of +actual ornaments one sees none at all. Here and there a gold fastener in +the hair, here and there a gold or silver brooch on the dress--that is all; +precious stones and pearls seem to be avoided by the ladies here. What is +the reason of this?'</p> + +<p>'The reason is,' answered Mrs. Ney, 'that the sole motive which makes +ornaments so sought after among other nations is absent from us in +Freeland. Vanity is native here also, among both men and women; but it does +not find any satisfaction in the display of so-called "valuables," things +whose only superiority consists in their being dear. Do you really believe +that it is the <i>beauty</i> of the diamond which leads so many of our pitiable +sisters in other parts of the world to stake happiness and honour in order +to get possession of such glittering little bits of stone? Why does the +woman who has sold herself for a genuine stone thrust aside as unworthy of +notice the imitation stone which in reality she cannot distinguish from the +real one? And do you doubt that the real diamond would itself be degraded +to the rank of a valueless piece of crystal which no "lady of taste" would +ever glance at, if it by any means lost its high price? Ornaments do not +please, therefore, because they are beautiful, but because they are dear. +They flatter vanity not by their brilliancy, but by giving to the owner of +them the consciousness of possessing in these scarcely visible trifles the +extract of so many human lives. "See, here on my neck I wear a talisman for +which hundreds of slaves have had to put forth their best energies for +years, and the power of which could lay even you, who look upon the pretty +trifle with such reverent admiration, as a slave at my feet, obedient to +all my whims! Look at me: I am more than you; I am the heiress who can +squander upon a trifling toy what you vainly crave to appease your hunger." +That is what the diamond-necklace proclaims to all the world; and <i>that is +why</i> its possessor has betrayed and made miserable perhaps both herself and +others, merely to be able to throw it as her own around her neck. For note +well that ornaments adorn only those to whom they belong; it is mean to +wear borrowed ornaments--it is held to be improper; and rightly so, for +borrowed ornaments lie--they are a crown which gives to her who wears it +the semblance of a power which in reality does not belong to her.</p> + +<p>The power of which ornaments are the legitimate expression--the power over +the lives and the bodies of others--does not exist in Freeland. Anyone +possessing a diamond worth, for example, £600, would here have at his +disposal a year's income from one person's labour; but to buy such a +diamond and to wear it because it represented that value would, in view of +our institutions, be to make oneself ridiculous; for he who did it would +simply be investing in that way the profits of <i>his own labour</i>. Value for +value must he give to anyone whose labour he would buy for himself with his +stone; and, instead of reverent admiration, he would only excite compassion +for having renounced better pleasures, or for having put forth profitless +efforts, in order to acquire a paltry bit of stone. It would be as if the +owner of the diamond announced to the world: "See, whilst you have been +enjoying yourselves or taking your ease, I have been stinting myself and +toiling in order to gain this toy!" In everybody's eyes he would appear not +the more powerful, but the more foolish: the stone, whose fascination lies +purely in the supposition that its owner belongs to the masters of the +earth who have power over the labour of others, and <i>therefore</i> can amuse +themselves by locking up the product of so much sweating toil in useless +trinkets--the stone can no longer have any attraction for him. He who buys +such a stone in Freeland is like a man who should set his heart upon +possessing a crown which was no longer the symbol of authority.'</p> + +<p>'Then you do not admit that ornaments have any real adorning power? You +deny that pearls or diamonds add materially to the charms of a beautiful +person?' asked my father in reply.</p> + +<p>'That I do, certainly,' was the answer. 'Not that I dispute their +decorative effect altogether; only I assert that they do not produce the +same and, as a rule, not so good an effect as can be produced by other +means. But, in general, the toy, which has no essential appropriateness to +the human body, does not adorn, but, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, +rather disfigures, its proud possessor. That in other parts of the world a +lady decked with diamonds pleases you gentlemen better than one decked with +flowers is due to the same cause that makes you--though you may be staunch +Republicans--see more beauty in a queen than in her rivals, though at the +bar of an impartial aesthetics the latter would be judged the more +beautiful. A certain something, a peculiar witchery, surrounds her--the +witchery (excuse the word) of servility; this it is, and not your aesthetic +judgment, which cheats you into believing that the diamond lends a higher +charm than the rose-wreath. Let the rose become the symbol of authority to +be worn only by queens, and you would without any doubt find that roses +were the adornment best fitted to reveal true majesty.'</p> + +<p>'But the precious metals'--thus I interposed--'are not so completely +abjured in Freeland as precious stones and pearls. Is there no +inconsistency here?'</p> + +<p>'I think not,' answered Mrs. Ney. 'We make use of any material in +proportion to its beauty and suitability. If we find gems or pearls really +useful for decorative purposes, and sufficiently beautiful when thus used +to compensate in their aesthetic attractiveness for their cost, we make use +of them without hesitation. But that does not apply to jewels as personal +ornaments: the natural rose is, under all circumstances, a better adornment +than its imitation in rubies and diamonds. The precious metals, on the +other hand, have certain properties--durability, lustre, and extraordinary +malleability--which in many cases make it imperative to employ them for +decorative purposes. Nevertheless, even their employment is very limited +among us. These studs here, and the fillet in my daughter's hair, are not +of pure gold, but are made of an alloy the principal ingredient in which is +steel, and which owes its colour and immunity from rust to gold, without +being as costly as silver. No one wishes to pass off such steel-gold for +real gold; we use this material simply because we think it beautiful and +suitable, and would at once exchange it for another which was cheaper and +yet possessed the same properties. We use pure gold only exceptionally. Our +table-plate, which you perhaps thought to be silver, is made of an alloy +which owes to silver nothing but its resistance to most of the acids. If +you examine the plate more closely you will see that this silver-alloy +differs from pure silver both in being of a lighter colour and in being +less weighty. In short, we use the noble metals never <i>because</i> of, but now +and then <i>in spite of</i>, their costliness.</p> + +<p>'I might say that we women of Freeland are vain, because our desire to +please is more pronounced than that of our Western sisters. We are not +content with being beautiful; we wish to appear beautiful, and the men do +all they can to stimulate us in this endeavour; only I must ask you to make +this distinction--we do not wish to make a show, but to please. Therefore +to a Freeland woman dress and adornment are never ends in themselves, but +means to an end. In Europe a lady of fashion often disfigures herself in +the cruellest manner because she cares less about the effect produced by +her person than about that produced by her clothes, her adornment; she does +not choose the dress that best brings out her personal charms, but the most +costly which her means will allow her to buy. We act differently. Our own +aesthetic taste preserves us from the folly of allowing a dressmaker to +induce us to wear garments different from those which we think or know will +best bring out the good points of our figure. Besides, we can always avail +ourselves of the advice of artistically cultured men. No painter of renown +would disdain to instruct young women how to choose their toilette; in +fact, special courses of lectures are given upon this important subject. +Naturally there cannot be any uniform fashion among us, since the +composition, the draping, and the colours of the clothing are made to +harmonise with the individuality of the wearer. To dress the slender and +the stout, the tall and the short, the blonde and the brunette, the +imposing and the <i>petite</i>, according to the same model would be regarded +here as the height of bad taste. A Freeland woman who wishes to please +would think it quite as ridiculous if anyone advised her to change a mode +of dressing or of wearing her hair which she had proved to be becoming to +her, merely because she had been seen too often dressed in this style. We +cannot imagine that, in order to please, it is best to disfigure oneself in +as many ways as possible; but we hold firmly to the belief--and in this we +are supported by the men--that the human form should be covered and veiled +by clothing, but not distorted and disfigured.'</p> + +<p>We gallantly declared that we thoroughly agreed with these principles of +the toilette. The truth is, that a stranger in Freeland, accustomed to the +eccentricities of Western fashions, at first thinks the artistically +designed costumes of the women a little too simple, but he ultimately comes +to find a return to the Western caricatures simply intolerable. You will +remember that in Rome David assured us that European fashions gave him +exactly the same impression as those of the African savages. After being +here scarcely a week, I begin to entertain the same opinion.</p> + +<p>But I see that I must conclude without having exhausted my matter. +Promising to give next time what I have omitted here,</p> + +<p class="rightl">Thine,</p> + +<p class="right">----.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: July 28, ----</p> + +<p>I could not keep my promise to write again soon, because last week was +taken up with a number of excursions which I made with David on horseback, +or by means of automatic <i>draisines</i>, into the environs of Eden Vale and to +the neighbouring town of Dana, and by rail to the shores of the Victoria +Nyanza. In this way I have got to know quite a number of Freeland towns, as +well as several scattered industrial and agricultural colonies. I have seen +the charming places embosomed in shady woods in the Aberdare range, where +extensive metallurgical industries are carried on; Naivasha city, the +emporium of the leather industry and the export trade in meat, and whose +rows of villas reach round the Naivasha lake, stretching a total distance +of some forty miles; the settlements among the hills to the north of the +Baringo lake, with their numerous troops of noble horses, herds of cattle +and swine, flocks of sheep, multitudes of tame elephants, buffaloes, and +zebras, their gold and silver mines; and Ripon, the centre of the mill +industry and of the Victoria Nyanza trade. In all the towns I found the +arrangements essentially the same as in Eden Vale: electric railways in the +principal streets, electric lighting and heating, public libraries, +theatres, &c. But what surprised me most was that even the rural +settlements, with very few exceptions, were not behind the towns in the +matter of comforts and conveniences. Electric railways placed them in +connection with the main lines. Wherever five or six villas--for the villa +style prevails universally in Freeland--stand together, they have electric +lighting and heating; even the remotest mountain-valleys are not without +the telegraph and the telephone; and no house is without its bath. Wherever +a few hundred houses are not too widely scattered a theatre is built for +them, in which plays, concerts, and lectures are given in turn. There is +everywhere a superfluity of schools; and if a settler has built his house +too far from any neighbours for his children to be able to attend a school +near home, the children are sent to the house of a friend, for in Freeland +nothing is allowed to stand in the way of the education of the young.</p> + +<p>Of course I have not neglected the opportunity of observing the people of +Freeland at their work, both in the field and in the factory. And it was +here that I first discovered the greatness of Freeland. What I saw +everywhere was on an overpoweringly enormous scale. The people of the +Western nations can form as faint a notion of the magnitude of the +mechanical contrivances, of the incalculable motive force which the powers +of nature are here compelled to place at the disposal of man, as they can +of the refined, I might almost say aristocratic, comfort which is +everywhere associated with labour. No dirty, exhausting manual toil; the +most ingenious apparatus performs for the human worker everything that is +really unpleasant; man has for the most part merely to superintend his +never-wearying iron slaves. Nor do these busy servants pain the ears of +their masters by their clatter, rattle, and rumbling. I moved among the +pounding-mills of Lykipia, which prepare the mineral manure for the local +Manure Association by grinding it between stone-crushers with a force of +thousands of hundredweights, and there was no unpleasantly loud sound to be +heard, and not an atom of dust to be seen. I went through iron-works in +which steel hammers, falling with a force of 3,000 tons, were in use. The +same quiet prevailed in the well-lit cheerful factory; no soiling of the +hands or faces of the workers disturbed the impression that one here had to +do with gentlemen who were present merely to superintend the smithy-work of +the elements. In the fields I saw ploughing and sowing: again the same +appearance of the lord of the creation who, by the pressure of a finger, +directed at will the giants Steam and Electricity, and made them go whither +and on what errand he thought fit. I was <i>under</i> the ground, in the +coal-pits and the iron-mines, and there I did not find it different: no +dirt, no exhaustive toil for the man who looked on in gentlemanly calm +whilst his obedient creatures of steel and iron wrought for him without +weariness and without murmuring, asking of him nothing but that he should +guide them.</p> + +<p>During these same excursions I learnt more about a number of the +recreations in which the Freelanders specially indulge. With David I +visited the numerous points on the Kenia and the Aberdare mountains from +which one obtains the most charming views. To these points every Sunday the +young people resort for singing and dancing, and as a rule they are treated +to some surprise which the Recreation Committee--a standing institution in +every Freeland town--has organised in celebration of some event or other. +To me the most surprising was the Ice-Festival on the great skating-pool on +the Kenia glacier. Five years before, the united Recreation Committees of +Eden Vale, Dana City, and Upper Lykipia had converted a plateau nearly +14,000 feet above the sea, and covering 5,900 acres, into a pool fed by +water from the adjoining large icefield. From the end of May until the +middle of August there are always at this elevation severe night frosts, +which quickly convert the glacier-water of the pool, already near the +freezing-point, into a solid floor of ice. After surrounding this +magnificent skating-place with luxurious warmable waiting, dressing, and +refreshment rooms, and connecting it with the foot of the mountain by means +of an inclined railway, the united committees handed over their work to the +public for gratuitous use. The large expense of construction was easily +defrayed by voluntary contributions, and the cost of maintenance was more +than covered by the donations of the numerous visitors. During the whole of +the cool season the large ice-pool is covered by skaters, very many of whom +are women, not merely from the Kenia district--that is, from a radius of +sixty or seventy miles--but also from all parts of Freeland. Even from the +shores of the Indian Ocean and of the great lakes men and women who are +fond of this healthy amusement come to participate in the brilliant +ice-festivals. There is at present a project on foot to build at the +skating-place a magnificent hotel, which shall enable the lovers of this +graceful and invigorating exercise to spend the night at an elevation of +nearly 14,000 feet above the sea. Moreover, the great popularity of the +Kenia ice-pool has given occasion to another similar undertaking, which is +nearly completed on the Kilimanjaro, at a level 1,640 feet higher than the +ice-pool of the Kenia. Another projected ice-pool on the Mountains of the +Moon, near the Albert Nyanza, has not yet been begun, as the local +committee have not yet found a site sufficiently high and large.</p> + +<p>But all these arrangements for recreation did not excite my admiration and +astonishment so much as the buoyant and--in the best sense of the +word--childlike delight and gladness with which the Freelanders enjoyed not +merely their pleasures, but their whole life. One gets the impression +everywhere that care is unknown in this country. That ingenuous +cheerfulness, which among us in Europe is the enviable privilege of the +early years of youth, here sits upon every brow and beams from every eye. +Go through any other civilised country you please, you will seldom, I might +say never, find an adult upon whose countenance untroubled happiness, +buoyant enjoyment of life, are to be read; with a careful, most often with +an anxious, expression of face men hurry or steal past us, and if there is +anywhere to be seen a gaiety that is real and not counterfeited it is +almost always the gaiety of recklessness. With us it is only the 'poor in +spirit' who are happy; reflection seems to be given us only that we may +ponder upon the want and worry of life. Here for the first time do I find +men's faces which bear the stamp of both conscious reflection and +untroubled happiness. And this spectacle of universal happy contentedness +is to me more exhilarating than all else that there is to be seen here. One +breathes more freely and more vigorously; it is as if I had for the first +time escaped from the oppressive atmosphere of a stifling prison into the +freedom of nature where the air was pure and balmy. 'Whence do you get all +this reflected splendour of sunny joyousness?' I asked David.</p> + +<p>'It is the natural result of the serene absence of care which we all +enjoy,' was his answer. 'For it is not a mere appearance, it is a reality, +that care is unknown in this country, at least that most hideous, most +degrading of all care--how to get daily bread. It is not because we are +richer, not even because we are all well-off, but because we--that is, +every individual among us--possess the absolute certainty of continuing to +be well-off. Here one <i>cannot</i> become poor, for everyone has an inalienable +right to his share of the incalculable wealth of the community. To-morrow +lies serene and smiling before us; it cannot bring us evil, for the +well-being of even the last among us is guaranteed and secured by a power +as strong and permanent as the continuance of our race upon this +planet--the power of human progress. In this respect we are really like +children, whom the shelter and protection of the parental house save from +every material care.'</p> + +<p>'And are you not afraid,' I interposed, 'that this absence of care will +eventually put an end to that upon which you rely--that is, to progress? +Hitherto at least want and care have been the strongest incentives to human +activity; if these incentives are weakened, if the torturing anxiety about +to-morrow ceases, then will progress be slackened, stagnation and then +degeneration will follow, and together with the consequent inevitable +impoverishment want and care will come again. I must admit that none of +this has so far shown itself among you; but this does not remove my fears. +For at present you in Freeland are enjoying the fruits of the progress of +others. What has been thought out and invented under the pressure of the +want and sorrow of unnumbered centuries, what is still being thought out +and invented under the pressure of the want and sorrow of untold millions +outside the boundaries of your own country--it is all this which makes your +present happiness possible. But how will it be when what you are striving +after has happened, when the whole human race shall have been converted to +your principles? Do you believe that want can completely disappear from off +the face of the earth without taking progress with it?'</p> + +<p>'We not only believe that,' was his answer, 'but we know it; and everyone +who does not allow obsolete prejudices to distort his judgment of facts +must agree with us. To struggle for existence is the inexorable command, +upon the observance of which nature has made progress--nay, the very being +of every living thing--to depend: this we understand better than any other +people in the world. But that this struggle must necessarily be prompted by +hunger we deny; and we deny also that it is necessarily a struggle between +individuals of the same species. Even we have to struggle for existence; +for what we require does not fall into our lap without effort and labour. +Yet not <i>opposed</i> but <i>side by side</i> do we stand in our struggle; and it is +on this very account that the result is never doubtful to us. When we are +referred to the conflict to be found everywhere in the animal world, we can +appeal to the fact that man possesses other means of struggling than do his +fellow-creatures which stand on a lower level, and can work out his +evolution in a different manner. But to plead this would be to resort to a +poor and unnecessary subterfuge, for in reality the reverse is the case. +Want and material care are--with very rare exceptions--no natural +stimulants to fight in the competitive struggle for existence. By far the +larger number of animals never suffer lack, never feel any anxiety whatever +about the morrow; and yet from the beginning all things have been subjected +to the great and universal law of progress. Very rarely in the animal world +is there the struggle of antagonism between members of the same species; +the individuals live together in peace and generally without antagonism, +and it is against foes belonging to other species that their weapons are +directed. It is against lions and panthers that the gazelle fights for +existence by its vigilance and speed, not against its own fellows; lions +and panthers employ their cunning and strength against the gazelle and the +buffalo, and not against other lions and panthers. Conflict among ourselves +and against members of our own species was and is the privilege of the +human race. But this sad privilege has sprung from a necessity of +civilisation. In order to develop into what we have become we have been +obliged to demand from nature more than she is in a position voluntarily to +offer us; and for many thousands of years there has been no way of +obtaining it but that of satisfying our higher needs by a system of mutual +plunder and oppression. And in this way want became a stimulus to conflict +in the human struggle for existence. Note, therefore, that the fighting of +man against man, with material care as the sharpest spur to the conflict, +was not and is not the simple transference to human society of a law +everywhere prevalent in nature, but an exceptional distortion of this great +natural law under the influence of a certain phase of human development. We +suffered want not because nature compelled us to do so, but because we +robbed each other; and we robbed each other because with civilisation there +arose a disproportion between our requirements and our natural means of +satisfying them. But now that civilisation has attained to control over the +forces of nature, this disproportion is removed; in order to enjoy plenty +and leisure we no longer need to exploit each other. Thus, to put an end to +the conflict of man with man, and at the same time of material want, is not +to depart from the natural form of the struggle for existence, but in +reality to return to it. The struggle is not ended, but simply the +unnatural form of it. In its endeavour to raise itself above the level of +the merely animal nature, humanity was betrayed into a long-enduring strife +with nature herself; and this strife was the source of all the unspeakable +torture and suffering, crime and cruelty, the unbroken catalogue of which +makes up the history of mankind from the first dawn of civilisation until +now. But this dreadful strife is now ended by a most glorious victory; we +have become what we have endeavoured for thousands of years to become, a +race able to win from nature plenty and leisure for all its members; and by +this very re-acquired harmony between our needs and the means of satisfying +them have we brought ourselves again into unison with nature. We remain +subject to nature's unalterable law of the struggle for existence; but +henceforth we shall engage in this conflict in the same manner as all other +creatures of nature--our struggle will be an external, not an internal one, +not against our fellow-men nor prompted by the sting of material want.'</p> + +<p>'But,' I asked, 'what will prompt men to struggle in the cause of progress +when want has lost its sting?'</p> + +<p>'Singular question! You show very plainly how difficult it is to understand +things which contradict the views we have drunk in with our mother's milk, +and which we have been accustomed to regard as the foundation-stones of +order and civilisation, even when those views most manifestly contradict +the most conspicuous facts. As if want had ever been the sole, or even the +principal, spring of human progress! The strife with nature, in which the +disproportion between the needs of civilisation and the ability to satisfy +those needs led mankind through a long period of transition from barbarism +to a state of culture worthy of human nature, had, it is true this +result--viz. that the struggle for existence assumed not only its natural +forms, but also forms which were unnatural, and which did violence to the +real and essential character of most of nature's offspring; yet these +latter forms never attained to absolute dominion. In fact, as a rule nature +has shown herself stronger than the human institutions which were in +conflict with her. During the whole of the history of civilisation we owe +the best achievements of the human intellect not to want, but to those +other impulses which are peculiar to our race, and which will remain so as +long as that race dominates the earth. Thrice blind is he who will not see +this! The great thinkers, inventors, and discoverers of all ages and all +nations have not been spurred on by hunger; and in the majority of cases it +may be asserted that they thought and speculated, investigated and +discovered, not <i>because</i> they were hungry, but <i>in spite</i> of it. Yet--so +it may be objected--those men were the elect of our race; the great mass of +ordinary men can be spurred on only by vulgar prosaic hunger to make the +best use of what the elect have discovered and invented. But those who +judge thus are guilty of a most remarkable act of oversight. Only those who +are strongly prejudiced can fail to see that it is just the well-to-do, the +non-hungry, who most zealously press forward. Hunger is certainly a +stimulus to labour, but an unnerving and pernicious one; and those who +would point triumphantly to the wretches who can be spurred on to activity +only by the bitterest need, and sink into apathy again as soon as the pangs +of hunger are stilled, forget that it is this very wretchedness which is +the cause of this demoralisation. The civilised man who has once acquired +higher tastes will the more zealously strive to gratify those tastes the +less his mental and physical energy has been weakened by degrading want, +and the less doubtful the result of his effort is. For all unprejudiced +persons must recognise the most effective stimulus to activity not in +hopeless want, but in rational self-interest cheerfully striving after a +sure aim. Now, <i>our</i> social order, far from blunting this self-interest, +has in reality for the first time given it full scope. You may therefore be +perfectly certain of this: the superiority over other nations in +inventiveness and intellectual energy which you have already noted among us +is no accidental result of any transitory influences, but the necessary +consequence of our institutions. Every nation that adopts these +institutions will have a similar experience. Just as little as we need the +stimulus of the pangs of want to call forth those inventions and +improvements which increase the amount and the variety of our material and +intellectual enjoyments, so little will progress he checked in any other +nation which, like us, finds itself in the happy position of enjoying the +fruits of progress.'</p> + +<p>I was deeply moved as my friend thus spoke like an inspired seer. 'When I +look at the matter closely,' I said, 'it seems as if, according to the +contrary conception, there can be progress only where it is to all intents +and purposes useless. For the fundamental difference between you +Freelanders and ourselves lies here--that you enjoy the fruits of progress, +while we merely busy ourselves with the Danaidean vessel of +over-production. No one doubts that Stuart Mill was right when he +complained that all our discoveries and inventions had not been able to +alleviate the sorrow and want of a single working-man; nevertheless, what +terrible folly it would be to believe that that very want was necessary in +order that further discoveries and inventions might be made!</p> + +<p>'But,' I continued, 'to return to the point at which we started: you have +not yet fully explained to me all the astonishing, heart-quickening +cheerfulness which prevails everywhere in this land of the happy. Want and +material care are here unknown: admitted. But there are outside of Freeland +hundreds of thousands, nay millions, who are free from oppressive care: why +do they not feel real cheerfulness? Compare, for instance, our respective +fathers. Mine is unquestionably the richer of the two, and yet what deep +furrows care has engraved upon his forehead, what traces of painful +reflection there are about his mouth; but what a gladsome light of eternal +youth shines from every feature of your father! I might almost imagine that +the air which one breathes in this country has a great deal to do with +this; for the folds and wrinkles in my father's features of which I have +just spoken have in the fortnight of our stay here grown noticeably less, +and I myself feel brighter and happier than ever I felt before.'</p> + +<p>'You have forgotten the most important thing,' replied David--'the +influence of public feeling upon the feelings of the individual. Man is a +social being whose thoughts and feelings are derived only in part from his +own head and his own heart, whilst a not less important part of them--I +might say the fundamental tone which gives colour and character to the +individual's intellectual and emotional life--has its source in the social +surroundings for the time being. Everyone stands in a not merely external, +but also an internal, indissoluble relation of contact with those who are +around him; he imagines that he thinks and feels and acts as his own +individuality prompts, but he thinks, feels, and acts for the most part in +obedience to an external influence from which he cannot escape--the +influence of the spirit of the age which embraces all heads, all hearts, +and all actions. Had the enlightened humane freethinker of to-day been born +three centuries ago, he would have persecuted those who differed from him +upon the most subtile, and, as he now thinks, ridiculous points of belief, +with the same savage hatred as did all others who were then living. And had +he seen the light yet a few centuries earlier--say, among the pagan Saxons +of the days of Charlemagne--human sacrifices would have shocked him as +little as they did the other worshippers of the goddess Hertha. And the man +who, brought up as a pagan Saxon in the forests of the Weser and the Elbe, +would have held it honourable and praiseworthy to make the altar-stone of +Hertha smoke with the blood of slaughtered captives, would in that same age +have felt invincible horror at such a deed, had he--with exactly the same +personal capabilities--by accident been born in imperial Byzantium instead +of among German barbarians. At Byzantium, on the other hand, he would have +indulged in lying and deceit without scruple, whilst, if surrounded by the +haughty German heroes, he--in other respects the same man from head to +foot--would have been altogether incapable of such weak vices. Since this +is so--since the virtues and vices, the thoughts and the feelings, of those +of our contemporaries among whom we are born and brought up give the +fundamental tone to our own character, it is simply impossible that the +members of a community, maddened by a ceaseless fear of hunger, should pass +their lives in undisturbed serenity. Where an immense majority of the +people never know what the morrow may bring forth--whether it may bring a +continuance of miserable existence or absolute starvation--under the +dominion of a social order which makes one's success in the struggle for +existence depend upon being able to snatch the bread out of the mouth of a +competitor, who in his turn is coveting the bread we have, and is striving +with feverish anxiety to rob us of it--in a society where everyone is +everyone's foe, it is the height of folly to talk of a real gladsome +enjoyment of life. No individual wealth protects a man from the sorrow that +is crushing the community. The man who is a hundredfold a millionaire, and +who cannot himself consume the hundredth part of the interest of his +interest, even he cannot escape the sharp grip of the horrid hunger-spectre +any more than the most wretched of the wretched who wanders, roofless and +cold and hungry, through the streets of your great cities. The difference +between the two lies not in the brain and in the heart, but simply in the +stomach; the second simply endures physical suffering over and above the +psychical and intellectual suffering of the first. But the psychical and +mental suffering is permanent, and therefore more productive of results. +Look at him, your Croesus plagued with a mad hunger-fever; how breathlessly +he rushes after still greater and greater gains; how he sacrifices the +happiness and honour, the enjoyment and peace, of himself and of those who +belong to him to the god from whom he looks to obtain help in the universal +need--the god Mammon. He does not possess his wealth, he is possessed by +it. He heaps estate upon estate, imagining that upon the giddy summit of +untold millions he shall obtain security from the sea of misery which rages +horridly around him. Nay, so blinded is the fool that he does not perceive +how it is merely this ocean of universal misery that fills him with horror; +but he rather cherishes the sad delusion that his dread will become less if +but the abyss below be deeper and farther removed from his giddy seat +above. And let it not be supposed that by this superstitious dread of +hunger merely the foolishness of individuals is referred to. The whole age +is possessed by it, and the best natures most completely so. For the more +sensitive are the head and the heart, the more potent is the influence +exerted by the common consciousness of universal want in contrast with +transitory individual comfort. Only absolutely cold-hearted egoists or +perfect idiots form here and there an exception; they alone are able really +to enjoy their wealth undisturbed by the hunger-spectre which is strangling +millions of their brethren.</p> + +<p>'This, Carlo, is what imprints upon the faces of all of you such +Hippocratic marks of suffering. You can never give yourselves up to the +unrestrained enjoyment of life so long as you breathe an atmosphere of +misery, sorrow, and dread. And it is this community of feeling, which +connects every man with his surroundings, that enables you here, only just +arrived among a society to which this misery, this sorrow, this dread, are +totally unknown, to enjoy that cheerful serenity of thought and emotion +which is the innate characteristic of every healthy child of nature. And +we, who have lived for a generation in the midst of this community from +which both misery and the fear of misery are absent--we have almost +completely got rid of that gloomy conception of human destiny of which we +were the victims so long as the Old World was about us with its +self-imposed martyrdom. I use the limiting expression "almost" with +reference to those among us who had reached adult manhood before they came +to Freeland. We younger ones, who were born and have grown up here without +having ever seen misery, differ in this respect very considerably from our +elders who in their youth saw the Medusa-head of servility face to face. It +is five-and-twenty years since my father and mother, who were both among +the first arrivals at the Kenia, escaped from the mephitic atmosphere of +human misery, the degradation of man by man. But the recollection of the +horrors among which they formerly lived, and which they shared without +being able to prevent, will never quite fade out of their minds, and their +hearts can never be fully possessed by that godlike calm and cheerful +serenity which is the natural heritage of their children, whose hands have +never been stained by the sweat and blood of enslaved fellow-men, and who +have never had to appropriate for their own enjoyment the fruit of the +labour of others--have never stood before the cruel alternative of being +either the hammer or the anvil in the struggle for existence.'</p> + +<p>You know me well enough to imagine what an overpowering impression these +words would make upon me. But I recalled by accident at this very moment a +conversation I had had with the elder Ney about savings and insurance in +Freeland, and it occurred to me that these were both things that did not +harmonise with the absence of care of which his son had just been speaking. +So I asked David, 'Why do men save in a country in which everyone can +reckon with certainty upon a constantly increasing return for his industry, +and in which even those who are incapable of work are protected not merely +against material want, but even against the lack of higher enjoyments? Does +not this thrift prove that anxiety for the morrow is not after all quite +unknown here?'</p> + +<p>'Almost all men save in Freeland,' answered David; 'nay, I can with +certainty say that saving is more general here than in any other country. +The object of this saving is to provide for the future out of the +superfluity of the present; and certainly it follows from this that a +certain kind of care for the morrow is very well known among us also. The +distinction between our saving and the anxious thrift of other peoples lies +merely here, that our saving is intended net to guard us against want, but +simply against the danger of a future diminution of the standard of our +accustomed enjoyments; and that we pursue this aim in our saving with the +same calm certainty as we do our aim in working. A contradiction between +this and what was said just now is found only when you overlook the +equivocal meaning of the <i>word</i> "care." We know no "care" so far as a +<i>fear</i> concerning the morrow is implied by the word; but our whole public +and private life is pervaded by <i>foresight</i>, in the sense of making +precautionary arrangements to-day in order that the needs of to-morrow may +be met. Fear and uneasiness about the future, the <i>atra cura</i> of the +Latins, you will look for among us in vain. It is this care which poisons +the pleasure of the present; whilst that other, which can only improperly +be called care, but the real name of which is foresight, by means of the +perfect sense of security which it creates concerning the morrow enhances +the delight of present enjoyment by the foretaste to-day of future +enjoyments already provided for. Herein lies the guarantee of the success +of our institutions, that, while solidarity is secured between the interest +of the individual and the interest of the community, the individual +possesses, together with liberty of action, a part of the responsibility of +his action. Only a part, because the action of the individual is not +altogether without limitations. Everyone in Freeland is hedged in by the +equal rights of all the others, even more and more effectually than +elsewhere. Consequently, everyone's responsibility finds its limitations +just where the responsibility of all can be substituted for his own. And +the guarding against actual deprivation on the part of anyone is one of the +obligations of the whole community, which thereby and at the same time +protects itself. Just as among you, a noble family, acting in its own +well-understood interest, would not allow any of its members to fall into +sordid misery, so long as it could in any way prevent it, so we, who act +upon the principle that all men are brothers of the <i>one</i> noble race +destined to exercise control over the rest of nature, do not allow anyone +who bears our family features to suffer want so far as our means allow us +to save him from it. An existence altogether worthy of man, participation +in all that the highest culture makes <i>necessary</i>--this we guarantee to all +who live in our midst, even when they have left off working. But absolute +necessaries do not include the whole of the good things attainable at any +given time; whence it follows that the transition from labour to the ever +so well-earned leisure of age would be connected with the deprivation of a +number of highly prized customary enjoyments, if the copious proceeds of +former labour were not in part laid by for use in this time of leisure. +Take, for example, my father: if he pleased to spend now the £1,440 which +he receives as one of the Freeland executive, together with the £90 which +my mother's claim for maintenance amounts to, he could not, after his +retirement from office, with the fifty-five per cent. of the +maintenance-unit to which he and my mother together would be entitled--that +is, with £330--carry on his household without retrenchments which, though +they might deprive him only of superfluities, would nevertheless be keenly +felt, because they would involve the giving up of what he has accustomed +himself to. It is true that a considerable number of his present expenses +consists of items which in part would cease in the course of time, in +part--<i>e.g.</i>, his contributions to benevolent objects in other parts of the +world--could not be expected from persons who are receiving a maintenance +from the commonwealth, and in part would no longer accord with the tastes +and capacities of aged persons. But in spite of all this, my parents would +have to forego many things to which they are accustomed; and to avoid this +is the purpose of their saving.</p> + +<p>'In order that this end may be attained, we have an altogether peculiar +form of insurance. The insurance department of our central bank supplies +the stipulated insurance-money not in fixed amounts, but in sums bearing a +certain proportion to the common maintenance-allowance, or--which amounts +to the same thing--to the average value of labour for the time being. As +the aim of the insured is to be completely saved from anxiety as to the +future, there must, in view of the continual increase in the profits of +labour, be maintained an exact correspondence between those profits and the +amount of insurance. For the requirements of the individual are regulated +by the standard of life around him, and when this is raised so are his +requirements raised. The annuity secured by the insurance must therefore be +variable, if its object is to be completely attained. Consequently, the +premiums are regulated by the height of the profits of labour for the time +being. Certainly the inevitable arbitrariness of the connection between the +premium and the claim of the insured is thereby magnified; but we do not +allow that to trouble us. Our experts have taken into consideration, with +the most scrupulous attempt at accuracy, all the appertaining factors, and +the premiums--the rates of which have, since the institution has been in +existence, been slightly amended to bring them into harmony with the +teaching of experience--were so fixed as to make it probable that they +would suffice to cover all current demands. If, however, contrary to our +expectation, we should find that we erred on one side or the other, we +should not look upon this as a great misfortune. The satisfaction of having +secured to ourselves means sufficient to meet our requirements at all times +will not appear to us to have been too dearly bought even if it prove that +we have paid a few shillings or pounds more than was necessary; and, on the +other hand, if the premiums should prove to have been too small, the +deficiency will be at once made up out of the resources of the +commonwealth.</p> + +<p>'Perhaps you will ask what right we have in this way to burden future +generations to the profit of their ancestors? The same right that we have +continually to project into the future the claims upon the +maintenance-allowance. As you know, these are entirely discharged out of +the current public revenue, no reserve being accumulated for this purpose, +the principle acted upon being that the workers of the present have to +support the invalids of the past. Our parents when incapable of working are +maintained out of the proceeds of our labour; and when we in our turn +become incapable of working, it will be the duty of our children to support +us out of the proceeds of their labour. It is no favour which we show to +our parents and expect from our children, but a right--a right based upon +the fact that each successive generation enjoys not merely the fruits of +its own labour, but also the fruits of the labour of its predecessors. +Without the treasures of knowledge and inventiveness, of wealth and +capital, which we accumulate and bequeath, our posterity would be very +poorly provided for. And if the next generation should find itself called +upon to make up any deficit in favour of those of their parents who--it is +immaterial on what ground--held an extraordinary increase in their +maintenance-allowance to be necessary, we should not find any injustice in +that, because the payments of the insured at once found employment in such +a way as to benefit not merely the present, but also the future. The +insurance-premiums have already accumulated to milliards; they have been +invested chiefly in railways, canals, factories--in short, in works in aid +of labour, most of which will endure for many generations. You may +therefore regard the additional sums which may <i>possibly</i> have to be paid +by the workers of the future to the insured of to-day as an insignificant +interest subsequently levied by the latter upon the former; or, what is +simpler still, you can imagine that the fathers retain for their own use +until the end of their lives a part of the wealth they themselves have +earned, and then at their death bequeath their whole property to their +descendants.'</p> + +<p>Here David ended his instructions for the time; and I will imitate him.</p> + +<p class="right">----</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: Aug. 2, ----</p> + +<p>For some time I have been deeply interested in the education of the young +here, and the day before yesterday was devoted to the study of this +subject. Accompanied by David, I first visited one of the many +kindergartens which are pretty evenly distributed about the town in Eden +Vale. In an enclosure consisting partly of sunny sward and partly of shady +grove, some fifty boys and girls of from four to six years of age were +actively occupied under the direction of two young women of about eighteen +or twenty, and a young widow. The children sang, danced, indulged in all +sorts of fun and frolic, looked at picture-books which were explained to +them, listened sometimes to fairy-tales and sometimes to instructive +narratives, and played games, some of which were pure pastime and others +channels of instruction. Among the little people, who enjoyed themselves +right royally, there was a constant coming and going. Now one mother +brought her little one, and now another fetched hers away. In general the +Freeland mothers prefer to have their children with them at home; only when +they leave home or pay a visit, or have anything to attend to, do they take +their little ones to the nearest kindergarten and fetch them away on their +return. Sometimes the young people beg to be allowed to go to the +kindergarten, and the mothers grant them their request. But that is an +exception; as a rule the children sport about at home under the eyes of +their parents, and the earliest education is the special duty of the +mother. A Freeland wife seldom needs to be taught how this duty can be best +fulfilled; if she does there is a kindergarten not far off, or, later, the +pedagogium, where good advice can always be obtained. I was told that every +Freeland child of six years can read, has some skill in mental arithmetic, +and possesses a considerable amount of general information, without having +seen anything but a picture-book.</p> + +<p>After the kindergarten came the elementary school. These schools also are +pretty evenly distributed about Eden Vale, and, like the kindergartens, are +surrounded by large gardens. They have four classes, and girls and boys are +taught together. The teaching is entirely in the hands of women, married or +unmarried; only gymnastics and swimming are taught by men to the boys. +These two subjects occupy both boys and girls an hour every day. At least +thrice a week excursions of several hours' duration are made into the +neighbouring woods and hills, accompanied by a teacher for each class, and +during these excursions all kinds of object-teaching are pursued. I watched +the pupils at their books and in the gymnasium, in the swimming-school and +on the hills, and had abundant opportunity of convincing myself that the +children possessed at least as much systematised knowledge as European +children of the same ago; whilst upon vaulting-horse and bars, +climbing-pole and rope, they were as agile as squirrels; in the water they +swam like fishes, and after a three hours' march over hill and dale they +were as fresh and sprightly as roes.</p> + +<p>We next went to the middle schools, in which boys and girls of from ten to +sixteen years are taught apart, the former solely by men, the latter partly +by women. Here still greater attention is paid to bodily exercises of all +kinds, and in order to obtain the requisite space these schools are located +on the outskirts of the town, in the neighbourhood of the woods. I was +astonished at the endurance, strength, and grace of the boys and girls in +gymnastics, running, jumping, dancing, and riding. The boys I also saw +wrestling, fencing, and shooting. A few passes with the rapier and the +sabre with several of the youngsters showed me, to my surprise, that they +were not merely my equals, but in many points were superior to me, though +you know that I am one of the best fencers in Italy, the country so +renowned for this art. I was not less astonished at the splendid muscular +development of the half-grown wrestlers and gymnasts, than at the ease with +which the same youths overtook a horse at full gallop and threw themselves +upon its back. But I was completely dumfounded with the skill with which +the lads used their rifles. The target--scarcely so large as an ordinary +dinner-plate--was seldom missed at a distance of 550 yards, and not a few +of the young marksmen sent ball after ball into the bull's-eye. Altogether +the upper classes of these middle schools gave me the impression that they +were companies of picked young athletes; at the same time these athletes +showed themselves well acquainted with all those branches of learning which +are taught in the best European secondary schools.</p> + +<p>I learnt that, up to this age, the instruction given to all the children of +Freeland is the same, except that among the girls less time is given to +bodily exercises and more to musical training. At sixteen years of age +begins the differentiation of the training of the sexes, and also the +preparation of the boys for their several vocations. The girls either +remain at home, and there complete their education in those arts and +branches of knowledge, the rudimental preparation for which they have +already received; or they are sent as pupil-daughters, with the same view, +to the house of some highly cultured and intellectually gifted woman. +Others enter the pedagogic training institutions, where they are trained as +teachers, or they hear a course of lectures on nursing, or devote +themselves to aesthetics, art, &c.</p> + +<p>The boys, on the other hand, are distributed among the various higher +educational institutions. Most of them attend the industrial and commercial +technical institutions, where they spend a year or two in a scientific and +practical preparation for the various branches of commerce and industry. +Every Freeland worker passes through one of these institutions, whether he +intends to be agriculturist, spinner, metal-worker, or what not. There is a +double object aimed at in this: first, to make every worker, without +distinction, familiar the whole circle of knowledge and practice connected +with his occupation; and next to place him in the position of being able to +employ himself profitably, if he chooses to do so, in several branches of +production. The mere spinner, who has nothing to do but to watch the +movements of his spindles, in Freeland understands the construction and the +practical working of everything connected with his industry, and knows what +are the sources whence it derives its materials and where its best markets +are; from which it follows that when the functionaries of his association +are to be elected the worker is guided in voting by his technical +knowledge, and it is almost impossible that the choice should fall upon any +but the best qualified persons. But, further, this simple spinner in +Freeland is no mere automaton, whose knowledge and skill begin and end with +the petty details of his own business: he is familiar with at least one or +several other branches of industry; and from this again it follows that the +man can take advantage of any favourable circumstance that may occur in +such other branch or branches of industry, and can exchange the plough for +the loom, the turning-lathe for the hammer, or even any of these for the +writing-desk or the counting-house; and by this means there can be brought +about that marvellous equilibrium in the most diverse sources of income +which is the foundation of the social order of the country.</p> + +<p>Young persons who have given evidence of possessing superior intellectual +ability attend the universities, in which Freeland's professors, the higher +government officials, physicians, technicians, &c., are educated; or the +richly endowed academies of art, which send forth the architects, +sculptors, painters, and musicians of the country. Even in all these +educational institutions great importance is attached to physical as well +as to intellectual development. The industrial and commercial technical +colleges have each their gymnasium, wrestling-hall, and riding-school, +their shooting and fencing ground, just as the universities and academies +have; and as in these places the youths are not so directly under the +control of their teachers as are the boys in the intermediate schools, the +institution of public local and national exercises prevents the students +from relaxing in their zeal for bodily exercises. All young men between +sixteen and twenty-two years of age are organised in companies of a +thousand each, according to their place of abode; and, under officers +chosen by themselves, they meet once a month for exercise, and in this way +still further develop their physical powers and skill. Once a year, in each +of the forty-eight districts into which Freeland is divided for +administrative purposes, a great competition for prizes takes place, before +a committee of judges selected from the winners of previous years. On these +occasions there are first single contests between fencers, marksmen, +riders, wrestlers, and runners, the competitors being champions chosen by +each thousand from their own number; and next, contests between the +thousands themselves as such. A few weeks later there is a national +festival in a valley of the Aberdare range specially set apart for this +purpose; at that festival the winners in the district contests compete for +the national championship. I am assured that no Greek youth in the best age +of Hellas more eagerly contended for the olive-branch at the Isthmian Games +than do the Freeland youths for the prize of honour at these Aberdare +games, although here also the prize consists of nothing but a simple crown +of leaves--a prize which, certainly, is enhanced by the fanfares of triumph +which resound from the Indian Ocean to the Mountains of the Moon and from +Lake Tanganika to Lake Baringo, and by the enthusiastic jubilation of such +districts and towns as may be fortunate enough to have sent successful +competitors. Hundreds of thousands stream out of all parts of the country +to these contests; and the places to which the victors belong, particularly +the district of the conquering thousand, welcome back their youths with a +series of the most brilliant festivals.</p> + +<p>When I heard this, I could not refrain from remarking that such enthusiasm +on the occasion of a mere pastime seemed to me to be extravagant; and I +particularly expressed my astonishment that Freeland, the home of social +equity, could exhibit such enthusiasm for performances which might appear +important in warlike Hellas, but which here, where everything breathed +inviolable peace, could have no value but as simple bodily exercises.</p> + +<p>'Quite right,' answered David, 'only it is this very superiority in bodily +exercises which secures to us Freelanders the inviolable peace which we +enjoy. We have no military institutions; and if it were not for our +superiority in all that appertains to bodily strength and skill we should +be an easy prey to any military Power that coveted our wealth.'</p> + +<p>'But you surely do not imagine,' I cried, not without a sarcastic smile, +'that your boy-fencers and marksmen and the victors at your Isthmian Games +make you a match for any great military Power that might really attack you? +In my opinion, your safety lies in the mutual jealousy of the European +Powers, each of which is prevented by the others from seizing such a prize; +and yet more in your isolation, the sea and mountains saving you from such +dangerous visits. But, to secure yourselves against contingencies, I think +it would be well for you to make some military provision, such as a +competent militia, and particularly a powerful fleet, the expense of which +would be nothing in comparison with your wealth.'</p> + +<p>'We think differently,' said David. 'Not our war-games, but our superior +physical ability which is exhibited in those games perfectly secures us +against any attack from the most powerful foe who, against our harmoniously +developed men and youths perfected in the use of every kind of arm, could +bring into the field nothing but a half-starved proletariat scarcely able +to handle their weapons when required to do so. We hold that in war the +number of shots is of less moment than the number of hits, and that the +multitude of fighters counts for less than their efficiency. If you had +seen, as I did, at the last year's national festival how the victorious +thousand won their prize, you would perhaps admit that troops composed of +such men, or of men who approached them in skill, need fear no European +army.'</p> + +<p>On my asking what were the wonderful feats performed on the occasion +referred to, David gave me a detailed account of the proceedings, the +substance of which I will briefly repeat. In the contests between the +thousands, the firing <i>en masse</i> is directed against a gigantic movable +target, which represents in life-size a somewhat loosely ordered front-line +of a thousand men; by a special apparatus, the front line, when at a +distance of about 1,300 yards, is set quickly in motion towards the +firing-party, and the mechanism of the target is so arranged that every +bullet which hits one of the thousand figures at once throws that figure +down, so that the row of the imaginary foes gets thinner at every hit. The +rule is that that thousand is the victor which knocks down the whole of the +figures in the approaching target in the shortest time and with the least +expenditure of bullets. Of course these two conditions compensate each +other according to certain rules--that is, a small <i>plus</i> in time is +corrected by a corresponding <i>minus</i> in the ammunition consumed, and <i>vice +versâ</i>. At all events, it is incumbent to shoot quickly and accurately; and +in particular the competing thousands must be so thoroughly well drilled +and so completely under command that on no account are two or more marksmen +to aim at the same figure in the target. This last condition is no trifling +one; for if it is difficult in a line of a thousand men to allot to every +marksman his particular aim, and that instantaneously, without reflection +and without recall, the difficulty must be very much greater when the +number of the objects aimed at is continually becoming less, whilst the +number of the marksmen remains the same. In addition to all this, in order +to have any chance at all of winning the olive-branch, the firing must +begin the moment the target is set in motion--that is, when the figures are +at a distance of 1,300 yards. At the last contest, the victorious thousand +emptied the target within 145 seconds from the moment of starting. The +target during this time had only got within 924 yards of the marksmen, who +had fired 1,875 shots. Of course, it is not to be inferred that the same +results would necessarily be obtained from firing at living and not +inactive foes. But if it be taken into consideration--so David +thought--that the intensity of the excitement of the Freeland youth in +front of a European army could scarcely be so great as on the +competition-field, when they are striving to wrest the much-coveted prize +from well-matched opponents--for the least successful of the competing +forty-eight thousands emptied the target in 190 seconds, when it had got +within a distance of 930 yards and had fired 2,760 shots; and when, +further, it is remembered that, in the presence of an actual foe, the most +difficult of the conditions of the contest--viz. that of the lowest number +of shots--ceases to exist; then it must certainly be admitted that such +firing would, probably in a few minutes, completely annihilate an equally +numerous body of men within range, and that it would sweep away twice or +thrice as many as the shooters before the foe would be in a position to do +the shooters any very material injury. There is no European army, however +numerous it may be, which would be able to stand against such firing. It is +not to be expected that men, who are driven forward by nothing but mere +discipline, would even for a few minutes face such a murderous fusillade.</p> + +<p>On my part I had no argument of weight to meet this. I did not deny that +the soldiers in our gigantic European armies, who do nothing with their +shooting-sticks but allay their helpless fears by shooting innumerable +holes in the air, only one out of two hundred of their bullets reaching its +billet, could do little with such antagonists. 'But how would you defend +yourselves against the artillery of European armies?' I asked.</p> + +<p>'By our own artillery,' answered David. 'Since these institutions of ours +have the double purpose of stimulating zeal for physical development and of +making us secure against attack without maintaining an army, we give +considerable prominence in our exercises to practising with cannons of the +most various calibres. And even this practice is begun at school. Those +boys who, having reached the fourth class in the intermediate schools, have +shown proficiency in other things, are promoted to artillery practice--and +this, it may be observed, has proved to be a special stimulus to effort. +The reason you have not seen the cannons is that the exercise-ground lies +some distance outside of the town--a necessary arrangement, as some of the +guns used are monsters of 200 tons, whose thunder would ill accord with the +idyllic peace of our Eden Vale. The young men are so familiar with this +kind of toy, and many of them have, after profound ballistic studies, +brought their skill to such perfection, that in my opinion they would show +themselves as superior to their European antagonists in artillery as they +would in rifle-practice. The same holds good of our horsemen. In brief, we +have no army; but our men and youths handle all the weapons which an army +needs infinitely better than the soldiers of any army whatever. And as, +moreover, for the purposes of our great prize-contests there exists an +organisation by means of which, out of the 2,500,000 men and youths whom +Freeland now possesses capable of bearing arms, the best two or three +hundred thousand are always available, we think it would he a very easy +thing to ward off the greatest invading army--a danger, indeed, which we do +not seriously anticipate, as we doubt if there is a European people that +would attack us. Rifles and cannons collected for use against us would very +soon--without our doing anything--be directed against those who wished us +ill.'</p> + +<p>To this I assented. We then discussed several other topics connected with +the education of the young; and I took occasion to ask how it was that the +before-mentioned voluntary insurance against old age and death in Freeland +was effected on behalf of only the insurer himself and his wife, and not of +his children. According to all I had seen and heard, indifference towards +the fate of the children could not be the reason. I therefore asked David +to tell me why, whilst we in Europe saved chiefly for the children, here in +Freeland nothing was laid by for them.</p> + +<p>'The reason,' explained David, 'lies here; the children are already +sufficiently provided for--as sufficiently as are those who are unable to +work, and the widows. And this is necessarily involved in the principle of +economic justice; for if the children were thrown upon the voluntary thrift +of their parents--as they are with you--they would be made dependent upon +conduct upon which they in truth could exercise no influence. If I accustom +myself to requirements which my maintenance-allowance could not enable me +to satisfy, it lies in my own power permanently to secure what I need by +means of an insurance-premium. If I neglect to do this, it is my own fault, +and I have no right to complain when I afterwards have to endure unpleasant +privations. The case is the same with my wife, for she exercises the same +influence over the management of the household as I do. My children, on the +other hand, would suffer innocently if they were thrown upon our personal +forethought for what they would need in the future. They must, therefore, +be protected from any privation whatever, independently of anything that I +may do. And that is the case. What we bequeath to our children, and +bequeath it in all cases, is the immense treasure of the powers and wealth +of the commonwealth delivered into their care and disposition. Just think. +The public capital of Freeland already amounts to as much as £6,000 for +every working inhabitant; and last year this property yielded to everyone +who was moderately industrious a net income of £600, and the ratio of +income is, moreover, constantly growing year by year.'</p> + +<p>'But,' I interposed, 'suppose a child is or becomes incapable of work?'</p> + +<p>'If he is so from childhood, then the forty per cent. of the +maintenance-unit, to which in such a case he has a right, is abundantly +sufficient to meet all his requirements, for he neither can nor should have +an independent household. If he <i>becomes</i> incapable of work, after he has +set up a household and perhaps has children of his own, it would be his +own, not his parents' fault, if he had neglected to provide for this +emergency--assuming, of course, that he considered it necessary to make +such provision.'</p> + +<p>'Very well; I perfectly understand that. But how is it with those who are +orphaned in infancy? Is no provision made for such? It cannot possibly +accord with the sentiments of Freeland parents who live in luxury to hand +over their children to public orphanages?'</p> + +<p>'As to orphanages, it is the same as with hospitals,' answered David. 'If +by orphanages you mean those barracks of civilised Europe or America, in +which the waifs of poverty are without love, and after a mechanical pattern +educated into the poor of the future, there are certainly none such among +us. But if you mean the institutions in which the Freeland orphans are +brought up, I can assure you that the most sensitive parents can commit +their children to them with the most perfect confidence. Of course, nothing +can take the place of parental love; but otherwise the children are cared +for and brought up exactly as if they were in their parents' house. The +sexes dwell apart by tens in houses which differ in nothing from other +Freeland private houses; and they are under the care of pedagogically +trained guardians, whose duty it is not to teach them, but to watch over +them and attend to all their domestic wants. Food, clothing, play,--in +short, the whole routine of life is in every respect similar to that of the +rest of Freeland. They are taught in the public schools; and after they +have passed through the intermediate schools, the young people themselves +decide whether they will go to a technical school or to a university. Until +their majority they remain in the adoptive home selected for them by the +authorities, and then, if they are not yet able to maintain themselves, +they enjoy the general right of maintenance-allowance. What more could the +most affectionate care of parents do for them? Not even the most intangible +reproach can attach to training in such a public orphanage, for the +children are not the children of poverty, but simply orphans.'</p> + +<p>'But I imagine that orphans from better houses are adopted by relatives or +acquaintances, particularly if the parents make full provision for their +support,' I answered.</p> + +<p>'In case there are such houses to which the children can go, the parents +need make no provision for their maintenance, but merely a testamentary +declaration, and the children will then be transferred to such houses +without becoming any pecuniary burden to their adoptive parents. For in +such a case the commonwealth pays to the household in question an +equivalent to what would have been the cost of maintenance at the +orphanage; and as, besides the ordinary expenses of living in every +Freeland house, the fee for personal superintendence must be paid out of +this equivalent, the allowance will not be much more than the child will +cost its foster-parents. Thus no parental provision is needed to save the +orphans from being dependent upon the liberality or goodwill of strangers. +But I should tell you that this interposition of friendly or even related +families on behalf of orphans is exceptional. Unless circumstances are very +much in favour of such an arrangement, Freeland parents prefer to leave +their children to the care of the public orphanages. And this is very +intelligible to all who have had opportunities of observing the touching +tenderness of the guardian angels who rule in these houses, and of the +intimate relations which quickly develop between the children and their +attendants. Our Board of Maintenance, supported by our Board of Education, +lays great weight upon this part of its duty. Only the most approved +masters and mistresses--and the latter must also be experienced nurses--are +appointed as guardians of the orphans; and to have been successfully +occupied in this work for a number of years is a high distinction zealously +striven after, particularly by the flower of our young women.'</p> + +<p>'I can quite understand that,' I said. 'May I, in this connection, ask how +you deal with the right of inheritance in general, and of inheritance of +real property in particular? For here, in property in houses there seems to +me to be a rock upon which your general principles as to property in land +might be wrecked. It is one of the fundamental principles of your +organisation that no one can have a right of property in land; but +houses--if I have been rightly informed--are private property. How do you +reconcile these things?'</p> + +<p>'Everyone,' answered David, 'can dispose freely of his own property, at +death as in life. The right of bequest is free and unqualified; but it must +be noted that between husband and wife there is an absolute community of +goods, whence it follows that only the survivor can definitively dispose of +the common property. The right of property in the house, however, cannot be +divided; and it is not allowable to build more than one dwelling-house upon +a house-and-garden plot. Finally, the dwelling-house must be used by the +owner, and cannot be let to another. If the house-plot be used for any +other purpose than as the site of the owner's home, the breach of the law +involves no punishment, and no force will be brought to bear upon the +owner, but the owner at once loses his exclusive right as usufructuary of +the plot. The plot becomes at once, <i>ipso facto</i>, ground to which no one +has a special right, and to which everyone has an equal claim. For, +according to our views, there is no right of property in land, and +therefore not in the building-site of the house; and the right to +appropriate such ground to one's own house is simply a right of usufruct +for a special purpose. Just as, for example, the traveller by rail has a +claim to the seat which he occupies, but only for the purpose of sitting +there, and not for the purpose of unpacking his goods or of letting it to +another, so I have the right to reserve for myself, merely for occupation, +the spot of ground upon which I wish to fix my home; and no one has any +more right to settle upon my building-site than he has to occupy my cushion +in the railway, even if it should be possible to crowd two persons into the +one seat. But neither am I at liberty to make room for a friend upon my +seat; for my fellow-travellers are not likely to approve of the +inconvenience thereby occasioned, and they may protest that the legs and +elbows of the sharer of my seat crowd them too much, and that the air-space +calculated for one pair of lungs is by my arbitrary action shared by two +pair. Just so my house-neighbours are not likely to approve of having my +walls and roof too near to theirs, and will resent the arbitrary act by +which I fill the air-space of the town with more persons than the +commonwealth allows.</p> + +<p>'Now, in the exercise of my right of usufruct of a definite plot of ground, +I have inseparably connected with this plot something over which I have not +merely the right of usufruct, but also the right of property--namely, a +house. Consequently my right of usufruct passes over to the person to +whom--whether gratuitously or not--I transfer my right of property in the +house. Therefore I can sell, or bequeath, or give away my house without +being prevented from doing so by the fact that I have no right of property +in the building-site.</p> + +<p>'But if, through any circumstances independent of my labour or of the +building cost, the site on which my house stands acquires a value above +that of other building-sites, this increased value belongs not to me, but +to those who have given rise to it, and that is, without exception, the +community. Let us suppose that building-ground in Eden Vale has acquired +such an exceptional value, while there are still sites available throughout +Freeland for milliards of persons: this local increase of value can be +attributed merely to the fact that the excellent streets, public grounds, +splendid monuments, theatres, libraries--in short, the public institutions +of Eden Vale--have made living in this town more desirable than in any +other place in the country. But these public institutions are not my +work--they are the work of the community; and I have no right to put into +my pocket the increased ground-value derived from the common enjoyment of +these institutions. All that I myself have expended upon the house and +garden belongs to me, and on a change of ownership must be either made good +to me or put to my credit; but the ground-price--and, indeed, the whole of +it--belongs to the commonwealth; for building-sites which offer no +advantages over any others are, in view of the still existing surplus of +unoccupied ground, valueless. The commonwealth, therefore, has, strictly +speaking, a right at any time to claim this value or an equivalent; and if +the question were an important one, it would be advisable actually to +exercise this right--that is, from time to time, or at least on a change of +ownership, to assess the value of the sites of houses and gardens, and to +appropriate the surplus of the sale-price to the public treasury.</p> + +<p>'In reality, in view of our other arrangements, this question of the value +of building-sites in Freeland is of no importance whatever. It must not be +forgotten that our private houses are not lodging-houses, but merely family +dwellings. As I have already said, every contract to let renders absolutely +void the occupier's right of exclusive usufruct of the house-site. He who +lets his house has, by the very act of doing so, made his plot masterless. +A secret letting is prevented by our general constitution, and particularly +by the central bank, which we will visit next. Thus the increased value +which may be acquired by a building-plot cannot become a question of +importance, and we are able to refrain altogether from interfering with +free trade in houses. We buy, sell, bequeath, and give away our +dwelling-houses, and no one troubles himself about it. I may remark, in +passing, that up to the present there has been no noticeable increase in +the prices of sites. A man pays for his house what the house itself is held +to be worth, the trifling differences being due to the greater or less +taste exhibited in the structure, the greater or less beauty of the garden, +&c., &c. But that the Eden Vale plots, for example, as such, have a special +value cannot be asserted, as there are still many thousands freely +available to anyone, but which are not taken. The conveniences of life are +pretty evenly distributed throughout Freeland, and no town can boast of +attractions which are not balanced by attractions of other kinds in other +towns. Eden Vale, for instance, possesses the most splendid buildings, and +is distinguished by incomparable natural beauty; hence it is less adapted +to industries, and has no agricultural colony in its neighbourhood. Dana +City, on the other hand, which is specially suitable for industry, and is +in the midst of agricultural land, is unattractive to many on account of +its ceaseless and noisy business activity. And, in general, we Freelanders +are not fond of large towns; we love to have woods and meadows as near us +as possible, and those who are able to live in the country do it in +preference to living in towns. Of course, there is not likely to be any +lack of rural building-sites; hence there can never be any ground-price +proper among us. If, however, building-ground should acquire a price, we +are in any case protected by our way and manner of building and living from +such prices as would give rise to any material derangement of our property +relations. Whether a family residence has a higher or a lower value is, +therefore, after all, only a question of subordinate interest, and it is +not worth the trouble, in order to equalise the differences in value which +arise, to bring into play an apparatus which, under the circumstances, +might lead to chicanery.'</p> + +<p>I agreed with him. Wishing, however, to understand this important matter in +all its relations, I supposed a case in which the opportunity of gaining an +extraordinarily high profit was connected with a certain definite locality, +and asked what would happen then. 'Let us imagine that in a small valley +surrounded by uninhabitable rocks or marshes, a mine of incalculable value +is discovered, the exploitation of which would give twice or thrice as much +profit as the average profit in Freeland at that time. Naturally everyone +will labour at this mine until the influx of workers produces an +equilibrium in the profits. If there were sufficient space round the mine +for dwelling-houses, nothing would stand in the way of this equalisation of +profits; but as, in the supposed case, the space is limited, only the first +comers will be able to work at the mine; all later comers--unless they camp +out--will be as effectually excluded from competing as if an insuperable +barrier had been raised round the mine. The fortunate usufructuaries of the +few building-sites will, therefore, be in the pleasant situation of +permanently pocketing twice or thrice the average proceeds of labour--let +us say, for example, £1,600 a year, whilst £600 is the average. +Consequently their early occupation of the ground will be worth £1,000 a +year to them, exactly the same as to a London house-owner the lucky +circumstance that his ancestors set up their huts on that particular spot +on the banks of the Thames is worth his £1,000 or more a year. That this is +the rule and is the principal source of wealth, not only in London, but +everywhere outside of Freeland, whilst in this country it would require an +extraordinary concurrence of circumstances to produce similar phenomena, +makes no difference in the fact itself that it can occur everywhere, and +that, if you know of no means to prevent it, the ground-rent you have +fortunately got rid of might revive among you. Nay, in this--I will admit +extreme--case the Freeland institutions would prove themselves a hindrance +to the national exploitation of such a highly profitable opportunity for +labour, the most intense utilisation of which would evidently be to the +general interest. If such a case occurred in Europe or America, the +fortunate owners would surround the mines with large lodging-barracks, from +which certainly they would without any trouble derive enormous profits, but +which at the same time would make it possible to extract the rich treasures +from the earth. Your Freeland house-right, on the contrary, would in such a +case prevent the exploitation of the treasure of the earth, merely in order +that an exceptional increase of the wealth of individuals should be +avoided. And yet it is characteristic of your institutions as a whole to +render labour more productive than is possible under an exploiting system +of industry. A correct principle, however, must be correct under all +circumstances.'</p> + +<p>'That is also my view,' answered David; 'but in such cases even your +Western law affords a means of help--namely, expropriation. Let it be +assumed that we could by no means whatever make the neighbourhood of the +mine accommodate a greater number of dwelling-houses; then, in the public +interest, we would redeem the houses already existing at the mine, and in +their place we would erect large lodging-houses after the pattern of our +hotels. If that would not suffice to accommodate as many workers as were +required in order to bring the profit of labour at the mine into +equilibrium with the average profit of the country, we would proceed to the +last resource and expropriate the mine for the benefit of the commonwealth. +By no means would even such a very improbable contingency present any +serious difficulties to the carrying out of our principles. For you will +certainly admit that the undertaking of a really monopolist production by +the commonwealth is not contrary to our principles. If you would deny it, +you must go farther, and assert that in working the railways, the +telegraphs, the post, nay, even in assuming the ultimate control of the +community, there is to be found a violation of the principle of individual +freedom.'</p> + +<p>'You are only too right,' I answered, 'and I cannot defend myself from the +charge of harbouring a doubt which would have been seen to be superfluous +if I had only been unreservedly willing to admit that the people of +Freeland, whatever might happen, would probably make the wisest and not the +stupidest provision against such a contingency as I imagined. The ground of +that inconceivable stubbornness with which we adherents of the old are apt +to resist every new idea is, that we imagine difficulties, which exist only +in our fancy, and most unnecessarily suppose that there is no other way of +surmounting those imaginary difficulties than the stupidest imaginable. We +then triumphantly believe we have reduced the new ideas <i>ad absurdum</i>; +whilst we should have done better to have been ashamed of our own +absurdities.'</p> + +<p>With this fierce self-accusation I will close my letter to-day; but not +without telling you in confidence that in making it I was thinking less of +myself than of--others.</p> + +<p class="right">----</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: Aug. 6, ----</p> + +<p>Yesterday, accompanied by the two English agents, we inspected the Freeland +Central Bank. The comprehensive and--as a necessary consequence--exceedingly +simple clearing system excited the highest admiration of the two +experienced gentlemen. The remarkably small amount of cash required to +adjust the accounts of the whole of the gigantic business transactions drew +from Lord E---- the inquiry why Freeland retained gold as a measure of +value. He thought that, as the Freelanders already made the value of a unit +of labour-time the standard of calculation in their most important affairs, +the simplest plan would be to universalise this method--that is, to declare +the labour-hour to be the measure of value, the money-unit. This would, he +thought, far better harmonise with the general social order of Freeland, in +which labour is the source and basis of all value.</p> + +<p>The director of the bank (Mr. Clark) replied: 'That is a view which has +been repeatedly expressed by strangers; but it is based simply upon +confounding the <i>measure of value</i> with the <i>source of income</i>. For labour +alone is not the source of value, though most Socialists adopt this error +of the so-called classical economists as the ground of their demands. If +all value were derived from labour and from labour alone, then even among +you in the old exploiting world everything would be in favour of the +workers, for even there the workers have control over their working power. +The misery among you is due to the fact that the workers have no control +over the other things which are requisite for the creation of value, +namely, the product of previous work--<i>i.e.</i> capital, and the forces and +materials derived from nature. We in Freeland have guaranteed to labour the +whole of what it assists to produce. But we do not base this right upon the +erroneous proposition that labour is the sole source of the value of what +it produces, but upon the proposition that the worker has the same claim to +the use of those other factors requisite for the creation of value as he +has to his working-power. But this is only by the way. Even if labour were +the only source of and the only ingredient in value, it would still be in +any case the worst conceivable <i>measure</i> of value; for it is of all things +that possess value the one the value of which is most liable to variations. +Its value rises with every advance in human dexterity and industry; that +is, a labour-day or a labour hour is continuously being transformed into an +increasing quantity of all imaginable other kinds of value. That the value +of the product of labour differs as the labour-power is well or badly +furnished with tools, well or badly applied, cannot be questioned, and +never has been seriously questioned. Now, among us in Freeland <i>all</i> +labour-power is as well equipped and applied as possible, because the +perfect and unlimited freedom of labour to apply itself at any time to +whatever will then create the highest value brings about, if not an +absolute, yet a relative equilibrium of values; but, in order that this may +be brought about, there must exist an unchangeable and reliable standard by +which the value of the things produced by labour can be measured. That the +labour expended by us upon shoe goods and upon textile fabrics, upon +cereals and turnery goods, possesses the same value is shown by the fact +that these various kinds of wares produced in the same period of time +possess the same value; but this fact can be shown, not by a comparison +between the respective amounts of labour-time, but only by a comparison +with something that has a constant value in itself. If we concluded that +the things which required an equal time to produce were of equal value +because they were produced in an equal time, we might soon find ourselves +producing shoes which no one wanted, while we were suffering from a lack of +textile fabrics; and we might see with unconcern the superfluity of turnery +wares, the production of which was increasing, while perhaps all available +hands were required in order to correct a disastrous lack of cereals. To +make the labour-day the measure of value--if it were not, for other +reasons, impossible--involves Communism, which, instead of leaving the +adjustment of the relations between supply and demand to free commerce, +fixes those relations by authority; doing this, of course, without asking +anyone what he wishes to enjoy, or what he wishes to do, but +authoritatively prescribing what everyone shall consume, and what he shall +produce.</p> + +<p>'But we in Freeland strive after what is the direct opposite of +Communism--namely, absolute individual freedom. Consequently we, more +imperatively than any other people, need a measure of value as accurate and +reliable as possible--that is, one the exchange-power of which, with +reference to all other things, is exposed to as little variation as +possible. This best possible, most constant, standard the civilised world +has hitherto found rightly in gold. There is no difference in value between +two equal quantities of gold, whilst one labour-day may be very materially +more valuable than another; and there is no means of ascertaining with +certainty the difference in value of the two labour-days except by +comparing them both with one and the same thing which possesses a really +constant value. Yet this equality in value of equal quantities of gold is +the least of the advantages possessed by gold over other measures of value. +Two equal quantities of wheat are of nearly equal value. But the value of +gold is exposed to less <i>variation</i> than is the value of any other thing. +Two equal quantities of wheat are of equal value at the same time; but +to-morrow they may both be worth twice as much as to-day, or they may sink +to half their present value; while gold can change its value but very +little in a short time. If its exchange-relation to any commodity whatever +alters suddenly and considerably, it can be at once and with certainty +assumed that it is the value not of the gold, but of the other commodity, +which has suddenly and considerably altered. And this is a necessary +conclusion from that most unquestionable law of value according to which +the price of everything is determined by supply and demand, if we connect +with this law the equally unquestionable fact that the supply and demand of +no other thing are exposed to so small a relative variation as are those of +gold. This fact is not due to any mysterious quality in this metal, but to +its peculiar durability, in consequence of which in the course of thousands +of years there has been accumulated, and placed at the service of those who +can demand it, a quantity of gold sufficient to make the greatest temporary +variations in its production of no practical moment. Whilst a good or a bad +wheat harvest makes an enormous difference in the supply of wheat for the +time being, because the old stock of wheat is of very subordinate +importance relatively to the results of the new harvest, the amount of gold +in the world remains relatively unaltered by the variations, however great +they may be, of even several years of gold-production, because the existing +stock of gold is enormously greater than the greatest possible +gold-production of any single year. If all the gold-mines in the world +suddenly ceased to yield any gold, no material influence would be produced +upon the quantity of available gold; whilst a single general failure in the +cereal crop would at once and inevitably produce the most terrible +corn-famine. This, then, is the reason why gold is the best possible, +though by no means an absolutely perfect, measure of value. But labour-time +would be the worst conceivable measure of value, for neither are two equal +periods of labour necessarily of equal value, nor does labour-time in +general possess an unalterable value, but its exchange-power in relation to +all other things increases with every step forward in the methods of +labour.'</p> + +<p>We were all convinced, but Lord E---- could not refrain from remarking that +the Freelanders did nevertheless estimate the value of many things in +labour-equivalents. He at once received from my father the pertinent answer +that, according to all they had yet heard, this happened only in cases in +which an increase of payment had to run parallel with a rise in the value +of labour. Salaries and maintenance-allowances <i>ought</i> to rise in +proportion as the proceeds of labour and therewith the general consumption +rose; and it was only when this relation had to be kept in view that the +value of things could be estimated in labour-equivalents.</p> + +<p>Mr. Clark now drew our attention to the comprehensive, transparent, and +detailed publicity which marked all the pecuniary affairs of Freeland, in +consequence of the entry in the bank books of all commercial and industrial +relations. No one can deceive either himself or others as to his +circumstances; and one of the most important social consequences of this is +that no one has any desire to shine by extravagant spending. Extravagance +is only too often prompted by a desire to make oneself appear in the eyes +of the world richer than one really is; such an attempt in this country +would only provoke a smile. And if anyone wished to spend in luxuries more +than he earned, the bank would naturally refuse him credit for such a +purpose; and without this credit the spendthrift would have to appeal to +the liberality of his fellow-citizens before he could indulge in his +extravagance. The amounts of all incomes and of all outgoings lie open to +the day; all the world knows what everybody has and whence he gets it. And +as everyone is free to engage in any branch of industry whatever, the +difference of income can excite no one's envy.</p> + +<p>But Lord E---- here asked whether the degree of authoritative arbitrariness +inevitable in fixing salaries of different kinds--<i>e.g.</i> of officials--did +not present some contradiction to the otherwise operative principle of +unconditional freedom of choice of calling, and to the equilibrium in the +proceeds of different kinds of labour which resulted from this freedom. +'When the profits of the woollen industry are higher than those of +agriculture, fresh labour will be transferred to the former until an +equilibrium has been established between the two profits; if a permanent +excess of profit shows itself in one of these branches of production, it is +evident under your institutions that this can be due solely to the fact +that the labour in this more profitable industry is less agreeable, more +exhausting, or demands a higher or rarer knowledge or skill. No one has the +slightest ground to complain of injury; and so far the harmony produced by +freedom is worthy of all admiration. But when it comes to appointments and +salaries, this absolute freedom must cease. You, as the head of a +department of the government, receive £1,400, your neighbour the +hand-worker earns merely £600; how do you know that the latter does not +feel that he is wronged thereby?'</p> + +<p>'My lord,' said Mr. Clark, smiling, 'if you mean, how do I know whether my +neighbour does not feel himself wronged <i>by nature</i> because he is not able, +like me, to earn £1,400 a year, I must answer that I can speak only from +conjecture, and that I really possess no certain knowledge as to his +feelings. But if you think that my neighbour, or anyone else in Freeland, +could find in my higher salary an advantage conferred on me by an arbitrary +exercise of authoritative power, or by the favour of the electors, or for +any inadequate reason, I can certainly show that you are mistaken. For my +salary is, in the last resort, as much the result of free competition as is +the labour-profit of my neighbour. Whether I am the right man for my post +is a question which is decided by the corporations by whom my election is +made, and whose choice is controlled or superseded by no automatically +working contrivance; with what salary my office must be endowed, in order +that qualified men, or let us say men who are held to be qualified, may be +obtained, this is regulated by exactly the same automatic laws as is the +labour-profit of a weaver or an agriculturist. And this holds good of the +salary of the youngest official up to that of the heads of the departments +of the Freeland government. The fixing of the salaries in every case +depends upon the free judgment of the presidents or of the electoral +colleges; but these presidents or electoral colleges must fix the salaries +at such sums as will at any time attract a sufficient number of qualified +candidates. Of course, a pound more or less a year would make no +difficulty--it is a recognised principle that the salaries should be high +enough to attract rather a superfluity than a lack of candidates; but when +the number of candidates is greater than a certain ratio, the salaries are +reduced, whilst a threatened lack of candidates is met by an increase of +salaries. I will add, that it is to be taken as a matter of course that in +Freeland the unsuccessful candidates are not breadless aspirants. Success +or failure is never therefore a question of a livelihood, but of the +gratification of inclination and sometimes of vanity. A man gives up his +office when more profitable or more agreeable occupation attracts him +elsewhere. The public officials are not paid the same salaries in all the +branches of the public service. Specially trying work, or work demanding +special knowledge, obtains here higher profits, just as in the various +industries. And whilst the labour-earnings of ordinary manual labour are +the measure of the salaries of the lower officials, so do the salaries of +the various association-managers exercise a regulative influence upon the +salaries of the higher public officials. You, also, have often experienced +that the attractions of positions connected with public activity have in no +small degree brought down the salaries of government officials, professors, +&c., below the level of the incomes of those who hold the chief posts in +associations. As a rule, it is found that with a rise in the general level +of intelligence there is a <i>relative</i>--by no means an absolute--sinking of +the higher salaries. While the directors of several large associations +receive as much as 5,000 hour-equivalents a year, the highest officials in +the Freeland central government at the present time receive only 3,600 +more, and that because our persistent assertion of the relative +depreciation of the higher salaries is met by the parliaments with an +equally persistent resistance, and the parliaments yield to our +importunities only very slowly and very reluctantly. To be just, it should +be added that the same game is repeated in the associations. The directors +would often be satisfied with much lower salaries, for they often really do +not know what to do with their incomes, which, in comparison with prices in +Freeland, are in some cases exorbitant, and increase with every increase in +the value of labour. Particularly during the last decade, since the value +of the hour-equivalent has increased so much, proposals from above to +reduce salaries have become a standing rule. I repeat, this reduction must +be understood to be merely relative--that is, to refer merely to the number +of hour-equivalents. The value of a labour-hour has quadrupled within the +last twenty years; those of us, therefore--we public officials, for +example--who receive twenty-eight per cent. fewer hour-equivalents than we +did originally, still have incomes which, when reckoned in money, have been +nearly tripled. As a rule, however, the associations will not hear of even +such a reduction. Though their directors openly avow their willingness to +accept lower salaries, the associations are afraid of offending some one or +other of the competing societies which pay higher salaries; and as a few +hundred pounds are not worth considering in view of the enormous sums which +a great association annually turns over, the reduction of the salaries goes +on but slowly. Nevertheless there is a gradual lessening of the difference +between the maximum and the minimum earnings, plainly proving that even in +this matter of salaries the law of supply and demand is in full operation.'</p> + +<p>Lord E---- thanked him for this explanation. But now Sir B---- proposed a +far weightier question. 'What struck me most,' said he, 'when I was +examining the enormous operations of your central bank, and what I am not +yet able to understand, is how it is possible, without arbitrary exercise +of authority and communistic consequences, to accumulate the immense +capital which you require, and yet neither pay nor reckon any interest. +That interest is the necessary and just reward of the capitalist's +self-denial I do not indeed believe; but I hold it to be the tribute which +has to be paid to the saver for sparing the community, by his voluntary +thrift, the necessity of making thrift compulsory. What I now wish to know +is, what were your reasons for forbidding the payment of interest? Or are +you in Freeland of opinion that it is unjust to give to the saver a share +of the fruits of his saving?'</p> + +<p>'We are not of that opinion,' answered the director. 'But first I must +assure you that you have started from an erroneous assumption. We <i>forbid</i> +the payment of interest as little as we "forbid" the undertaker's profit or +the landlord's ground-rent. These three items of income do not exist here, +simply because no one is under the necessity of paying them. If our workers +needed an "undertaker" to organise and discipline them for highly +productive activity, no power could prevent them from giving up to him what +belonged to him--namely, the profit of the undertaking--and remaining +satisfied themselves with a bare subsistence. Nothing in our constitution, +and no one among us, would interfere with such an undertaker in the +peaceable enjoyment of his share of the produce. If the land needed--'</p> + +<p>'Pardon my interruption,' said Sir B----. '"If our workers needed an +undertaker to organise and discipline them, no power could prevent them +from giving up to him the whole of the produce"--these were your words. In +the name of heaven, do not your workers need such a man? Do they need none +over them to organise, discipline, guide, and overlook the process of +production? And when I hear you so coolly and distinctly assert that such a +man has a right to the produce, and that neither for God's sake nor in the +name of justice need he leave to the worker more than a bare subsistence, I +am compelled to ask myself whether you, an authority in Freeland, are +pleased to jest, or whether what we have hitherto seen and heard here rests +upon a mere delusion?'</p> + +<p>'Forgive me for not having expressed myself more plainly,' answered the +director to Sir B---- and to the rest of us who, like him, had shown our +consternation at the apparent contradiction between the last words of our +informant and the spirit of Freeland institutions. 'I said, "If our workers +needed an <i>undertaker</i>": I beg you to lay emphasis upon the word +"undertaker." A man or several men to arrange, organise, guide the work, +they certainly need; but such a man is not an undertaker. The difference +between our workers and others consists in the fact that the former allow +themselves to be organised and disciplined by persons who are dependent +upon them, instead of being their masters. The conductors of our +associations are not the masters, but the officials--as well as +shareholders--of the working fellowship, and have therefore as little right +to the whole produce as their colleagues abroad. The latter are appointed +and paid by the "owner" of what is produced; and in this country this owner +is the whole body of workers as such. An undertaker in the sense of the old +industrial system, on the other hand, is a something whose function +consists in nothing but in being master of the process of production; he is +by no means the actual organiser and manager, but simply the owner, who, as +such, need not trouble himself about the process of production further than +to condescend to pocket the profits. That the undertaker at the same time +bears the risks attendant upon production has to be taken into account when +we consider the individual undertaker, but not when we consider the +institution as such, for we cannot speak of the risk of the body of +undertakers as a whole, I called the undertaker, not a man, but a +something, because in truth it need not be a man with flesh and blood. It +may just as well be a scheme, a mere idea; if it does but appropriate the +profits of production it admirably fulfils its duty as undertaker, for as +such it is nothing more than the shibboleth of mastership. Let us not be +misled by the fact that frequently--we will say, as a rule--the undertaker +is at the same time the actual manager of the work of production; when he +is, he unites two economic functions in one person, that of the--mental or +physical--labour and that of the undertakership. Other functions can just +as well be associated together in him: the undertaker can be also +capitalist or landlord; nevertheless, the undertaker, as economic subject, +has no other function than that of being master of other men's labour and +of appropriating to himself the fruits of the process of production after +subtracting the portions due to the other factors in production.</p> + +<p>'And this master, whose function consists simply of an abstract mastership, +is an inexorable necessity so long as the workers are servants who can be +disciplined, not by their enlightened self-interest, but only by force. To +throw the blame of this exclusively or only mainly upon "capital" was a +fatal error, which for a long time prevented the clear perception of the +real cause--the servile habits and opinions that had grown stronger and +stronger during thousands of years of bondage. Capital is indispensable to +a highly developed production, and the working masses of the outside world +are mostly without capital; but they are without it only because they are +powerless servants, and even when in exceptional cases they possess capital +they do not know how to do anything with it without the aid of masters. Yet +it is frequently the capital of the servants themselves by means of +which--through the intervention of the savings-banks--the undertaker +carries on the work of production; it none the less follows that he pockets +the proceeds and leaves to the servants nothing but a bare subsistence over +and above the interest. Or the servants club their savings together for the +purpose of engaging in productive work on their own account; but as they +are not able to conceive of discipline without servitude, cannot even +understand how it is possible to work without a master who must be obeyed, +because he can hire and discharge, pay and punish--in brief, because he is +master; and as they would be unable to dispose of the produce, or to agree +over the division of it, though this might be expected from them as +possessors of the living labour-power,--they therefore set themselves in +the character of a corporate capitalist as master over themselves in the +character of workmen. In these productive associations, which the workers +carry on with money they have saved by much self-denial or have involved +themselves in worry and anxiety by borrowing, they remain as workers under +a painful obligation to obey, and the slaves of wages; though certainly in +their character of small capitalists they transform themselves into masters +who have a right to command and to whom the proceeds of production +belong--that is, into undertakers. The example of these productive +associations shows, more plainly than anything else can, that it was +nothing but the incapacity of the working masses to produce without masters +that made the undertaker a necessity. We in Freeland have for the first +time solved the problem of uniting ourselves for purposes of common +production, of disciplining and organising ourselves, though the proceeds +of production belonged to us in our character of workers and not of +capitalists. And as the experiment succeeded, and when undertaken by +intelligent men possessing some means must succeed, we have no further need +of the undertaker.</p> + +<p>'But undertakership is not forbidden in Freeland. No one would hinder you +from opening a factory here and attempting to hire workers to carry it on +for wages. But in the first place you would have to offer the workers at +least as much as the average earnings of labour in Freeland; and in the +second place it is questionable if you would find any who would place +themselves under your orders. That, as a matter of fact, no such case has +occurred for the past eighteen years--that even our greatest technical +reformers, in possession of the most valuable inventions, have without +exception preferred to act not as undertakers, but as organisers of free +associations--this is due simply to the superiority of free over servile +labour. It has been found that the same inventors are able to accomplish a +great deal more with free workers who are stimulated by self-interest, than +with wage-earners who, in spite of constant oversight, can only be induced +to give a mechanical attention to their tasks. Moreover, the system of +authoritative mastership was as repugnant to the feelings of the masters as +to those of the men under them, and both parties found themselves +uncomfortable in their unfamiliar <i>rôles</i>--as uncomfortable as formerly in +the <i>rôles</i> of absolutely co-equal associates in production. So +considerable was this mutual feeling of discomfort, and so evident was the +inferiority of the servile form of organisation, that all such attempts +were quickly given up, though no external obstacle of any kind had been +placed in their way. Certainly it must not be overlooked that every +undertaker who needs land for his business is in constant danger of having +claims made by others upon the joint use of the land occupied by him, for, +of course, we do not grant him a privilege in this respect; neither he nor +anyone else in Freeland can exclude others from a co-enjoyment of the +ground. Nevertheless, as we have plenty of space, it would have been long +before the undertaker would have had to strike his sail on this account. +That the few who in the early years of our history made such attempts +quickly transformed themselves into directors of associations, was due to +the fact that, in spite of any advantages which they might possess, they +could not successfully compete with free labour. Three of these undertakers +failed utterly; they could fulfil their obligations neither to their +creditors nor to their workmen, and must have had to submit to the disgrace +of bankruptcy if their workmen, distinctly perceiving the one defect from +which the undertakings suffered, had not taken the matter in hand. Since +the inventions and improvements for the introduction of which these three +undertakers had founded their businesses, were valuable and genuine, and +the masters had during their short time of mastership shown themselves to +be energetic and--apart from their fancy for mastership--sensible men, the +workers stepped into the breach, constituted themselves in each case an +association, took upon themselves all the liabilities, and then, under the +superintendence of the very men who had been on the brink of ruin, carried +on the businesses so successfully that these three associations are now +among the largest in Freeland. Four other several individuals--also notable +industrial inventors--avoided a threatened catastrophe only by a timely +change from the position of undertakers to that of superintendents of +associations; and they stand at present at the head of works whose workers +are numbered by thousands, and have since realised continuously increasing +profits, high enough to satisfy all their reasonable expectations. Thus, as +I have said, undertakership is not forbidden in Freeland; but it cannot +successfully compete with free association.'</p> + +<p>Sir B---- and the others declared themselves perfectly satisfied with this +explanation, and begged the bank director to proceed with his account which +they had interrupted. 'You were saying,' intimated my father, 'that in +Freeland interest was no more forbidden than undertaker's gains and +ground-rent. As to undertaker's gains we now understand you; but before you +proceed to the main point of your exposition--to interest--I would like to +ask for fuller details upon the question of ground-rent. How are we to +understand that this is not forbidden in Freeland?'</p> + +<p>'How you are to understand that,' was the answer, 'will best be made plain +to you if I take up my train of thought where I left off. If, in order to +labour productively, we required the undertaker, no power in heaven or +earth could save us from giving up to him what was due to him as master of +the process of production, while we contented ourselves with a bare +subsistence--that is what I said. I would add that we should also be +compelled to pay the tribute due to the landlord for the use of the ground, +if we could not till the ground without having a landlord. For property in +land was always based upon the supposition that unowned land could not be +cultivated. Men did not understand how to plough and sow and reap without +having the right to prevent others from ploughing and sowing and reaping +upon the same land. Whether it was an individual, a community, a district, +or a nation, that in this way acquired an exclusive right of ownership of +the land, was immaterial: it was necessarily an <i>exclusive</i> right, +otherwise no one would put any labour into the land. Hence it happened, in +course of time, that the individual owner of land acquired very +considerable advantages in production over the many-headed owner; and the +result was that common property in land gradually passed into individual +ownership. But this distinction is not an essential one, and has very +little to do with our institutions. With us, the land--so far as it is used +as a means of production and not as sites for dwelling-houses--is +absolutely masterless, free as air; it belongs neither to one nor to many: +everyone who wishes to cultivate the soil is at liberty to do so where he +pleases, and to appropriate his part of the produce. There is, therefore, +no ground-rent, which is nothing else than the owner's interest for the use +of the land; but a prohibition of it will be sought for in vain. In the +fact that I have no right to prohibit anything to others lies no +prohibition. It cannot even be said that I am prohibited from prohibiting +anything, for I may do it without hindrance from anyone; but everybody will +laugh at me, as much as if I had forbidden people to breathe and had +asserted that the atmospheric air was my own property. Where there is no +power to enforce such pretensions, it is not necessary to prohibit them; if +they are not artificially called forth and upheld, they simply remain +non-existent. In Freeland no one possesses this power because here no one +need sequestrate the land in order that it may be tilled. But the magic +which enables us to cultivate ownerless land without giving rise to +disputes is the same that enables us to produce without undertakers--free +association.</p> + +<p>'Just as little do we forbid interest. No one in Freeland will prevent you +from asking as high a rate of interest as you please; only you will find no +one willing to pay it you, because everyone can get as much capital as he +needs without interest. But you will ask whether, in this placing of the +savings of the community at the disposal of those who need capital, there +does not lie an injustice? Whether it is not Communism? And I will admit +that here the question is not so simple as in the cases of the undertaker's +gains and of ground-rent. Interest is charged for a real and tangible +service essentially different from the service rendered by the undertaker +and the landowner. Whilst, namely, the economic service of the two latter +consists in nothing but the exercise of a relation of mastership, which +becomes superfluous as soon as the working masses have transformed +themselves from servants working under compulsion into freely associated +men, the capitalist offers the worker an instrument which gives +productiveness to his labour under all circumstances. And whilst it is +evident that, with the establishment of industrial freedom, both undertaker +and landowner become, not merely superfluous, but altogether +objectless--<i>ipso facto</i> cease to exist--with respect to the capitalist, +the possessor of savings, it can even be asserted that society is dependent +upon him in an infinitely higher degree when free than when enslaved, +because it can and must employ much more capital in the former case than in +the latter. Moreover, it is not true that service rendered by capital--the +giving wings to production--is compensated for by the mere return of the +capital. After a full repayment, there remains to the worker, in proportion +as he has used the capital wisely--which is his affair and not the +lender's--a profit which in certain circumstances may be very considerable, +the increase of the proceeds of labour obtained by the aid of the capital. +Why should it be considered unreasonable or unjust to hand over a part of +this gain to the capitalist--to him, that is, to whose thrift the existence +of the capital is due? The saver, so said the earlier Socialists, has no +right to demand any return for the service which he has rendered the +worker; it costs him nothing, since he receives back his property +undiminished when and how he pleases (the premium for risk, which may have +been charged as security against the possible bad faith or bankruptcy of +the debtor, has nothing to do with the interest proper). Granted; but what +right has the borrower, who at any rate derives advantage from the service +rendered, to retain all the advantage himself? And what certainty has he of +being able to obtain this service, even though it costs the saver nothing +to render it, if he (the borrower) does not undertake to render any service +in return? It is quite evident that the interest is paid in order to induce +the saver to render such a friendly service. How could we, without +communistic coercion, transfer capital from the hands of the saver into +those of the capital-needing producer? For the community to save and to +provide producers with capital from this source is a very simple way out of +the difficulty, but the right to do this must be shown. No profound thinker +will be satisfied with the communistic assertion that the capital drawn +from the producers in one way is returned to them in another, for by this +means there does not appear to be established any equilibrium between the +burden and the gain of the individual producers. The tax for the +accumulation of capital must be equally distributed among all the +producers; the demand for capital, on the other hand, is a very unequal +one. But how could we take the tax paid by persons who perhaps require but +little capital, to endow the production of others who may happen to require +much capital? What advantage do we offer to the former for their compulsory +thrift?</p> + +<p>'And yet the answer lies close at hand. <i>It is true that in the exploiting +system of society the creditor does not derive the slightest advantage from +the increase in production which the debtor effects by means of the +creditor's savings; on the other hand, in the system of society based upon +social freedom and justice both creditor and debtor are equally +advantaged.</i> Where, as with us, every increase in production must be +equably distributed among all, the problem as to how the saver profits from +the employment of his capital solves itself. The machinist or the weaver, +whose tax, for example, is applied to the purchase or improvement of +agricultural machines, derives, with us, exactly the same advantage from +this as does the agriculturist; for, thanks to our institutions, the +increase of profit effected in any locality is immediately distributed over +all localities and all kinds of production.</p> + +<p>'If anyone would ask what right a community based upon the free +self-control of the individual, and strongly antagonistic to Communism, has +to coerce its members to exercise thrift, the answer is that such coercion +is in reality not employed. The tax out of which the capitalisation is +effected is paid by everyone only in proportion to the work he does. No one +is coerced to labour, but in proportion as a man does labour he makes use +of capital. What is required of him is merely an amount proportional to +what he makes use of. Thus both justice and the right of self-control are +satisfied in every point.</p> + +<p>'You see, it is exactly the same with interest as with the undertaker's +gains and with ground-rent: the guaranteed right of association saves the +worker from the necessity of handing over a part of the proceeds of his +production to a third person under any plea whatever. Interest disappears +of itself, just like profit and rent, for the sole but sufficient reason +that the freely associated worker is his own capitalist, as well as his own +undertaker and landlord. Or, if one will put it so, <i>interest, profit, and +rent remain, but they are not separated from wages, with which they combine +to form a single and indivisible return for labour</i>.'</p> + +<p>And with this, good-night for the present.</p> + +<p class="right">----</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: Aug. 11, ----</p> + +<p>What we learnt from the director of the Freeland Central Bank occupied the +thoughts of my father and myself for a long time. As this high functionary, +who was a frequent visitor at the house of the Neys, dined with our hosts +the next day, the table-talk ran mainly upon the Freeland institutions. My +father began by asking whether the circumstance that the rest of the world, +from which Freeland did not--and, in fact, in this matter could +not--isolate itself, paid interest for loans, did not induce Freeland +savers to seek foreign investments for their money; or whether at least +some artificial means had not to be adopted to prevent this.</p> + +<p>'There is nothing, absolutely nothing,' answered Mr. Clark, 'to prevent +Freeland savers from investing their capital abroad; in fact, at present--I +have quite recently been referring to the statistics upon this point +regularly published by our central bank--some two and a-half milliards +(£2,500,000,000) are invested partly in the large foreign banks, partly in +European and American bonds. For example, a good half of your Italian +national debt is in the hands of Freelanders. But what are such figures in +comparison with the gigantic amounts of our savings and capital? We cannot +prevent, and have no reason whatever to prevent, many Freelanders from +being induced by foreign interest to accumulate more capital than is needed +here at home on the one hand, and more than they consider necessary to +insure themselves against old age on the other. For what is required for +these two purposes cannot go abroad.'</p> + +<p>'And is not this last-mentioned fact a disadvantage to the Freeland saver?' +I asked.</p> + +<p>'A Freelander who thought so,' said Mr. Ney, 'must have a very imperfect +knowledge of what is to his own advantage. The interest paid by foreign +debtors can in no respect compare with the advantages offered by employment +of the money in Freeland, those advantages being, as you know, equably +distributed among all the members of our commonwealth. At the end of last +year we had altogether thirty-four milliards sterling invested. The +calculated profit of these investments amounted to seven milliards; +therefore, more than twenty per cent. Moreover, thanks to these same +investments, every Freelander enjoys gratuitously the electric light, +warming, the use of railways and steamships, &c., advantages the total +value of which would very nearly equal the remunerative production effected +by our investments. Anyone can now calculate how much more profitable +Freeland investments of capital are than foreign ones. Moreover, the two +and a-half milliards, of which friend Clark spoke, is a large sum in +European and American financial operations, and it has actually contributed +towards very considerably lowering from time to time the rate of interest +in all the foreign money-markets; but when this amount is compared with +Freeland finances, the investment of it abroad is seen to be simply an +insignificant and harmless whim. This large sum brings in, at the present +rate of interest--you will understand that Freeland savers invest merely in +the very best European or American bonds--about thirty-four millions +sterling; that is, not quite the two-hundredth part of the national revenue +of Freeland. And there can be no doubt that this whim will--for us--lose +much of even its present importance as Freeland continues to grow; for the +competition of our capital has already reduced the rate of discount of the +Bank of England to one and a-quarter per cent., and raised the price of the +One and a-Half per cent. Consols to 118; hence there can be no doubt that a +large flow of Freeland savings to Europe and America must, in a near +future, reduce the rate of interest to a merely nominal figure. That this +whim of investing capital abroad will altogether vanish as soon as foreign +countries adopt our institutions is self-evident.'</p> + +<p>I now addressed to Mr. Clark the question in what way the Freeland +commonwealth guarded against the danger of <i>crises</i>, which, in my opinion, +must here be much more disastrous than in any other country.</p> + +<p>'Crises of any kind,' was the answer, 'would certainly dissolve the whole +complex of the Freeland institutions; but here they are impossible, for +lack of the source from which they elsewhere spring. The cause of all +crises, whether called production-crises or capital-crises, lies simply in +over-production--that is, in the disproportion between production and +consumption; and this disproportion does not exist among us. In fact, the +starting-point of the Freeland social reform is the correct perception of +the essential character of over-production arrived at twenty-six years ago +by the International Free Society. Until then--and in the rest of the world +it is still the case--the science of political economy found in this +phenomenon an embarrassing enigma, with which it did not know how better to +deal than to deny its existence. There was no real over-production--that +is, no general non-consumption of products--so taught the orthodox +political economists; for, they contended, men labour only when induced to +do so to supply a need, and it is therefore impossible in the nature of +things that more goods should be produced than can be consumed. And, on our +supposition, to which I will refer presently, this is perfectly correct. +Everyone will use what he produces to meet a certain need; he will either +use his product himself or will exchange it for what another has produced. +It matters not what that other product is, it is at any rate something that +has been produced; the question never need be what kind of product, but +only whether some product is asked for. Let us assume that an improvement +has taken place in the production of wheat: it is possible that the demand +for wheat will not increase in proportion to the possibility of increasing +its production, for it is not necessary that the producers of wheat should +use their increased earnings in a larger consumption of wheat. But then the +demand for something else would correspondingly increase--for example, for +clothing, or for tools; and if this were only known in time, and production +were turned in that direction, there would never be a disturbance in the +exchange-relations of the several kinds of goods. Thus the orthodox +doctrine explains crises as due not to a surplus of products in general, +not to a mere disproportion between production and consumption, but to a +transient disturbance of the right relation between the several kinds of +production; and it adds that it is simply paradoxical to talk of a +deficient demand in view of the misery prevailing all over the world.</p> + +<p>'In this, in other respects perfectly unassailable reasoning, only <i>one</i> +thing is forgotten--the fundamental constitution of the exploiting system +of society. Certainly it is a cruel paradox to speak of a general lack of +demand in view of boundless misery; but where an immense majority of men +have no claim upon the fruits of their labour, this paradox becomes a +horrible reality. What avails it to the suffering worker that he knows how +to make right, good, and needful use of what he produces, if that which he +produces does not belong to him? Let us confine ourselves to the example of +the increased production of wheat by improved methods of cultivation. If +the right of disposal of the increased quantity of grain belonged to the +agricultural producers, they would certainly eat more or finer bread, and +thus themselves consume a part of the increased production; with another +part they would raise the demand for clothing, and with another the demand +for implements, which would necessarily be required in order that more +grain and clothing might be produced. In such a case it would really be +merely a question of restoring the right relation between the production of +wheat, of clothing, of implements, which had been disturbed by the +increased production of one of these--wheat; and increased production, a +condition of greater prosperity for all, would, after some transient +disturbances, be the inevitable consequence. But since the increased +proceeds of wheat-cultivation do not belong to the workers, since those +workers receive in any case only a bare subsistence, the progress which has +been made in their branch of production does not enable them to consume +either more grain or more clothing, and therefore there can exist no +increased demand for implements for the production of wheat and textile +fabrics.'</p> + +<p>'But,' I objected, 'though this increased product is withheld from the +workers, it is not ownerless--it belongs to the undertakers; and these too +are men who wish to use their gains to satisfy some want or other. The +undertakers will now increase their consumption; and after all one might +suppose it would be impossible that a general disproportion should exist +between supply and demand. Certainly it would now be commodities of another +kind, the production of which would be stimulated in order to restore an +equilibrium between the several branches of labour. If the increase +belonged to the workers, then would more grain, more ordinary clothing, and +more implements be required; but since it belongs to a few undertakers +there will be an increased demand only for luxuries--dainties, laces, +equipages--and for the implements requisite to produce these luxuries.'</p> + +<p>'Exactly!' said David, who here joined in the conversation. 'Only the +undertakers are by no means inclined to apply, in any considerable degree, +the surplus derived from increased production to an additional consumption +of luxuries; but they capitalise most of it--that is, invest it in +implements of production. Nay, in some circumstances--as we heard +yesterday--the "undertaker" is no man at all possessing human wants, but a +mere dummy that consumes nothing and capitalises everything.'</p> + +<p>'So much the better,' I said, 'wealth will increase all the more rapidly; +for rapidly growing capital means rapidly increasing production, and that +is in itself identical with rapidly increasing wealth.'</p> + +<p>'Splendid!' cried David. 'So, because the working masses cannot increase +their consumption, and the undertakers will not correspondingly increase +theirs, and consequently there can be no increased consumption of any +commodity whatever, therefore the surplus power of production is utilised +in multiplying the means of production. That is, in other words, no one +needs more grain--so let us construct more ploughs; no one needs more +textile material--so let us set up more spinning-mills and looms! Are you +not yet able to measure the height of absurdity to which your doctrine +leads?'</p> + +<p>I think, Louis, you, like myself, will admit that there is simply no reply +to reasoning so plain and convincing. An economic system which bars the +products of human industry and invention from the only use to which they +should finally be applied--namely, that of satisfying some human +requirement--and which is then astonished that they cannot be consumed, +narrowly escapes idiocy. But that such is the character of the system which +prevails in Europe and America must in the end become clear to everyone.</p> + +<p>'But, in heaven's name, what becomes of the productive power among us which +thus remains unemployed?' I asked. 'We are, on the whole, as advanced in +art, science, and technical skill as you are in Freeland; I must therefore +suppose that we could become as rich, or nearly so, as you, if we could +only find a use for all our production. But we do not actually possess a +tenth of your wealth, and yet there is twice as much hard work done among +us as there is here. For though among you everyone works, and among us +there are several millions of persons of leisure who live simply upon the +toil of others, yet this is counterbalanced by the circumstance that our +working masses are kept at their toil ten hours or more daily, whilst here +an average working day is only five hours. Certainly among us there are +millions of unemployed workers; but that also is more than compensated for +by the labour of women and children, which is unknown among you. Where +then, I repeat, lies the immense difference between the utilisation of our +powers of production and of yours?'</p> + +<p>'In the equipment of labour,' was the answer. 'We Freelanders do not work +so hard as you do, but we make full use of all the aids of science and +technics, whilst you are able to do this only exceptionally, and in no case +so completely as we do. All the inventions and discoveries of the greatest +minds are as well known to you as to us; but as a rule they are taken +advantage of only by us. Since your aristocratic institutions prevent you +from enjoying the things the production of which is facilitated by those +inventions, you are not able to take advantage of the inventions except in +such small measure as your institutions permit.'</p> + +<p>Even my father was profoundly moved by this crushing exposition of a system +which he had always been accustomed to honour as the highest emanation of +eternal wisdom. 'Incredible! shocking!' he murmured in a tone audible only +to myself.</p> + +<p>But Mr. Clark proceeded: 'Among us, on the contrary, the theorem of the +so-called classical economics, that a general excess of production is +impossible, has become a truth, for in Freeland consumption and production +exactly tally. Here there can be over-production only temporarily and in +<i>isolated</i> kinds of goods--that is, the equilibrium between different kinds +of production may be temporarily disturbed. But we have no need to be +afraid of even this trifling danger. The intimate connection of all +productive interests springing from the nature of our institutions is an +antecedent guarantee of equilibrium between all branches of production. A +careful examination will show that the whole of Freeland is one great +productive society, whose individual members are independent of one +another, and yet are connected in one respect--namely, in respect of the +proceeds of their labour. Just because everyone can labour where and how he +pleases, but everyone's labour is alike in aiming at the highest possible +utility, so--apart from any incidental errors--it is impossible but that an +equal amount of labour should result in an equal amount of utility. All our +institutions tend towards this one point. At first, as long as our +commonwealth was in its initial stages, it sometimes happened that +considerable inequalities had to be subsequently balanced; the producers +did not always know until the year's accounts were closed what one and the +other had earned. But that was a period of childhood long since outlived. +At present, every Freelander knows, to within such trifling variations as +may be due to little unforeseen accidents, exactly what he and others have +earned, and also what they have every prospect of earning in the near +future. He does not wait for inequalities to arise and then set about +rectifying them; but he takes care that inequalities shall not arise. Since +our statistics always show with unerring accuracy what at the time is being +produced in every branch of industry, and since the demand as well as its +influence upon prices can be exactly estimated from a careful observation +of past years, therefore the revenue not only of every branch of industry, +but of every separate establishment, can be beforehand so reliably +calculated that nothing short of natural catastrophes can cause errors +worth notice. If such occur, then comes in the assistance of the reciprocal +insurance. In fact, in this country, not only are there no crises, but not +even any considerable variations in the different productions. Our +Statistical Department publishes an unbroken series of exact comparative +statistics, from which can at any time be seen where either fresh demand or +excess of labour is likely to arise; our supply of labour is controlled by +these returns, and that is sufficient--with rare exceptions--to preserve a +perfect equilibrium in production. It frequently occurs that here or there +a newly started establishment comes to grief, particularly in the mining +industry. Such a failure must not, however, be regarded as a +bankruptcy--how can undertakers become bankrupt when they have neither +ground-rent, nor interest, nor wages to pay, and who in any case still +possess their highly priced labour-power?--but at the worst as a case of +disappointed expectations. And should the very rare circumstance occur, +that the community or an association loses the loaned capital through the +premature death of the borrower, of what importance is that in the face of +the gigantic sums safely employed in our business? And if a guaranty (<i>del +credere</i>) were insisted upon to cover such a loss, it would amount to +scarcely a thousandth part of one per cent., and would not be worth the ink +used in writing it.'</p> + +<p>'And do not foreign crises sometimes disturb the calm course of your +Freeland production? Are not your markets flooded, through foreign +over-production, with goods for which there is no corresponding demand?' I +asked.</p> + +<p>'It certainly cannot be denied that we are considerably inconvenienced by +the frequent and sudden changes of price in the markets of the world caused +by the anarchic character of the exploiting system of production. We are +thereby often compelled to diminish our production in certain directions, +and divert the labour thus set free to other branches of industry, though +there is no actual change in the cost of production or in the relative +demand. These foreign, sudden, and incalculable influences sometimes make a +diversion of labour from one production to another necessary in order to +preserve an equilibrium in the profits, though the regular and automatic +migration of labour from one industry to another is sufficient to correct +the disturbance in the relations between supply and demand due to natural +causes. But these spasmodic foreign occurrences cannot produce a serious +convulsion in our industrial relations. Just as it is impossible to throw +out of equilibrium a liquid which yields to every pressure or blow, so our +industry is able to preserve its equilibrium by means of its absolutely +free mobility. It may be thrown into fruitless agitation, but its natural +gravity at once restores the harmony of its relations. But, as I have said, +such a disturbance is produced only by a partial over-production abroad. +That this brings about a superabundance of all commodities, we care but +little. Since foreign countries do not send us their goods for nothing, but +demand other goods in return, what those other goods shall be is their +business, not ours. We have no interest-bearing bonds or saleable property +in land; hence our export goods must be the produce of our labour. The fact +that in Freeland every product must find a purchaser is therefore by no +means affected by external trade.'</p> + +<p>'That is very clear,' I admitted.</p> + +<p>'But,' interposed my father,' why do you not protect yourselves against +disturbance due to foreign fluctuations in production, by a total exclusion +of foreign imports?'</p> + +<p>'Because that would be to cut off one's hand in order to prevent it from +being injured,' was Mr. Clark's drastic answer. 'We import only those goods +which we cannot produce so cheaply ourselves. But since, as I have already +taken the liberty of saying, the imported goods are not presented to us, +but must be paid for by goods produced by us, it is of importance that we +should be able to produce the goods with which we make the payment more +cheaply--that is, with less expenditure of labour-power--than we could the +imported goods. For instance, we manufacture scarcely any cotton goods, but +get nearly all such goods from England and America. We could, certainly, +manufacture cotton goods ourselves, but it is plain that we should have to +expend upon their manufacture more labour-power than upon the production of +the corn, gold, machinery, and tools with which we pay for the cotton goods +that we require. If it were not so, we should manufacture cotton goods +also, for there is no conceivable reason for not doing so but the one just +mentioned. If, therefore, our legislature prohibited the importation of +cotton goods, we should have to divert labour from other branches of +industry for the sake of producing <i>less</i> than we do now. We should have +either to put up with fewer goods, or to work more, to meet the same +demand. Hence, in this country, to enact a protective duty would be held to +be pure madness.'</p> + +<p>'Then you hold,' said my father, 'that our European and American economists +and statesmen who still in part adhere to the system of protection, are +simply Bedlamites; and you believe that the only rational commercial policy +is that of absolute free trade?'</p> + +<p>'Allow me to say,' answered Mr. Clark,' that Europe and America are not +Freeland. I certainly cannot regard protection even abroad as rational, for +the assumptions from which it starts are under all circumstances false. But +neither do I think the foreign free trader is essentially wiser than the +protectionist, for he also starts from assumptions which are baseless in an +exploiting country. The prohibitionists think they are encouraging +production: they are doing the opposite, they are hindering and hampering +production; and the free traders, in so far as they insist upon this fact, +are perfectly correct. Both parties, however, fail to see that in an +exploiting society, which is never able to utilise more than a small part +of its power to produce, the influence of legislative interference with +trade upon the good or the bad utilisation of productive power is a matter +of very little importance. Of what advantage is it to the free traders that +a nation under the domination of their commercial system <i>is able</i> to make +the most prolific use of their industrial capacities, so long as the +continuance of industrial servitude prevents this nation from enjoying more +than enough to satisfy the barest necessities of life? More than is +consumed cannot, under any circumstances, be produced; and consumption +among you abroad is so infinitely small, that it is verily ridiculous to +dispute over the question whether this or that commodity can be produced +better at home or abroad.</p> + +<p>'What alone interests us in this controversy among the foreign commercial +politicians is that neither party has the slightest suspicion that what the +free traders rightly reproach the protectionists with, and what the latter +wrongly defend, is the very thing that gains so many adherents to +protection--namely, the hindering and hampering of production. The +protectionists have a right to boast that they compel their people to apply +two day's labour or a double amount of capital to the production at home of +a thing which, by means of external trade, might have been exchanged for +things that are the product of merely half as much expenditure of home +labour. We, who work in order to enjoy, would have a good right to treat as +insane any persons among us who proposed such a course as an "encouragement +of home labour"; but among you, where labour and enjoyment are completely +dissevered, where millions cry for work as a favour--among you, the +hampering of labour is felt to be a benefit because it makes more toil +necessary in order to procure an equal amount of enjoyment. Among you it is +also a somewhat dangerous narcotic, for protection has a Janus head: it not +merely increases the toil, it at the same time still more diminishes the +consumption by raising the price of the articles in demand, the rise in +price never being followed immediately by a rise in wages; so that, in the +end, in spite of the increased difficulty in production, no more labour and +capital are employed than before. But the intimate relation between these +things is as a book sealed with seven seals to both protectionists and free +traders. Had it been otherwise, they must long since have seen that the +cure for industrial evils must be looked for not in the domain of +commercial politics, but in that of social politics.'</p> + +<p>'Now I begin to understand,' I cried out, 'the widespread growth of +economic reaction against which we Western Liberals are waging a ridiculous +Quixotic war with all our apparently irrefutable arguments. We present to +the people as an argument against protection exactly that after which they +are--unconsciously, it is true--eagerly longing. Protective tariffs, trade +guilds, and whatever else the ingenious devices of the last decades may be +called, I now understand and recognise as desperate attempts made by men +whose very existence is threatened by the ever growing disproportion +between the power to produce and consumption--attempts to restore to some +extent the true proportion by curbing and checking the power to produce. +Whilst the protectionist is eager to put fetters upon the international +division of labour, to keep at a distance the foreigner who might otherwise +save him some of his toil, the advocate of trade-guilds fights for +hand-labour against machine-labour and commerce. And when I look into the +matter, I find all these people are in a certain sense wiser than we +Liberals of the old school, who know no better cure for the malady of the +time than that of shutting our eyes as firmly as possible. It is true, our +intentions have been of the best; but since we have at length discovered +how to attain what we wished for, we should at once throw off the fatal +self-deception that political freedom would suffice to make men truly free +and happy. Political freedom is an indispensable, but not the sole, +condition of progress; whoever refuses to recognise this condemns mankind +afresh to the night of reaction. For if, as our Liberal economics has +taught, it were really contrary to the laws of nature to guarantee to all +men a full participation in the benefits of progress, then not only would +progress be the most superfluous thing imaginable, but we should have to +agree with those who assert that the eternally disinherited masses can find +happiness only in ignorant indifference. Now I realise that the material +and mental reaction is the logically inevitable outcome of economic +orthodoxy. If wealth and leisure are impossible for all, then it is +strictly logical to promote material and mental reaction; whilst it is +absurd to believe that men will perpetually promote a growth of culture +without ever taking advantage of it. I now see with appalling distinctness +that if our toiling masses had not been saved by their social hopes from +sharing our economic pessimism, we Liberals would long since have found +ourselves in the midst of a reaction of a fearful kind: it is not through +<i>us</i> that modern civilisation has been spared the destruction which +overwhelmed its predecessors.'</p> + +<p>After dinner, Mr. Ney invited us to accompany him to the National Palace, +where the Parliament for Public Works was about to hold an evening session +in order to vote upon a great canal project. He thought the subject would +interest us. We accepted the invitation with thanks.</p> + +<p>The Parliament for Public Works consists of 120 members, most of whom, as +David--who was one of the party--told me, are directors of large +associations, particularly of associations connected with building; but +among the members are also professors of technical universities, and other +specialists. The body contains no laymen who are ignorant of public works; +and the parliament may be said to contain the flower and quintessence of +the technical science and skill of all Freeland.</p> + +<p>The project before the house was one which had been advocated for above a +year by the directors of the Water and Mountain-Cultivation Associations of +Eden Vale, North Baringo, Ripon, and Strahl City, in connection with two +professors of the technical university of Ripon. The project was nothing +less than the construction of a canal navigable by ships of 2,000 tons +burden, from Lake Tanganika, across the Mutanzige and Albert Nyanza, whence +the Nile could be followed to the Mediterranean Sea; and from the mouth of +the Congo, along the course of that river, across the Aruwhimi to the +Albert lake; thence following several smaller streams to the Baringo lake, +along the upper course of the Dana, and thence to the Indian Ocean. The +project thus included two water-ways, one of which would connect the great +lakes of Central Africa with the Mediterranean Sea, and the other, crossing +the whole of the continent, would connect the Atlantic with the Indian +Ocean. Since a part of the immense works involved in this project would +have to be carried through foreign territories--those of the Congo State +and of Egypt--negotiations had been opened with those States, and all the +necessary powers had been obtained. The readiness of the foreign +governments to accede to the wishes of the Eden Vale executive is explained +by the fact that Freeland did not propose to exact any toll for the use of +its canals, thus making its neighbours a free gift of these colossal works. +In connection with this project, there was also another for the acquisition +of the Suez Canal, which was to be doubled in breadth and depth and +likewise thrown open gratuitously to the world. The English government, +which owned the greater part of the Suez Canal shares, had met the +Freelanders most liberally, transferring to them its shares at a very low +price, so that the Freelanders had further to deal with only holders of a +small number of shares, who certainly knew how to take advantage of the +situation. The British government stipulated for the inalienable neutrality +of the canal, and urged the Freelanders to prosecute the work with vigour.</p> + +<p>The following were the preliminary expenses:</p> + +<table border="0"> + <tr><td></td><td class="center">£</td></tr> + <tr><td>South-North Canal (total length 3,900 miles)</td><td class="right"> 385,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>East-West Canal (total length 3,400 miles) </td><td class="right"> 412,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Suez Canal (purchase and enlargement) </td><td class="right" style="border-bottom:solid black 1px"> 280,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td> Total </td><td class="right">£1,077,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It was estimated that the whole would be completed in six years, and that +therefore a round sum of £180,000,000 would be required yearly during the +progress of the work. The Freeland government believed that they were +justified by their past experience in expecting that the national income +would in the course of the coming six years increase from seven +milliards--the income of the past year--to at least ten and a-half +milliards, giving a yearly average of eight and a-half milliards for the +six years. The cost of construction of the projected works would therefore +absorb only two and one-eighth per cent. of the estimated national income, +and would be covered without raising the tax upon this income above its +normal proportion. The estimated cost was accompanied by detailed plans, +and also by an estimate of the profits, according to which it was +calculated that in the first year of use the canals would save the country +£32,000,000 in cost of transport; and therefore, taking into account the +presumptive growth of traffic, the canals would, in about thirty years, pay +for themselves in the mere saving of transport expenses. Moreover, these +future waterways were to serve in places as draining and irrigating canals; +and it was calculated that the advantage thus conferred upon the country +would be worth on an average £45,000,000 a year. Thus the whole project +would pay for itself in fourteen years at the longest, without taking into +account the advantages conferred upon foreign nations.</p> + +<p>As the whole of the proposals and plans had been in the hands of the +members for several weeks, and had been carefully studied by them, the +discussion began at once. No one offered any opposition to the principle of +the project. The debate was confined chiefly to two questions: first, +whether it was not possible to hasten the construction; and secondly, +whether an alternative plan, the details of which were before the house, +was not preferable. With reference to the first question, it was shown +that, by adopting a new system of dredging devised by certain experienced +specialists, quite six months could be saved; and it was therefore resolved +to adopt that system. As to the second question, after hearing the +arguments of Mr. Ney, it was unanimously decided to adhere to the plan of +the central executive. After a debate of less than three hours, the +government found itself empowered to spend £1,077,000,000, something more +than the cost of all the canals in the rest of the civilised world. This +amount was to be spent in five and a-half years, in constructing works +which would make it possible for ocean steamers to cross the African +continent from east to west, to pass from the Mediterranean as far as the +tenth degree of south latitude, and to remove every obstacle and every toll +from the passage of the Suez Canal.</p> + +<p>I was absolutely dumfounded by all this. 'If I had not already resolved to +strike the word "impossible" out of my vocabulary, I should do it now,' I +remarked to Mr. Ney on our way home. I must add that in the Freeland +parliaments all the proceedings take place in the presence of the public, +so that I had an opportunity of making a hasty examination of the details +of the project which had just been adopted. You know that I understand such +things a little, and I was therefore able to gather from the plans that the +two central ship canals crossed several watersheds. One of these watersheds +I accidentally knew something of, as we had passed a part of it on our +journey hither, and a part of it we had seen in some of our excursions. It +rises, as I reckon, at least 1,650 feet above the level of the canal. I +asked Mr. Ney whether it was really proposed to carry a waterway for ships +of 2,000 tons burden some 1,650 feet up and down--was it not impossible +either to construct or to work such a canal?</p> + +<p>'Certainly!' he replied, with a smile. 'But if you look at the plan more +carefully, you will see that we do not <i>go over</i> such watersheds by means +of locks, but <i>under</i> them by means of tunnels.'</p> + +<p>I looked at him incredulously, and my father's face expressed no little +astonishment.</p> + +<p>'What do you find remarkable in that, my worthy guests? Why should it be +impracticable to do on canals what has so long and extensively been done on +railways, which could be much more easily carried <i>over</i> hills and +valleys?' asked Mr. Ney. 'I admit that our canal tunnels are very costly; +but as, in working, they spare us what is the most expensive of all things, +human labour-time, they are the most practical for our circumstances. +Besides, in several cases we had no alternative except to dispense with the +canals or to construct tunnels. The watershed you speak of is not the most +considerable one: our greatest boring--connecting the river system of the +Victoria Nyanza with the Indian Ocean--is carried, in one stretch of ten +and a-half miles, 4,000 feet below the watershed; and altogether, in our +new project, we have not less than eighty-two miles of tunnelling. Such +tunnels are, however, not quite novelties. There are in France, as you +know, several short water-tunnels; we possess, in our old canal system, +several very respectable ones, though certainly they cannot compare either +in length or in size with the new ones, by means of which large ocean +vessels--with lowered masts, of course--will be able to steam through the +bowels of whole ranges of mountains. The cost is enormous; but you must +remember that every hour saved to a Freeland sailor is already worth eight +shillings, and increases in value year by year.'</p> + +<p>'But,' said my father, 'what, after all, is inconceivable to me is the +haste, I might almost say the <i>nonchalance</i>, with which milliards were +voted to you, as if it was merely a question of the veriest trifle. I would +not for a moment question the integrity of the members of your Parliament +for Public Buildings; but I cannot refrain from saying that the whole +assembly gave me the impression of expecting the greatest personal +advantage from getting the work done as speedily and on as large a scale as +possible.'</p> + +<p>'And that impression was a correct one,' replied Mr. Ney. 'But I must add +that every inhabitant of Freeland will necessarily derive the same personal +profit from the realisation of this canal project. Just because it is so, +just because among us there truly exists that solidarity of interests which +among other peoples exists only in name, are we able to expend such immense +sums upon works which can be shown to promise a utility above their cost. +If, among you, a canal is constructed which increases the profitableness of +large tracts of land, your recognised economics teaches you that it adds to +the prosperity of all. But this is correct only for the owners of the +ground affected by the canal, whilst the great mass of the population is +not benefited in the least by such a canal, and perhaps the owners of other +competing tracts of land are actually injured. The lowering of the price of +corn--so your statesmen assert--benefits the non-possessing classes; they +forget the little fact that the rate of wages cannot be permanently +maintained if the price of corn sinks. Against this there is certainly to +be placed as a consolation the fact that the non-possessing masses will not +be permanently injured by the increased taxes necessitated by such public +works; for he who earns only enough to furnish a bare subsistence cannot +long be made to pay much in taxes. Therefore, in your countries, the +controversy over such investments is a conflict of interests between +different landowners and undertakers, some of whom gain, whilst others gain +nothing, or actually lose. Among us, on the contrary, everyone is alike +interested in the gains of profitable investments in proportion to the +amount of work he does; and everyone is also called upon to contribute to +the defraying of the cost in proportion to the amount of work he does: +hence, a conflict of interests, or even a mere disproportion in reaping the +advantage, is among us absolutely excluded. The new canals will convert +17,000,000 acres of bog into fertile agricultural land. Who will be +benefited, when this virgin soil traversed by such magnificent waterways +annually produces so many more pounds sterling per acre than is produced by +other land? Plainly everyone in Freeland, and everyone alike, whether he be +agriculturist, artisan, professor, or official. Who gains by the lowering +of freights? Merely the associations and workers who actually make use of +the new waterways for transport? By no means; for, thanks to the unlimited +mobility of our labour, they necessarily share with everyone in Freeland +whatever advantage they reap. Therefore, with perfect confidence, we commit +the decision of such questions to those who are most immediately interested +in them. They know best what will be of advantage to them, and as their +advantage is everybody's advantage, so everybody's--that is, the +commonwealth's--treasury stands as open and free to them as their own. If +they wish to put their hands into it, the deeper the better! We have not to +inquire <i>whom</i> the investment will benefit, but merely <i>if</i> it is +profitable--that is, if it saves labour.'</p> + +<p>'Marvellous, but true!' my father was compelled to admit. 'But since in +this country there exists the completest solidarity of interests, I cannot +understand why you require the repayment of the capital which the +commonwealth supplies to the different associations.'</p> + +<p>'Because not to do so would be Communism with all its inevitable +consequences,' was the answer. 'The ultimate benefit of such gratuitously +given capital would certainly be reaped by all alike; but, in that case, +who could guarantee that the investment of the capital should be +advantageous and not injurious? For an investment of capital is +advantageous only when by its help more labour is saved than the creation +of the capital has cost. A machine that absorbs more labour than it takes +the place of is injurious. But we are now secured against such wasteful +expenditure, at least against any known waste of capital. The commonwealth, +as well as individuals, may be mistaken in its calculations; both may +consider an investment profitable which is afterwards proved to be +unprofitable--that is, which does not pay for the labour which it costs. +Nevertheless, the <i>intention</i> in all investments can only be to save the +expenditure of energy, for both the commonwealth and individuals must bear +the cost of their own investments. If, however, the commonwealth had to be +responsible for the investments of individuals--that is, of the +associations--then the several associations would have no motive to avoid +employing such mechanical aids as would save less labour than they cost. +The necessary consequence of this liberality on the part of the +commonwealth would therefore be that the commonwealth would assume a right +of supervision and control over those who required capital; and this would +be incompatible with freedom and progress. All sense of personal +responsibility would be lost, the commonwealth would be compelled to busy +itself with matters which did not belong to it, and loss would be +inevitable in spite of all arbitrary restraints from above.'</p> + +<p>'That, again,' said my father, 'is as plain and simple as possible. But I +must ask for an explanation of one other point. In virtue of the solidarity +of interests which prevails among you, everyone participates in all +improvements, wherever they may occur; this takes place in such a manner +that everyone has the right to exchange a less profitable branch of +production, or a less profitable locality, for a more profitable one. Then +what interest has the <i>individual</i> producer--that is, the <i>individual</i> +association--to introduce improvements, since it must seem to be much +simpler, less troublesome, and less risky, to allow others to take the +initiative and to attach oneself to them when success is certain? But I +perceive that your associations are by no means lacking in push and +enterprise: how is this? What prompts your producers to run risks--small +though they may be--when the profit to be gained thereby must so quickly be +shared by everybody?'</p> + +<p>'In the first place,' replied Mr. Ney, 'you overlook the fact that the +amount of the expected profit is not the only inducement by which +working-men, and particularly our Freeland workers, are influenced. The +ambition of seeing the establishment to which one belongs in the van and +not in the rear of all others, is not to be undervalued as a motive +actuating intelligent men possessing a strong <i>esprit de corps</i>. But, apart +from that, you must reflect that the members of the associations have also +a very considerable <i>material</i> interest in the prosperity of their own +particular undertaking. Freeland workers without exception have very +comfortable, nay, luxurious homes, naturally for the most part in the +neighbourhood of their respective work-places; they run a risk of having to +leave these homes if their undertaking is not kept up to a level with +others. In the second place, the elder workmen--that is, those that have +been engaged a longer time in an undertaking--enjoy a constantly increasing +premium; their work-time has a higher value by several units per cent. than +that of the later comers. Hence, notwithstanding the solidarity of +interest, the members of each association have to take care that their +establishment is not excelled; and since the risk attending new +improvements is very small indeed, the spirit of invention and enterprise +is more keenly active among us than anywhere else in the world. The +associations zealously compete with each other for pre-eminence, only it is +a friendly rivalry and not a competitive struggle for bread.'</p> + +<p>By this time it had grown late. My father and I would gladly have listened +longer to the very interesting explanations of our kind host, but we could +not abuse the courtesy of our friends, and so we parted; and I will take +occasion also to bid you, Louis, farewell for to-day.</p> + +<p class="right">----</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XX</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: Aug. 16, ----</p> + +<p>In your last letter you give expression to your astonishment that our host, +with only a salary of £1,440 as a member of the government of Freeland, is +able to keep up such an establishment as I have described, to occupy an +elegant villa with twelve dwelling-rooms, to furnish his table, to indulge +in horses and carriages--in a word, to live as luxuriously as only the +richest are able to do among us at home. In fact, David was right when he +promised us that we should not have to forego any real comfort, any genuine +enjoyment to which we had been accustomed in our aristocratic palace at +home. Our host does not possess capital the interest of which he can use; +nor is Mrs. Ney a 'blue-stocking'--as you surmise--who writes highly paid +romances for Freeland journals; nor does the elder Ney draw upon his son's +income as artist. It is true that Mrs. Ney once possessed a large fortune +which she inherited from her father, one of the leading speculators of +America; but she lost this to the last farthing in the great American +crisis of 18--, soon after her marriage. The domestic habits of the Neys +were not, however, affected in the least by this loss; for since her +migration to Freeland she had never made any private use of her fortune, +but had always applied its income to public purposes. This does not prevent +Mr. Ney from spending--over and above the outlay you mention--very +considerable sums upon art and science and in benevolence: the last of +course only abroad, for here no one is in need of charity. As it is not +considered indiscreet in Freeland to talk of such matters, I am in a +position to tell you that last year the Neys spent £92 for objects of art, +£75 for books, journals, and music, £120 in travelling, and £108--the +amount that remained to their credit after defraying all the other +expenses--in foreign charities and public institutions. Thanks to the +marvellous organisation of industry and trade, everything here is +fabulously cheap--in fact, many things which consume a great deal of money +in Europe and America do not add in the least to the expenses of a Freeland +household, as they are furnished gratuitously by the commonwealth, and paid +for out of the tax which has been subtracted in advance from the net income +of each individual. For example, in the cost of travelling, not a farthing +has to be reckoned for railway or steamship, since--as you have already +learnt from my former letters--the Freeland commonwealth provides free +means of personal transport. The same holds, as I think I have already told +you, of the telegraphs, the telephones, the post, electric lighting, +mechanical motive-power, &c. On the other hand, the Freeland government +charges the cost of the transport of goods by land and water to the owners +of the goods. I will take this opportunity of remarking that almost every +Freeland family spends on an average two months in the year in travelling, +mostly in the many wonderfully beautiful districts of their own land, and +more rarely in foreign countries. Every Freelander takes a holiday of at +least six, and sometimes as much as ten weeks, and seeks recreation, +pleasure, and instruction, as a tourist. The highlands of the Kilimanjaro, +the Kenia, and the Elgon, of the Aberdare range and the Mountains of the +Moon, as well as the shores of all the great lakes, swarm at all +seasons--except the two rainy seasons--with driving, riding, walking, +rowing, and sailing men, women, and children, in full enjoyment of all the +delights of travel.</p> + +<p>An intelligent and hearty love of nature and natural beauty is a general +characteristic of the Freelanders. They are proprietors in common of the +whole of their country, and their loving care for this precious possession +is everywhere conspicuous. It is significant that nowhere in Freeland are +the streams and rivers poisoned by refuse-water; nowhere are picturesque +mountain-declivities disfigured by quarries opened in badly selected +localities. No such offences against the beauty of the landscape are +anywhere to be met with. For why should these self-governing workers rob +themselves of the real pleasure afforded by healthy and beautiful natural +scenes, for the sake of a small saving which must be shared by everybody? +Naturally, this intelligent regard for rural attractions benefits tourists +also. Everywhere both the roads and the railways are bordered by avenues of +fine palms, whose slender branchless trunks do not obscure the view, whilst +their heavy crowns afford refreshing shade. In consequence of this simple +and effective arrangement, one suffers far less from heat and dust here +under the equator than in temperate Europe, where in the summer months a +several hours' journey by rail or road is frequently a torture. At all the +beautiful and romantic spots, the Hotel and Recreation Associations have +employed their immense resources in providing enormous boarding-houses, as +well as many small villas, in which the tourists may find every comfort, +either in the company of hundreds or thousands of others, or in rural +isolation, for hours, days, weeks, or months.</p> + +<p>If you are astonished at the luxury in the house of the Neys, what will you +say when I tell you that in this country every simple worker lives +essentially as our hosts do? The villas merely have fewer rooms, the +furniture is plainer; instead of keeping saddle-horses of their own, the +simple workers hire those belonging to the Transport Association; less +money is spent upon objects of art, books, and for benevolent purposes: +these are the only differences. Take, for instance, our neighbour Moro. +Though an ordinary overseer in the Eden Vale Paint-making Association, he +and his charming wife are among the intimate friends of our host, and we +have already several times dined in his neat and comfortable seven-roomed +house. Even 'pupil-daughters' are not lacking in his house, for his wife +enjoys--and justly, as I can testify--the reputation of possessing a +special amount of mental and moral culture; and, as you know, +pupil-daughters choose not the great house, but the superior housewife. And +if it should strike you as remarkable that such a Phoenix of a woman should +be the wife of a simple factory-hand, you must remember that the workers of +Freeland are different from those of Europe. Here everybody enjoys sound +secondary education; and that a young man becomes an artisan and not a +teacher, or a physician, or engineer, or such like, is due to the fact that +he does not possess, or thinks he does not possess, any <i>exceptional</i> +intellectual capacity. For in this country the intellectual professions can +be successfully carried on only by those who possess exceptional natural +qualifications, since the competition of <i>all</i> who are really qualified +makes it impossible for the imperfectly qualified to succeed. Among +ourselves, where only an infinitely small proportion of the population has +the opportunity of studying, the lack of means among the immense majority +secures a privilege even to the blockheads among the fortunate possessors +of means. The rich cannot all be persons of talent any more than all the +poor can. Since we, however, notwithstanding this, supply our demand for +intellectual workers--apart, of course, from those exceptional cases which +occur everywhere--solely from the small number of sons of rich families, we +are fortunate if we find one capable student among ten incapables; of which +ten--since the one capable student cannot supply all our demand--at most +only two or three of the greatest blockheads suffer shipwreck. Here, on the +contrary, where everyone has the opportunity of studying, there are, of +course, very many more capable students; consequently the Freelanders do +not need to go nearly so low down as we do in the scale of capacity to +cover their demand for intellectual workers. It does not necessarily follow +that their cleverest men are cleverer than ours; but our incapables--among +the graduates--are much, much more incapable than the least capable of +theirs can possibly be. What would be of medium quality among us is here +far below consideration at all. Friend Moro, for instance, would probably, +in Europe or America, not have been one of the 'lights of science,' nor 'an +ornament to the bar'; but he would at least have been a very acceptable +average teacher, advocate, or official. Here, however, after leaving the +intermediate school, it was necessary for him to take a conscientious +valuation of his mental capacity; and he arrived at the conclusion that it +would be better to become a first-rate factory-overseer than a mediocre +teacher or official. And he could carry out this--perhaps too +severe--resolve without socially degrading himself, for in Freeland manual +labour does not degrade as it does in Europe and America, where the +assertion that it does not degrade is one of the many conventional lies +with which we seek to impose upon ourselves. Despite all our democratic +talk, work is among us in general a disgrace, for the labourer is a +dependent, an exploited servant--he has a master over him who can order +him, and can use him for his own purpose as he can a beast of burden. No +ethical theory in the world will make master and servant equally +honourable. But here it is different. To discover how great the difference +is, one need merely attend a social reunion in Freeland. It is natural, of +course, that persons belonging to the same circle of interests should most +readily associate together; but this must not be supposed to imply the +existence of anything even remotely like a breaking up of society into +different professional strata. The common level of culture is so high, +interest in the most exalted problems of humanity so general, even among +the manual labourers, that <i>savants</i>, artists, heads of the government, +find innumerable points of contact, both intellectual and aesthetic, even +with factory-hands and agricultural labourers.</p> + +<p>This is all the more the case since a definite line of demarcation between +head-workers and hand-workers cannot here be drawn. The manual labourer of +to-day may to-morrow, by the choice of his fellow-labourers, become a +director of labour, therefore a head-worker; and, on the other hand, there +are among the manual labourers untold thousands who were originally elected +to different callings, and who have gone through the studies required for +such callings, but have exchanged the pen for the tool, either because they +found themselves not perfectly qualified intellectually, or because their +tastes have changed. Thus, for instance, another visiting friend of the +Neys successfully practised as a physician for several years; but he now +devotes himself to gardening, because this quiet calling withdraws him less +than his work as physician from his favourite study, astronomy. His +knowledge and capacity as astronomer were not sufficient to provide him +with a livelihood, and as he was frequently called in the night from some +interesting observation reluctantly to attend upon sick children, he +determined to earn his livelihood by gardening, so that he might devote his +nights to an undisturbed observation of the stars. Another man with whom I +have here become acquainted exchanged the career of a bank official for +that of a machine-smith, simply because he did not like a sedentary +occupation; several times he might have been elected by the members of his +association on the board of directors, but he always declined on the plea +of an invincible objection to office work. But there is a still larger +number of persons who combine some kind of manual labour with intellectual +work. So general in Freeland is the disinclination to confine oneself +<i>exclusively</i> to head-work, that in all the higher callings, and even in +the public offices, arrangements have to be made which will allow those +engaged in such offices to spend some time in manual occupations. The +bookkeepers and correspondents of the associations, as well as of the +central bank, the teachers, officials, and other holders of appointments of +all kinds, have the right to demand, besides the regular two months' +holiday, leave of absence for a longer or a shorter time, which time is to +be spent in some other occupation. Naturally no wages are paid for the time +consumed by these special periods of absence; but this does not prevent the +greater part of all those officials from seeking a temporary change of +occupation for several months once in every two or three years, as +factory-hands, miners, agriculturists, gardeners, &c. An acquaintance of +mine, a head of a department of the central executive, spends two months in +every second year at one or other of the mines in the Aberdare or the +Baringo district. He tells me he has already gone practically through the +work of the coal, the iron, the tin, the copper, and the sulphur mines; and +he is now pleasantly anticipating a course of labour in the salt-works of +Elmeteita.</p> + +<p>In view of this general and thorough inter-blending of the most ordinary +physical with the highest mental activity, it is impossible to speak of any +distinction of class or social status. The agriculturists here are as +highly respected, as cultured gentlemen, as the learned, the artists, or +the higher officials; and there is nothing to prevent those who harmonise +with them in character and sentiment from treating them as friends and +equals in society.</p> + +<p>But the women--elsewhere the staunchest upholders of aristocratic +exclusiveness--in this country are the most zealous advocates of a complete +amalgamation of all the different sections of the population. The Freeland +woman, almost without exception, has attained to a very high degree of +ethical and intellectual culture. Relieved of all material anxiety and +toil, her sole vocation is to ennoble herself, to quicken her understanding +for all that is good and lofty. As she is delivered from the degrading +necessity of finding in her husband one upon whom she is dependent for her +livelihood, as she does not derive her social position from the occupation +of her husband, but from her own personal worth, she is consequently free +from that haughty exclusiveness which is to be found wherever real +excellences are wanting. The women of the so-called better classes among us +at home treat their less fortunate sisters with such repellent arrogance +simply because they cannot get rid of the instinctive feeling that these +poorer sisters would have very well occupied their own places, and <i>vice +versâ</i>, had their husbands been changed. And even when it is not so, when +the European 'lady' actually does possess a higher ethical and intellectual +character, she is obliged to confess that her position in the opinion of +the world depends less upon her own qualities than upon the rank and +position of her husband--that is, upon another, who could just as well have +placed any other woman upon the borrowed throne. Schopenhauer is not +altogether wrong: women are mostly engaged in one and the same +pursuit--man-hunting--and it is the envy of competition that lies at the +bottom of their pride. Only he forgets to add, or rather he does not know, +that this pursuit, which is common to all women, and which he lashes so +unmercifully, is, with all its hateful evil consequences, the inevitable +result of their lack of legal rights, and is in no way indissolubly bound +up with their nature.</p> + +<p>The women here, who are free and endowed with equal legal rights with the +men in the highest sense of the words, exhibit none of this pride in the +external relations of life. Even when the calling or the wealth of the +husband might give rise to a certain social distinction, they would never +recognise it, but allow themselves to be guided in their social intercourse +simply by personal characteristics. It is the most talented, the most +amiable woman whose friendship they most eagerly seek, whatever may be the +position of the woman's husband. Hence you can understand that Mrs. Moro +could select her husband without having to make the slightest sacrifice in +her relation to Freeland 'society.'</p> + +<p>Whilst we are upon this subject, let me say a few words as to the character +of society here. Social life here is very bright and animated. Families +that are intimate with each other meet together without ceremony almost +every evening; and there is conversation, music, and, among the young +people, not a little dancing. There is nothing particular in all this; but +the very peculiar, and to the stranger at first altogether inexplicable, +attraction of Freeland society is due to the prevailing tone of the most +perfect freedom in combination with the loftiest nobility and the most +exquisite delicacy. When I had enjoyed it a few times, I began to long for +the pleasure of these reunions, without at first being able to account for +the charm which they exercised upon me. At last I arrived at the conviction +that what made social intercourse here so richly enjoyable must be mainly +the genuine human affection which characterises life in Freeland.</p> + +<p>Social reunions in Europe are essentially nothing more than masquerades in +which those present indulge in reciprocal lying--meetings of foes, who +attempt to hide under courtly grimaces the ill-will they bear each other, +but who nevertheless utterly fail to deceive each other. And under an +exploiting system of society this cannot be prevented, for antagonism of +interests is there the rule, and true solidarity of interests a very rare +and purely accidental exception. To cherish a genuine affection for our +fellow-men is with us a virtue, the exercise of which demands more than an +ordinary amount of self-denial; and everyone knows that nine-tenths of the +wearers of those politely grinning masks would fall upon each other in +bitter hatred if the inherited and acquired restraints of conventional good +manners were for a moment to be laid aside. At such reunions one feels very +much as those miscellaneous beasts may be supposed to feel who are confined +together in a common cage for the delectation of the spectacle-loving +public. The only difference is that our two-legged tigers, panthers, +lynxes, wolves, bears, and hyenas are better trained than their four-legged +types; the latter glide about fiercely snarling at each other, with +difficulty restraining their murderous passions as they cast side-glances +at the lash of their tamer, whilst the ill-will lurking in the hearts of +the former is to be detected only by the closest observer through some +malicious glance of the eye, or some other scarcely perceptible movement. +In fact, so complete is the training of the two-legged carnivora that they +themselves are sometimes deceived by it; there are moments when the hyenas +seriously believe that their polite grinning at the tiger is honestly +meant, and when the tiger fancies that his subdued growls conceal a genial +affection and friendship towards his fellow-beasts. But these are only +fleeting moments of fond self-deception; and in general one cannot get rid +of the sensation of being among natural enemies, who, but for the external +restraints, would fly at our throats. The Freelanders, on the contrary, +feel that they are among true and honourable friends when they find +themselves in the company of other men. They have nothing to hide from one +another, they have no wish either to take advantage of or to injure one +another. It is true that there is emulation between them; but this cannot +destroy the sentiment of friendly comradeship, since the success of the +victor profits the conquered as well. Genial candour, an almost childlike +ingenuousness, are therefore in all circumstances natural to them; and it +is this, together with their joyous view of life and their intellectual +many-sidedness, which lends such a marvellous charm to Freeland society.</p> + +<p>But let me go on with the story of my experiences here. Yesterday we saw +for the first time in Freeland a drunken man! We--my father and I--had, +after dinner, been with David for a short walk on the shore of the lake, +where most of the Eden Vale hotels are situated. As we were returning home +we met a drunken man, who staggered up to us and stutteringly asked the way +to his inn. He was evidently a new-comer. David asked us to go the +remaining few steps homewards without him, and he took the man by the arm +and led him towards his inn. I joined David in this kindly act, whilst my +father went home. When we had also got home we found my father engaged in a +very lively conversation with Mrs. Key over this little adventure. 'Only +think,' cried he to me, 'Mrs. Ney says we should think ourselves fortunate +in having seen what is one of the rarest of sights in this country! She has +lived in Freeland twenty-five years, and has seen only three cases of +drunkenness; and she is convinced that at this moment there is not another +man in Eden Vale who has ever drunk to intoxication! You Freelanders'--he +turned now to David--'are certainly no teetotallers; your beer and +palm-wine are excellent; your wines leave nothing to be desired; and you do +not seem to me to be people who merely keep these good things ready to +offer to an occasional guest. Does it really never happen that some of you +drink a little more than enough to quench your thirst?'</p> + +<p>'It is as my mother says. We like to drink a good drop, and that not +seldom; and I will not deny that on festive occasions the inspiration +begotten of wine here and there makes itself pretty evident; nevertheless, +a Freelander incapably drunk is one of the rarest phenomena. If you are so +much surprised at this, ask yourself whether well-bred and cultured men are +accustomed to get drunk in Europe and America. I know that happens even +among you only very rarely, although public opinion there is less strict +upon this point than it is here. But in Freeland there are no persons who +are compelled to seek forgetfulness of their misery in intoxication, and +the examples of such persons cannot therefore serve to accustom the public +to the sight of this most degrading of all vices. Many, I know, think that +the disgusting picture afforded by drunken persons is the best means of +exciting a feeling of repugnance towards this vice--a view which is +probably derived from Plutarch's statement that the Lacedemonians used to +make their helots drunk in order to serve as deterring examples to the +Spartan youth. This account may be true or false, but an argument in favour +of the theory that example deters by its disgusting character can be based +upon it only by the most thoughtless; for it is a well-attested fact that +the Spartans--the rudest of all the Greeks--were more addicted to +drunkenness than any other Hellenic tribe. The "deterring" example of the +helots had therefore very little effect. It is because in this country +drunkenness is so extremely rare that it excites such special disgust; and +as, moreover, the principal source of this vice--misery--is removed, the +vice itself may be regarded as absolutely extinct among us. This result has +been not a little assisted by the circumstance that merrymakings and +festivities in Freeland are always largely participated in by women. Since +we honour woman as the embodiment and representative of human enjoyment, as +the loftiest custodian of all that ennobles and adorns our earthly +existence, we are unable to conceive of genuine mirth without the +participation of women. You have seen enough of our Freeland women to +understand that indecorous excesses of any kind in their presence are +wellnigh inconceivable.'</p> + +<p>'We are not so much surprised that you Freelanders are proof against this +vice,' replied my father. 'But your respected mother tells us that even +among the immigrants drunkards are as rare as white ravens. Now, I am not +aware that teetotal apostles keep watch on your frontiers. The immigrants, +at any rate many of them, belong to those races and classes which at home +are by no means averse to drinking, and indeed to drunkenness in its most +disgusting forms; what induces these people, when they get here, to become +so persistently abstemious?'</p> + +<p>'First, the removal of those things which in Europe and America lead to +drunkenness. Sometimes, during my student-travels in Europe--when I studied +not merely art, but also the manners and customs of your country--I have +gone into the dens of the poor and have there found conditions under which +it would have appeared positively miraculous if those who lived there had +not sought in the dram-bottle forgetfulness of their torture, their shame, +and their degradation. I saw persons to the number of twenty or thirty--all +ages and sexes thrown indiscriminately together--sleeping in one room, +which was only large enough for those who were in it to crowd close +together upon the filthy straw that covered the floor--men who from day to +day had no other home than the factory or the ale-house. And these were not +the breadless people, but persons in regular employ; and not exceptional +cases, but types of the labourers of large districts. That such men should +seek in beastly intoxication an escape from thoughts of their degradation, +of the shame of their wives and daughters--that they should lose all +consciousness of their human dignity, never astonished me, and still less +provoked me to indignation. I felt astonishment and indignation only at the +folly which allowed such wretchedness to continue, as if it were in reality +a product of an unchangeable law of nature. And it seems to me quite as +natural that such men, when they get here--where they regain their dignity +and their rights, where on every hand gladness and beauty smile upon +them--should along with their misery cast away the vices of misery. These +immigrants all gladly and eagerly adapt themselves to their new +surroundings. Most of them cannot expect to become in all respects our +equals: the more wretched, the more degraded, they were before, so much the +more boundless is their delight, their gratitude, at being here treated by +everyone as equals; on no account would they forfeit the respect of their +new associates, and, as these latter universally avoid drunkenness, so the +former avoid it also.'</p> + +<p>'You have explained to us why there are no drunkards in this country,' I +said. 'But it appears to me much more remarkable that your principle of +granting a right of maintenance to all who are incapable of working, +whatever may be the occasion of that incapacity, has not overwhelmed you +with invalids and old people without number. Or have we yet to learn of +some provisions made to defend you from such guests? And how, without +exercising a painfully inquisitorial control, can you prevent the lazy from +enjoying the careless leisure which the right of maintenance guarantees to +real invalids? I can perfectly well understand that your intelligent +Freelanders, with their multitudinous wants, will not be content with forty +per cent., when a little easy labour would earn them a hundred per cent. +But among the fresh immigrants there must certainly be many who at first +can scarcely know what to do with the full earnings of their labour, and +who at any rate--so I should suppose--would prefer to draw their +maintenance-allowance and live in idleness rather than engage in what, from +their standpoint, must appear to be quite superfluous labour. Perhaps, with +respect to the right to a maintenance-allowance, you make a distinction +between natives and immigrants; if so, what gives a claim to maintenance?'</p> + +<p>'No distinction is made with respect to the right to a +maintenance-allowance, a sufficient qualification for which is a +certificate of illness signed by one of our public physicians, or proof of +having attained to the age of sixty years. The greatest liberality is +exercised on principle in granting the medical certificate; indeed, +everyone has the right, if one physician has refused to grant a +certificate, to go to any other physician, as we prefer to support ten lazy +impostors rather than reject one real invalid. Nevertheless we have among +us as few foreign idlers as native ones. In this matter also, the influence +of our institutions is found to be powerful enough to nip all such +tendencies in the bud. Note, above all, that the strongest ambition of the +immigrant is to become like us, to become incorporated with us; in order to +this, if he is healthy and strong, he must participate in our affairs. They +understand human nature very imperfectly who think that proletarians in +whom there lingers a trace of human dignity would, when they have an +opportunity of taking part in important enterprises as fully enfranchised +self-controlling men, forego that opportunity and prefer to allow +themselves to be supported by the commonwealth. The new-comers are +<i>anxious</i> to participate in all that is to be earned and done in this +country; in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred no other stimulus to work is +needed than this. And the few to whom this stimulus is not sufficient, soon +find themselves, when the novelty of their surroundings has worn off, +compelled by <i>ennui</i> and isolation to turn to some productive activity. We +have here no public-house life in the European sense, no consorting of +habitual idlers: here a man <i>must</i> work if he would feel at ease, and +therefore everyone works who is capable of doing so. The most stubborn +indolence cannot resist for more than a few weeks at the longest the +magical influence of the thought that in order to dare to salute the first +in the land as an equal no other title of honour or influence is necessary +than any honest work. Consequently, even among the immigrants strong +healthy idlers are extremely rare exceptions, which we allow to exist as +cases of mental disease. But even these must not suffer want among us. +Without possessing any recognised right to it, they receive what they need, +and even more than is absolutely necessary according to European ideas.</p> + +<p>'As to the question whether the right of maintenance does not attract into +this country all the bodily and mental incapables, the cripples and the old +people, of the rest of the world, I can only answer that Freeland +irresistibly attracts everyone who hears of the character of its +institutions; and that therefore the proportion between the immigrants who +are capable of working and those who are not is dependent simply upon +whether such information reaches the one class more quickly and more easily +than it does the other. We reject no one, and admit the cripple to our +country as freely as the able-bodied worker; but it lies in the nature of +things that the ablest, the most vigorous, offer themselves in larger +numbers than those who are weak in body or in mind.</p> + +<p>'From the founding of our commonwealth we have insisted upon the ability to +read and write sufficiently to be able to participate in all our rights. +Freedom and equality of rights assume the possession of a certain degree of +knowledge, from which we <i>cannot</i> exempt anyone. It is true we might resort +to the expedient of exercising guardianship over the untaught; but to do +this would be to open up to the authorities a sphere of influence which we +hold to be incompatible with real freedom, and we therefore treat +illiterate immigrants as strangers, or, if you will, as guests whom it is +everyone's duty to assist as much as possible, and who, so far as they show +themselves capable of doing anything, suffer no material disadvantage in +comparison with the natives, but are not allowed to exercise any political +right.'</p> + +<p>'But how,' asked my father--'how do you arrive at a knowledge of the mental +condition of your ignorant fellow-countrymen? Have you a special board for +this purpose; and do no unpleasantnesses spring from such an inquisition?'</p> + +<p>'We make no inquiry, and no board troubles itself about the knowledge of +the people. At first, in order not to be overwhelmed by foreign ignorance, +we took the precaution of excluding illiterates from gratuitous admission +into Freeland, but for the last nineteen years we have ceased to exclude +any. Everyone, without any exception, has since been free to settle +gratuitously in any part whatever of Freeland. No one asks him what he +knows; he is free to make full use of all our institutions, to exercise all +our rights; only he must do so in the same way as we, and that is +impossible to the illiterate. Whithersoever he goes--to the central bank, +to any of the associations, to the polling-places--he must read and write, +and as a matter of course write with understanding--must be familiar with +printed and written words; in short, he must possess a certain degree of +culture, from the possession of which we cannot exempt him even if we +would.'</p> + +<p>'Then,' said my father, 'your boasted equality of rights exists only for +educated persons?'</p> + +<p>'Of course,' explained Mrs. Ney. 'Or do you really believe that perfectly +uneducated persons possess the power of disciplining themselves? Certainly, +real freedom and equality of rights presuppose some degree of culture. The +freedom and equality of rights of poverty and barbarism can, it is true, +exist among ignorant barbarians, but wealth and leisure are the products of +higher art and culture, and can be possessed only by truly civilised men. +He who would make men free and rich must first give them knowledge--this +lies in the nature of things; and it is not our fault, but yours, that so +many of your compatriots must be educated into freedom.'</p> + +<p>'There you are right,' sighed my father. 'And what has been your experience +of these illiterate immigrants?'</p> + +<p>'The experience that this exclusion from perfect equality of rights, being +connected with no material disadvantage, operates as an absolutely +irresistible stimulus to acquire as quickly as possible what was left +unacquired in the old home. For the use of such immigrants we have +established special schools for adults; neighbours and friends interest +themselves in them, and the people learn with touching eagerness. They by +no means content themselves with acquiring merely that amount of knowledge +which is requisite to the exercise of all the Freeland rights, but they +honestly endeavour to gain all the knowledge possible; and the cases are +very few in which the study of a few years has not converted such +immigrants into thoroughly cultured men.'</p> + +<p>'And as to the immigrants who reach us in a really invalided condition,' +interposed David, 'we fulfil towards them the duty of maintenance as if +they had grown old and weak in Freeland workshops. We have not detected any +considerable increase of our annual expenditure in consequence. It is a +characteristic fact, moreover, that those who reach us as invalids make for +the most part only a partial use of their right to claim a +maintenance-allowance. These pitiable sufferers as a rule take some time to +accustom themselves to the Freeland standard of higher enjoyments, and at +first they have no use for the wealth which streams in upon them.'</p> + +<p>'I must ask you to remove yet one other difficulty, and one that seems to +me to be the greatest of all. What of the criminals, against whose +immigration you are not protected? To me it seems most strange that, with +the millions of your Freeland population, you can dispense with both police +and penal code; and I am utterly at a loss to understand how you dispose of +those vagabonds and criminals who are sure to be drawn hither, like wasps +by honey, by your enticing lenity, which will not punish but merely reform +the bad? It is true you have told us that the justices of the peace +appointed to decide civil disputes have authority in the first instance in +criminal cases also, and that an appeal is allowed from these to a higher +judicial court; but you added that these judges had all of them as good as +nothing to do, and that only very rare cases occurred in which the +reformatory treatment adopted in this country had to be resorted to. Have +your institutions such a strong ameliorating power over hardened +criminals?'</p> + +<p>'Certainly,' answered Mrs. Ney. 'And if you carefully consider what is the +essential and ultimate source of all crime, you will find this is quite +intelligible. Do not forget that justice and law in the exploiting form of +society make demands on the individual which are directly opposed to human +nature. The hungry shivering man is expected to pass by the abundance of +others without appropriating that which he needs to satisfy the imperative +demands of nature--nay, he must not indulge in envy and ill-will towards +those who have in plenty what he so cruelly lacks! He is to love his +fellow-man, though just where the conflict of interests is the most bitter, +because it is waged around the very essentials of existence--just there, +where his fellow-man is his rival, his tyrant, his slave, in every case his +enemy, from whose injury he derives gain and from whose gain injury accrues +to him! That for thousands of years all this has been inevitable cannot be +denied; but it would be foolish to overlook the fact that the same cruel +sequence which made the exploitation of man by man--that is, injustice--the +necessary antecedent to the progress of civilisation, also called into +existence crime--that is, the rebellion of the individual against the order +which is both horrible in itself and yet indispensable to the welfare of +the community. The exploiting system of society requires the individual to +do what harms him, because the welfare of the community demands it, and +demands it not as a specially commendable and pre-eminently meritorious +act, which can be expected of only a few noble natures in whom public +spirit has suppressed every trace of egoism, but as something which +everyone is to do as a matter of course, the doing of which is not called a +virtue, though the not doing of it is called a crime. The hero who +sacrifices his life to his fatherland, to mankind, subordinates his own to +a higher interest, and never will the human race be able to dispense with +such sacrifices, but will always demand of its noblest that love of wife +shall conquer love of self; nay, it may be stated as a logical consequence +of progressive civilisation that this demand shall grow more and more +imperative and meet with an ever readier response. But the name of this +response is 'heroism,' its lack involves no crime; it cannot be enforced, +but it is a voluntary tribute of love paid by noble natures. But in the +economic domain a similar, nay, more difficult, heroism is required +especially from the lowest and the most wretched, and must be required of +such as long as society is based upon a foundation of exploitage, and +'criminal' must be the name of all those who show themselves to be less +great than a Leonidas, or a Curtius, or a Winkelried on the battle-field, +or than those generally nameless heroes of human love who have fearlessly +sacrificed themselves in the conflict with the inimical powers of nature at +the bidding of the holy voice within them--the voice of human love.</p> + +<p>'But we in Freeland ask from no one such heroism as our right. In economic +matters we require of the individual nothing that is antagonistic to his +own interests; it follows as a matter of course that he never rebels +against our laws. That which under the old order could be asserted only by +self-complacent thoughtlessness, is a truth among us--namely, that economic +morality is nothing but rational egoism. You will therefore find it +intelligible that <i>reasonable</i> men cannot break our laws.</p> + +<p>'But you ask, further, how does it happen that those unfortunates who in +other countries are driven into crime, not by want, but by their evil +disposition--and it cannot be denied that there are such--do not give us +any trouble? Here also the question suggests its own answer. This hatred +towards society and its members is not natural, is not innate in even the +worst of men, but is the product of the injustice in the midst of which +these habitual criminals live. The love of wife and of one's fellows is +ineradicably implanted in every social animal--and man is such an animal; +but its expression can be suppressed by artificially excited hatred and +envy. It is true that long-continued exercise of evil instincts will +gradually make them so powerfully predominant as to make it appear that the +social nature of man has been transformed into that of the beast of prey, +no longer linked to society by any residuum of love or attachment. But it +only <i>seems</i> so. The most hardened criminal cannot long resist the +influence of genuine human affection; hatred and defiance hold out only so +long as the unfortunate sees himself deprived of the possibility of +obtaining recognition in the community of the happy, as one possessed of +equal rights with the others. If this hope is held out to him all defiance +ceases.</p> + +<p>'I question if there has ever been a large percentage of men of criminal +antecedents among the immigrants into Freeland. As my son has already said, +the proportion in which different categories of men have come hither +depends not upon the greater or less degree of misery, but upon the +intelligence of the men. Since the criminal classes in the five parts of +the world know relatively less of Freeland than do the honest and +intelligent workers, I am convinced that relatively fewer of them have come +hither. At any rate, we have seen very few signs of their presence here. We +have a few dozen incorrigibly vicious persons in the country, but these are +without exception incurable idiots. How these reached us I do not know; but +of course, as soon as their mental unsoundness was ascertained, they were +placed in asylums.'</p> + +<p>This point being cleared up, my father asked for a final explanation. He +said he could perfectly understand that the Freeland institutions, being +nothing else but a logical carrying out of the principle of economic +justice, were thoroughly capable of meeting every fair and reasonable +demand. He nevertheless expressed his astonishment at the perfect +satisfaction which the people universally exhibited with themselves and +their condition. Did not <i>unreasonable</i> party agitations create +difficulties in Freeland? Particularly he wished to know if Communism and +Nihilism, which were ever raising their heads threateningly in Europe, gave +no trouble here. 'In the eyes of a genuine Communist,' he cried, 'you are +here nothing but arrant aristocrats! There is not a trace of absolute +equality among you! What value can your boasted equality of <i>rights</i> have +in the eyes of people who act upon the principle that every mouthful more +of bread enjoyed by one than is enjoyed by another is theft; and who +therefore, to prevent one man from possessing more than another, abolish +all property whatever? And yet there are no police, no soldiers, to keep +these Bedlamites in order! Give us the recipe according to which the +nihilistic and communistic fanaticism can be rendered so harmless.'</p> + +<p>'Nothing easier,' answered Mrs. Ney. 'Supply everyone to satiety, and no +one will covet what others have. Absolute equality is an hallucination of +the hunger-fever, nothing more. Men are <i>not</i> equal, either in their +faculties or in their requirements. Your appetite is stronger than mine; +perhaps you are fond of gay clothing, I would not give a farthing for it; +perhaps I am dainty, while you prefer a plain diet; and so on without end. +What sense would there be in attempting to assimilate our several needs? I +do not care to inquire whether it is possible, whether the violence +necessary to the attempt would not destroy both freedom and progress; the +idea itself is so foolish that it would be absolutely inconceivable how +sane men could entertain it, had it not been a fact that one of us is able +to satisfy neither his strong nor his weak appetite, his preference neither +for fine nor for quiet clothing, neither for dainties nor for plain food, +but must endure brutal torturing misery. When to that is added the mistake +that my superfluity is the cause of your deficiency, it becomes +intelligible why you and those who sympathise with you in your sufferings +should call for division of property--absolutely equal division. In a word, +Communism has no other source than the perception of the boundless misery +of a large majority of men, together with the erroneous opinion that this +misery can be alleviated only by the aid of the existing wealth of +individuals. This view is inconceivably foolish, for it is necessary only +to open one's eyes to see what a pitiful use is made of the power which man +already possesses to create wealth. But this foolish notion was not hatched +by the Communists; your orthodox economists gave currency to the doctrine +that increased productiveness of labour cannot increase the already +existing value--it was they, and not the Communists, who blinded mankind to +the true connexion between economic phenomena. Communists are in reality +merely credulous adherents of the so-called "fundamental truths" of +orthodox economy; and the only distinction between them and the ruling +party among you is that the Communists are hungry while the ruling classes +are full-fed. When it is perceived that nothing but perfect equality of +rights is needed <i>in order to create more than enough for all</i>, Communism +disappears of itself like an evil tormenting dream. You may require--even +if you do not carry it out--that all men shall be put upon the same bread +rations, so long as you believe that the commonwealth upon which we are all +compelled to depend will furnish nothing more than mere bread, for we all +wish to eat our fill. To require that the same sorts and quantity of roast +meats, pastry, and confections shall be forced upon everyone, when it is +found that there is enough of these good things for all, would be simply +puerile. Hence there is and can be no Communist among us.</p> + +<p>'For the same reason Nihilism is impossible among us, for that also is +nothing more than an hallucination due to the despair of hunger, and can +flourish only on the soil of the orthodox view of the world. Whilst +Communism is the practical application which hunger makes of the thesis +that human labour does not suffice to create a superfluity for all, +Nihilism is the inference drawn by despair from the doctrine that culture +and civilisation are incompatible with equality of rights. It is orthodoxy +which has given currency to this doctrine; certainly, as the spokesman of +the well-to-do, it holds no other inference to be conceivable than that the +eternally disinherited masses must submit to their fate in the interests of +civilisation. But the party of the hungry turn in foaming rage against this +civilisation, the very defenders of which assert that it can never help the +enormous majority of men, and therefore can do nothing more for them than +make them increasingly conscious of their misery. We have demonstrated that +civilisation is not merely compatible with, but is necessarily implied in, +the economic equality of rights. Hence Nihilism also must be unknown among +us.'</p> + +<p>'Then you think,' I said, 'that equality of actual income has nothing to do +with equality <i>of rights</i>? For my part, I must admit that that useless +heaping up of superfluous riches, which we have occasion to observe in our +European society, has grown to be a very objectionable thing, even though I +am convinced that the misery is not, in the slightest degree, caused by +this accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, and would not be +materially alleviated by a general distribution of it. A social system that +does not prevent this excessive accumulation in a few hands must remain +imperfect, whatever provision it may make in other directions for the +welfare of all.'</p> + +<p>'And I cannot altogether get rid of the same feeling,' said my father. 'But +my opinion is that in this revolt against inequality in itself we need see +nothing more than the moral repulsion which every impartial thoughtful man +feels against what have hitherto been the <i>causes</i> of the inequality. Among +us at home, we see that large fortunes are very seldom acquired by means of +pre-eminent individual talent, but are, as a rule, due to the exploitation +of other men; and, when acquired, they are sure to be employed in further +exploitation. This it is that arouses our indignation. If a fortune, +however great, were acquired merely by pre-eminent talent, and employed to +no other end than the heightening of the owner's personal enjoyment--as is +the case in Freeland--the repugnance we now feel would soon pass away. What +does our amiable hostess think upon this point?'</p> + +<p>'The repugnance to excessively large fortunes,' replied Mrs. Ney, 'is not, +in my opinion, based upon any injustice in their origin or use, but has a +deeper cause--namely, the fact that, apart from very rare exceptions, the +difference of capacity in men is not so great as to justify such enormous +differences of fortune. Most of the wealth of a highly civilised society +consists of what was bequeathed by the past; and the portion actually +produced by existing individuals is so relatively small that a certain +degree of equality--not merely of rights, but also of enjoyment and +use--possesses a basis in fact and is a requirement of justice. Every +advance in civilisation is synonymous with a progressive diminution of the +differences. Carry your thoughts back to primitive conditions, when the +individual, in his struggle for existence, was almost entirely shut up to +the use of his congenital appliances, and you will find the differences +were very great: only the strong, the agile, the cunning could hold their +own; the less gifted were compelled to give way. As the growth of +civilisation added to men's appliances, so that even the less gifted was +able to procure what was necessary to his subsistence, the difference in +the achievements of different individuals at first remained very great. The +skilful hunter gets a far richer booty than the less skilful one; the +strong and nimble agriculturist achieves with the spade a manifold greater +result than the weak and the slow. The invention of the plough very +materially reduces this difference, and--so far as the difference depends +upon physical capacity--the invention of the power-machine reduces it +almost to <i>nil</i>. Machinery more and more takes the place of the energy of +human muscles; and, at the same time, the results of the talent and +experience of previous generations accumulate and, in a growing ratio, +exceed the invention of the actual living generation. It is true that in +intellectual matters the individual differences do not diminish so +completely as in matters dependent upon the corporal powers; but even the +intellectual differences do not justify the colossal inequality suggested +to the mind by the words "a large fortune." The man who drives a +steam-plough may be either a giant or a dwarf, but he gets through the same +amount of work. Quick-wittedness and discretion in conducting the process +of production will considerably increase the result; but in the present day +an achievement which shall exceed the average a hundredfold or a +thousandfold in value is possible only to genius, and it is only to genius +that our sense of justice would accord it.</p> + +<p>'I believe that in this respect also our Freeland institutions have hit the +mark. Among us inequality exists only so far as the difference of capacity +justifies it; and we have seen that, in proportion as wealth increases, the +distribution of it becomes automatically more and more equal. As in this +country everything is controlled by a competition which is free in fact, +and not in name merely, it follows as a necessary result that every kind of +capacity is better paid the rarer it is. When we first founded our +commonwealth knowledge and experience in business were rare--that is, the +demand was greater than the supply; they were therefore able to command a +higher price than ordinary labour. This is no longer the case; thanks to +the general improvement in culture and the intensive participation of all +in all kinds of business, head-work, as such, has lost its claim to +exceptional wages. Only when superior intellectual gifts are connected with +knowledge and experience in business can the man who performs head-work +expect to obtain higher pay than the manual labourer. Yet even here there +is to be seen a <i>relative</i> diminution of the higher pay. In the early years +of Freeland a specially talented leader of production could demand six +times as much as the average earnings of a labourer; at present three times +as much as the average is a rare maximum, which in the domain of material +production is exceeded only in isolated cases of pre-eminent inventors. On +the other hand, the earnings of gifted authors and artists in this country +have no definite limits; as their works are above competition, so the +rewards they obtain bear no proportion to those obtainable in ordinary +business.</p> + +<p>'But in this way, I think, the most delicate sense of equality can be +satisfied. Economic equality of rights never produces absolute and +universal equality; but it is really accompanied by a general levelling of +the enjoyments of all, and leaves unaffected only such incongruities as the +most fastidious sense of justice will recognise as having their basis in +the nature of things.'</p> + +<p>Here ended this conversation, which will ever be a memorable one to me, +because it confirmed my decision to become a Freelander.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXI</h3> + +<p class="right">Eden Vale: Aug. 20, ----</p> + +<p>In your last you say you think it very strange that in my letters I make no +further mention of the young ladies who for the past six weeks have been +under the same roof with me. When a young Italian--so argues your +inexorable logic--has nothing to say about pretty girls with whom he +associates, and among whom there is one whose first glance--according to +his own confession--threw him into confusion, he has either been rejected +by the lady in question or contemplates giving her an opportunity of +rejecting him. Your logic is right, Louis: I am in love--indeed I was from +the first sight I had of Bertha, David's splendid sister; and I have even +had a narrow escape of being rejected. Not that my beloved has not returned +my affection; as soon as I could summon courage to propose to her, Bertha +confessed, with that undisguised candour which is charming in her--more +correctly, in all the women of Freeland--that on the very first evening of +our acquaintance she felt she should either marry me or marry no one. And +yet, on my first wooing her, I had to listen to a 'No' of the most +determined character. The fact was that Bertha could not make up her mind +to become an Italian duchess; and my father, who--hear it and be +astounded!--pleaded for me, had as a matter of course insisted that she +should go to Italy with me, reside on our ducal estates there, weave the +ducal diadems into her locks--they are of a ravishing blonde--and make it +her life's duty to continue the noble race of the Falieri. My desire to +settle in Freeland as a Freelander was regarded by my father as a foolish +and extravagant whim. You know his views--a strange medley of honest +Liberalism and aristocratic pride: rather, these were his views, but here +in Freeland the democratic side of his character has considerably broadened +and strengthened. Indeed, he became quite enthusiastic in his admiration of +the Freeland institutions. If there were but another branch of the Falieri +to which could be committed the transmission of the ducal traditions, <i>per +Bacco!</i> my father would have at once assented to my wish, and, as he loves +me tenderly, he would not hesitate long before he followed my example. But +his enthusiasm, noble and sincere as it is, would not permit me to lay the +axe at the root of the genealogical tree of a house whose ancestors had +fought among the first Crusaders, and had later, as petty Italian princes, +filled the world with deeds (of infamy). Against my loving Bertha he made +no objection--really and truly, my dear friend, not the least. On the +contrary, he was not a little proud of me when, in answer to his question +whether I was sure of the maiden's love in return, I replied with a +confident 'Yes.' 'Lucky dog you are,' cried he, 'to win that splendid +creature so quickly! Who can match us Falieris!' Bertha had captivated my +father as she had me; and as he entertained the greatest respect for the +Freeland women in general, he had no objection whatever to a <i>bourgeoise</i> +daughter-in-law. But only on condition that I gave up the 'insane' idea of +remaining here. 'The girl has more sense in her little finger than you have +in your whole body,' said he; 'she would little relish seeing her lover +cast a shattered ducal crown at her feet. It is very fine to be a Freeland +woman--but, believe me, it is much finer to be a duchess. Besides, these +two very agreeable qualities can easily be united. Spend the winter and +spring in our palaces at Rome and Venice; summer and autumn you could enjoy +freedom on your lake and among your mountains--in my company, if you had no +objection. Let it stand so: I will get Bertha for you, but not another word +about a permanent settlement here.'</p> + +<p>This did not please me. I assure you I had not formed the intention of +becoming a Freelander for the sake of my beloved; but I could not think of +her either in a ducal diadem or in the state rooms of our castles. +Nevertheless, I was fain to submit for a while to the will of my father; +and I did not really know whether Bertha and her relatives would show +themselves so insensible to the attractions of a title and of princely +wealth as would be necessary in order that I might have them as +confederates against my father. In short, my father pleaded my case with +Mr. Ney, and in the presence of Bertha and myself asked her parents for the +hand of their daughter for his son, the Prince Carlo Falieri, adding that +immediately after the wedding he would hand over to me his estates in the +Romagna, Tuscany, and Venice, as well as the palaces at Rome, Florence, +Milan, Verona, and Venice; and would retain for himself merely our Sicilian +possessions--as a reserve property, he jestingly said. The elder Neys +received these grandiose proposals with a chill reserve that gave me little +hope. After a silence of some minutes, and after having thrown at me a +searching and reproachful glance, Mr. Ney said, 'We Freelanders are not the +despots, but simply the counsellors, of our daughters; but in <i>this</i> case +our child does not need counsel: if Bertha is willing to go with you to +Italy as the Princess Falieri, we will not prevent her.'</p> + +<p>With a proud and indignant mien Bertha turned--not to me, but--to my +father: 'Never, never!' she cried with quivering lips. 'I love your son +more than my life; I should die if your son discarded me in obedience to +you; but leave Freeland--leave it as <i>princess</i>!--never, never! Better die +a thousand times!'</p> + +<p>'But, unhappy child,' replied my father, quite horrified at the unexpected +effect of his proposal, 'you utter the word "princess" as if it were to you +the quintessence of all that is dreadful. Yes, you should be princess, one +of the richest, proudest of the princesses of Europe--that is, you should +have no wish which thousands should not vie with each other in fulfilling; +you should have opportunities of making thousands happy; you should be +envied by millions--' 'And cursed and hated,' interposed Bertha with +quivering lips. 'What! You have lived among us six weeks, and you have not +learned what a free daughter of Freeland must feel at the mere suggestion +of leaving these happy fields, this home of justice and human affection, in +order, afar off in your miserable country, not to wipe away, but to extort +the tears of the downtrodden--not to alleviate the horrors of your slavery, +but to become one of the slave-holders! I love Carlo so much above all +measure that I should be ready by his side to exchange the land of +happiness for that of misery if any imperative duty called him thither; but +only on condition that his hands and mine remained free from foreign +property, that we ourselves earned by honest labour what we needed for our +daily life. But to become <i>princess</i>; to have thousands of serfs using up +their flesh and blood in order that I might revel in superfluity; to have +thousands of curses of men tortured to death clinging to the food I eat and +the raiment I wear!' As she uttered these words she shuddered and hid her +face in her hands; then, mastering herself with an effort, she continued: +'But reflect--if you had a daughter, and some one asked you to let her go +to be queen among the cannibal Njam-Njam, and the father of her bridegroom +promised that a great number of fat slaves should be slaughtered for +her--what would she say, the poor child who had drunk in with her mother's +milk an invincible disgust at the eating of human flesh? Now, see: we in +Freeland feel disgust at human flesh, even though the sacrifice be slowly +slaughtered inch by inch, limb by limb, without the shedding of blood; to +us the gradual destruction of a fellow-man is not less abhorrent than the +literal devouring of a man is to you; and it is as impossible for us to +exist upon the exploitation of our enslaved fellows as it is for you to +share in the feasts of cannibals. I cannot become a princess--I <i>cannot</i>! +Do not separate me from Carlo--if you do we shall both die, and--I have not +learnt it to-day for the first time--you love not only him, but me also.'</p> + +<p>This appeal, enforced by the most touching glances and a tender grasping of +his hands, was more than my father could resist. 'You have verily made me +disgusted with myself. So you think we are cannibals, and the only +difference between us and your amiable Njam-Njam is that we do not slay our +sacrifices with one vigorous blow and then devour them forthwith, but we +delight in doing it bit by bit, inch by inch? You are not far wrong; at any +rate, I will not force upon you the privileges of a position as to which +you entertain such views. And my son appears in this point to share your +tastes rather than those which have hitherto been mine. Take each other, +and be happy in your own fashion. For myself, I will consider how I may to +some extent free myself from the odour of cannibalism in my new daughter's +eyes.'</p> + +<p>Bertha flew first to me, then to my father, then in succession to her +parents and brothers and sisters, and then again fell upon my father's +neck. Her embrace of her father-in law was so affectionate that I was +almost inclined to be jealous. My father became at once so eager for our +wedding that he asked the Neys forthwith to make all the necessary +arrangements for this event. He expected to be obliged to return to Europe, +provisionally, in about a month, and he should be pleased if we could be +married before he went. Mrs. Ney, however, asked what further preliminaries +were necessary? We had mutually confessed our love, the blessing of the +parents on both sides was not lacking; we might, if agreeable to ourselves, +start off somewhere that very day, by one of the evening trains, on our +wedding-tour--perhaps to the Victoria Nyanza, on whose shores she knew of a +small delightfully situated country house.</p> + +<p>I myself was somewhat surprised at these words, though they were evidently +anticipated by my bride. But my father was utterly at a loss to know what +to make of them. Of course his delicacy of feeling would not have allowed +him to declare plainly that he thought it scandalous in the highest degree +for a couple of lovers to start off on a journey together only a few hours +after their betrothal, and that he could not conceive how a respectable +lady could suggest what would bring such disgrace upon her house. There was +a painful pause, until Mr. Ney explained to us that in Freeland the +reciprocal declaration by two lovers that they wished to become husband and +wife was all that was required to the conclusion of a marriage-contract. +The young people had nothing further to do than to make such an express +declaration, and they would be married.</p> + +<p>'That is, indeed, extremely simple and charming,' said my father, shaking +his head. 'But if the State or the commonwealth here has nothing to do with +the marriage-contract, how does it know that such a contract has been +entered into, and how can it give its protection to it?'</p> + +<p>'Of course the marriage-contract is communicated to the Statistical +Department as quickly as possible, but this enrolment has nothing to do +with the validity of the contract; and as to the protection of the +marriage-bond, we know of no other here than that which is to be found in +the reciprocal affection of the married pair,' said Mrs. Ney.</p> + +<p>My father thereupon began to ventilate the question whether it was not +advisable on many grounds to attach to the marriage-contract some more +permanent guarantee; but this suggestion was met, particularly on the part +of Bertha, with such an evident and--to him--quite inexplicable resentment +that he dropped the subject. Later, when we men were by ourselves, he +inquired what the ladies found so offensive in the idea of giving to +marriage some kind of protection against the changing fancies of the wedded +pair? It was easy to see that the conversation had left upon him the +impression that the women of Freeland held views upon this subject which +were altogether too 'free.' But Mr. Ney gradually succeeded in convincing +him--I had understood the matter from the beginning--that the reverse was +the case; that the horror at the thought of being <i>compelled</i> to belong to +a man who was not loved was not merely quite compatible with inviolable +conjugal fidelity, but was a logical outcome of the highest and purest +conception of marriage. At first he held out. He would not deny the ethical +justness of the Freeland principle that marriage without love was +objectionable; only he questioned whether this principle could be strictly +applied to practical life without opening the door to licentiousness. The +fact that in Freeland divorces were quite unknown did not at once suffice +to convince him. Mrs. Ney, who surprised us in the midst of this +discussion, gave the finishing touch.</p> + +<p>'If you take a comprehensive view of the whole complex of our economic and +social institutions,' said she to my father, 'you will see why in Freeland +man and wife must regard each other with different eyes than is the case in +Europe or America. All your scruples will vanish, for the logical +connection of economic justice with conjugal fidelity and honour lies as +plain and open as does its connection with honour in questions of <i>meum</i> +and <i>tuum</i>. That well-to-do intelligent men do not steal and rob, that in a +highly cultivated society which guarantees to everyone the undiminished +product of his own labour no one touches the fruits of another man's +industry--this is not more self-evident than it is that the same principle +of economic justice must smother in the germ all longing for the wife or +the husband of another. For man is by nature a monogamous and monandrous +being; polygamy and polyandry are inconsistent with the fundamental +characteristics of his nature; they are diseases of civilisation which +would vanish spontaneously with a return to the healthy conditions of +existence. Sexual honour and fidelity, like honesty in matters of property, +are rare "virtues" only where they impose upon the individual the exercise +of a self-denial which is not reconcilable with the instinct of +self-preservation; where, as among us, a harmony of interests is +established even in this domain, where everyone gets the whole of what is +his own, and no one is expected to forego in the common interest of the +community what belongs to himself--here even this virtue is transformed +into a rational self-interest which every accountable person exhibits +spontaneously and without any compulsion from without, as something that he +owes to himself. We are all faithful because faithfulness does not impose +upon any one of us the renunciation of his individuality.'</p> + +<p>'I admire this sentiment,' answered my father, 'and do not wish to dispute +the fact upon which it is based. It may be that in Freeland conjugal +fidelity is without exception the rule, and that unfaithfulness is regarded +as a kind of mental aberration; but if it is so, then the men and women of +Freeland are themselves exceptions, and to deduce a formal law of nature +from their behaviour seems to me to be premature. Because in this +country--it matters not from what causes--sexual morality has become +exceptionally high, because to your delicate ethical sense polygamy and +polyandry in any form are repugnant, it does not follow that the +inconstancy which has marked men and women in all stages of civilisation is +to be at once regarded as "contrary to human nature." It were well, madam, +if you were right, for that would mean that the last source of vice and +crime was stopped; but, alas! the experience of all ages shows that +unfaithfulness and love root themselves by turns deeply in human nature. I +can understand that you, as a woman, should be influenced more by moral +than by sober scientific views; but I am afraid that results which are +based less upon nature than upon--certainly very admirable--moral +experiments, will prove to be not too permanent.'</p> + +<p>A delicate flush passed over the face of my mother as she heard this. I +noticed that she did not feel quite comfortable in having to reply to this +in the presence of men; but as my father was not to be convinced in any +other way, she answered, at first with hesitancy, but she was afterwards +carried away by her interest in the subject. She said:</p> + +<p>'I am a woman of Freeland, and my sentiments are those of Freeland. I would +not ascribe to nature what is merely the outcome of my own moral views. +When I said that man is a monogamous being, and that polygamy and polyandry +were repugnant to the conditions of his existence, were contrary to his +real nature, I referred--far from speaking from an ethical +standpoint--simply to the animal nature of man. We belong, to speak +plainly, to a species of animals which nature intends to be monogamous and +monandrous. A species, whose progeny takes nearly twenty years to arrive at +maturity, cannot thrive without the united care of father and mother. It is +the long-continued helplessness of our children that makes the permanent +union of a single pair natural to man. The moral sentiments--which, +certainly, in a healthy condition of human society also gravitate in the +same direction--are nothing more than the outcome of these natural +conditions of existence. If a man reached maturity in a single year our +moral sentiments would permit, would perhaps imperatively demand, a change +of partner after every child; for, without exception, we hold that alone to +be beautiful and good which is requisite to the thriving of the species. +Now the <i>genus homo</i> categorically demands, in order that it may thrive, +that father and mother should foster the young for twenty years; in the +meantime fresh offspring arrive; the natural command to rear children--you +see I make use of the crassest expressions of natural history--therefore +keeps the male and the female together until there ceases to be any reason +for a separation. It would be simply contrary to nature if the natural +sentiments and instincts of man were <i>not</i> in harmony with this command of +nature. Conjugal attachment and fidelity <i>must</i> be and are natural +instincts of man; all phenomena that appear to indicate the opposite are +simply consequences of transitory excrescences of civilisation. It was +social inequality which gave rise to sexual vices as to all the other +vices. The same relation of mastership which gives the employer control +over the labour of other men also gives him power over other women than his +wife; and the same servitude which deprived the slave of his right to the +produce of his own labour robs the woman of her right to herself. Love +becomes an article of merchandise, <i>sold</i> in order to appease hunger and to +cover nakedness, <i>bought</i> in order to gratify inconstant desires. You think +I hold that to be unnatural because it is immoral? On the contrary, I hold +it to be immoral because it is contrary to nature. That, your highness, is +what I would impress upon you. A better acquaintance with this land of +freedom will show you that fidelity and honour between husband and wife are +here no rare exceptions, but the universal rule; but you must know at once +that we do not therefore exercise any superhuman virtue, but simply act in +conformity with the real nature of man.'</p> + +<p>I could plainly see, by the warm admiration expressed in the way in which +he gallantly lifted Mrs. Ney's hand to his lips, that my father was already +convinced; but, in order to mask his retreat, he threw out the question +whether there were not, in this country, any other disturber of conjugal +peace?</p> + +<p>'You mean harshness, love of domination, wrangling? Even these cannot occur +in a really free society based upon perfect equality of rights. It is the +lack of freedom and of legal equality which elsewhere sows discord between +the sexes and makes them like enemies by nature. The enslaved woman, robbed +of her share of the goods of the earth, is impelled, by inexorable +necessity, to trade upon the sexual desires and the weaknesses of man; she +finds herself in a constant state of war with him, for she has no +alternative but to suffer wrong or to do wrong. What the other sex has +wrongly obtained from her sex the individual woman must win back for +herself from the individual man by stratagem and cunning, and the +individual man is forced into a continuous attitude of defence by this +injustice of his sex, and by the consequently necessary attempts at +re-vindication by the woman. In this respect, also, Schopenhauer is not +altogether wrong: there is no other sympathy between man and woman than +that of the epidermis; but he forgets here also to add that this is not the +natural relation of the sexes, but one resulting from the unnatural +subjection of the woman--that not man and woman as such, but slave and +master, are reciprocally opposed as strangers and foes. Remove the +injustice which this disturbance of a relation so consonant with nature has +called forth, and it will at once be seen that the sympathy between husband +and wife is the strongest, the most varied, and the most comprehensive of +all. The woman possesses those very excellences of heart and intellect +which most charm the man, and the excellences of the man are just those +which the woman most highly prizes. Nature, which has physically adapted +the sexes to each other, has also psychically formed them as complementary +halves. Nature, to accomplish whose purposes it is necessary that man and +wife should remain faithful for life, could not have acted so +inconsistently as to endow them with psychical attributes which would +prevent or render difficult such lifelong fidelity. The instinct that +preserves the race and is the occasion of so much passionate physical +enjoyment, this instinct must also inspire the sexes with the strongest +conceivable mutual sympathy with each other's mental and ethical character. +In Freeland every disturbing discord is removed from the natural relation +between the sexes; what wonder that that relation shows itself in its +perfect harmony and beauty! Every Freeland man is an enthusiastic +worshipper of the women; every Freeland woman is a not less enthusiastic +worshipper of the men. In the eyes of our men there is nothing purer, +better, more worthy of reverence than the woman; and in the eyes of us, the +women of Freeland, there is nothing greater, nobler, more magnanimous than +the man. A man who ill-uses or depreciates his wife, who does not make it +his pride to screen her from every evil, would be excluded from the society +of all other men; and a wife who attempted to rule over her husband, who +did not make it her highest aim to beautify his life, would be avoided by +all other women.'</p> + +<p>My father made no further objection. He was content that I should take my +Bertha according to Freeland customs and without any formal ceremony. Only +<i>one</i> condition he insisted upon: there should be a fortnight's interval +between betrothal and wedding. I consented reluctantly to this delay; had I +followed my own desires, we should have flown off together to the Victoria +Nyanza that same day, and my betrothed also--for prudery is unknown +here--did not hide the fact that she shared in my impatience. But during +the last few hours my father had made such superhuman concessions that we +owed him this--truly no small--sacrifice. On the 3rd of September, +therefore, Bertha will become my wife; but from to-day you must look upon +me as a citizen of Freeland.</p> + +<hr width="30%"/> + +<p class="right">Ungama: Aug. 24.</p> + +<p class="center">''Twixt cup and lip...'</p> + +<p>When I finished my letter four days ago, and kept it back a little while in +order to put in an enclosure from Bertha, who declared herself under an +obligation to send to my friend a few words of apology for having stolen +me, I had not the slightest presentiment that momentous events would come +between me and the fulfilment of my ardent desires. The war in which we are +engaged produces remarkably little excitement in my new fatherland; and if +I were not in Ungama, I should not suspect that we were at war with an +enemy who has repeatedly given serious trouble to several of the strongest +military States of Europe. But I have not been a Freelander long enough not +to be keenly sensible of the bitter disgrace and the heavy loss which my +native land has lately suffered; and on all grounds--in my character of +Freelander and also of quondam Italian--I held it to be my duty to take +part personally in the war. Until this war is ended, there can of course be +no thought of a wedding. In the meantime, the chance of war has brought me +away from Eden Vale to the coast of the Indian Ocean. But I will tell my +story in order.</p> + +<p>Know then, first of all, that--for this is no longer a diplomatic +secret--the efforts of my father and of his English and French colleagues +to get permission for 300,000 or 350,000 Anglo-Franco-Italian troops to +pass through Freeland, utterly failed. The Eden Vale government said that +Freeland was at peace with Abyssinia, and had no right to mix itself up +with the quarrels of the Western Powers. But the aspect of affairs would be +entirely changed if those Powers resolved to adopt the Freeland +constitution in their African territories; in which case those territories +would be regarded as a part of the Freeland district, and as such would +naturally be protected by Freeland. But then the military convention asked +for would be superfluous, for Freeland would treat every attack upon its +allies as a <i>casus belli</i>, and would with its own forces compel Abyssinia +to keep the peace. The negotiations lasted for weeks without any result. +Evidently the cabinets of London, Paris, and Rome did not attach any +importance to the promise made by Freeland, though the ambassadors, and +particularly my father, honestly did what they could to give the Western +cabinets confidence in the military strength of Freeland. The Powers were +not indisposed to recognise the Freeland law in their colonies on the Red +and Indian Seas as a condition of alliance; but persisted, nevertheless, in +asking for a military convention, to which Freeland would not consent. So +the matter stood until a few days ago.</p> + +<p>On the morning after my betrothal, as we were sitting at breakfast, a +despatch in cypher came to my father from Ungama, the large port belonging +to Freeland on the Indian Ocean. My father, when he had deciphered the +despatch, sprang up pale and excited, and asked Mr. Ney forthwith to summon +a session of the executive of the Freeland central government, as he had a +communication of urgent importance to make. Remarking the sympathetic alarm +of our friends, my father said, 'The matter cannot remain a secret--you +shall learn the bad news from my lips. The despatch is from Commodore +Cialdini, captain of one of our ironclads stationed at Massowah. It runs: +"Ungama: Aug. 21, 8 A.M. Have just reached here with ironclad 'Erebus' and +two despatch-boats--one ours and one French--escaped from Massowah much +damaged. The night before last, John of Abyssinia, contrary to existing +treaty of peace, treacherously fell upon Massowah and took it with scarcely +a blow struck. Our vessels lying in harbour, as well as the English and +French, seventeen in number, were also surprised and taken, none escaping +except ourselves and the two despatch-boats. The smaller coast fortresses +which we passed are also all in the hands of the Abyssinians. As we are cut +off from Aden by a number of the enemy's steamships that are following us, +and the 'Erebus' is not in a condition to fight, we have run into Ungama +for refuge and to repair our damage. If the Abyssinians find us here, I +shall blow up our ships."'</p> + +<p>This was bad tidings, not only for the allies, but also for Freeland, for +it meant war with Abyssinia, which the Freelanders had hoped to avoid. +Though it had been resolved from the first to secure for the European +Powers, as presumptive allies, peace with Abyssinia, yet, in reliance upon +the great respect which Freeland enjoyed among the neighbouring peoples, +the Freelanders had indulged in the hope of so imposing upon the defiant +semi-barbarians by a determined attitude as to keep them quiet without a +resort to arms. The treacherous attack, at the very time when the +plenipotentiaries of the attacked Powers were in Eden Vale, destroyed this +hope.</p> + +<p>In the National Palace we found the Freeland ministers already assembled, +and we were soon followed by the English and French plenipotentiaries. By +his agitated demeanour, the French ambassador showed that he had already +heard the unhappy tidings. It was some hours later when the English +ambassador received direct tidings that their ironclad corvette 'Nelson' +had reached Ungama half-wrecked, having had a desperate encounter on her +way with two of the vessels that had fallen into the hands of the +Abyssinians, and one of which she bored and sank. In the meantime, more +accurate and detailed accounts had reached the Freeland Foreign Office from +different places on the coast, revealing the full extent of the misfortune. +The Abyssinian attack had been made with vastly superior forces, assisted +by treachery, and had been completely successful. As the treaty of peace +with Abyssinia had several weeks to run, the garrisons of the--for the most +part unhealthy--places on the coast were neither very strong nor very +vigilant. The Abyssinians had simultaneously--at about two o'clock in the +morning--attacked and taken Massowah, Arkiko, and Obok, the chief +fortresses of the Italians, the English, and the French, as well as all the +eight coast forts belonging to the same Powers. The garrisons, surprised +asleep, were in part cut down, in part taken prisoners, and the vessels +lying in the harbours were--with the exception of those already +mentioned--captured at the same time. That as early as the next morning the +Abyssinians were able to put to sea in some of these captured vessels is to +be explained by the Negus's zealous enlistment of sailors already +mentioned, which also proves that the attack had been long premeditated and +was carefully planned. The treachery was so excellently well managed, that +it was only a few minutes after the vessels were taken that the four which +had escaped had to encounter a most destructive attack from the guns of the +other ships. The vessels that fell into the hands of the Abyssinians in the +three ports were: seven English, five French, and four Italian ironclads, +including several of the first class; and eleven English, eight French, and +four Italian gunboats and despatch-boats. About 24,000 men were either +killed or taken prisoners in the fortresses and vessels.</p> + +<p>The plenipotentiaries of the three Powers had, upon receipt of this Job's +tidings, telegraphed to their governments for instructions. They told the +Freeland executive that in all probability the conclusion of the military +convention would now be most strongly insisted upon. Now that the +fortresses had fallen, it would be absolutely impossible to collect upon +the inhospitable shores of the Red Sea an army sufficiently large to meet +the Negus. In fact, this was almost categorically the collective demand of +the three Powers which reached Eden Vale the same day. As categorical, +however, was the rejection of the proposal, accompanied by the declaration +that the Eden Vale government intended to carry on alone the war with +Abyssinia which now seemed inevitable. Moreover, the allies were told that +their armies could not be brought to the seat of war soon enough. Even if +the Suez Canal had been practicable for the transport of troops, their +proposed 350,000 could not be brought together under two months at the +least; and it was certain that, long ere that, the Negus John would have +attempted to get possession of all the strategical positions of Freeland. +And again, wherever the ships which the Abyssinians had taken could be +utilised to block the Suez Canal, the allied forces, if they were called +out, would at any rate arrive too late to prevent it. The overland route +through Egypt could be so easily blocked by the Abyssinians that to select +it as the base of operations would be simply absurd. The only route that +remained was that round the Cape of Good Hope; and how long it would take +to transport 350,000 auxiliary troops that way to Freeland, the cabinets of +Paris, Rome, and London could calculate for themselves. But the Powers need +feel no uneasiness; they should receive satisfaction sooner and more +completely than they seemed to expect it. Before the English, French, and +Italians could have got ready so great an expedition, we should have +reckoned with the Negus. In the meantime, the allies might get their new +garrisons ready to sail for the coast towns of the Red and Indian Seas; +they could despatch them by the usual route through the Suez Canal, for +before their transport-ships reached the canal--which could not be until +the end of the next month--Freeland would either have recaptured or +destroyed the stolen fleet of Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>The last statement in particular was received by the allied Powers and +their ambassadors with intense astonishment; and I must confess that I +could not myself see how we, without a single ship of war, were to +annihilate a fleet of sixteen first-class and twenty-three small vessels of +war. It was not without some amount of bitter sarcasm that the ambassadors +replied that, instead of making such grandiose proposals, it would be more +practical to take measures that the wretchedly battered vessels now lying +in the harbour at Ungama might be repaired and sent to sea again as quickly +at possible. Even the possibility of saving them from the immensely +superior force of the enemy rested upon the very uncertain hope that the +foe would not at once look for them in the utterly defenceless port of +Ungama.</p> + +<p>'For the moment'--thus did one of the executive console the distressed +diplomats--' that is, for the next few hours, you are certainly right. If +before dark this evening a superior Abyssinian force appears before Ungama +and begins at once by attacking your ships, those ships are in all human +probability lost. But that holds good only for to-day. If the Abyssinian +fleet shows itself, we have prepared for it a reception which will +certainly not entice it to come again.'</p> + +<p>'What have you done?' asked the ambassadors in astonishment. 'What can you +do to protect the wretched remnant of our proud allied fleet?' While he +said this, the eyes of the men whose patriotism had been so deeply wounded +were anxiously fixed upon the members of the executive, and, in spite of my +naturalisation in Freeland, I participated only too strongly in their +feelings. You will understand that we were not concerned merely for the +preservation of the few vessels; but to have at last found a point of +resistance to the daring barbarians, to know that our men were relieved +from the necessity of renewing their shameful flight--this it was which had +a sweet sound of promise in the ear. The executive hastened to give us a +full explanation.</p> + +<p>As I have already told you, the Education Department of the Freeland +government possesses a large number of cannon of different calibre in all +parts of the country for the exercise of the young men. The largest of +these can pierce the strongest of the armour-plates now in use like a piece +of card. As soon as the first news of the attack had been received, +eighty-four of these giant guns had been put in motion towards Ungama from +the adjoining districts. As all these monsters run upon rails that are in +connection with the network of Freeland railways, they were all on their +way towards the coast before noon, accompanied by the young men who were +familiar with the handling of them; and they would reach their destination +in the course of the evening or during the night. As in Ungama, for +purposes of ordinary harbour-service, several lines of rails ran along the +coast in connection with the network of railways, the guns as they arrived +could at once be placed in their several positions, which had been in the +meantime--in course of the same day--provided with provisional earthworks. +Later on, these earthworks were to receive armour-coating; but at present, +as the central executive calculated, eighty-four guns of the largest size, +manned by the most experienced gunners, would suffice even without any +special protection to keep any armour-clads manned by wandering adventurers +at a respectful distance.</p> + +<p>I could not endure to stay longer in Eden Vale. After bidding my father a +hasty farewell, and taking a somewhat less hurried farewell of Bertha, I +started for Ungama. Two days later it was seen that the precautions which +had been taken were neither superfluous nor insufficient. On the 23rd of +August five Abyssinian ironclads and four gunboats appeared off Ungama; +and, as the harbour was thought to be quite defenceless, they attempted +forthwith to steam in for the purpose of destroying the disabled vessels of +the allies which lay there. A shot from the largest of our armour-crushers, +at a distance of a little over six miles, carried away one of the funnels +of the nearest ironclad frigates. This made them more cautious; but they +held on their way. Now our young gunners allowed the once-warned foe to +steam in to within four miles and a-half of the shore, without giving a +sign of their presence; then they opened fire simultaneously with +thirty-seven cannons. This, however, did not last long. The first volley +sank a gunboat, and damaged the whole fleet so much that the enemy was +thrown into visible disorder. Some of the vessels appeared to be about to +return our fire, while others seemed disposed to turn about and steam away. +Two minutes later our second volley swept over the waves; it could be +plainly seen that this time not one of the thirty-seven shots had missed +its mark. All the enemy's ships showed severe damage, and the whole fleet +had lost all desire to continue the unequal conflict. They reversed their +engines and steamed off into the open sea with all possible speed. A third +and a fourth salvo were sent after them, and a second gunboat and the +largest of the ironclad frigates sank. Three other volleys did still +further damage to the fleeing enemy, but failed to sink any more of the +ships; but we learnt from the Italian despatch-boat, which followed the +Abyssinian ships at a distance, that an hour after the battle a third +gunboat sank, and that one of the ironclad frigates had to be taken in tow +in order to get her out of the reach of our strand batteries. These +batteries had lost only two men.</p> + +<p>With the account of this Freeland deed of arms--in which I was simply an +astonished spectator--I close this letter. When, where, and whether I shall +write you another is known only to the God of war.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXII</h3> + +<p class="right">Massowah; Sept. 25, ----</p> + +<p>If I recollect rightly, it is just a month and a day since I sent you my +last letter. During this brief time I have gone through experiences which +must have afforded you in old Europe many a surprise, and which--if I am +not mistaken in the views of my new countrymen--will, in their immediate +consequences, be of decisive importance to the whole of the habitable +globe. It is the freedom of the world, I believe, that has been won on the +battle-fields of the Red Sea and the Galla country; a victory has been +gained, not merely over the unhappy John of Abyssinia, but also over many +another tyranny which has held nations in bondage in your so-called +civilised world. But why should I spend time in surmises about questions +which the immediate future must bring to a decision? My present letter +shall serve the purpose of assuring you of my safety and health, as well as +of describing the Freeland-Abyssinian campaign, in which I took part from +the beginning to the end.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of August, two days after the outbreak of the war, the Eden +Vale central executive received the Negus's ultimatum, in which he declared +that he bore no ill-will against Freeland, but he had taken up arms only in +order to protect himself and Freeland against a European invasion, which, +as he had learnt, would be forced upon Freeland. As we had not shown +courage enough to keep the foe away from our frontiers, the duty of +self-preservation compelled him to demand from us the surrender of several +important strategical points. If we acceded to this request, he would +otherwise respect our liberties and rights, and would even overlook the +damage done to his vessels at Ungama. But, if we refused, he would make a +hostile invasion into our territory; and as, by the overthrow of the coast +fortresses, he had guarded against our receiving any speedy assistance from +Europe, the result could not be doubtful. He was already in motion with an +army of occupation numbering 300,000 men, and expected within a week to +have crossed our northern frontier. It was for us to decide whether we +would receive him as a friend or as a foe. The answer to the Negus ran +thus: He was mistaken in his supposition that Freeland thought of receiving +foreign troops. Freeland was as little disposed to admit into its territory +either English, French, or Italian, as to admit him for military purposes. +We could, nevertheless, live at peace with him only on condition that he +determined to maintain peace with the above-mentioned European Powers, and +to make full compensation for the injury he had done to them. We did not +wish to conceal from him that Freeland intended to enter into a friendly +alliance with these European States, and would then hold itself bound to +regard the enemies of its friends as its own enemies. He was warned against +mistaking the conspicuously pacific character of Freeland for cowardice or +weakness. A week would be given him to relinquish his threatening attitude +and to furnish guarantees of peace and compensation. If within a week +overtures of peace were not made, Freeland would attack him wherever he was +found.</p> + +<p>Of course, no one doubted the issue of this interchange of messages; and +the preparations for the war were carried on with all speed.</p> + +<p>Scarcely had the telegraph and the journals carried the first news of the +Abyssinian attack through Freeland, before announcements and questions +reached the central executive from all quarters, proving that the +population of the whole country not merely had come to the conclusion that +a war was imminent, but that, without any instruction from above, there had +set themselves automatically in motion all those factors of resistance +which could have been supplied by a military organisation perpetually on a +war-footing. Freeland mobilised itself; and the event proved that this +self-determined activity of millions of intelligent minds accustomed to act +in common afforded very much better results than would have been obtained +under an official system of mobilisation, however wisely planned and +prepared for. From all the corps of thousands of the whole country there +came in the course of the first few days inquiries whether the central +executive thought the co-operation of the inquirers desirable. The corps of +thousands of the first class, belonging to the twelve northern and +north-eastern districts, comprising the Baringo country and Lykipia, +announced at once that on the next day they should be fully assembled--with +the exception of any who might be travelling--since they assumed that the +prosecution of the war with Abyssinia would be specially their business. It +was the general opinion in Freeland that from 40,000 to 50,000 men would be +sufficient to defeat the Abyssinians; and as the northern districts +possessed eighty-five of the corps of thousands that had gained laurels in +the district exercises, no one doubted that the work of the war would fall +upon these alone. Many a young man in the other parts of the country felt +in his breast the stirrings of a noble ambition; but there was nowhere +manifested a desire to withdraw more labour from the country than was +necessary, or to interfere with the rational plan of mobilisation by +pushing corps into the foreground from a distance. While the other corps +thus voluntarily held back, those of the northern districts threw +themselves, as a matter of course, into the campaign. But those thousands +which during recent years had been victors at the great Aberdare games +expressed the wish--so many of them as did not belong to the mobilised +districts--to participate in the mobilisation; and all who had been victors +in the individual contests at the last year's district and national games +begged, as a favour, to be incorporated among the mobilised thousands. Both +requests were granted; and the additional material thus supplied amounted +to four corps of thousands and 960 individuals. Altogether about 90,000 men +prepared themselves--about twice as many as the general opinion held to be +requisite. But the men themselves, of their own initiative, decided, on the +next day, that merely the unmarried men of the last four years, between the +ages of twenty-two and twenty-six, should take the field. The force was +thereby reduced to 48,000, including 9,500 cavalry and 180 guns, to which +last were afterwards added eighty pieces from the Upper Naivasha district.</p> + +<p>Each thousand had its own officers. Some of them were married, but it was +resolved that, notwithstanding this, they should be retained. The election +of superior officers took place on the 23rd of August, after the four extra +corps had arrived at the place in North Lykipia appointed for this purpose. +The chief command was not given to one of the officers present, but to a +young engineer named Arago, living at Ripon as head of the Victoria Nyanza +Building Association. Arago of course accepted the position, but asked to +have one of the head officials of the traffic department of the central +executive as head of the general staff. Hastening from Ungama direct to +North Lykipia, I applied to that official with the request that he would +place me on the general staff--a request to which, as I was able to prove +my possession of the requisite knowledge, and in consideration of my recent +renunciation of my Italian birthright, he was doubly willing to accede. +David arrived at the same time as myself, bringing me the tenderest +greetings and the cordial consent of my bride to the step I was taking, +declaring at the same time that he should not jog from my side while the +campaign lasted.</p> + +<p>All the thousands were abundantly furnished with weapons and ammunition; +and there was no lack of well-trained saddle-horses.</p> + +<p>The commissariat was entrusted to the Food-providing Associations of Eden +Vale and Dana City. The technical service---pioneering, +bridge-construction, field-telegraphy, &c.--was undertaken by two +associations from Central and Eastern Baringo; and the transport service +was taken in hand by the department of the central executive in charge of +such matters. Within the Freeland frontiers, the perfection of the network +of communication made the transport and maintenance of so small an army a +matter of no difficulty whatever. But as the Freelanders did not intend to +wait for the Abyssinians, but meant to carry the war into the Galla country +and to Habesh, 5,000 elephants, 8,000 camels, 20,000 horses, and 15,000 +buffalo oxen were taken with the army as beasts of burden. Tents, +field-kitchens, conserves, &c., had to be got ready; in short, provision +had to be made that the army should want nothing even in the most +inhospitable regions outside of Freeland.</p> + +<p>All these preparations were completed by the 29th of August. Two days +previously Arago had sent 4,000 horsemen with twenty-eight guns over the +Konso pass into the neighbouring Wakwafi country, with instructions to +spread themselves out in the form of a fan, to discover the whereabouts of +the Abyssinians, whose approach we expected in that quarter. To be prepared +for all contingencies, he sent smaller expeditionary corps of 1,200 and 900 +men, with eight and four guns respectively, to watch the Endika and Silali +mountain-ranges, which lay to the north-east and the north-west of his line +of operations. Further, at the Konso pass he left a reserve of 6,000 men +and twenty guns; and on the 30th of August he crossed the Galla frontier +with 36,000 men and 200 guns. In order to make long marches and yet to +spare the men, each man's kit was reduced as much as possible. It +consisted, besides the weapons--repeating-rifle, repeating-pistol, and +short sword, to be used also as bayonet--of eighty cartridges, a +field-flask, and a small knapsack capable of holding only <i>one</i> meal. All +the other luggage was carried by led horses, which followed close behind +the marching columns, and of which there were twenty-five to every hundred +men. This very mobile train, accessible to the men at all times, carried +waterproof tents, complete suits and shoes for change of clothing, +mackintoshes, conserves and drink for several days, and a reserve of 200 +cartridges per man. In this way our young men were furnished with every +necessary without being themselves overburdened, and they were consequently +able to do twenty-five miles a day without injury.</p> + +<p>The central executive had sent with the army a fully authorised +commissioner, whose duty it was to carry out any wish of the leaders of the +army, so far as the doing so was the business of the executive; to conduct +negotiations for peace should the Negus be disposed to come to terms; and, +finally, to provide for the security and comfort of the foreign military +plenipotentiaries and newspaper correspondents who should join the +campaign. Some of the latter accompanied us on horseback, while others were +accommodated upon elephants; most of them followed the headquarters, and +were thus kept <i>au courant</i> of all that took place.</p> + +<p>On the third day's march--the 2nd of September--our mounted advance-guard +announced that they had come upon the enemy. As Arago, before he engaged in +a decisive battle, wished to test practically whether he and we were not +making a fatal mistake in imagining ourselves superior to the enemy, he +gave the vanguard orders to make a forced reconnaisance--that is, having +done what he could to induce the foe to make a full disclosure of his +strength, to withdraw as soon as he was sure of the course the enemy was +taking.</p> + +<p>At dawn on the 3rd of September we came into collision (I was one of the +advanced body at my own request) with the Abyssinian vanguard at Ardeb in +the valley of the Jubba. The enemy, not much more in number than ourselves, +was completely routed at the first onset, all their guns--thirty-six +pieces--taken, as well as 1,800 prisoners, whilst we lost only five men. +The whole affair lasted scarcely forty minutes. While our lines were +forming, the Abyssinian artillery opened upon us a perfectly ineffectual +fire at three miles and three-quarters. Our artillery kept silent until the +enemy was within a mile and a-half, when a few volleys from us silenced the +latter, dismounted two of their guns, and compelled the rest to withdraw. +Our artillery next directed its attention to the madly charging cavalry of +the enemy, which it scattered by a few well-aimed shells, so that our +squadron had nothing left to do but to follow the disordered fugitives and +to ride down the enemy's infantry, thrown into hopeless confusion by their +own fleeing cavalry. The affair closed with the pursuit of the +panic-stricken foe and the bringing in of the prisoners. The enemy's loss +in killed and wounded, though much greater than ours, was comparatively +small.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the prologue of the sanguinary drama. Our horse had scarcely got +together again, and the prisoners, with the captured guns, sent to the +headquarters, when dense and still denser masses of the enemy showed +themselves in the distance. This was the whole of the Abyssinian left wing, +numbering 65,000, with 120 guns. Twenty of our guns were stationed on a +small height that commanded the marching route of the enemy, and opened +fire about seven in the morning. The masses of the enemy's infantry were at +once seen to turn aside, while ninety of the Abyssinian guns were placed +opposite our artillery. The battle of cannons which now began lasted an +hour without doing much harm to our artillery, for at so great a +distance--three miles--the aim of the Abyssinian gunners was very bad, +whilst our shells silenced by degrees thirty-four of the enemy's pieces. +Twice the Abyssinians attempted to get nearer to our position, but were on +both occasions driven back in a few minutes, so deadly was our fire at a +shorter distance. As this did not answer, the enemy tried to storm our +position. His masses of infantry and cavalry had deployed along the whole +of our thin front, and shortly after eight o'clock the whole of the vastly +superior force was in movement against us.</p> + +<p>What next took place I should not have thought possible, notwithstanding +what I had seen of the skill in the manipulation of their weapons possessed +by the Freeland youth. Even the easily gained victory over the enemy's +vanguard had not raised my expectations high enough. I confess that I +regarded it as unjustifiable indiscretion, and as a proof of his total +misunderstanding of the task which had been committed to him by the +commander-in-chief, that Colonel Ruppert, the leader of our little band, +should accept battle, and that not in the form of a covered retreat, but as +a regular engagement which, if lost, must inevitably issue in the +annihilation of his 4,000 men. For he had deployed his cavalry--who had all +dismounted, and fired with their splendid carbines--in a thin line of over +three miles, extending a little beyond the lines of the enemy, and with +very weak reserves behind him. Thus he awaited the Abyssinians, as if they +had been advancing as <i>tirailleurs</i> and not in compact columns. And I knew +these storming columns well; at Ardeb and before Obok they had overthrown +equal numbers of England's Indian veterans, France's Breton grenadiers, and +Italy's <i>bersaglieri</i>; their weapons were equal to those of Freeland, their +military discipline I was obliged to consider as superior to that of my +present companions in arms. How could our thin line withstand the onset of +fifteen times as many veteran warriors? I was firmly convinced that in +another quarter of an hour they must be broken in pieces like a cord +stretched in front of a locomotive; and then any child might see that after +a few minutes' carnage all would be over. In spirit I took leave of distant +loved ones--of my father--and I remembered you too, Louis, in that hour +which I thought I had good reason to consider my last.</p> + +<p>And, what was most astonishing to me, the Freelanders themselves all seemed +to share my feelings. There was in their demeanour none of that wild lust +for battle which one would have expected to see in those who--quite +unnecessarily--engaged in the proportion of one against fifteen. A +profound, sad earnestness, nay, repugnance and horror, could be read in the +generally so clear and bright eyes of these Freeland youths and men. It was +as if they, like myself, were all looking in the face of death. The +officers also, even the colonel in command, evidently participated in these +gloomy forebodings: then why, in heaven's name, did they offer battle? If +they anticipated overthrow, why did they not withdraw in time? But what +injustice had I done to these men! how completely had I mistaken the cause +and the object of their anxiety! Incredible as it may sound, my comrades in +arms were anxious not for their own safety, but on account of their +enemies; they shuddered at the thought of the slaughter that awaited not +themselves, but their foes. The idea that they, free men, could be +vanquished by wretched slaves was as remote from their minds as the idea +that the hare can be dangerous to him is from the mind of the sportsman. +But they saw themselves compelled to shoot down in cold blood thousands of +unfortunate fellow-creatures; and this excited in them, who held man to be +the most sacred and the highest of all things, an unspeakable repugnance. +Had this been told me <i>before</i> the battle, I should not have understood it, +and should have held it to be braggadocio; now, after what I have +shudderingly passed through, I find it intelligible. For I must confess +that a column advancing against the Freeland lines, and torn to pieces by +their fire, is a sight which freezes the blood of even men accustomed to +murder <i>en masse</i>, as I am. I have several times seen the destroying angel +of the battlefield at work, and could therefore consider myself steeled +against its horrors: but here....</p> + +<p>I will not describe my fooling, but what occurred. When the Abyssinians +were a little less than a mile from us, Ruppert's adjutants galloped along +our front for the last time and bade our men to fire: 'But not a shot after +they begin to waver!' Then among us there was a stillness as of death, +whilst from the other side the noise of the drums and the wild music grew +louder and louder, interrupted from time to time by the piercing war-cries +of the Abyssinians. When the enemy was within half a mile our men +discharged a single volley: the front line of the enemy collapsed as if +smitten by a blast of pestilence; their ranks wavered and had to be formed +anew. No second shot was as yet fired by the Freelanders; but when the +Abyssinians again pressed forward with wild cries, and now at a more rapid +pace, there thundered a second volley; and as the death-seeking brown +warriors this time stormed forward over their shattered front rank, a third +volley met them. This was enough for the enemy for the present; they turned +in wild confusion, and did not stop in their flight until they thought +themselves out of our range. Our fire had ceased as soon as the enemy +turned, and it was high time it did. Not that our position would have been +at all endangered by a further advance of the enemy: the Abyssinians had +advanced little more than a hundred yards, and were still, therefore, +between six and seven hundred, yards away, and it was most improbable that +one of them could have reached our front. But it was this very distance, +and the consequent absence of the special excitement of close combat, that +made the horror of the slaughter too great for human nerves to have borne +it much longer. Within a few minutes nearly a thousand Abyssinians had been +killed or wounded; and many of the Freeland officers afterwards declared to +me that they were seized with faintness at the sight of the breaking ranks +and of the foes in the agonies of death. I can perfectly understand this, +for even I felt ill.</p> + +<p>The Freeland medical men and ambulance corps were already at work carrying +the wounded foes from the field, when the Abyssinian artillery recommenced +the battle, and their infantry at the same time opened a tremendous fire. +But as the infantry now kept themselves prudently at the respectable +distance of a mile and a quarter, their fire was at first quite harmless +and therefore was not answered by our men. But when a ball or two had +strayed into our ranks, Colonel Ruppert gave orders that every tenth man +should step far enough out of the ranks to be visible to the enemy and +discharge a volley. This hint was understood; the enemy's infantry-fire +ceased at once, as the Abyssinians learnt from the effects of this small +volley that the Freeland riflemen could make themselves so unpleasant, even +at such a great distance, that it would not be advisable to provoke them to +answer an ineffective fire. The stubborn fellows, who evidently could not +bear the thought of being driven from the field by such a handful of men, +formed themselves afresh into storming columns, this time with a narrower +front and greater depth. But these columns met with no better fate than +their predecessors, the only difference being that they had to meet a more +rapid fire. After a few minutes they were compelled to retire with a loss +of eight hundred men, and could not be made to move forward again. In order +to get possession of the Abyssinian wounded, who were much better cared for +under Freeland treatment than under that of their own people, Ruppert sent +out an advance-party before whom the enemy hastily retreated, so that we +remained masters of the field. Our losses amounted to eight dead and +forty-seven wounded; the Abyssinians had 360 killed, 1,480 wounded, and +left thirty-nine guns behind. Our first care was to place the +wounded--friend and foe alike--in the ambulance-waggons, of which there was +a large number, all furnished with every possible convenience, and to send +them towards Freeland. Then the captured guns and other weapons were hidden +and the dead buried.</p> + +<p>Just as the last duty was performed, and we had begun our retreat to +headquarters, strong columns of Abyssinians appeared in the west, whilst at +the same time the left wing of the enemy, which had retreated towards the +north, again came into sight. Ruppert did not, however, allow himself to be +diverted from his purpose. Masses of the enemy's cavalry made a vigorous +attempt to follow us, but were quickly repulsed by our artillery, and we +accomplished our retreat to headquarters without further molestation.</p> + +<p>We now knew from experience that the assumed superiority of Freeland troops +over opponents of any kind was a fact. The Abyssinians had fought as +bravely against us as they had formerly fought against European troops. +Their equipment, discipline, and training, upon which despotism had brought +all its resources to bear for many years, left, according to European +ideas, nothing to be desired; and these dark-skinned soldiers had +repeatedly shown themselves to be a match for equal numbers of European +troops. But we had repulsed a number fifteen times as many as ourselves, +without allowing the issue to be for a moment uncertain. That the fight +lasted as long as it did, and did not much sooner end in the complete +overthrow of the Abyssinians, was due to the fact that the leader of the +advance-guard adhered to his orders, to compel the enemy to disclose his +whole force. Had our commander at once thrown himself with full force upon +the enemy, given him no time to deploy his troops, and energetically made +use of his advantage, the 65,000 men of the enemy's left wing would have +been scattered long before the centre could have come into action. Not that +Colonel Ruppert was wrong in waiting and confining himself rather to +defensive action. Even he had to learn, by the issue of the conflict, that +the presumed superiority of the Freelanders was an absolute fact; and the +more doubtful the ultimate victory of our cause appeared, the more +decisively was it the duty of a conscientious leader to avoid spilling the +blood of our Freeland youth merely to perform a deed of ostentatious +heroism. He, like the rest of us, naturally concluded that this first +lesson would abundantly suffice to show the Negus the folly of continuing +the struggle.</p> + +<p>We had not, however, taken into account the obtuseness of a barbaric +despot. When the commissioner of the executive, who accompanied the +expedition, sent next day a flag of truce into the Abyssinian headquarters, +announcing to John that Freeland was still prepared to treat with him for +the restoration of the captured fortresses and ships, and for the +arrangement of peace guarantees, the Negus received the ambassadors +haughtily, and asked them if they were come offering terms of submission. +Because our advanced guard had retired, he treated the affair of the day +before as an Abyssinian victory. He said the officers of the five repulsed +brigades were cowards; we should see how <i>he</i> himself would fight. In +short, the blinded man would not hear of yielding. He evidently hoped for a +complete change of fortune from a not badly planned strategic flunking +manoeuvre which he had been meanwhile carrying out, and which had only one +defect--it did not sufficiently take into account the character of his +opponents. In short, more fighting had to be done.</p> + +<p>On the 5th of September the two armies stood face to face. The Negus, with +265,000 men and 680 guns, had entrenched himself in a very favourable +position, and seemed indisposed to take the offensive. Our commander also +felt little inclined to storm the enemy's camp, a course which would have +involved an unnecessary sacrifice. To lie here, on the Jubba river, in an +inhospitable district in which his army must soon run short of provisions, +could not possibly be the intention of the enemy. He merely wished to keep +us here a little while until he could by stratagem outflank us. Arago, +having guarded against that, determined to wait; but in the meantime, in +order to tire the enemy of waiting, he caused our cavalry to intercept the +enemy's provisioning line. Our men lacked for nothing: the commissariat was +managed admirably. Among the Abyssinians, on the contrary, Duke Humphrey +was the host. Nevertheless the enemy kept quiet for three days in his +evidently untenable position, and the field-telegraph first informed us of +the motive of his doing so.</p> + +<p>The Negus had sent out 45,000 men, who, making a wide circuit eastwards +beyond our outposts, were to cross the Endika range of hills, and to effect +an entrance into Freeland behind us, and in that way compel us to retreat. +Even if his plot had succeeded it would have helped him but little, for the +men left behind in the northern districts of Freeland would have very +quickly overcome these 45,000 men. But a few days of Abyssinian activity +might have been inconvenient for the prosperous fields and cities of North +Baringo and Lykipia; and it was therefore well that the passes of the +Endika range were guarded by 1,200 Freeland soldiers and eight guns. The +Abyssinians came upon these on the 7th of September, and through the whole +day vainly attempted to force a passage. Next morning they found themselves +shut in on their rear by our reserves, who had been left at the Konso pass, +and who had hastened to the scene of action by forced marches. After a +brief and desperate resistance the Abyssinians were compelled to lay down +their arms.</p> + +<p>This news reached us about, noon on the 8th of September. This Job's +message must have reached the Negus about the same time, for towards two +o'clock we saw the enemy leaving the camp and preparing to give battle. +Arago rightly judged that, in order to avoid useless bloodshed, the +Abyssinians must this time be prevented from storming our lines in masses, +and must be completely routed as quickly as possible and deprived of any +power of offering further resistance. He therefore sent our artillery to +the front, repelled an attack from the enemy's centre by a couple of sharp +volleys from our mounted rifles, and at the same time moved 14,000 men on +the left flank of the enemy. Thence he opened fire about half-past three, +and, simultaneously making a vigorous attack on the front, he so completely +broke up the Abyssinian order of battle that the columns which a little +while before had been so well ordered were in a very short time crushed +into a chaotic mass, which our lines of rifles swept before them as the +beaters drive the game before the sportsmen. After the panic had once +seized the enemy there was but little firing. It was fortunate that the +Negus had posted on his left wing the troops that had learnt our mode of +fighting at Ardeb. These poor fellows remembered, after they had received a +murderous volley from our column advancing on their flank, that the +Freelanders stop firing as soon as the enemy gives way. Hence they could +not be made to stand again; and the cry of terror, 'Don't shoot, or you are +dead men!' with which they threw themselves upon their own centre--which in +the meantime had been attacked--was not calculated to stimulate the latter +to resistance. By five o'clock all was over; the centre and the left wing +of the Abyssinians were fleeing in wild confusion, the right wing, 54,000 +men strong, was thrown, with the loss of all the artillery, into the +entrenchment they had just left, and there laid down their weapons as soon +as our guns began to play against the improvised earthworks. The other +prisoners taken on the field and during the pursuit, which lasted until +nightfall, amounted to 72,000; so that including the 41,000 unwounded men +who had fallen into our hands in the Endika passes, we now had 167,000 +prisoners. The second battle cost the enemy 760 killed and 2,870 wounded; +our own losses in this last encounter were 22 killed and 105 wounded.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the Negus succeeded in collecting the scattered remnants of +his army, he would still have nearly 130,000 men at his disposal, and it +was possible that he might still persist in the campaign. To prevent this, +the pursuit was carried on with all possible energy. All the cavalry and a +part of the artillery kept at the heels of the enemy; the rest of the army, +after the wounded and prisoners were provided for and the dead were buried, +followed rapidly the next morning. The retreating Abyssinians made no +further serious resistance, but allowed themselves to be easily taken +prisoners. In this way, during a five days' chase through the Galla +country, 65,000 more men fell into our hands. John had lost nearly all his +artillery in the engagement on the Jubba; during the pursuit he lost +twenty-six more guns, and then had only seventeen left. With these, and +about 60,000 utterly demoralised and for the most part disarmed men, the +Negus succeeded on the 13th of September in reaching the southern frontier +of his country, which he had recently left with such high hopes. Among the +hill-districts of Shoa he attempted to stop our pursuit. In spite of the +formidable natural advantages afforded him by his strong position, it would +not have been difficult to drive him out by a vigorous attack in the front. +But here again Arago shrank from causing unnecessary bloodshed, aid by +means of a skilful flank manoeuvre he induced the Negus, on the next day, +voluntarily to leave his position. Thence the pursuit continued without +intermission through the provinces of Shoa, Anchara, and Tigre, to the +coast. If the Negus had hoped to attract fresh troops on the way, or to +inflame the national fanaticism of his subjects against us, he was +disappointed. The utterly demoralised panic-stricken fragments of his army +which he carried with him were a <i>Mene, Tekel</i>, which caused his own people +to vanish wherever he came as if the ground had swallowed them up, to +reappear after he had gone and to receive us (his pursuers) with +palm-branches and barley, the Abyssinian emblems of peace. This led the +hunted man, when he had reached the frontier of Tigre, to leave the rest of +his army to their fate, and to throw himself, with a small guard of +horsemen, into his newly acquired coast possessions. Arrived there, with +masterly rapidity he concentrated all his available troops in the coast +fortresses, which he hoped, with the help of the fleet, to be able to +defend long enough to give time for a possible diversion in his favour +among the hill-tribes at our rear. This was the state of things when, on +the 18th of September, our advance-guard appeared before the walls of +Massowah. The Negus did not then know how short a time his fancied security +would last.</p> + +<p>The fleet which the Negus had taken from the European Powers at this time +still contained thirteen men-of-war and nineteen gunboats and +despatch-boats; at the attack on Ungama, three ironclad frigates and four +smaller vessels had been either totally lost or so seriously damaged that +the Abyssinians, who had no means of repairing them, could make no further +use of them. A few days after the first unsuccessful attempt the +Abyssinians reappeared in greater force before Ungama, whose well-known +extensive wharves now for the first time seemed attractive to them; but at +the first greeting from our giant guns they wisely vanished, and did not +allow themselves to be sighted again.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, they now watched all the more carefully the two +entrances into the Red Sea--from Bab-el-Mandeb in the south, and from Suez +in the north. They did not immediately expect any stronger naval power to +come from the Indian Ocean, as, besides the two ironclads and the two +despatch-boats which lay damaged at Ungama, there were no English, French, +or Italian warships of importance for thousands of miles in those seas; and +it would take months to get together a new fleet and send it round by the +Cape of Good Hope. Moreover, the Abyssinian agents in Europe reported that +the allies were preparing an expedition for the canal route, and not for +the Cape route. The fact that the French were collecting materials at +Toulon was not decisive evidence, as that Mediterranean port was as +convenient for the one route as for the other. That the Italians +concentrated their ships at Venice instead of at Genoa, which would be much +more convenient for an Atlantic expedition, spoke somewhat more plainly; +but that the English had chosen Malta as their rendezvous made the +destination of the fleet clear to everybody. But the Abyssinians could not +understand how the allies expected to pass the Suez Canal, which the +Abyssinian guns were able so completely to command that any vessel entering +the canal could be sunk ten times before it could fire a broadside. +Besides, the Abyssinians cruising at the mouth of the canal had made it +impassable by a sunken vessel laden with stones. To remove this obstacle +under the fire of 184 heavy guns--the number possessed by the Abyssinian +fleet--was an undertaking at which John grimly smiled when he thought of +it. And as he now needed his ironclads as least as much at Massowah as at +Suez and Bab-el-Mandeb, he had the larger part of them brought to him in +order to keep the Freeland besieging army in check, while merely four +ironclad frigates, two gunboats, and one despatch-boat remained at Suez, +and one ironclad frigate, three gunboats, and two despatch-boats at +Bab-el-Mandeb.</p> + +<p>The ships ordered to Massowah reached that port on the 18th and 19th of +September; but our newly constructed Freeland fleet had already started +from Ungama on the 16th.</p> + +<p>Immediately after receiving news of the capture of the coast fortresses and +the ships of the allies, the central executive had determined upon the +construction of this fleet, and the work was not delayed an hour. There was +no time to construct an armoured fleet; but they did not think they needed +one. What the executive decided upon was the construction of fast wooden +vessels with guns of such a range that their shots would destroy the +ironclads without allowing the shots of the latter to reach our vessels. +The government relied not merely upon the greater speed of the vessels and +the longer range of the guns, but chiefly upon the superiority of our +gunners. It was calculated that if our vessels could come within a certain +distance of the enemy, our guns would destroy the strongest ship of the +enemy before our vessels could be hit. The Freeland shipbuilding and other +industries were fully capable, if the work were undertaken with adequate +energy and under skilful organisation, of constructing and equipping a +sufficient number of wooden vessels of from 2,000 to 3,500 tons in the +course of a few weeks. As early as the 23rd of August the keels of +thirty-six such vessels were laid at Ungama; there was sufficient timber in +stock, and the machine-works of Ungama also had in stock enough +ship-engines of between 2,000 and 3,000 horse-power to furnish the new +vessels, the larger of which were to be supplied with four such engines. +The best and largest guns were collected from all the Freeland +exercise-grounds; twenty-four new ones, which threw all former ones into +the shade, were made in the steel-works at Dana City. The work was carried +out with such energy that within twenty-two days the final touch had been +given to the last of the thirty-six floating batteries. These constructions +were not perfect in elegance; but in mechanical completeness they were +faultless. They were flat-decked, so as to present as little surface as +possible to the enemy's balls, and were divided into water-tight +compartments to prevent their being sunk by shells striking them under the +water-line. Each vessel had at least two engines working in complete +independence of each other, so that it could not easily be deprived of its +power of locomotion. Only the powder-magazines were armour-plated, but the +plates used were of the strongest kind. The guns, which moved freely on the +deck, weighed from 100 to 250 tons, and were distributed, to some vessels +one, to others two, and to others three; altogether thirty-six vessels +possessed seventy-eight guns. The maximum speed ranged for the different +vessels from twenty-three to twenty-seven knots per hour.</p> + +<p>As we had promised the Western Powers that we would open the Suez Canal to +the European transport-ships, we had to proceed at once to carry this task +into execution. On the evening of the 19th of September our vessels sighted +the Abyssinian squadron cruising in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. These, +mistaking us for passenger-steamers, at once gave chase, and were not a +little astonished to find that the harmless looking crafts did not alter +their course. It was not until the enemy had got within a little more than +nine miles and had had a taste of a few of our heaviest shot, that they +recognised their error and beat a hasty retreat. The greater part of our +fleet kept on its way into the Red Sea; only six of our largest and fastest +vessels pursued the fleeing Abyssinians, sunk two of their ships by a +well-directed fire, which, on account of the distance, the enemy could not +effectively return, and drove the others ashore. Our sloops picked as many +of the men as they could reach out of the water, and the vessels then +proceeded on their way to Suez. The affair with the Bab-el-Mandeb squadron +lasted only about two hours and a-half.</p> + +<p>The greater part of our fleet steamed unperceived past Massowah in the +night of the 19th-20th; the other six were, however, in the early dawn, +seen and pursued by a hostile cruiser. As it was not our intention to make +a halt at Massowah or prematurely to warn the Abyssinian ships lying there +by giving a lesson to a cruiser as we passed, our vessels did not answer +the enemy's shots--though several of the latter struck us--but endeavoured +to get out of reach as quickly as possible. They succeeded in doing this +without suffering any serious damage. As we learnt afterwards, our vessels +were mistaken at Massowah also for mail-ships which were heedlessly running +into the hands of the cruisers guarding the canal. All that the Negus did +was to set his vessels industriously cruising off Massowah for several +nights in order to prevent the six supposed mail-steamers from escaping if +they should turn back from Suez.</p> + +<p>On the afternoon of the 22nd our fleet appeared off Suez, attacked the +enemy's ships forthwith, and, after a short engagement, sank three of them. +The others, including three ironclad frigates, ran ashore, and the crews +were taken by the Egyptian troops. Our admiral provisionally handed over to +the Egyptians the Abyssinian sailors and marines who had been rescued from +drowning, and told off three of our vessels to assist the Egyptian and +English canal officials in raising the sunken stone-ship. These officials +told us that the allied fleet had reached Damietta the day before. If the +last obstacle to the navigation of the canal could be removed so soon, the +first ships of the allies could enter the Red Sea on the 24th, and the +expedition might be expected at Massowah by the end of the month. In order +to open Massowah by that time, our fleet at once returned southwards, and +on the 24th of September appeared off the Negus's last place of refuge.</p> + +<p>The Freeland array had, in the meantime, remained inactive outside of +Massowah, knowing that the co-operation of our vessels would enable us to +take the place without difficulty. When those vessels appeared in the +offing, several small Abyssinian war-ships steered towards them. A few +shots from ours put the enemy's vessels to flight, and the Negus at last +understood the situation. However, he still hoped to demolish our wooden +ships, until the terrible execution effected by the first charges from our +enormous guns taught him and his admirals better. Continually withdrawing +out of range of the heavy ironclads as they steamed towards our vessels, +the destructive long-ranged guns of the latter poured forth their shot and +sank two of the frigates, before even <i>one</i> of the enemy's balls had struck +a Freeland vessel. The enemy then turned and fled, but our vessels, keeping +at the same advantageous distance, pressed hard after them, and, before the +hostile fleet had reached the harbour, sank a third ironclad. Even in the +harbour the enemy found as little security as in the open sea; the dreadful +armour-crushing guns sent in shot after shot; a fourth ship sank, and then +a fifth. At the same time our gigantic guns battered at the harbour +bastions with tremendous effect, and we expected every moment to see the +white flag as a token of surrender. Instead of that, the Negus, finding +that he could not hold the fortress, and expecting no mercy from us, +suddenly made a desperate sortie, in the hope of fighting his way through +our lines to the hills. He succeeded in passing only our first line of +outposts; before he had reached the first Freeland line several volleys had +brought his party to a standstill and had given him his death. The +Abyssinians threw their arms away, and the war was ended.</p> + +<p>To-morrow David and I return in the fastest of the Freeland vessels to +Ungama, where Bertha awaits us. The fortnight my father bargained for has +passed more than twice--I shall meet, not my betrothed, but my wife, on the +Freeland seashore.</p> + +<hr width="30%"/> + +<p>Here end the Freeland letters of our new countryman, Carlo Falieri, to his +friend the architect Luigi Cavalotti. The two friends have exchanged +residences; Cavalotti has migrated to Freeland, Falieri on the contrary, +after spending a few delightful weeks on a paradisiacal island on Lake +Victoria Nyanza, has been withdrawn from us for a time. He obeyed a call +from his native land to assist in the carrying out of those reforms which +had to be undertaken there, as elsewhere throughout the world, in +consequence of the events described in his letters, and of other events +which followed those. His wife accompanies him on his mission, in the +furtherance of which our central government has placed the resources of +Freeland at his disposal. But this carries us into the subject of the +following book.</p> + + +<h2><i>BOOK IV</i></h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIII</h3> + +<p> +The moral effect of our Abyssinian campaign was immense among all the +civilised and half-civilised peoples who heard of it. We ourselves had +expected the most salutary results from it, as we foresaw that the +brilliant proof of our power which we had given to the world would make our +adversaries more cautious and induce them to be more compliant to our just +wishes. But the effect far exceeded our most sanguine expectations. The +former opponents of economic justice were not merely silenced, but actually +converted--a fact which seemed to astonish us Freelanders ourselves rather +than our friends abroad. We could not clearly understand why people, who +for decades had regarded our efforts as foolish or objectionable, should, +simply because our young men had shown themselves to be excellent soldiers, +suddenly conclude that it would be possible and beneficial to enable every +worker to retain the full produce of his industry. The connection between +the latter and the execution done by our rifles and cannons was not clear +to us who lived under the dominion of reason and justice; but outside of +Freeland, wherever physical force was still the ultimate ground of right, +everybody--even those who in principle endorsed our ideas--held it to be a +matter of course that the crushing blows under whose tremendous force the +Negus of Abyssinia fell, were an unanswerable <i>argumentum ad hominem</i> for +the superiority of our institutions as a whole. In particular, the sudden +victorious appearance of our fleet operated abroad as a decisive proof that +economic justice is no mere dream-Utopia, but a very real actuality; in +short, our military successes proved to be the triumph of our social +institutions. A strong feverish excitement took possession of all minds; +and men everywhere now wished practically to adopt what until then had been +seriously regarded by a comparatively small number as an ideal to be +attained in the future, by many had been treated with disfavour, and by +most had been altogether ignored.</p> + +<p>And it was seen--which certainly did <i>not</i> surprise us--that the impatience +and the revolutionary fever were the intenser the less the subjects of them +had previously studied our principles. The most advanced liberal-minded +nations, whose foremost statesmen had already been in sympathy with us, and +had made well-meant, but disconnected, attempts to lead their +working-classes into industrial freedom, applied themselves with +comparative deliberateness to the task of effecting the great economic and +social revolution with as little disturbance of the existing interests as +possible. England, France, and Italy, which before the outbreak of the +Abyssinian war were already prepared to introduce our institutions into +their East African possessions, now resolved to co-operate with us in the +conversion of their existing institutions into others analogous to ours--a +course which they could take without involving themselves in any very +revolutionary steps. Several other European Powers, as well as the whole of +America and Australia, immediately followed their example. This gave rise +to some stormy outbursts of popular feeling in the States in question; but +beyond the breaking of a few windows no harm was done. There were more +serious disturbances in the 'conservative' States of Europe and in some +parts of Asia; there occurred violent uprisings and serious attacks upon +unpopular ministers, who in vain asserted that they no longer had any +objection to make to economic equity. Here and there the struggle led to +bloodshed and confiscations. The working-classes mistrusted the wealthy +classes, but were themselves not agreed upon the course that should be +taken; and the parties assumed a more and more threatening attitude towards +each other. But the condition of affairs was worst where the governments +had formerly acted in avowed opposition to the people, the wealthy had +oppressed the masses, and the latter had been designedly kept in ignorance +and poverty. In such countries there was no intelligent popular class +possessing influence enough to control the outbursts of furious and +unreasoning hatred; cruelty and horrors of all kinds were perpetrated, the +former oppressors slaughtered wholesale, and there would have been no means +of staying the senseless and aimless bloodshed if, fortunately for these +countries, our influence and authority had not ultimately quieted the +raging masses and turned the agitation into proper channels. After one of +the parties, which in those countries were fruitlessly tearing each other +to pieces, had conceived the idea of calling in our intervention, the +example was generally followed. Wherever anarchy prevailed in the east of +Europe, in Asia, in several African States, requests were sent that we +would furnish commissioners, to whom should be granted unlimited authority. +We naturally complied most gladly with these requests; and the Freeland +commissioners were everywhere the objects of that implicit confidence which +was necessary for the restoration of quiet.</p> + +<p>In the meantime those States also which were more advanced in opinion had +asked for confidential agents from Freeland to assist, both with counsel +and material aid, the governments in prosecuting the intended reforms. We +say advisedly with counsel and <i>material aid</i> for the people of Freeland, +as soon as it was known that assistance had been asked for, granted to +their delegates, whether acting as consultative members of a foreign +government or as commissioners furnished with unlimited power, disposal +over the material resources of Freeland for the benefit of the countries +that had sent for them; the sums advanced being treated not as gifts, but +as loans. The central government of Eden Vale formally reserved the right +to give the final decision in the case of each loan; but as it was an +understood principle that necessary help was to be afforded, and as only +those who were on the spot could know what help was necessary, a +discretionary right of disposal of the available capital really lay in the +hands of the commissioners and confidential agents.</p> + +<p>That we were able, in the course of a few months, to meet a demand from +abroad for nearly two milliard pounds sterling is explained by the fact +that our Freeland Insurance Department had at its disposal in an available +form about one-fifth of its reserve of more than ten milliards sterling. +The other four-fifths were invested--that is, it was lent to associations +and to the commonwealth for various purposes; the one-fifth had been +retained in the coffers of the bank as disposable stock for emergencies, +and now could be used to meet the sudden demand for capital. This reserve, +of course, was not kept in the form of gold or silver: had it been, it +would not have been available when an accidental demand arose. It is not +gold or silver, but quite other things that are required in a time of need: +the precious metals can serve merely as suitable means of procuring the +things that are really required. In order that such things may be acquired +they must exist somewhere in a sufficient quantity, and that they exist in +sufficient quantity to meet a sudden and exceptionally large demand cannot +be taken for granted. He who suddenly wants goods worth milliards of pounds +will not be able to buy them anywhere, because they are nowhere stored up +to that amount; if he would be protected from the danger of not being able +to get such a demand met, he must lay up, not the money for purchase, but +the goods themselves which he expects to need. Take, for example, the case +of the Russians who had burnt and destroyed the granaries of their +landowners, the warehouses of their merchants, the machines in their +factories: what good would have done them had the milliards of roubles +which they needed to make good--and to add to--what had been destroyed been +sent to them in the form of money for them to spend? There were no surplus +supplies which they could have bought: had they taken our money into the +markets the only effect would have been to raise all prices, and to have +made all the neighbouring nations share their distress. And in the same way +all the other nations, which we wished to assist in their endeavour to rise +as quickly as possible out of their misery into a state of wealth similar +to our own, needed not increased currency but increased food, raw material, +and implements. And our reserve was laid up in the form of such things. +About half of it always consisted of grain, the other half of various kinds +of raw material, particularly materials for weaving, and metals. When our +commissioner in Russia asked at different times for sums amounting +altogether to £285,000,000, he did not receive from us a farthing in money, +but 3,040 cargoes of wheat, wool, iron, copper, timber, &c.: the result was +that the wasted country did not suffer at all from want, but a few months +later--certainly less in consequence of the loans themselves than of the +fact that the loans were employed in the Freeland spirit--it enjoyed a +prosperity which a short time before no one would have dreamt to be +possible. In the same way we made our resources useful to other nations, +and we resolved that should our existing means not suffice to meet the +demands, we would make up what was still needed from the produce of the +coming year.</p> + +<p>We by no means intended to continue this <i>rôle</i> of economic and social +providence to our brother peoples longer than was absolutely necessary. We +did not shrink from either the burden or the responsibility; but we +considered that in all respects it would be for the best if the process of +social reconstruction, in which all mankind was now engaged, were to be +carried out with the united powers of all, according to a well-considered +common plan. We therefore determined at once to invite all the nations of +the earth to a conference at Eden Vale, in which it might be decided what +ought next to be done. It was not our intention that this congress should +pass binding resolutions: it should remain, we thought, free to every +nation to draw what conclusions it pleased from the discussions at the +congress; but it seemed to us that in any case it would be of advantage to +know what the majority thought of the movement now going on.</p> + +<p>This suggestion met with no serious objection anywhere. Among the less +advanced nations of Asia there was a strong feeling that, instead of +spending the time in useless talk, it would be better simply to put into +execution whatever we Freelanders advised. The constituent assemblies of +several--and those not the least--nations said that they on their part +would abide by what we said, whatever the congress might decide upon. But +it was necessary only to point out that we could not advise them until we +had heard them, and that a congress seemed to be the best means of making +their wants known, to induce them to send delegates. We could not prevent +many of the delegates from receiving instruction to vote with us +Freelanders in all divisions whatever--an instruction which proved to be +quite unnecessary, as the congress did not divide at all, except upon +questions of form, upon other questions confining itself to discussion and +leaving everyone to draw his own conclusions from the debates.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, in the most advanced countries a small minority had +organised an opposition, not, it is true, against the general principles of +economic justice, but against many of the details involved in carrying out +that principle. This opposition had nowhere been able to elect a delegate +who should bear its mandate to the World's Congress; but it everywhere +found strong advocates among the Freeland confidential agents and +commissioners, who, while perfectly in harmony with the public opinion of +Freeland, endeavoured, as far as possible, to secure a representation of +every considerable party tendency, in order that those who clung to the +obsolete old economic order should have no right to complain that they +could not make themselves heard. Sixty-eight nations were invited to take +part in the congress; it was left to the nations themselves to decide how +many delegates they should send, provided they did not send more than ten +each. The sixty-eight countries elected 425 delegates, thus making with the +twelve heads of departments of the Freeland government a total number of +437 members of the congress.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd of March, in the twenty-sixth year after the founding of +Freeland, the congress met in the large hall of the Eden Vale National +Palace. On the right sat those who questioned the possibility of carrying +out the proposed reform universally, in the centre the adherents of +Freeland, on the left the Radicals to whom the most violent measures seemed +best. The presidency was given to the head of the Freeland government, +which position had been uninterruptedly occupied by Dr. Strahl since the +founding of the commonwealth.</p> + +<p>We give the following <i>résumé</i> of the six days' discussion from the +official minutes:</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">First Day</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span>, in the name of the Freeland people, welcomed the delegates +of the nations who had responded to the Freeland invitation.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Charles Montaigne</span> (<i>Centre</i>), in the name of his colleagues, thanked the +Freeland people for the magnanimous and extraordinary assistance which they +had afforded to the other nations of the earth in their struggles after +economic freedom. Not content with showing to the rest of the world the way +to economic freedom and justice, Freeland had also made enormous material +sacrifices. For his part, he did not know which was the more astonishing, +the inexhaustibleness of the resources which Freeland had at its disposal +or the disinterested magnanimity exhibited in the employment of those +resources.</p> + +<p><span class="name">James Clark</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): In the interest of sober truth, as well as with a +view of furthering as much as possible the great work we all have at heart, +I must explain that though the Freeland people are always happy to make +disinterested sacrifices for the good of their brother peoples, and that in +all they do in this way their object is rather to develop and to promote +the best interests of mankind than to obtain any advantage for themselves, +yet, as a matter of fact, the milliards lent to foreign countries cost +Freeland no material sacrifice, but bring it considerable material profit. +[Sensation.] Under the <i>régime</i> of economic justice and freedom the +solidarity of all economic interests is so universal and without exception, +that in Freeland business becomes as profitable as it is possible to +conceive of its being while you, with our assistance, are growing rich most +rapidly. This would be true if we gave you the milliards instead of lending +them. You look at each other and at me with an inquiring astonishment? You +hold it to be impossible to become rich by lending gratuitously or by +absolutely giving away a part of one's property? Yet nothing is simpler. +The subject is a very important one, and will come up for discussion again +in the course of our sittings; at present I will only briefly point out +that we have been prevented by the misery of the rest of the world from +making the right use of the advantages of international division of labour. +We have been obliged to manufacture for ourselves goods which we might have +obtained better from you; and we have therefore had to produce a smaller +quantity of those things which we could have produced most profitably. It +is plain that we should be far richer if we could give our attention +chiefly to the production of grain for ourselves and for you, and derive +from you the supplies we need to meet our demand for manufactured articles. +For here the soil yields for an equal amount of labour and capital ten +times as much as among you, while few manufactures here yield a larger +return for labour and capital than they do abroad. But, on account of the +system of exploitation which has prevailed and is not yet got rid of among +you--the cheap wages consequent upon which have cramped your use of +labour-saving machinery--we have been, and still are, compelled to meet +most of our demand for manufactured articles by our own production, since +you are scarcely able to produce for yourselves, to say nothing of +producing for us, a great number of goods which in the nature of things you +ought to be able to produce most profitably both for yourselves and for us, +and in exchange for which you would receive our foodstuffs and raw +material. We calculate that the removal of this hindrance to the complete +international division of labour must increase the productiveness of our +labour so much that the resulting gain would be cheaply bought by a +permanent sacrifice of many milliards. You need not wonder, then, at +finding us always so eager in encouraging you to make the freest and +fullest claims upon our resources. You will never dip so deeply into our +pockets that we--in our own interest as well as in yours--will not wish to +see you dip still deeper. Every farthing spent in hastening the development +of your wealth is made good to us ten and twentyfold.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Francis Far</span> (<i>Right</i>): If it is so much to the interest of Freeland to +enrich us that Freeland is profited even by making us a gift of its +capital, why has it not given us its capital sooner? Who would have +hindered it from handing its milliards over to us? Why did it delay so +long, and why does it now make its assistance conditional on our accepting +its economic institutions?</p> + +<p><span class="name">James Clark</span>: Because so long as you remained in servitude every farthing +given to you for such a purpose would have been simply thrown away. +Formerly we could do nothing more than support the victims of your social +system and mitigate the misery and wretchedness you inflicted upon +yourselves. As a matter of fact, there have long been large sums of +Freeland capital--bearing interest, it is true--invested in Europe and +America. What has been the result? This money has contributed to increase +the amount of surplus capital among you: it could not increase the quantity +of capital actually employed in production among you, for nothing could +have done that but an increased consumption by the people outside of +Freeland--and this was not compatible with what were then your economic +principles. Therefore we have been able to help you only since you +yourselves have held out the hand: our capital will benefit you only +because you have at length decided to enjoy the fruits of it yourselves. +[General assent.]</p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span>: In order to preserve a certain amount of order in our +discussions, I propose that we at once agree upon a list of the questions +to be considered. It may not always be possible to adhere strictly to the +order in the list; but it is advisable that each speaker should endeavour +as much as possible to confine himself to the subject under discussion. In +order to expedite matters, the Freeland government has prepared a kind of +agenda, which you can accept, or amend, or reject. The matters for +discussion mentioned in this agenda, I may remark, were not introduced on +our initiative, but were mentioned by the leaders of the different parties +abroad as needing more detailed explanation: we, on our part, contented +ourselves with arranging these questions. We propose, therefore, that the +following be the order in which the subjects be discussed:</p> + +<p>1. How can the fact be explained that never in the course of history, +before the founding of Freeland, has there been a successful attempt to +establish a commonwealth upon the principles of economic justice and +freedom?</p> + +<p>2. Is not the success of the Freeland institutions to be attributed merely +to the accidental, and therefore probably transient, co-operation of +specially favourable circumstances; or do those institutions rest upon +conditions universally present and inherent in human nature?</p> + +<p>3. Are not want and misery necessary conditions of existence; and would not +over-population inevitably ensue were misery for a time to disappear from +the earth?</p> + +<p>4. Is it possible to introduce the institutions of economic justice +everywhere without prejudice to inherited rights and vested interests; and, +if possible, what are the best means of doing this?</p> + +<p>5. Are economic justice and freedom the ultimate outcome of human +evolution; and what will probably be the condition of mankind under such a +<i>régime</i>?</p> + +<p>Has anyone a remark to make upon our proposal? No one has. Therefore I +place point 1 upon the order of the day, and call upon delegate Erasmus +Kraft to speak.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Erasmus Kraft</span> (<i>Right</i>): Wherever thinking men dwell upon this earth, we +are preparing to exchange the state of servitude and misery in which from +time immemorial our race has been sunk, for a happier order of things. The +brilliant example which we have before our eyes here in Freeland seems to +be a pledge that our attempt will--nay, must--succeed. But the more evident +this certainty becomes, the more urgent, the more imperative, becomes the +question why that which is now to be accomplished has not long since been +done, why the genius of humanity slept so long before it roused itself to +the task of completing this richly beneficent work. And the simpler--the +more completely in harmony with human nature and with the most primitive +requirements of sound reason--appears to be the complex of those +institutions upon which the work of emancipation depends, so much the more +enigmatical is it that earlier centuries and millenniums, when there was no +lack of enlightened and noble minds, never seriously attempted to +accomplish such a work. We see that it suffices to guarantee to everyone +the full enjoyment of what he produces, in order to supply everyone with +more than enough; and yet through untold millenniums men have patiently +endured boundless misery with all its consequences of sorrow and crime as +if they were inevitable conditions of existence. Why was this? Are we +shrewder, wiser, juster than all our ancestors; or, in spite of all the +apparently infallible evidence in favour of the success of our work, are we +not perhaps under a delusion? It is true that the greatest and most +important part of the history of mankind is veiled in the obscurity of +primitive antiquity; yet history is so old that it is scarcely to be +assumed that the endeavour after the material well-being of all--an +endeavour prompted by the most ardent desires of every creature--should now +make its appearance for the first time. It must be that such an endeavour +has been put forth, not <i>once</i> merely but repeatedly, even though no +tradition has given us any trustworthy account of it. But where are its +results? Or did its results once exist though we know nothing of them? Is +the story of the Golden Age something more than a pious fable; and are we +upon the point of conjuring up another Golden Age? And then arises the +query, how long will this Golden Age last; will it not again be followed by +an age of bronze and an age of iron, perhaps in a more wretched, more +humble form than that exhibited by the age from which we are preparing to +part? Is that fatalistic resignation, with which the ages known to us +endured misery and servitude, a human instinct evolved during an earlier +and bitter experience--an instinct which teaches mankind to endure +patiently the inevitable rather than strive after a brief epoch of +happiness and progress at the risk of a deeper fall? In obedience to the +hint from the chair, I will at present refrain from inquiring what might be +the cause of such a relapse into redoubled misery, as this will be the +theme of the third point in the list of subjects for discussion; but I +think that before we proceed to an exposition of all the conceivable +consequences of the success of our endeavours it would be advisable first +to find out <i>whether</i> those endeavours will really and in their full extent +succeed; and in order to find this out, it will again be advisable to ask +why such endeavours have never succeeded before--nay, perhaps, why they +have never before been made.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Christian Castor</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The previous speaker is in error when he +asserts that history tells us of no serious attempt to realise the +principle of economic justice. One of the grandest attempts of this kind is +Christianity. Everyone who knows the Gospels must know that Christ and His +apostles condemned the exploitation of man by man. The words of Scripture, +'Woe to him who waxes fat upon the sweat of his brother,' contain <i>in nuce</i> +the whole codex of Freeland law and all that we are now striving to +realise. That the official Christianity afterwards allowed its work of +emancipation to drop is true; but individual Fathers of the Church have +again and again, in reliance upon the sacred text, endeavoured to realise +the original purposes of Christ. And that during the Middle Ages, as well +as in modern times, vigorous attempts to realise the Christian ideal--that +is, the ideal of Christ, not that of the Church--have never been wanting is +also well known. This is what I wished to point out. The elucidation of the +question why all these attempts were wrecked I leave to other and better +furnished minds.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Vladimir Ossip</span> (<i>Left</i>): Far be it from me to hold the noble Founder of +Christianity responsible for what was afterwards made out of His teaching; +but our friend from the United States goes, in my opinion, too far when he +represents Christ and His successors as <i>our</i> predecessors. We proclaim +prosperity and freedom--Christ preached self-denial and humility; we desire +the wealth, He the poverty, of all; we busy ourselves with the things of +this world--He had the next world before His eyes; we are--to speak +briefly--revolutionaries, though pacific ones--He is the founder of a +religion. Let us leave religion alone; I do not think it will be of any use +for us to call in question the <i>meum</i> and <i>tuum</i> as to Christianity.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Lionel Acosta</span> (<i>Centre</i>): I differ entirely in this case from the previous +speaker, and agree with our colleague from North America. The teaching of +Christ, though not explicit as to means and ends, is the purest and noblest +proclamation of social freedom that has yet been heard, and it is this +proclamation of social emancipation, and not any religious novelty, that +forms the substance of the 'Good News.' It was a master-stroke of the +policy of enslavement to represent Christ as a founder of a religion +instead of a social reformer: the latter doctrine had quickly won the +hearts of the oppressed masses because it promised them release from their +sufferings, but the former doctrine was used to lull to sleep their +awakening energy.</p> + +<p>Christ did not concern Himself with religion--not a line in the Gospels +shows the slightest trace of His having interfered with one of the ancient +religious precepts of His country. The most orthodox Jew can unhesitatingly +place the Gospels in the hands of his children, certain that they will find +nothing therein to wound their religious sentiment. [A Voice: Then why was +Christ crucified?] I am asked why Christ was crucified if He had done +nothing contrary to the Mosaic law. Do men commit murder from religious +motives <i>merely</i>? Christ was hurried to death because He was a <i>social</i>, +not because He was a religious, innovator; and it was not the pious but the +powerful among the Jews who demanded His death. Scarcely a word is needed +to set this matter right in the minds of all those who study without +prejudice the momentous events of that saddest, but at the same time most +glorious, of the days of Israel, upon which the noblest of her sons +voluntarily sought and found a martyr's death. In the first place, it is a +well-attested historical fact that in Judaea at that time death for +religious heresy was as little known as in Europe during the last century. +In the second place, the mode of execution--the cross, which was quite +foreign to the Jews--shows that Christ was executed according to Roman, not +Jewish, law. But the Romans, the most tolerant in religious matters of all +peoples, would never have put a man to death for religious innovation; they +would not have allowed the execution to take place, much less have +themselves pronounced sentence and carried out that sentence in their own +method. The cross was among them the punishment for <i>riotous slaves</i> or +their <i>instigators</i>. I do not say this for the purpose of shifting the +responsibility for Christ's death from Judaea--it is the sad privilege of +that people to have been the executioner of its noblest sons; and as only +the Athenians killed Socrates, so none but the Jews killed Christ; the +Romans were only the instruments of Jewish hatred--the hatred, that is, of +those wealthy men among the Jews of the time who denounced the 'perverter +of the people' to the Governor because they trembled for their possessions. +Indeed, it is quite credible that the Governor did not show himself willing +to accede to the wishes of the eager denouncers, for he, the Roman, who had +grown up in unshaken faith in the firmly established rights of property, +did not understand the significance and bearing of the social teaching of +Christ. The Gospels leave us little room to doubt--and it would be +difficult to understand how it could be otherwise--that he held Christ to +be a harmless enthusiast, who might have been let off with a little +scourging. Generations had to pass away before the <i>Roman</i> world could +learn what the teaching of Christ really was; and then it fell upon His +followers with a fury without a parallel--crucified them, threw them to the +beasts; in short, did everything that Rome was accustomed to do to the foes +of its system of law and property, but never to the followers of foreign +religions. It was different with the <i>Jewish</i> aristocracy: these at once +understood the meaning and the bearing of the Christian propaganda, for +they had long since learnt the germ of these social demands in the +Pentateuch and in the teaching of the earlier prophets. The year of Jubilee +which required a fresh division of the land after every forty-nine years, +the regulation that all slaves should be emancipated in the seventh +year--what were these but the precursors of the universal equality demanded +by Christ? Whether all these ideas, which are to be found in the Sacred +Scriptures of ancient Judaea, were ever realised in practice is more than +doubtful. But they were currently known to every Jew; and when Christ +attempted to give them a practical form--when, in vigorous and rousing +addresses, He denounced woe to the rich man who fattened upon his brother's +sweat--then the powerful in Jerusalem at once recognised that their +interests were threatened by a danger which was not clearly seen by +non-Jewish property-owners until much later. There is not the slightest +doubt that they made no secret of the true grounds of their anxiety to the +Roman Governor, for Christ was executed, not as a sectary, but as an +inciter to revolt.</p> + +<p>But, of course, it could not be told to the people that the death of Christ +was demanded because He wished to put into practice the principle of +equality laid down in the sacred books and so often insisted on by the +prophets. The people had to be satisfied with the fable of the religious +heresy of the Nazarene, which fable, however--except in the case of the +unjudging crowd that collected together at the crucifixion--for a long time +found no credence. Everywhere in Israel did the first Christian communities +pass for good Jews; they were called <i>Judaei</i> by all the Roman authors by +whom they were mentioned. What they really were, in what respects alone +they differed from the other communities of Jews, is sufficiently revealed +in the Acts of the Apostles, notwithstanding the very natural caution of +the writer, and the subsequent equally intelligible corruptions of the +text. They were Socialists, to some extent Communists; absolute economic +equality, community of goods, was practised among them. Later, when the +Christian Church sacrificed its social principle to peace with the State, +and transformed itself from a cruelly persecuted martyr to equality into an +instrument of authority and--perhaps because of this apostasy--of a doubly +zealous persecuting authority, then first did she put forth as her own +teaching the malicious calumny of her former maligners, and took upon +herself the <i>rôle</i> of a new religion; and since then she has, in fact, been +the propounder of a new religion. And that she has succeeded, for more than +1,500 years, in connecting her new <i>rôle</i> with the name of Christ, is +mainly the fault of the Jews, who, through the sanguinary persecutions +which have been carried on against them in the name of the meek Sufferer of +Golgotha, have allowed themselves to be betrayed into a blind and foolish +hatred towards this their greatest and noblest son.</p> + +<p>But it remains none the less true that Christ suffered death for the idea +of social justice and for this alone--nay, that before His time this idea +was not unknown to Judaism. And it is equally true that notwithstanding all +subsequent obscuration and corruption of this world-redeeming idea, the +propaganda of economic emancipation has never since been completely +suppressed. It was in vain that the Church forbad the laity to read those +books which were alleged to contain no teaching but that of the Church: +again and again did the European peoples, languishing in the deepest +degradation, derive from those forbidden Scriptures courage and inspiration +to attempt their emancipation.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Darja-Sing</span> (<i>Centre</i>): I should like to add to what I have just heard that +another people, six centuries before Christ, also conceived the ideas of +freedom and justice--I mean the Indian people. The essence of Buddhism is +the doctrine of the equality of all men and of the sinfulness of oppression +and exploitation. Nay, I venture to assert that the already mentioned ideas +of social freedom to be found in the Pentateuch, and held by the prophets, +and consequently those also held by Christ, are to be referred back to +Indian suggestion. At first sight this appears to be an anachronism, for +Buddha lived six centuries before Christ, while the Jewish legends carry +back the composition of the Pentateuch to the fourteenth century before +Christ. But recent investigations have almost certainly established that +these alleged books of Moses were composed in the sixth century B.C. at the +earliest--at any rate, after the return of the Israelites from the +so-called Babylonish captivity. Now, just at the time when the <i>élite</i> of +the then existing Jews were carried to Babylon, Buddha sent his apostles +through the whole of Asia; and it may safely be assumed that those who +'wept by the waters of Babylon' were specially susceptible to the teaching +of such apostles.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, certain eminent German thinkers assert that Christianity +is a drop of foreign blood in the Arian peoples, they are certainly correct +in so far as Christianity actually came to them as Semitism, as having +sprung from Judaism; nevertheless the Arian world can lay claim to the +fundamental conception of Christianity as its own, since it is most highly +probable that the Semitic peoples received the first germ of it from the +Arians. I say this not for the purpose of depreciating the service +performed by the great Semitic martyr to freedom. I cannot, alas! deny that +we Arians were not able to accomplish anything of our own strength with the +divine idea that sprang from our bosom. While it is probable that the +horrors of the Indian system of caste, that most shameful blossom that ever +sprang from the blood-and-tear-bedewed soil of bondage, made India the +scene of the first intellectual reaction against this scourge of mankind, +it is certain, on the other hand, that that very system of caste so +severely strained the energy of our Indian people as to make it impossible +for them to give practical effect to the reaction. Buddhism was +extinguished in India, and outside of India it was soon entirely robbed of +its social characteristic. Those transcendental speculations to which even +in the West it was <i>attempted</i> to limit Christianity have in Eastern Asia +been in reality the only effects of Buddhism. Indeed, the idea of freedom +took different forms in the minds of the founders--taking one form in the +Indian Avatar which, notwithstanding all his sublimity, bore the mark of +his nationality; and taking another form in the Messiah of Judah who saw +the light of the world in the midst of a people fired with a never-subdued +yearning for freedom. Buddha could conceive of freedom only in the form of +that hopeless self-renunciation which was falsely introduced into the +Christian idea of freedom by those who did not wish to have their own +enjoyments interfered with by the claims of others.</p> + +<p>In fact, I am convinced that even our more vigorous kinsmen who had +migrated to the West could not have given practical effect to the +conception of freedom and equality if we--the Indian world--had transmitted +to them that conception just as we had conceived it. For even those who +migrated westward carried in their blood to Europe, and retained for a +thousand years, the sentiment of caste. The idea that all men are equal, +really equal here upon earth, would have remained as much beyond the grasp +of the German noble and the German serf as it has remained beyond the grasp +of the Indian Pariah or Sudra and the Brahman or Kshatriya. This conception +had first to be condensed and permanently fixed by the genius of the +strongly democratic little Semitic race on the banks of the Jordan, and +then to be subjected to a severe--and, for a time, adverse--analytical +criticism by the independent and logical spirit of research of Rome and +Greece, before it could be transplanted and bear fruit in purely Arian +races. It is very evident that the converted German kings adopted +Christianity because they held it to be a convenient instrument of power. +It was for the time being immaterial to them what the new doctrine had to +say to the serfs; for the serf who looked up to the 'offspring of the +gods,' his master, with awful reverence, seemed to be for ever harmless, +and the only persons against whom it was necessary for the masters to arm +were their fellow lords, the great and the noble, who differed from the +kings in nothing but in the amount of their power. The right to rule came, +according to the Arian view, from God: very well, but the right of the +least of the nobles sprang, like that of the king, from the gods. Now, the +kings found in Christ the <i>one</i> supreme Lord who had conferred power upon +them, and upon them alone. They alone now possessed a divine source of +authority; and therefore history shows us everywhere that it was the kings +who introduced Christianity against the--often determined--opposition of +the great, and never that the great were converted without, or against the +will of, the kings. The masses of the people, the serfs, where were these +ever asked? They have to do and believe what their masters think well; and +without exception they do it, making no resistance whatever--allowing +themselves to be driven to baptism in flocks like sheep, and believing, as +they are commanded to do, that all power comes from <i>one</i> God, who bestows +it upon <i>one</i> lord. For the Arian serf is a mere chattel without a will, +and will not think for himself until he is educated to do so. This work of +education has been a long time in progress; but, as the previous speaker +rightly said, the idea of freedom has never slept.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Erich Holm</span> (<i>Right</i>): I do not think that any valid objection can be made +to the statement that the general idea of economic justice is thousands of +years old and has never been completely lost sight of. But it is a question +whether this general idea of equality of rights and of freedom has much in +common with that which <i>we</i> are now about to put into practice, or whether +in many respects it does not differ from that ancient idea. And, further, +it is a question whether that idea, which we have heard is already +twenty-five centuries old, has ever been or can be realised.</p> + +<p>With reference to the first question, I must admit that Christ, in contrast +to Buddha, entertained not a transcendental and metaphysical, but a very +material and literal idea of equality. It is true that He pronounced the +poor in spirit blessed; but the rich, who according to Him would find it +harder to get into heaven than it is for a rope of camel's hair to go +through a needle's eye, were not the rich in spirit, but the rich in +earthly riches. It is also true that he said, 'My kingdom is not of this +world' and 'Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's'; yet everyone +who reads these passages in connection with their context must see that He +is simply waiving all interference whatever with political affairs--that in +wishing to gain the victory for social justice he is influenced not by +political, but by transcendental aims for the sake of eternal blessedness. +Whether Rome or Israel rules is immaterial to Him, if only justice be +exercised; yet only pious narrow-mindedness can deny that He wished to see +justice exercised here below, and not merely in the next world. But is that +which Christ understands by justice really identical with what we mean by +it? It is true that the 'Love thy neighbour as thyself,' which He preached +in common with other Jewish teachers, would be a senseless phrase if it did +not imply economic equality of rights. The man who exploits man loves man +as he does his domestic animal, but not as himself: to require true +'Christian neighbourly love' in an exploiting society would be simply +absurd, and what would come of it we have in times past sufficiently +experienced. Indeed, the apostle removes all doubt from this point, for he +expressly condemns the getting rich upon another's sweat.</p> + +<p>So far, then, we are completely at one with Christ. But He just as +emphatically condemns wealth and praises poverty, whilst we would make +wealth the common possession of all, and therefore would place all our +fellow-men in a condition in which--to speak with Christ--it would be +harder to enter the kingdom of heaven than it is for a rope to go through a +needle's eye. Here is a contradiction which it seems to me can scarcely be +reconciled. We hold misery, Christ held wealth, to be the source of vice, +of sin: our equality is that of wealth, His that of poverty. This is my +first point.</p> + +<p>In the second place, Christ did <i>not</i> succeed, modest as His aims were. Is +not, then, an appeal to this noblest of all minds calculated to discourage +rather than to encourage us in the pursuit of our aims?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Emilio Lerma</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): The previous speaker has brought the poverty +which Christ praised and required into a false relation with +the--alleged--miscarriage of His work of emancipation. Christ's work +miscarried not in spite of, but <i>because</i> of, the fact that He attempted to +base equality upon poverty. The equality of poverty cannot be established, +for it would be synonymous with the stagnation of civilisation. However, it +is not only possible, but necessary, to bring about the equality of wealth, +as soon as the necessary conditions exist, because this is synonymous with +the progress of civilisation. You will say that certainly this is so +according to our view; but according to the view of Christ wealth is an +evil. Very true. But when we examine the matter without prejudice, it is +impossible not to see <i>that Christ rejected wealth only because it had its +source in exploitation</i>. There is nothing in the life of Christ to suggest +that He was such a gloomy ascetic as He must have been if He had held +wealth, as such, to be sinful: numberless passages in the Gospels afford +unequivocal evidence of the contrary. Christ's daily needs were very +simple, but He was always ready to enjoy whatever His adherents offered +him, and never saw any harm in getting as much pleasure from living as was +consistent with justice. This view of His was not affected even by the +hatred with which the rich of Jerusalem persecuted Him, and the +often-quoted condemnation of the rich has in it something contrary to the +spirit of the Gospels, if we tear it away from its connection with the +words, 'Woe unto him who waxeth fat upon the sweat of his brother.' In +condemning wealth, Christ condemned merely its source; the kingdom of +heaven was closed to wealth because, and only because, wealth could not be +acquired except by exploiting the sweat of men. There can be no doubt that +Christ, like ourselves, would have become reconciled to wealth if then, as +in our days, wealth were possible without exploitation--nay, really +possible only without it. We shall have further occasion to discuss why +this was impossible in Christ's day and for many centuries afterwards; at +present it is enough to know that it <i>was</i> impossible, that the only choice +lay between poverty and wealth with exploitation.</p> + +<p>Christ rendered the immortal service of having recognised this alternative +more clearly than anyone before Him, and of having attacked exploitation +with soul-stirring fervour. It was inevitable that He should be crucified +for what He did, for in the antagonism between justice and the claims of +civilisation the first always succumbs. It was inevitable that He should +die, because He unrolled the banner of true human love, freedom, and +equality--in short, of all the noblest sentiments of the human +heart--nearly two thousand years too soon; too soon, that is, for Him, not +for us: for dull-witted humanity needed those two thousand years in order +fully to understand what its martyr meant. For humanity Christ died not a +day too soon. There is, then, no contradiction between the Christian ideas +and what we are striving for; the difference between the two lies simply +herein: that the first announcement of the idea of equality was made in an +age when the material conditions necessary for the practical realisation of +this divine idea did not yet exist, whilst our endeavours signify the +'Incarnation of the Word,' the fruit of the seed then cast into the mind of +mankind. It cannot, therefore, be said that the Christian work of +emancipation has really 'miscarried': there merely lie two thousand years +between the beginning and the completion of the work undertaken by Christ.</p> + +<p>On account of the lateness of the hour the President here closed the +sitting, the debate standing adjourned until the next day.</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIV</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">Second Day</span></p> + +<p class="center">(<i>Adjourned Discussion upon the first point on the Agenda</i>)</p> + +<p><span class="name">Leopold Stockau</span> (<i>Centre</i>) re-opened the debate: I think that the +preliminary question, whether our present endeavours after economic justice +really are without any historical precedent, was exhaustively discussed +yesterday and was answered in the negative. At least, I am authorised by +yesterday's speakers of the opposite party to declare that they are fully +convinced that the teaching of Christ differs in no essential point from +that which is practically carried out in Freeland, and which we wish to +make the common property of the whole world. We now come to the main +subject of the first question for discussion--namely, to the inquiry why +the former attempts to base human industry upon justice and freedom have +been unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>The answer to this question has already been suggested by the last speaker +of yesterday. Former attempts miscarried because they aimed at establishing +the equality of poverty: ours will succeed because it implies the equality +of wealth. The equality of poverty would have produced stagnation in +civilisation. Art and science, the two vehicles of progress, assume +abundance and leisure; they cannot exist, much less can they develop, if +there are no persons who possess more than is sufficient to satisfy their +merely animal wants. In former epochs of human culture it was impossible to +create abundance and leisure for all--it was impossible because the means +of production would not suffice to create abundance for all even if all +without exception laboured with all their physical power; and therefore +much less would they have sufficed if the workers had indulged in the +leisure which is as necessary to the development of the higher intellectual +powers as abundance is to the maturing of the higher intellectual needs. +And since it was not possible to guarantee to all the means of living a +life worthy of human beings, it remained a sad, but not less inexorable, +necessity of civilisation that the majority of men should be stinted even +in the little that fell to their share, and that the booty snatched from +the masses should be used to endow a minority who might thus attain to +abundance and leisure. Servitude was a necessity of civilisation, because +that alone made possible the development of the tastes and capacities of +civilisation in at least a few individuals, while without it barbarism +would have been the lot of all.</p> + +<p>It is, moreover, a mistake to suppose that servitude is as old as the human +race: it is only as old as civilisation. There was a time when servitude +was unknown, when there were neither masters nor servants, and no one could +exploit the labour of his fellow-men; that was not the Golden, but the +Barbaric, Age of our race. While man had not yet learnt the art of +<i>producing</i> what he needed, but was obliged to be satisfied with gathering +or capturing the voluntary gifts of nature, and every competitor was +therefore regarded as an enemy who strove to get the same goods which each +individual looked upon as his own special prey, so long did the struggle +for existence among men necessarily issue in reciprocal destruction instead +of subjection and exploitation. It did not then profit the stronger or the +more cunning to force the weaker into his service--the competitor had to be +killed; and as the struggle was accompanied by hatred and superstition, it +soon began to be the practice to eat the slain. A war of extermination +waged by all against all, followed generally by cannibalism, was therefore +the primitive condition of our race.</p> + +<p>This first social order yielded, not to moral or philosophical +considerations, but to a change in the character of labour. The man who +first thought of sowing corn and reaping it was the deliverer of mankind +from the lowest, most sanguinary stage of barbarism, for he was the first +producer--he first practised the art not only of collecting, but of +producing, food. When this art so improved as to make it possible to +withdraw from the worker a part of his produce without positively exposing +him to starvation, it was gradually found to be more profitable to use the +vanquished as beasts of labour than as beasts for slaughter. Since slavery +thus for the first time made it possible for at least a favoured few to +enjoy abundance and leisure, it became the first promoter of higher +civilisation. But civilisation is power, and so it came about that slavery +or servitude in one form or another spread over the world.</p> + +<p>But it by no means follows that the domination of servitude must, or even +can, be perpetual. Just as cannibalism--which was the result of that +minimum productiveness of human labour by means of which the severest toil +sufficed to satisfy only the lowest animal needs of life--had to succumb to +servitude as soon as the increasing productiveness of labour made any +degree of abundance possible, so servitude--which is nothing else but the +social result of that medium measure of productiveness by which labour is +able to furnish abundance and leisure to a few but not to all--<i>must</i> also +succumb to another, a higher social order, as soon as this medium measure +of productiveness is surpassed, for from that moment servitude has ceased +to be a necessity of civilisation, and has become a hindrance to its +progress.</p> + +<p>And for generations this has actually been the case. Since man has +succeeded in making the forces of nature serviceable in production--since +he has acquired the power of substituting the unlimited elemental forces +for his own muscular force--there has been nothing to prevent his creating +abundance and leisure for all; nothing except that obsolete social +institution, servitude, which withholds from the masses the enjoyment of +abundance and leisure. We not merely can, but we shall be compelled to make +social justice an actual fact, because the new form of labour demands this +as imperatively as the old forms of labour demanded servitude. Servitude, +once the vehicle of progress, has become a hindrance to civilisation, for +it prevents the full use of the means of civilisation at our disposal. As +it reduces to a minimum the things consumed by most of our brethren, and +therefore does not call into play more than a very small part of our +present means of production, it compels us to restrict our productive +labour within limits far less than those to which we should attain if an +effective demand existed for what would then be the inevitable abundance of +all kinds of wealth.</p> + +<p>I sum up thus: Economic equality of rights could not be realised in earlier +epochs of civilisation, because human labour was not then sufficiently +productive to supply wealth to all, and equality therefore meant poverty +for all, which would have been synonymous with barbarism. Economic equality +of rights not only can but <i>must</i> now become a fact, because--thanks to the +power which has been acquired of using the forces of nature--abundance and +leisure have become possible for all; but the full utilisation of the now +acquired means of civilisation is dependent on the condition that everyone +enjoys the product of his own industry.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Satza-Muni</span> (<i>Right</i>): I think it has been incontrovertibly shown that +economic equality of rights was formerly impossible, and that it <i>can</i> now +be realised; but why it <i>must</i> now be realised does not seem to me to have +been yet placed beyond a doubt. So long as the productiveness of labour was +small, the exploitation of man by man was a necessity of civilisation--that +is plain; this is no longer the case, since the increased productiveness of +labour is now capable of creating wealth enough for all--this is also as +clear as day. But this only proves that economic justice has become +possible, and there is a great difference between the possible and the +necessary existence of a state of things. It has been said--and the +experience of the exploiting world seems to justify the assertion--that +full use cannot be made of the control which science and invention have +given to men over the natural forces, while only a small part of the fruits +of the thus increased effectiveness of labour is consumed; and if this can +be irrefutably shown to be inherent in the nature of the thing, there +remains not the least doubt that servitude in any form has become a +hindrance to civilisation. For an institution that prevents us from making +use of the means of civilisation which we possess is in and of itself a +hindrance to civilisation; and since it restrains us from developing wealth +to the fullest extent possible, and wealth and civilisation are power, so +there can consequently be no doubt as to why and in what manner such an +institution must in the course of economic evolution become obsolete. The +advanced and the strong everywhere and necessarily imposes its laws and +institutions upon the unprogressive and the weak; economic justice would +therefore--though with bloodless means--as certainly and as universally +supplant servitude as formerly servitude--when it was the institution which +conferred a higher degree of civilisation and power--supplanted +cannibalism. I have already admitted that the modern exploiting society is +in reality unable to produce that wealth which would correspond to the now +existing capacity of production: hence it follows as a matter of fact that +the exploiting society is very much less advanced than one based upon the +principle of economic justice, and it also quite as incontrovertibly +follows that the former cannot successfully compete with the latter.</p> + +<p>But before we have a right to jump to the conclusion that the principles of +economic justice must necessarily be everywhere victorious, it must be +shown that it is the essential nature of the exploiting system, and not +certain transitory accidents connected with it, which makes it incapable of +calling forth all the capacity of highly productive labour. Why is the +existing exploiting society not able to call forth all this capacity? +Because the masses are prevented from increasing their consumption in a +degree corresponding to the increased power of production--because what is +produced belongs not to the workers but to a few employers. Right. But, it +would be answered, these few would make use of the produce themselves. To +this the rejoinder is that that is impossible, because the few owners of +the produce of labour can use--that is, actually consume--only the smallest +portion of such an enormous amount of produce; the surplus, therefore, must +be converted into productive capital, the employment of which, however, is +dependent upon the consumption of those things that are produced by it. +Very true. No factories can be built if no one wants the things that would +be manufactured in them. But have the masters really only this <i>one</i> way of +disposing of the surplus--can they really make no other use of it? In the +modern world they do as a matter of fact make no other use of it. As a +rule, their desire is to increase or improve the agencies engaged in +labour--that is, to capitalise their profits--without inquiring whether +such an increase or improvement is needed; and since no such increase is +needed, so over-production--that is, the non-disposal of the produce--is +the necessary consequence. But because this is the fact at present, <i>must</i> +it necessarily be so? What if the employers of labour were to perceive the +true relation of things, and to find a way of creating an equilibrium by +proportionally reducing their capitalisation and increasing their +consumption? If that were to happen, then, it must be admitted, all +products would be disposed of, however much the productiveness of labour +might increase. The consumption by the masses would be stationary as +before; but luxury would absorb all the surplus with exception of such +reserves as were required to supply the means of production, which means +would themselves be extraordinarily increased on account of the enormously +increased demand caused by luxury.</p> + +<p>And who will undertake to say that such a turn of affairs is altogether +impossible? The luxury of the few, it is said, cannot possibly absorb the +immense surplus of modern productiveness. But why not? Because a rich man +has only one stomach and one body; and, moreover, everyone cannot possibly +have a taste for luxury. Granted; luxury, in its modern forms, cannot +possibly consume more than a certain portion of the surplus produce of +modern labour. But are we shut up to these modern kinds of luxury? What if +the wealthy once more have recourse to a mode of spending repeatedly +indulged in by antiquity in order to dispose of the accumulating proceeds +of slave-labour? In ancient Egypt a single king kept 200,000 men busy for +thirty years building his sepulchre, the great pyramid of Ghizeh. This same +Pharaoh probably built also splendid palaces and temples with a no less +profligate expenditure of human labour, and amassed treasures in which +infinite labour was crystallised. Contemporaneously with him, there were +other Egyptian magnates, priests, and warriors in no small number, who +sought and found in similar ways employment for the labour of their slaves. +If the luxury of the living did not consume enough, then costly spices, +drink-offerings and burnt-offerings were lavished upon the dead, and thus +the difficulty of disposing of the accumulated produce of labour was still +further lightened. And this succeeded admirably. The Egyptian slave +received a few onions and a handful of parched corn for food, a loin-cloth +for clothing; and yet, notwithstanding a comparatively highly developed +productiveness of the labour of countless slaves exploited by a few +masters, there was no over-production. In ancient India the men in power +excavated whole ranges of hills into temples, covered with the most +exquisite sculptures, in which an infinite amount of labour was consumed; +in ancient Rome the lords of the world ate nightingales' tongues, or +instituted senseless spectacles, in order to find employment for the +superfluous labour of countless slaves who, despite the considerable +productiveness of labour, were kept in a condition of the deepest misery. +And it answered. Why should not such a course answer in modern times? +Because, thanks to the control we have acquired over nature, the +productiveness of labour has become infinitely greater. Labour may have +become infinitely more productive; indeed, I think it probable that it is +no longer possible for the maddest prodigality of the few wealthy to give +<i>full</i> employment to the whole of the labour-energy at present existing +without admitting the masses to share in the consumption; but it would be +possible for the wealthy to consume a very large portion of the possible +produce. Then why does the modern exploiting society build no pyramids, no +rock palaces; why do the lords of labour institute no costly cultus of the +dead; why do they not eat nightingales' tongues, and keep the exploited +populace busy with circus spectacles and mock sea-fights? They could +indulge in these and countless other things, if they only discovered that +the surplus must be consumed and not capitalised. But as long as they +continue to multiply the instruments of labour, and only the instruments of +labour, so long are they simply increasing over-production, and can become +richer only in proportion as the consumption accidentally increases. As +soon, however, as they adopt the above-mentioned expedient, the connection +between their wealth and the lot of the masses is broken. Why does not this +happen?</p> + +<p>I hope it is not necessary for me expressly to assert that I am far from +wishing for such a turn in affairs; rather, I should look upon it as the +greatest misfortune that could befall mankind, for it would mean that, +despite the enormously increased productiveness of labour, exploitation was +not necessarily a hindrance to civilisation, and consequently would not +necessarily be superseded by economic justice. But Confucius says rightly, +that what is to be deplored is not always to be regarded as impossible or +even as only improbable.</p> + +<p><span class="name">John Bell</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The last speaker, who in other respects shows himself +to be a profound thinker, overlooks the fact that the completest +utilisation of the existing means of civilisation and the corresponding +evolution of wealth are not the only determining criteria in the struggle +for existence among nations. The strength of a nation that employs its +wealth in fostering the higher development of the millions of its subjects, +will ultimately become very different from that of a nation which consumes +an equal amount of wealth merely in increasing the enjoyment, nay, the +senseless luxury, of the ruling classes.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Aristid-Kolotroni</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The last speaker is correct in what he says, +although it may be objected that the wealthy are not necessarily obliged to +consume their wealth in senseless luxury: they might just as well gratify +their pride by boundless benevolence, accompanied by enormous expenditure +in all imaginable kinds of scientific, artistic and other institutions of +national utility. But I think we are getting away from the main point, +which is: is such a turn of affairs possible? The fact that it has not +occurred, despite all the evils of over-production, that on the contrary a +continually growing desire to capitalise all surplus profits dominates the +modern world, should save us from a fear of such a contingency.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Kurt Olafsohn</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): I must agree with Satza-Muni, the honourable +member for Japan, so far as to admit that the bare fact that such a +contingency has not yet been realised cannot set our minds completely at +rest. The consideration advanced by the two following speakers as to +whether an exploiting society in which the consumption by the wealthy +increases indefinitely must, under all circumstances, succumb to the +influence of the free order of society, appears arbitrary and inconclusive. +I venture to think that the free society does not possess the aggressive +character of the exploiting society, and that therefore the latter, even +though it should prove to be decidedly the weaker of the two, may continue +to exist for some time side by side with the other so far as it does not +itself recognise the necessity of passing over to the other. And this +recognition would be materially delayed by the fact that the ruling classes +profit by the continuance of exploitation. The change could then be +effected universally only by sanguinary conflicts, whilst we lay great +stress upon the winning over of the wealthy to the side of the reformers. +It is the enormous burden of over-production that opens the eyes of +exploiters to the folly of their action; should this spur be lacking, the +beneficial revolution would be materially delayed. The member for Japan is +also correct in saying that repeatedly in the course of history the surplus +production which could not be consumed in a reasonable manner has led the +exploiting lords of labour to indulge in senseless methods of consumption. +It may therefore be asked whether what has repeatedly happened cannot +repeat itself once more; but a thorough investigation of the subject will +show that the question must be answered with a decided <i>No</i>.</p> + +<p>No, it <i>can</i> never happen again that full employment for highly productive +labour will be found except under a system of economic justice; for since +it last occurred, a new factor has entered into the world which makes it +for all times an impossibility. This factor is the mobilisation of capital +and the consequent separation of the process of capital formation from the +process of capital-using. Anyone who in Ancient Egypt or Ancient Rome had +surplus production to dispose of and wished to invest it profitably, +therefore in the form of aids to labour, must either himself have had a +need of aids to labour, or must have found someone else who had such a need +and was on that account prepared to take his surplus, at interest of +course. It was impossible for anyone to invest capital unless someone could +make use of such capital; and if this latter contingency did not occur, it +was a matter of course that the possessor of the surplus production, +unusable as capital, should seek some other mode of consuming it. Many such +modes offered themselves, differing according to the nature of the several +kinds of exploiting society. If the constitution of the commonwealth was a +patriarchal one, the labour which had become more productive would be +utilised in improving the condition of the serfs, in mitigating the +severity of their labour. In a commonwealth of a more military character +the increasing productiveness of labour would serve to enlarge the +non-labouring, weapon-bearing class. If--as was always the case when +civilisation advanced--the bond between lord and serf became laxer, the +lord merely increased his luxury. But, in any case, the surplus which could +not be utilised in the augmentation or improvement of labour was consumed, +and there could therefore be no over-production. As now, however, the +possessor of surplus produce can--even when no one has a need of his +savings--obtain what he wants, viz. interest, he has ceased to concern +himself as to whether that surplus is really required for purposes of +production, but is anxious to capitalise even that which others can make as +little use of as he can.</p> + +<p>And this, in reality, is the result of the mobilisation of capital. Since +this discovery has been made, all capital is as it were thrown into one +lump, the profits of capital added to it, and the whole divided among the +capitalists. No one needs my savings, they are absolutely superfluous, and +can bear no fruit of any kind; nevertheless I receive my interest, for the +mobilisation of capital enables me to share in the profits of +profit-bearing, that is, of really working, capital. I deposit my savings +at interest in a bank, or I buy a share or a bill and thereby raise the +price of all other shares or bills correspondingly, and thus make it appear +as if the capital which they represent had been increased, while in truth +it has remained unchanged. And the produce of this working capital has not +increased through the apparent addition of my capital; the interest paid on +the whole amount of capital including mine is not more than that paid on +the capital before mine was added to it. The addition of my superfluous +capital has lowered the <i>rate</i> of interest, or, what comes to the same +thing, has raised the price of a demand for the same rate of interest as +before; but even a diminished rate of interest is better than no interest +at all. I continue, therefore, to save and capitalise, despite the fact +that my savings cannot be used productively as capital; nay, the +above-mentioned diminution of the rate of interest impels me, under certain +circumstances, to save yet more carefully, that is, to diminish my +consumption in proportion as my savings become less remunerative. It is +evident that my surplus produce cannot find any productive employment at +all, yet there is no way out of this circle of over production. Luxury +cannot come in as a relief, because the absence of any profitable +employment for the surplus renders that surplus valueless, and the ultimate +result is the non-production of the surplus. Only exceptionally is there an +actual production of unconsumable and, consequently, valueless things; the +almost unbroken rule is that the things which no one can use, and which +therefore are valueless, will not be produced. Since the employer leaves to +the worker only a bare subsistence, and can apply to capitalising purposes +only so much as is required for the production of consumable commodities, +every other application of the profits being excluded by capitalism, he +cannot produce more than is enough to meet these two demands. If he +attempts to produce more, the inevitable result is not increased wealth, +but a crisis.</p> + +<p>We have, therefore, no ground to fear that the ruling classes will again, +as in pro-capitalistic epochs, be able to enjoy the fruits of the +increasing productiveness of labour without allowing the working masses to +participate in that enjoyment. Capitalism, though by no means--as some +socialistic writers have represented--the cause of exploitation, is the +obstacle which deprives modern society of every other escape from the fatal +grasp of over-production but that of a transition to economic justice. It +is the last stage in human economics previous to that of social justice. +From capitalism there is no way forward but towards social justice; for +capitalism is at one and the same time one of the most effectual +provocatives of productivity and the bond which indissolubly connects the +increase of the effective production of wealth with consumption.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Wilhelm Ohlms</span> (<i>Right</i>): Then how is it that the Freeland institutions, +which are to become those of the whole of civilised mankind, have broken +with capitalism?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Henri Farr</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): So far as by capitalism is to be understood the +conversion of any actual surplus production into working capital, we in +Freeland are far from having broken with it. On the contrary, we have +developed it to the utmost, for much more fully than in the exploiting +capitalistic society are our savings at all times at the disposal of any +demand for capital that may arise. But our method of accumulating and +mobilising capital is a very different and much more perfect one: the +solidarity of interest of the saver with that of the employer of capital +takes the place of interest. This form of capitalism can never lead to +over-production, for under it--as in the pre-capitalistic epoch--it is the +demand for capital that gives the first impulse to the creation of capital. +But that this kind of capitalisation is impracticable in an exploiting +society needs no proof. For such a society there is no other means of +making the spontaneously accumulating capital serviceable to production +than that of interest; and as soon as the mobilisation of capital dissolves +the immediate personal connection between saver and employer of capital, +creditor and debtor, interest inevitably impels to over-production, from +which there is no escape except in economic justice--or relapse into +barbarism. [Loud and general applause.]</p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span> here asked if anyone else wished to speak upon point 1 of the +Agenda; and, as no one rose, he declared the discussion upon this subject +closed.</p> + +<p>The Congress next proceeded to discuss point 2:--</p> + +<p><i>Is not the success of the Freeland institutions to be attributed merely to +the accidental and therefore probably transient co-operation of specially +favourable circumstances; or do those institutions rest upon conditions +universally present and inherent in human nature?</i></p> + +<p><span class="name">George Dare</span> (<i>Right</i>) opened the debate: We have the splendid success of a +first attempt to establish economic justice so tangibly before us in +Freeland, that there is no need to ask whether such an attempt <i>can</i> +succeed. It is another question whether it <i>must</i> succeed, and that +everywhere, because it has succeeded in this one case. For the +circumstances of Freeland are exceptional in more than one respect. Not to +mention the pre-eminent abilities, the enthusiasm and the spirit of +self-sacrifice which marked the men who founded this fortunate +commonwealth, and some of whom still stand at its head, men such as it is +certain will not everywhere be found ready at hand, it must not be +overlooked that this country is more lavishly endowed by nature than most +others, and that a broad band of desert and wilderness protected it--at +least at first--from any disturbing foreign influence. If men of talent, +enjoying the unqualified confidence of their colleagues, are able on a soil +where every seed bears fruit a hundredfold to effect the miracle of +conjuring inexhaustible wealth for millions out of nothing, of +exterminating misery and vice, of developing the arts and sciences to the +fullest extent,--all this is, in my opinion, no proof that ordinary men, +given perhaps to squabbling with each other, and to being mutually +distrustful, will achieve the like or even approximately similar results on +poorer land and in the midst of the turmoil of the world's competitive +struggle. My doubts upon this point will appear the more reasonable when it +is remembered that in America we have witnessed hundreds upon hundreds of +social experiments which have all either proved to be in a greater or less +degree miserable fiascos, or at least have only assumed the proportion of +isolated successful industrial enterprises. It is true that some of our +efforts at revolutionising modern society have had remarkable pecuniary +results; but that has been all: a new, practicable foundation of the social +organisation they have not furnished, not even in germ. I wished to give +expression to these doubts; and before allowing ourselves to be intoxicated +by the example of Freeland, I wished to invite you to a sober consideration +of the question whether that which is successful in Freeland must +necessarily succeed in the rest of the world.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Thomas Johnston</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): The previous speaker makes a mistake when he +ascribes the success of the Freeland undertaking to exceptionally +favourable conditions. That our soil is more fertile than that of most +other parts of the world is, it is true, a permanent advantage, which, +however, accrues to us merely in the item of cost of carriage; for, after +allowing for this, the advantage of the fertility of our soil is equally +shared by all of you everywhere, wherever railways and steam-vessels can be +made use of. Isolation from the market of the world by broad deserts was at +first an advantage; but it would now be a disadvantage if we had not made +ourselves masters of those deserts. And as to the abilities of the Freeland +government, I must--not out of modesty, but in the name of truth--decline +the compliments paid us. We are not abler than others whom you might find +by the dozen in any civilised country. Only in one point were we in advance +of others, namely, in perceiving what was the true basis of human +economics. But the advantage which this gave us was only a temporary one, +for at present you have men in abundance in every part of the civilised +world who have become as wise as we are even in this matter. The advantage +we derived from being the first in this movement was that we have enjoyed +for nearly a generation the happiness in which you are only now preparing +to participate. Freeland's advantages are due simply to the date of its +foundation, and have now lost their importance. Now that the establishment +of a world-wide freedom is contemplated, there will no longer be any +national advantages or disadvantages. What belongs to us belongs to you +also, and what is wonderful is that we as well as you will become richer in +proportion as each of us is obliged to allow all the others to share +quickly, easily, and fully our own wealth. We have suffered from being +compelled to enjoy our wealth alone, and we shall become richer as soon as +you share that wealth; and in the same way will you become richer as others +share in your wealth. For herein lies the solidarity of interest that is +associated with true freedom, that every existing advantage in +production--such as wealth is--can be the more fully utilised the wider the +circle of those who enjoy its fruits.</p> + +<p>That those attempts, of which the last speaker spoke, all miscarried is due +to the fact that they were all based upon wrong principles. The only thing +they have in common with what we have carried out in Freeland, and what you +now wish to imitate, is the endeavour to find a remedy for the misery of +the exploiting world; but the remedy which we seek is a different one from +that which they sought, and in that--not in exceptional advantages which we +may have had--lies the cause of our success and of their miscarriage.</p> + +<p>For it was not by the aid of economic justice that they sought to attain +their end; they sought deliverance from the dungeon of exploitation, +whether by a way which did not lead out of it, or by a way which, though it +led out of that dungeon, yet led into another and more dreadful one. In +none of those American or other social experiments, from the Quaker +colonies to the Icaria of Cabet, was the full and undiminished produce of +labour ever assured to the worker; on the contrary, the produce belonged +either to small capitalists who, while themselves taking part in the +undertaking as workers, shared the produce according to the amount of +capital they had invested, or it belonged to the whole as a body, who as +such had a despotic right of disposal over both the labour and the produce +of the labour of every individual. These reformers were, without exception, +associated small capitalists or communists. They were able, if they had +specially good fortune, or if they were under specially able direction, to +achieve transient success; but a revolution of the current industrial +system by them was not to be thought of.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>End of Second Day's Debate</i>)</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXV</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">Third Day</span></p> + +<p class="center">(<i>Debate on Point 2 of the Agenda, continued</i>)</p> + +<p><span class="name">Johann Storm</span> (<i>Right</i>): I think that the lack of any analogy between the +frequent attempts to save society undertaken by small capitalists or +communists and the institutions of Freeland has been made sufficiently +clear. I think also that we are convinced that the exceptional external +advantages, which may have at any rate favoured and assisted the success of +Freeland, are not of a kind to suggest a fear that our proposed work will +fail for the want of such advantages. But we do not yet know whether the +success of social reform is exposed to danger from any conditions inherent +in human nature, and therefore universally to be met with. We have, in our +discussion upon the first point of the agenda, established the fact that, +thanks to the control which has been acquired over the forces of nature, +exploitation has become an obstacle to civilisation, and its removal a +necessity of civilisation. But severe criticism cannot be satisfied with +this. For is everything which is necessary to the progress of civilisation +consequently also possible? What if economic justice, though an +extraordinary vehicle of civilisation, were for some reason unfortunately +impracticable? What if that marvellous prosperity, which astonishes us so +much in Freeland, were only a transient phenomenon, and carried in itself +the germ of decay, despite, nay, because of, its fabulous magnitude? In a +word, what if mankind could not permanently, and as a whole, participate in +that progress the necessary condition of which is economic justice?</p> + +<p>The evidence to the contrary, already advanced, culminates in the +proposition that the exploitation of man by man was necessary only so long +as the produce of human labour did not suffice to provide abundance and +leisure for all. But what if other influences made exploitation and +servitude necessary, influences the operation of which could not be stayed +by the increased productiveness of labour, perhaps could never be stayed? +The most powerful hindrance to the permanent establishment of a condition +of economic justice, with its consequences of happiness and wealth, is +recognised by the anxious student of the future in the danger of +over-population. But as this is a special point in the agenda, I, like my +colleagues who have already spoken, will postpone what occurs to my mind +upon the subject. There are, however, other and not less important +difficulties. Can a society, which lacks the stimulus of self-interest, +permanently exist and make progress, and succeed in making public spirit +and rational enlightenment take the place thoroughly, and with equal +effectiveness, of self-interest? Does not the same apply to private +property? Self-interest and private property are not altogether set aside +by the institutions of Freeland. I readily admit this, but they are +materially restricted. Even under the rule of economic justice the +individual is himself responsible for the greater or less degree of his +prosperity--the connection between what he himself does and what he gets is +not altogether dissolved; but as the commonwealth unconditionally protects +every man in all cases against want, therefore against the ultimate +consequences of his own mistakes or omissions, the stimulating influence of +self-responsibility is very materially diminished. Just so we see private +property abolished, though not entirely, yet in its most important +elements. The earth and all the natural forces inherent in it are declared +ownerless; the means of production are common property; will that, can +that, remain so everywhere, and for all time, without disastrous +consequences? Will public spirit permanently fill the office of that +affectionate far-seeking care which the owner bestows upon the property for +which he alone is responsible? Will not the gladsome absence of care, which +has certainly hitherto been brilliantly conspicuous in Freeland, eventually +degenerate into frivolity and neglect of that for which no one in +particular is responsible? The fact that this has not yet happened may +perhaps be due--for it is not yet a generation since this commonwealth was +founded--to the dominant enthusiasm that marked the beginning. New brooms, +it is said, sweep clean. The Freelander sees the eyes of the whole world +fixed upon him and his doings; he feels that he is still the pioneer of new +institutions; he is proud of those institutions, every worker here to the +last man holds himself responsible for the way and manner in which he +fulfils the apostolate of universal freedom to which he is called. Will +this continue permanently: in particular, will the whole human race feel +and act thus? I doubt it; at least, I am not fully convinced that it must +necessarily be so. And what if it is not so? What if, we will not say all, +but many nations show themselves to be unable to dispense with the stimulus +of want-inspired self-interest, the lure of unconditioned private property, +without sinking into mental stagnation and physical indolence? These are +questions to which we now require answers.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Richard Held</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The previous speaker finds that self-interest and +private property are such powerful spurs to activity that, without their +full and unrestricted influence, permanent human progress is scarcely +conceivable, and that it is extremely uncertain whether public spirit would +be an effective substitute for them. I go much farther. I assert that +without these two means of activity no commonwealth can be expected to +thrive, unless human nature is radically changed, or labour ceases to +require effort. Every attempt in the domain of economics to substitute +public spirit or any other ethical motive for self-interest must +immediately, and not merely in its ultimate issue, prove an ignominious +fiasco. I think it quite unnecessary to give special proof of this; but for +the very reason that self-interest and its correlative, private property, +are the best incitements to labour, and can be effectively replaced by no +surrogate--for this very reason, I contend, are the institutions of +economic justice immensely superior in this respect to those of the +exploiting system of industry. For they alone really give full play to +self-interest and the right of private ownership: the exploiting system +only falsely pretends to do this.</p> + +<p>For servitude is, in truth, the negation of self-interest. Self-interest +assumes that the worker serves his 'own' interest by the trouble he takes; +does this apply to the <i>régime</i> of exploitation: does the servant work for +his <i>own</i> profit? With reference to the question of self-interest, anyone +who would show that economic justice was less advantageous than servitude +would have to assert that labour was the most productive and profitable +when the worker produced, not for his own, but for some one else's profit. +But it will perhaps be objected that the employer produces for his own +profit. Right. But, apart from the fact that this, strictly speaking, has +nothing to do with the stimulating effect of self-interest upon labour--for +here it is not the profit of his own but of some one else's labour that +comes in question--it is clear that a system which secures to only a +minority the profit of work must be infinitely less influential than the +one we are now considering, which secures the profit to every worker. In +reality the exploiting world, with very few exceptions, knows only men who +labour without getting the profit themselves, and men who do not labour +themselves yet get profit from labour; in the exploiting world to labour +for one's own profit is quite an accidental occurrence. With what right, +then, does exploitation dare to plume itself upon making use of +<i>self</i>-interest as a motive to labour? <i>Some one else's</i> interest is the +right description of the motive to labour that comes into play under +exploitation; and that this should prove itself to be more effective than +the self-interest which economic justice has to introduce into the modern +world as a novelty it would be somewhat difficult to demonstrate.</p> + +<p>It is nearly the same with private property. What boundless presumption it +is to claim for a system which robs ninety-nine per cent. of mankind of all +and every certainty of possessing property, and leaves to them nothing that +they can call their own but the air they breathe--what presumption it is to +claim for such a system that it makes use of private property as a stimulus +to human activity, and to urge this claim as against another system which +converts all men without exception into owners of property, and in fact +secures to them unconditionally, and without diminution, all that they are +able in any way to produce! Or does, perhaps, the superiority of the +'private property' of the exploiting system lie in the fact that it extends +to things which the owner has <i>not</i> himself produced? Unquestionably the +adherents of the old system have no clear conception of what is <i>mine</i> and +what is <i>thine</i>. What properly belongs to <i>me</i>? 'Everything you can take +from anyone, 'would be their only answer, if they were but to speak +honestly. Because this appropriation of the property of others has, in the +course of thousands of years, been formulated into certain established +rules, consecrated by cruel necessity, the adherents of the old system have +completely lost the natural conception of private property, the conception +which is inherent in the nature of things. It passes their comprehension +that, though force can possess and make use of whom it pleases, yet the +free and untrammelled use of one's own powers is the inalienable property +of everyone, and that consequently any political or social system which +overrides this inalienable personal right of every man is based, not upon +property, but upon robbery. This robbery may be necessary, nay, useful--we +have seen that for thousands of years it actually was useful--but +'property' it never will be, and whoever thinks it is has forgotten what +property is.</p> + +<p>After what has been said, it seems to me scarcely necessary to spend many +words in dispelling the fear that frivolity or carelessness in the +treatment of the means of production will result from a modified form of +property. As to frivolity, it will suffice to ask whether hopeless misery +has proved itself to be such a superior stimulus to economic prudence as to +make it dangerous to supersede it by a personal responsibility which, +though it lacks the spur of misery, is of a thoroughly comprehensive +character. And as to the fear lest carelessness in the treatment of the +means of production should prevail, this fear could have been justified +only if in the former system the workers were owners of the means of +production. Private property in these will, it is true, not be given to +them by the new system, but instead of it the undiminished enjoyment of the +produce of those means; and he whose admiration of the beauties of the +existing system does not go so far as to consider the master's rod a more +effective stimulus to foresight than the profit of the workers may rest +satisfied that even in this respect things will be better and not worse.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Charles Phud</span> (<i>Right</i>): I do not at all understand how the previous speaker +can dispute the fact that in the former system self-interest is that which +conditions the quantity of work. No one denies that the workers must give +up a part of the profit of their labour; but another part remains theirs, +hence they labour for their own profit, though not exclusively so. At any +rate they must labour if they do not wish to starve, and one would think +that this stimulus is the most effectual one possible. So much as to the +denial that self-interest is the moving spring of so-called exploited +labour. As to the attack upon the conception of property advanced by those +of us who defend, not exactly the existing evil condition of things, but a +rational and consistent reform of it, I would with all modesty venture to +remark that our sense of justice was satisfied because no one compelled the +worker to share with the employer. He made a contract as a free man with +the employer.... [General laughter.] You may laugh, but it is so. In +countries that are politically free nothing prevents the worker from +labouring on his own account alone; it is, therefore, at any rate incorrect +to call the portion which he surrenders to the employer robbery.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Béla Székely</span> (<i>Centre</i>): It seems to me to be merely a dispute about a word +which the previous speaker has attempted to settle. He calls wages a part +of the profit of production. It may be that here and there the workers +really receive a part of the profit as wages, or as an addition to the +wages. With us, and, if I am rightly informed, in the country of the +speaker also, this was not generally customary. We rather paid the workers, +who were quite unconcerned about the profits of their work, an amount +sufficient to maintain them; profits--and losses when there were any--fell +exclusively to the lot of the production, the employers. He could have said +with nearly as much justice that his oxen or his horses participated in the +profits of production. When I say 'nearly,' I mean that this could as a +rule be said <i>more</i> justly of oxen and horses, for, while those useful +creatures are for the most part better fed when their labour has enriched +their master, this happens very rarely in the case of our two-logged +rational beasts of labour.</p> + +<p>Then the previous speaker made hunger absolutely identical with +self-interest. The masses <i>must</i> labour or starve. Certainly. But the slave +must labour or be whipped: thus this strange logic would make it appear +that the slave is also stimulated to labour by self-interest. Or will the +arguer fall back upon the assertion that self-interest refers merely to the +acquisition of material goods? That would be false; self-interest does not +after all either more or less prompt men to avoid the whip than to appease +hunger. But I will not argue about such trifles: we will drop the rod and +the whip as symbols of activity stimulated by self-interest. But how does +it stand with those slave-holders who--probably in the interest of the +'freedom of labour'--do not whip their lazy slaves, but allow them to +starve? Is it not evident that the previous speaker would, under their +<i>régime</i>, set self-interest upon the throne as the inciter to work? That +hunger is a very effectual means of <i>compulsion</i>, a more effectual one than +the whip, no one will deny; hence it has everywhere superseded the latter, +and very much to the advantage of the employer. But self-interest? The very +word itself implies that the profit of the labour is the worker's own. So +much as to hunger.</p> + +<p>And now as to the security against the injustice of exploitation; for my +own part I do not understand this at all. The workers were 'free,' nothing +compelled them to produce for other men's advantage? Yes, certainly, +nothing but the trifle--hunger. They could leave it alone, if they wished +to starve! Just the 'freedom' which the slave has. If he does not mind +being whipped, there is nothing to compel him to work for his master. The +bonds in which the 'free' masses of the exploiting society languish are +tighter and more painful than the chains of the slave. The word 'robbery' +does not please the previous speaker? It is, indeed, a hard and hateful +word; but the 'robber' is not the individual exploiter, but the exploiting +society, and this was formerly, in the bitter need of the struggle for +existence, compelled to practise this robbery. Is the slaughter in battle +any the less homicide because it is done at the command, not of the +individual, but of the State, which is frequently acting under compulsion? +It will be said that this kind of killing is not forbidden by the penal +law, nay, that it is enjoined by our duty to our country, and that only +forbidden kinds of killing can be called 'homicide.' <i>Juridically</i> that is +quite correct; and if it occurred to anyone to bring a charge of killing in +battle before a court of justice he would certainly be laughed at. But he +would make himself quite as ludicrous who, because killing in war is +allowed, would deny that such killing was homicide if the point under +consideration was, not whether the act was juridically penal, but how to +define homicide as a mode of violently putting a man to death. So +exploitation is no robbery in the eye of the penal law; but if every +appropriation to one's self of the property of another can be called +robbery--and this is all that the present case is concerned with--then is +robbery and nothing else the basis of every exploiting society, of the +modern 'free' society no less than of the ancient or mediaeval +slave-holding or serf-keeping societies. [Long-continued applause, in which +Messrs. Johann Storm and Charles Prud both joined.]</p> + +<p><span class="name">James Brown</span> (<i>Right</i>): Our colleague from Hungary has so pithily described +the true characteristics of self-interest and property in the exploiting +society, that nothing more is to be said upon that subject. But even if it +is correct that these two motive springs of labour can be placed in their +right position only by economic justice, it still remains to be asked +whether the only way of doing this--namely, the organisation of free, +self-controlling, unexploited labour--will prove to be everywhere and +without exception practicable. Little would be gained by the solemn +proclamation of the principle that every worker is his own master, and the +complete concession to all workers of a right of disposal of the means of +production, if those workers were to prove incapable of making an adequate +use of such rights. The final and decisive question, therefore, is whether +the workers of the future will always and everywhere exhibit that +discipline, that moderation, that wisdom, which are indispensable to the +organisation of truly profitable and progressive production? The exploiting +industry has a routine which has taken many thousands of years for its +development. The accumulated experience of untold generations teaches the +employer under the old system how to proceed in order to control a crowd of +servants compelled dumbly to obey. He, nevertheless, frequently fails, and +only too often are his plans wrecked by the insubordination of those under +him. The leaders of the workers' associations of the future have as good as +no experience to guide them in the choice of modes of association; they +will have as masters those whom they should command, and yet we are told +that success is certain, nay, success must be certain if the associated +free society is not to be convulsed to its very foundations. For whilst the +exploiting society confines the responsibility for the fate of the separate +undertakings to those undertakings themselves, the so-often-mentioned +solidarity of interests in the free society most indissolubly connects the +weal and the woe of the community with that of every separate undertaking. +I shall be glad to be taught better; but until I am, I cannot help seeing +in what has just been said grounds for fear which the experience of +Freeland until now is by no means calculated to dissipate. The workers of +Freeland have understood how to organise and discipline themselves: does it +follow from this that the workers everywhere will be equally intelligent?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Miguel Spada</span> (<i>Left</i>): I will confine myself to a brief answer to the +question with which the previous speaker closed. It certainly does not +follow that the attempt to organise and discipline labour without +capitalist employers must necessarily succeed among <i>all</i> nations simply +because it has succeeded among the Freelanders, and will unquestionably +succeed among numerous other peoples. It is possible, nay, probable, that +some nations may show themselves incapable of making use of this highest +kind of spontaneous activity; so much the worse for them. But I hope that +no one will conclude from this that those peoples who are not thus +incapable--even if they should find themselves in the minority--ought to +refrain from such activity. The more capable will then become the +instructors of the less capable. Should the latter, however, show +themselves to be, not merely temporarily incapable, but permanently +intractable, then will they disappear from the face of the earth, just as +intractable cannibals must disappear when they come into contact with +civilised nations. The delegate who proposed the question may rest assured +that the nation to which he belongs will not be numbered among the +incapable ones.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Vladimur Tonof</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): The honourable member from England (Brown) has +formed an erroneous conception of the difficulties of the organisation and +discipline now under consideration, as well as of the importance of any +miscarriage of individual enterprises in a free community. As to the former +matter, I wish to show that in the organisation of associated capital, +which is well known to have been carried out for centuries, there is an +instructive and by no means to be despised foreshadowing of associated +labour, so far as relates to the modes of management and superintendence to +be adopted in such cases. Of course there are profound distinctions which +have to be taken into consideration; but it has been proved, and it is in +the nature of things, that the differences are all in favour of associated +labour. In this latter, for instance, there will not be found the chief +sins of associations of capitalists--namely, lack of technical knowledge +and indifference to the objects of the undertaking on the part of the +shareholders; and therefore it is possible completely to dispense with +those useless and crippling kinds of control-apparatus with which the +statutes of the companies of capitalists are ballasted. As a rule, the +single shareholder understands nothing of the business of his company, and +quite as seldom dreams of interfering in the affairs of the company +otherwise than by receiving his dividends. Notwithstanding, <i>he</i> is the +master of the undertaking, and in the last resort it is his vote that +decides the fate of it; what provisions are therefore necessary in order to +protect this shareholder from the possible consequences of his own +ignorance, credulity, and negligence! The associated workers, on the +contrary, are fully acquainted with the nature of their undertaking, the +success of which is their chief material interest, and is, without +exception, recognised as such by them. This is a decisive advantage. Or +does anyone see a special difficulty in the fact that the workers are +placed under the direction of persons whose appointment depends upon the +votes of the men who are to be directed? On the same ground might the +authority of all elective political and other posts be questioned. The +directors have no means of <i>compelling</i> obedience? A mistake; they lack +only the right of arbitrarily dismissing the insubordinate. But this right +is not possessed by many other bodies dependent upon the discipline and the +reasonable co-operation of their members; nevertheless, or rather on this +very account, such bodies preserve better discipline than those +confederations in which obedience is maintained by the severest forcible +measures. It is true that where there is no forcible compulsion discipline +cannot so easily pass over into tyranny; but this is, in truth, no evil. +Moreover, the directors of free associations of workers can put into force +a means of compulsion, the power of which is more unqualified and absolute +than that of the most unmitigated tyranny: the all-embracing reciprocal +control of the associates, whose influence even the most obstinate cannot +permanently withstand. It is certainly indispensable that the workers as a +whole, or a large majority of them, should be reasonable men whose +intelligence is sufficient to enable them to understand their own +interests. But this is the first and foremost <i>conditio sine quâ non</i> of +the establishment of economic justice. That economic justice--up to the +present the highest outcome of the evolution of mankind--is suitable only +to men who have raised themselves out of the lowest stage of brutality, is +in no respect open to question. Hence it follows that nations and +individuals who have not yet reached this stage of development must be +educated up to it; and this educational work is not difficult if it be but +undertaken with a will. We doubt that it could altogether fail anywhere, if +undertaken seriously and in the right way.</p> + +<p>And now let us look at the second side of the question which has been +thrown out. Is it correct that, in consequence of the solidarity of +interests which exists in the free community, the weal and woe of the whole +are indissolubly bound up with the success of any individual undertaking? +If it be meant by this that in such a community everyone is interested in +the weal of everyone else, and consequently in the success of every +undertaking, then it fully expresses what is the fact; but--and this was +evidently the meaning of the speaker--if it is meant that the weal of such +a community is dependent upon the success of every single undertaking of +its members, then it is utterly groundless. If an undertaking does not +thrive, its members leave it and turn to one that is more prosperous--that +is all. On the other hand, this mobility of labour, bound up with the +solidarity of interests, protects the free community from the worse +consequences of actual miscarriage. If there should be an ill-advised +choice of directors, the unqualified officials can do but relatively little +mischief; they see themselves--that is, the undertaking under their +control--promptly forsaken by the workers, and the losses are insignificant +because confined within a small area. In fact, this mobility proves itself +to be in the last resort the most effectual corrective of all kinds of +mistakes, the agency by which all the defective forms of organisation and +the less capable minds are thrust aside and automatically superseded by +better. For the undertakings which, from any cause whatever, fail to thrive +are always in a comparatively short time absorbed by better, without +involving in ruin--as happens under the exploiting system of society--those +who were engaged in the former undertakings. Hence it is not necessary that +these free organisations should in all cases strike the highest note at the +very beginning in order eventually to attain to perfect order and +excellence; for in the friendly competition what is defective rapidly +vanishes from sight, being merged in what is proved to be superior, which +then alone holds the field.</p> + +<p><span class="name">John Kilmean</span> (<i>Right</i>): Let us grant, then, that the associations of free +labour are organised as well as, or better than, the capitalists' +associations of the old exploiting world. Is there, nevertheless, no ground +to fear that they will exhibit serious defects in comparison with +undertakings conducted by individual employers? That self-interest, so far +as concerns the workers themselves, can for the first time have full play +in stimulating activity is true; but with respect to the management the +reverse is the fact. At least one would think that the interest of the +individual undertaker in the success of the business belonging to him alone +must be a keener one than that of directors, who are nothing more than +elected functionaries whose industrial existence is in no way indissolubly +connected with the undertaking. The advantages which the private +undertaking conducted by the individual proprietor has hitherto exhibited +over the joint-stock company, it must, in the nature of things, also have +over the free associations.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Theodor Ypsilanti</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): Let us assume, for the present, that this +is so. But are the advantages of the individual undertaker over the +joint-stock company really so great? It is not necessary to theorise for +and against, since practice has long ago pronounced its verdict. And what +is this? Simply that the joint-stock undertaking has gradually surpassed, +nay, in the most important and the most extensive branches of business +totally superseded, the much-lauded private undertaking. It can be +confidently assorted that in every kind of undertaking which is large +enough to support the--certainly somewhat costly--apparatus of a +joint-stock company, the joint-stock company is undisputed master of the +field, so that there remains to the private undertaking, as its domain, +nothing more than the dwarf concerns with which our free society does not +meddle. It cannot be said that this is due to the larger money power of the +combined capital, for even relatively small undertakings, whose total +capital is many times less than that of a great many private millionaires, +prefer, I may say choose exclusively, the joint-stock form. It is quite as +great a mistake to ascribe this fact to the reluctance of private +capitalists to run the risk involved in certain undertakings, and to their +consequent preference for joint-stock undertakings; for, in the first +place, it is generally the least risky branches of business in which the +joint-stock form most exclusively prevails; and in the second place, we see +only too often that individual capitalists place enormous sums in single +companies, and even found undertakings in a joint-stock form with their own +capital. But a decisive proof of the superiority of the joint-stock company +is the universal fact that the great capitalists are everywhere entrusting +the control of their property to joint-stock companies. If the +account-books of the wealthy in every civilised exploiting country were to +be examined, it would unquestionably be found that at least nine-tenths of +the capitalists had employed the greatest part of their capital which was +not invested in land in the purchase of shares. This, however, simply shows +that the rich prefer not to manage their wealth themselves, but to allow it +to be managed by joint stock companies.</p> + +<p>The orthodox theory, spun out of the flimsiest fictions, is not able to do +anything with this fact; it therefore ignores it, or seeks to explain it by +a number of fresh fictions, such as the fable of divided risk, or some +other similar subterfuge. The truth is that the self-interest of the +employer has very little to do with the real direction of the businesses +belonging to him--so far as concerns great undertakings--for not the +employer, but specially appointed wage-earners, are, as a rule, the actual +directors; the alleged advantage of the private undertaking, therefore, +does not exist at all. On the other hand, the undertaking of the private +capitalist is at a very heavy disadvantage in competition with that of the +joint-stock company, inasmuch as the latter almost always attracts by far +the greater amount of intelligence. The capitalist, even the largest, is on +the average no cleverer than other men--that is, generally speaking, he is +<i>not</i> particularly clever. It may, perhaps, be objected that he would +scarcely have attained to great wealth had he not possessed superior +abilities; but apart from the fact that it has yet to be established +whether in the modern exploiting society it is really special mental gifts, +and not rather other things, that lead to the accumulation of great wealth, +most large fortunes are no longer in the hands of the original acquirers, +but in those of their heirs. Consequently, in private undertakings, if not +the actual direction, yet certainly the highest authority, and particularly +the final decision as to the choice of the actual directors, lies in the +hands of men who, shall we say, half of them, possess less than the +average, nine-tenths of the rest about the average, and only one-twentieth +of them more than the average of human intelligence. Naturally +nineteen-twentieths of the undertakings thought out and established by such +men will be either indifferent or bad. It will be further objected that it +is in the main the same men to whom a similar <i>rôle</i> falls in the creation +and officering of joint-stock companies. Very true. But here it is usual +for the few able men among the wealthy to take the <i>rôle</i> of leaders; the +stupid or the moderately gifted are changed from autocratic despots into a +herd of common docile cattle, who, led by the instinct of self-interest, +blindly follow the abler men. And even when it is otherwise, when the +incapable rich man stubbornly insists upon thrusting forward his empty +pate, he finds himself compelled to give reasons for what he does, to +engage in the game of question and answer with his fellow shareholders, and +ordinarily he is thus preserved from the gross follies which he would be +sure to commit if the whole responsibility rested upon himself. In a word, +capitalists acting together as joint-stock companies as a rule exhibit more +ability than capitalists acting independently. But even if it were not so, +the selections which they make--as shareholders--in appointing the chief +managers of their business are infinitely better than those made by private +capitalists, because a whole category of intelligences, and that of the +highest and best kind, stands at the disposal of the joint-stock company, +but not of the private undertaker. Many persons who offer themselves as +directors, members of council of administration, presidents, of joint-stock +companies, would never condescend to enter into the service of an +individual. The general effect of all this is, that joint-stock companies +in the greater number of cases possess far abler, more intelligent managers +than private undertakings--a circumstance which no one will overlook who is +but even moderately well acquainted with the facts of the case.</p> + +<p>The alleged superiority of the private undertaking, supposed to be due to +the personal care and oversight of the owner, is therefore nothing more +than one of the many fables in which the exploiting world believes in spite +of the most obvious lack of truth. But even the trifling advantages which +the private undertaking really has over the joint-stock company cannot be +claimed as against freely associated labour. Colleague Tonof has already +pointed out that ignorance and indifference, those most dangerous +characteristics of most shareholders, are not to be feared in those who +take part in labour associations. Here it can never happen that an +unscrupulous minority will obtain control of the management and exploit the +undertaking for the benefit of some private interest; here it is natural +that the whole body of members, who are interested in the successful +conduct of the business, should incessantly and attentively watch the +behaviour of the officials they have elected; and in view of the perfect +transparency of all the business transactions in the free community, secret +practices and crooked ways--those inevitable expedients of dishonour--are +not to be thought of. In a word, the form of labour organisation +corresponding to the higher stage of civilisation proves itself to be +infinitely superior in every respect to the form of organisation prevalent +in the past--a fact which, strictly speaking, is a matter of course.</p> + +<p>It does not follow that this form of organisation is the most suitable for +every kind of labour; there are branches of production--I mention merely +the artistic or the scientific--in which the individual must stand by +himself; but we do not apply the principle of association to these +branches. For no one would forcibly impose this principle, and the +individual freedom that is nowhere interfered with is able of itself to +take care that what is done is everywhere done in the way that has been +found to be most consistent with nature, and best.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Miguel Diego</span> (<i>Right</i>): We know now that the new system unites in itself +all the natural requisites of success; it has been shown before that its +introduction was demanded by the progress of civilisation. How comes it +that, in spite of all, the new system enters the world, not as the product +of the co-operation of elementary automatically occurring historical +events, but rather as a kind of art-product, as an artificially produced +outcome of the efforts of certain individuals? What if the International +Free Society had not been formed, or if its appeal had been without +response, its work crushed in the germ, or in some other way made to +miscarry? It will be admitted that these are conceivable contingencies. +What would have become of economic justice if any one of these +possibilities had occurred? If social reform is in truth an inevitable +necessity, it must ultimately be realised in spite of the opposition of the +whole world; it must show itself to be indissolubly bound up with forces +which will give it the victory over prejudice, ill-will, and adverse +accident. Thus alone would proof be given that the work in which we are +engaged is something more than the ephemeral fruit of fallible human +ingenuity--that rather those men who gave it the initial impulse and +watched over its development were acting simply as the instruments of the +universal force which, if <i>they</i> had not done the work, would have found +other instruments and other ways to attain the inevitable end.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Henri Ney</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): If the existence of economic justice as an +established fact depended upon the action of the founders of Freeland, +little could have been said, not merely as to its necessary character, but +also as to the certainty of its continuance. For what individual men +attempt, other men can frustrate. It is true that, as far as outward +appearances go, all historical events are human work: but the great +necessary events of history are distinguished from merely accidental +occurrences by the fact that in them all the actors are clearly seen to be +simply the instruments of destiny, instruments which the genius of mankind +calls into being when it is in need of them. We do not know who invented +language, the first tool, writing; but whoever it was, we know that he was +a mere instrument of progress, in the sense that, with the same certainty +with which we express any other natural law, we can venture to assert that +language, the tool, writing, would have been invented even if their +respective accidental inventors had never seen the light. The same holds +good of economic freedom: it would have been realised, even if none of us +who actually realised it for the first time had existed. Only in such a +case the form of its entrance into the world of historical fact would +probably have been a different, perhaps a more pacific, a more joyous one +still than that of which we are the witnesses; but perhaps it might have +been a violent and horrible one.</p> + +<p>In order to show this in a manner that excludes all doubt, it must first be +demonstrated that the continuance of modern society as it has been evolved +in the course of the last century is in the very nature of things an +impossibility. For this purpose you must allow me to carry you back some +distance.</p> + +<p>In the original society of barbarism, when the productiveness of labour was +so small that the weaker could not be exploited by the stronger, and one's +own prosperity depended upon the suppression and annihilation of +competitors, a thirst for blood, cruelty, cunning, were not merely +necessary to the self-preservation of the individual, but they were +obviously serviceable to the society to which the individual belonged. They +were, therefore, not only universally prevalent, but were reckoned as +virtues. The most successful and most merciless slayer of men was the most +honourable member of his tribe, and was lauded in speech and song as an +example worthy of imitation.</p> + +<p>When the productiveness of labour increased, these 'virtues' lost much of +their original importance; but they were not converted into vices until +slavery was invented, and it became possible to utilise the labour instead +of the flesh of the conquered. Then bloodthirsty cruelty, which hitherto +had been profitable, became injurious, since, for the sake of a transient +enjoyment--that of eating human flesh--it deprived the victorious +individual, as well as the society to which he belonged, of the permanent +advantage of augmented prosperity and increased power. Consequently, the +bestial thirst for blood gradually disappeared in the new form of the +struggle for existence, and from a cherished virtue it passed into a +characteristic which met with increasing disapproval--that is, it became a +vice. It necessarily became a vice, for only those tribes which were the +subjects of this process of moral transformation could enjoy all the +advantages of the new forms of labour and of the new social institution, +slavery, and could therefore increase in civilisation and power, and make +use of their augmented power to extirpate or to bring into subjection the +tribes that persisted in their old cannibal customs. In this way, in the +course of thousands of years, there grew up among men a new ethics which, +in its essential features, has been preserved until our days--the ethics of +exploitation.</p> + +<p>But to call this ethics 'philanthropy' is the strangest of mistakes. It is +true that the savage bloodthirsty hatred between man and man had given +place to milder sentiments; but it is a long way from those sentiments to +genuine philanthropy, by which we understand the recognition of our +fellow-man as our equal, and not merely that chilly benevolence which we +entertain towards even dumb animals. Real philanthropy is as inconsistent +with exploitation as with cannibalism. For though the new form of the +struggle for existence abhors the death of the vanquished, it substitutes +for it the oppression and subjugation of man by man as an imperative +requirement of social prosperity. And it should be clearly understood that +real and unselfish philanthropy is not merely not demanded by the kind of +struggle for existence which is carried on by the exploiting society, but +is known to be distinctly injurious, and is quite impracticable as a +universally operative race-instinct. Individuals may love their fellow-men +as themselves; but as long as exploitation is in force, such men must +remain rare, and by no means generally esteemed, exceptions. Only hypocrisy +or gross self-deception will question this. Certainly the so-called +civilised nations of the West have for more than a thousand years written +upon their banners the words 'Love thy neighbour as thyself,' and have not +shrunk from asserting that they lived up to those words, or that at least +they endeavoured to do so. But in truth they loved their fellow-man, in the +best of cases, as a useful domestic animal, have without the slightest +scruple profited by his painful toil, by his torture, and have not been +prevented by any sentiment of horror from slaughtering him in cold blood +when such a course was or seemed to be profitable to them. And such were +not the sentiments and feelings of a few particularly hard-hearted +individuals, but of the whole body of society; they were not condemned but +imperatively demanded by public opinion, lauded as virtues under all sorts +of high-sounding names, and, so far as deeds and not empty phrases were in +question, their antithesis, the genuine philanthropy, passed at best as +pitiable folly, or more generally as a crime worthy of death. He who +uttered the words quoted above, and to Whom prayers were offered in the +churches, would have been repeatedly crucified, burnt, broken on the wheel, +hanged by them all, in the most recent past perhaps imprisoned, had He +again ventured, as He did nineteen centuries ago, to preach in the +market-place, in burning living words that could not be misunderstood, that +which men's purblind eyes and their minds clouded by a thousand years of +ancient self-deception read, but did not understand, in the writings of His +disciples.</p> + +<p>But the decisive point is, that in the epoch of exploitation mankind could +not have thought or felt, not to say acted, otherwise. They were compelled +to practise exploitation so long as this was a necessity of civilisation; +they were therefore unable either to feel or exercise philanthropy, for +that was as little in harmony with exploitation as repugnance to homicide +was with cannibalism. Just as in the first barbaric epoch of mankind that +which the exploiting period called 'humanity' would have been detrimental +to success in the struggle for existence, so, later, that which <i>we</i> call +humanity, the genuine philanthropy, would have placed any nation that had +practised it at a disadvantage. To eat or to be eaten--that was the +alternative in the epoch of cannibalism; to oppress or to be oppressed, in +the epoch of exploitation.</p> + +<p>A change in the form and productiveness of labour has recently been +effected; neither social institutions nor moral sensibilities can escape +the influence of that change. But--and here I come to the last decisive +point--there are certainly several alternatives conceivable. The first is +that with which we have hitherto been exclusively occupied: the social +institutions accommodate themselves to the change in the form of labour, +and the modification of the struggle for existence thus brought about leads +to a corresponding revolution in moral sentiments; friendly competition and +perfect solidarity of interests supersede the reciprocal struggle for +advantage, and the highest philanthropy supersedes the exploitation of man.</p> + +<p>If we would once for all remove the last doubt as to the unqualified +necessity of this phase of evolution, let us suppose that the contrary has +happened, that the adaptation of the social institutions to the modified +form of labour is not effected. At any rate the mind can imagine such a +possibility; and I hold it to be superfluous, at this point in the +demonstration, to discuss the probability or the improbability of such a +supposition--we simply assume the case. But it would be absurd likewise to +assume that this persistence of the old form of the social institutions +could occur without being necessarily accompanied by very material +reactions both upon the forms of labour and upon the moral instincts of +mankind. Those over-orthodox but not less thoughtless social politicians +who accept the above assumption, hold it to be possible for a cause of such +enormous and far-reaching importance as is an increased productiveness of +labour, that makes it possible for all men to enjoy abundance and leisure, +to remain without the slightest influence upon the course of human +evolution. They overlook the fact that the struggle for existence in human +society must in any case be changed under the influence of this factor, +whether the social institutions undergo a corresponding adaptation or not, +and that consequently the inquiry must in any case be made what reaction +this changed form of the struggle for existence can or must exercise upon +the totality of human institutions?</p> + +<p>And in what consists the change in the struggle for existence, in such a +case as that indicated above? <i>Simply in a partial reversion to the form of +struggle of the first, the cannibal, epoch of mankind!</i></p> + +<p>We have seen that exploitation transformed the earlier struggle, that aimed +at annihilating the competitor, into one directed towards his subjugation. +But now, when the productiveness of labour is so great that the +consumption, kept down by exploitation, is no longer able to follow it, the +suppression, the--if not the physical, yet the industrial--annihilation of +the competitor is once more a necessary condition of everyone's prosperity, +and the struggle for existence assumes at once the forms of subjugation and +annihilation. In the domain of industry it now profits little to have +arbitrary authority over any number of human subjects of exploitation; if +the exploiter is not able to drive his co-exploiter from the market, he +must succumb in the struggle for existence. And the exploited now have not +merely to defend themselves from the harsh treatment of their masters: they +must, if they would ward off hunger, fight with tooth and claw for the only +too few places at the food-crib in the 'labour market.' Is it conceivable +that such a terrible alteration in the fundamental conditions of the +struggle for existence can remain without influence upon human ethics? +Cause and effect <i>must</i> correspond--the ethics of the cannibal epoch <i>must</i> +triumphantly return. In consequence of the altered character of the +conflict of annihilation, the former cruel and malicious instincts will +undergo a modification, but the fundamental sentiment, the unqualified +animosity against one's fellow-man, must return. During the thousands of +years when the struggle was directed towards the making use of one's +neighbour, and especially when the exploited had become accustomed to +reverence in the exploiter a higher being, there was possible between +master and servant at least that degree of attachment which exists between +a man and his beast. Neither masters nor servants had any necessary +occasion to hate each other. Mutual consideration, magnanimity, kindness, +gratitude, could in such a condition become--certainly very +sparingly--substitutes for philanthropy. But now, when exploitation and +suppression are at one and the same time the watchwords of the struggle, +the above-mentioned virtues must more and more assume the character of +obstacles to a successful struggle for existence, and must consequently +disappear in order to make room for mercilessness, cunning, cruelty, +malice. And all these disgraceful characteristics must not merely become +universally prevalent: they must also become universally esteemed, and be +raised from the category of the most shameful kinds of baseness to that of +'virtues.' As little as it is possible to conceive of a 'humane' cannibal +or of an exploiter under the influence of real philanthropy, so little is +it possible to think of a magnanimous and--in the former sense--virtuous +exploiter permanently under the colossal burden of over-production; and as +certainly as the cannibal society was compelled to recognise the thirst for +murder as the most praiseworthy of all virtues, so certainly must the +exploiting society, cursed by over-production, learn to reverence the most +cunning deceiver as its ideal of virtue. But it will be objected that, +logically unassailable as this position may be, it is contradicted by +facts. Over-production, the disproportion between the productivity of +labour and the capacity for consumption as conditioned by the existing +social institutions, has practically existed for generations; and yet it +would be a gross exaggeration to assert that the moral sensibilities of +civilised humanity had undergone such a terrible degeneration as is +indicated above. It is certainly true that, in consequence of the +increasingly reckless industrial competitive struggle, many kinds of +valueless articles are produced in larger and larger quantities--nay, that +there is beginning to prevail a certain confusion in public opinion, which +is no longer able clearly to distinguish between honest services and +successful roguery; but it is equally true, on the other hand, that never +before was humanity in all its forms so highly esteemed and so widely +diffused as it is in the present. These undeniable facts, however, do not +show that over-production can ultimately lead to any other than the +above-indicated results--which would be logical nonsense; they only show, +on the one hand, that this dreadful morbid phenomenon in the industrial +domain of mankind has not yet been long enough in existence to have fully +matured its fruit, and that, on the other hand, the moral instinct of +mankind felt a presentiment of the right way out of the economic dilemma +long before that right way had become practicable. It is only a few +generations since the disproportion between productivity and consumption +became unmistakably evident: and what are a few generations in the life of +mankind? The ethics of exploitation needed many centuries in order to +subvert that of cannibalism: why should the relapse into the ethics of +cannibalism proceed so much more rapidly? But the instinctive presentiment +that growing civilisation will be connected, not with social stagnation and +moral retrogression, but with both social and moral progress--this yearning +for liberty, equality, and fraternity ineradicably implanted in the Western +mind, despite all the follies and the horrors to which it for a time gave +rise--it was just this 'drop of foreign blood in the European family of +nations,' this Semitic-Christian leaven, which, when the time of servitude +was past, preserved that Western mind from falling even temporarily into a +servile and barbarous decay. Things will <i>not</i> follow the last indicated +course of evolution--exploitation will <i>not</i> persist alongside of increased +productivity; and that is the reason why the indicated moral consequences +will not ensue. If, however, it be assumed that material progress and +exploitation combined are the future lot of mankind, this cannot logically +be conceived otherwise than as accompanied by a complete moral relapse. Yet +a third form of evolution may be assumed as conceivable: in the antagonism +between the productivity of labour and the current social rights, the +former--the new form of labour--might succumb; in the face of the +impossibility of making full use of the acquired industrial capacity, +mankind might lose this capacity again. In such a case, the concord between +productivity and consumption, labour and right, would have recovered the +old basis, and as a consequence the ethics of mankind might also remain in +the same track. Progress towards genuine philanthropy would necessarily be +suspended, for the struggle for existence would, as before, be based upon +the subjugation of one's fellow-men, but the necessity for the struggle of +annihilation would be avoided. The presentiment of the possibility of such +a development was not foreign to the Western mind; there have not been +wanting, particularly during the last generations, attempts, partly +conscious and partly unconscious, to load men's minds in this direction. +Alarmed and driven nearly to distraction by the strangling embrace of +over-production, whole nations have at times attacked the fundamental +sources of production, sought to choke the springs of the fruitfulness of +labour, and persecuted with violent hatred the progress of civilisation, +whose fruits were for the time so bitter. These attacks upon popular +culture, upon the different kinds of division of labour, upon machinery, +cannot be understood except in connection with the occasional attempts to +end the discord between production and distribution by diminishing the +former. It is impossible not to see that in this way morality also would be +preserved from a degeneracy the real cause of which this sort of reformers +certainly did not understand, but which hovered before their mind's eye as +an indistinct presentiment. And now, having noticed <i>seriatim</i> the three +conceivable forms of evolution--namely, (1) the adaptation of social rights +to the new and higher forms of labour and the corresponding evolution of a +new and higher morality; (2) the permanent antagonism between the form of +labour and social rights, and the corresponding degeneracy of morality; (3) +the adaptation of the form of labour to the hitherto existing social rights +by the sacrifice of the higher productivity, and the corresponding +permanence of the hitherto existing morality--we now ask ourselves whether +in the struggle between these three tendencies any but the first can come +off as conqueror. They all three are conceivable; but is it conceivable +that material or moral decay can assert itself by the side of both moral +and material progress, or will ultimately triumph over these? It is +possible, we will say even probable, that but for our successful +undertaking begun twenty-five years ago, mankind would for the most part +still longer have continued to traverse the path of moral degeneracy on the +one hand, and of antagonism to progress on the other; yet there would never +therefore have been altogether wanting attempts in the direction of social +deliverance, and the ultimate triumph of such attempts could be only a +question of time. No; mankind owes us nothing which it would not have +obtained without us: if we claim to have rendered any service, it is merely +that of having brought about more speedily, and perhaps with less +bloodshed, that which must have come. [Vehement and long-continued applause +and enthusiastic cheers from all sides. The leaders of the opposition one +after another shook the hands of the speaker and assured him of their +support.]</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>End of Third Day's Debate</i>)</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVI</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">Fourth Day</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span> (Dr. Strahl): We have reached the third point in the agenda: +<i>Are not want and misery necessary conditions of existence; and would not +over-population inevitably ensue were misery for a time to disappear from +the earth?</i> I call upon Mr. Robert Murchison.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Robert Murchison</span> (<i>Right</i>): I must first of all, in the name of myself and +of those of my colleagues who entertained doubts of the practicability of +the work of social reform, formally declare that we are now thoroughly +convinced, not only of the practicability, but also of the inevitable +accomplishment of that reform. Moreover, what has already been advanced has +matured our hope that the other side will succeed in removing as completely +the doubts that still cling to our minds. In the meantime I hold it to be +my duty, in the interest of all, to seek explanations by strongly stating +the grounds of such doubts as I am not yet able to free myself from. By far +the most important of these doubts, one which has not yet been touched +upon, is the subject now before us for discussion. It refers not to the +practicability, but to the durability of the work of universal freedom and +prosperity. Economic justice must and will become an accomplished fact: +that we know. But have we a right to infer that it will permanently assert +itself? Economic justice will be followed by wealth for all living. Want +and misery, with their retinue of destructive vices, will disappear from +the surface of the earth. But together with these will disappear those +restraints which have hitherto kept in check the numerical growth of the +human race. The population will increase more and more, until at +last--though that day may be far off--the earth will not be able to support +its inhabitants. I will not trouble you with a detailed repetition and +justification of the well-known principle of my renowned countryman, +Malthus. Much has been urged against that principle, but hitherto nothing +of a convincing character. That the increase in a geometric ratio of the +number of living individuals has no other natural check than that of a +deficiency of food is a natural law to which not merely man but every +living being is inexorably subject. Just as herrings, if they could freely +multiply, would ultimately fill the whole of the ocean, so would man, if +the increase of his numbers were not checked by the lack of food, +inevitably leave no space unoccupied upon the surface of the globe. This +cruel truth is confirmed by the experience of all ages and of all nations; +everywhere we see that it is lack of food, want with its consequences, that +keeps the number of the living within certain limits; and it will remain so +in all future times. Economic justice can very largely extend the area +included in these sad limits, but can never altogether abolish the limits. +Under its <i>régime</i> the food-supply can be increased tenfold, a hundredfold, +but it cannot be increased indefinitely. And when the inevitable limit is +reached, what then? Wealth will then gradually give place to privation and +ultimately to extreme want; a want that is the more dreadful and hopeless +because there will be no escape from its all-embracing curse--not even that +partial escape which exploitation had formerly offered to a few. Will, +then, mankind, after having passed from cannibalism to exploitation and +from that to economic justice, revert to exploitation, perhaps even to +cannibalism? Who can say? It seems evident that economic justice is not a +phase of evolution which our race could enjoy for any great length of time. +It is true that Malthus and others after him have proposed to substitute +for the repressive law of misery certain preventives of over-population. +But these preventives are all based upon artificial and systematic +suppression of the increase of population. If they could be effectively +employed at all, such an employment of them is conceivable only in a poor +population groaning under the worst consequences of misery; I cannot +imagine that men enjoying abundance and leisure, and in possession of the +most perfect freedom, will subject themselves to sexual privations. In my +opinion, this kind of prevention could not under the most favourable +circumstances, come into play in a free society until the pressure of +over-population had become very great, and the former prosperity, and with +that perhaps the sense of individual liberty also, had been materially +diminished. This is not a pleasant prospect, quite apart from the moral +repulsiveness of all such violent interference with the relations of the +sexes--relations which would be specially delicate under the <i>régime</i> of +economic justice. The perspective shows us in the background a picture +which contrasts sadly with the luxuriant promise of the beginning. Do the +men of Freeland think that they are able to defend their creation from +these dangers?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Franzisko Espero</span> (<i>Left</i>): Man differs from other living beings in having +to prepare food for himself, and, in fact, in being able, with increasing +civilisation, to prepare it the more easily the denser the population +becomes. Carey, an eminent American economist, has pointed this out, and +has thereby shown that the otherwise indisputably operative natural law, +according to which a species has an inevitable tendency to outgrow its +means of sustenance, does not apply to man. The fact that want and misery +have, notwithstanding, hitherto always operated as checks upon the growth +of the population is not the result of a natural law but of exploitation. +The earth would have produced enough for all if everyone had but been able +to make free use of his powers. But, as we have seen, exploitation is an +institution of men, not of nature. Get rid of that, and you have driven +away the spectre of hunger for ever.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Stefan Való</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): I think it will be well at once to state what is +the Freeland attitude towards the subject now under discussion. The +honourable member from Brazil (Espero) is correct in connecting the actual +misery of mankind--in the epoch of exploitation--with human institutions +instead of with the operation of natural forces. The masses suffered want +because they were kept in servitude, not because the earth was incapable of +yielding more copious supplies. I will add that this actual misery never +prevented the masses from multiplying up to the point at which the further +increase of population was checked by other factors--nay, that as a rule +misery acted as a stimulus to the increase of the population. Our friend +from Brazil is in error, however, when, relying upon the empty rhetoric of +Carey, he denies that the growth of the population, if it could go on +indefinitely, would necessarily at last lead to a lack of food. The first +of the speakers of to-day has rightly remarked that in such a case the time +must come when there would no longer be space enough on the earth for the +men who were born. But can we conceive the condition possible in which our +race should cover the surface of the earth like a plague of locusts? Nay, a +really unlimited and continuous increase in the number of human beings +would not merely ultimately cover the whole surface of the earth, but would +exhaust the material necessary for the crowded masses of human bodies. The +growth of the population <i>must</i>, therefore, have some limit, and so far are +Malthus and his followers correct. Whether this limit is to be found +exactly in the supply of food is another question--a question which cannot +be satisfactorily answered in the affirmative until it has been positively +shown, or at any rate rendered plausible, that other factors do not come +into play long before a lack of food is felt--factors whose operation is +such that the limit of necessary food-supply is never, except in very rare +cases, even approximately reached, to say nothing of its being crossed.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Arthur French</span> (<i>Right</i>): What I have just heard fills me with astonishment. +The member of the Freeland government admits--what certainly cannot +reasonably be denied--that unlimited growth of population is an +impossibility; and yet he denies that a lack of food is the sought-for +check of over-population. It may be at once admitted that Malthus was in +error in supposing that this natural check had already been operative in +human society. Men have suffered hunger because they were prevented from +supplying themselves with food, not because the earth was incapable of +copiously--or, at least, more copiously--nourishing them all. Exploitation +has therefore proved to be a check upon over-population operating before +the limit of necessary food has been reached; it has been a kind of +hunger-cure which man has applied to himself before nature had condemned +him to suffer hunger. I am less able to understand what the speaker means +when he says the misery artificially produced by exploitation has sometimes +proved to be, not a check, but rather a stimulus to the growth of +population. But I should particularly like to hear more about those other +factors which are alleged to have acted as effective checks, and which the +speaker evidently anticipates will in future regulate the growth of the +population. These factors are to produce the wonderful effect of preventing +the population from ever getting even approximately near to the limit of +the necessary food-supply. They cannot be artificial and arbitrarily +applied means, otherwise a member of the Freeland government, of this +commonwealth based upon absolute freedom, would not speak of them so +confidently. But apart from all this, how can there be any doubt of the +operation of such an elementary factor of restriction as the lack of food +in human society, whilst it is to be seen so conspicuously throughout the +whole of organic nature? Is man alone among living beings exempt from the +operation of this law of nature; or do the Freelanders perhaps know of some +means that would compel, say, the herrings so to control their number as +not to approach the limit of their food-supplies, or, rather, induce them +to preserve such a reasonable rate of increase as would be most conducive +to the prosperous continuance of their species?</p> + +<p>This cutting apostrophe produced a great sensation. The tension of +expectancy was still further increased when several members of the Freeland +government--including Stefan Való, who had already spoken--urgently begged +the President to take part in the debate. The whole assembly seemed +conscious that the discussion--not merely the special one of the day, but +the general discussion of the congress--had reached its decisive point. If +the advocates of economic justice were able successfully to meet the +objections now urged by their opponents, and to show that those objections +were groundless, then the great argumentative battle was won. What would +follow would not concern the question <i>whether</i>, but merely the question +<i>how</i>, the new social order could be well and lastingly established. But if +the Freeland evidence failed upon this point--if the structure of +Opposition argumentation could not in this case be blown down like a house +of cards--then all the previous successes of the advocates of economic +justice would count for nothing. To remove the misery of the present merely +to prepare the way for a more hopeless misery in the future, was not that +which had aroused men's enthusiasm. If there remained only a shadow of such +a danger, the death-knell of economic justice had been sounded.</p> + +<p>Amid breathless silence, Dr. <span class="name">Strahl</span> rose to speak, after he had given up +the chair to his colleague Ney, of the Freeland government.</p> + +<p>Our friend of the Right (he began) ended his appeal to us with the question +whether we in Freeland knew of any means which would compel the herrings to +confine the increase in their numbers within such bounds as would best +conduce to the prosperous continuance of their species. My answer is brief +and to the point: Yes, we know of such a means. [Sensation.] You are +astonished? You need not be, dear friends, for you know of it as well as we +do; and what leads you to think you do not know of it is merely that +peculiar mental shortsightedness which prevents men from perceiving the +application of well-known facts to any subject upon which the prejudices +they have drunk in with their mother's milk prevent them making a right use +of their senses and their judgment. So I assert that you all know of the +means in question as well as we do. But I do not say, as you seem to +assume, that either you or we were in a position to teach this prudence to +the herrings--a task, in fact, which would be scarcely practicable. I +assert, rather, that our common knowledge of the means in question is +derived not from our gift of invention, but from our gift of +observation--in other words, that the herrings have always acted in the way +in which, according to the opinion of the propounder of the question, they +need to be taught how to act by our wisdom; and that, therefore, in order +to attain to a knowledge of the mode of action in question, we need merely +first, open our eyes and see <i>what</i> goes on in nature, and secondly, make +some use of our understanding in order that we may find out the <i>how</i> of +this natural procedure.</p> + +<p>Let us, then, first open our eyes--that is, let us remove the bandages with +which inherited economic prejudices have blinded us. To make this the +easier, my friends, I ask you to fix your mind upon any living thing--the +herring, for example--without thinking of any possible reference which it +may have to the question of population in human society. Do not seek among +the herrings for any explanation of human misery, but regard them simply as +one of the many kinds of boarders at the table of nature. It will then be +impossible for you not to perceive that, though this species of animal is +represented by very many individuals, yet those individuals are not too +numerous to find places at nature's table. Nay, I assert that--always +supposing you keep merely the herring in mind, and are not at the same time +looking at human misery in the background--you would think it absurd to +suppose for a moment that the herrings, if they were more numerous than +they are, would not find food enough in the ocean--that there were just as +many of them as could be fully fed at the table of nature. Or let us take +another species of animal, the relations between which and its food-supply +we are not obliged to arrive at by reflection, but, if necessary, could +easily discover by actual observation--namely, the elephant. Malthus +calculated how long it would take for a pair of elephants to fill the world +with their descendants, and concluded that it would be lack of food which +would ultimately check their indefinite increase. Does not the most +superficial glance show you that nowhere on the earth are there nearly so +many elephants as would find nourishment in abundance? Would you not think +anyone a dotard who would try to convince you of the contrary? Thus you all +know--and I wish first of all to make sure of this--that every kind of +animal, whether rare or common, more or less fruitful, regularly keeps +within such limits as to its numerical increase as are far, infinitely far, +removed from a deficiency in the supply of food. I go further: you not +merely know that this is so--you know also that it must be so, and why it +must be so. Careful observation of natural events teaches you that a +species which regularly increased to the very limit of the food-supply, and +was, therefore, regularly exposed to hunger and privations, must +necessarily degenerate--nay, you cannot fail to see that to many kinds of +animals such an increase to the limit of the food-supply would mean sudden +destruction. For the animals sow not, neither do they reap; they do not +store up provisions for the satisfaction of future needs: and if at any +time they were obliged to consume all the food that nature had produced for +them, they would thereby, as a rule, destroy the source of their future +food-supply, and would not merely suffer hunger, but would all starve. You +know, therefore, that that inexhaustible abundance which, in contrast to +the misery of human society, everywhere prevails in nature, and which, +because of this contrast, the thinkers and poets of all ages have spoken +and sung about, is not due to accident, but to necessity; and it only +remains now to discover that natural process, that causal connection, by +virtue of which this state of things necessarily exists. Upon this point +men were treated to nothing but vague phrases when Malthus lived. The veil +which hid the history of the evolution of the organic world had not then +been lifted; men were therefore obliged to content themselves with +explaining all that took place in the kingdoms of animals and plants as the +work of Providence or of the so-called vital force--which naturally even +then prevented no one from seeing and understanding the fact as well as the +necessity of this formerly inexplicable natural phenomenon. But you, living +in the century of Darwin, cannot for a moment entertain any doubt upon this +last point. You know that it is through the struggle for existence that the +living beings have developed into what they are--that properties which +prove to be useful and essential to the well-being of a species are called +forth, perfected, and fixed by this struggle; and, on the other hand, +properties which prove to be detrimental to the well-being of a species are +suppressed and removed. Now, since the property of never increasing to the +limit of the food-supply is not only advantageous but absolutely necessary +to the well-being--nay, to the existence--of every species, it must have +been called forth, perfected, and fixed as a permanent specific character +by the struggle for existence. You knew all this, my friends, before I said +it; but this knowledge was so consciously present to your mind as to be of +use in the process of thinking only when purely botanical or zoological +questions were under consideration: as soon as in your organ of thought the +strings of social or economic problems were struck, there fell a thick, +opaque veil over this knowledge which was so clear before. The world no +longer appeared to you as it is, but as it looks through the said veil of +acquired prejudices and false notions; and your judgment no longer obeyed +those universal laws which, under the name of 'logic,' in other cases +compelled your respect, but indulged in singular capers which--if the said +veil had not fallen over your senses--could not have failed to make you +laugh. Indeed, so accustomed have you become to mistake the pictures which +this veil shows to you for the actual world that you are not able to free +yourselves from them even after you have roused yourselves to tear the veil +in pieces. The false notions and erroneous conclusions of the Malthusian +theory arose from the fact that its author was not able to discover the +true source of the misery of mankind. He asked himself why did the Irish +peasant and the Egyptian fellah suffer hunger? He was prevented by the +above-mentioned veil from seeing that they suffered hunger because the +produce of their labour was taken away from them--because, in fact, they +were not permitted to labour. But he perceived that the masses everywhere +and always suffered hunger--in some places and at some times less severely +than in other places and at other times: yet, in spite of all their painful +toil and industry, they perpetually suffered hunger, and had done so from +time immemorial. Hence he at last came to the conclusion that this +universal hungering was a consequence of a natural law. He further +concluded that the fellah and the Irish peasant and the peoples of all +parts of the world and of all times had suffered and still suffer hunger +because there are too many of them; and there are too many of them because +it is only hunger that prevents them from becoming still more numerous. +That the world, perplexed by the enigma of misery, should believe <i>this</i> +becomes intelligible when one reflects that misery must have a cause, and +erroneous explanations must obtain credence when right ones are wanting. +But it is remarkable, my friends, that you, who have recognised in +exploitation and servitude the causes of misery, should still believe in +that strange natural law which Malthus invented for the purpose of +constructing out of it the above-mentioned makeshift. This means that, +though you have torn the veil in pieces, your mind and your senses are +still enveloped in its tatters. You have released yourselves sufficiently +to see why the fellah and the Irish peasant suffer hunger to-day, but you +tremble in fear that our posterity will have to endure the horrors of +over-population. You still see the herring threatened with starvation, and +the elephant wandering with an empty stomach over the bare-eaten +forest-lands of Hindostan and Africa; and you pass in thought from the +herring and the elephant to our poor over-populated posterity.</p> + +<p>Tremendous applause burst forth from all parts of the hall when Dr. Strahl +had finished. As he passed from the speaker's tribune to the President's +chair, he was cordially shaken by the hand, not only by his friends who +crowded around him, but also by the leaders of the Opposition, who gladly +and unreservedly acknowledged themselves convinced. The excitement was so +great that it was some time before the debate could be resumed. At last the +President obtained a hearing for one of the previous speakers.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Robert Murchison</span> (<i>Right</i>): I rise for the second time, on behalf of those +who sit near me, first to declare that we are fully and definitively +convinced. You will readily believe that we do not regret our defeat, but +are honestly and heartily glad of it. Who would not be glad to discover +that a dreadful figure which filled him with terror and alarm was nothing +but a scarecrow? And even a sense of shame has been spared us by the +magnanimity of the leader of the opposite party, who laid emphasis upon the +fact that not merely we, but even his adherents outside of Freeland, still +cherished in their hearts the same foolish anxiety, begotten of acquired +and hereditary prejudices and false notions. The phantoms fled before his +clear words, our laughter follows them as they flee, and we now breathe +freely. But, if we might still rely upon the magnanimity of the happy +dwellers in Freeland, the after-effects of the anxiety we have endured +still linger in us. We are like children who have been happily talked out +of our foolish dread of the 'black man,' but who nevertheless do not like +to be left alone in the dark. We would beg you to let your light shine into +a few dark corners out of which we cannot clearly see our way. Do not +despise us if we still secretly believe a little in the black man. We will +not forget that he is merely a bugbear; but it will pacify us to hear from +your own mouths what the true and natural facts of the case are. In the +first place, what are, in your opinion, the means employed by nature, in +the struggle for the existence of species, to keep the growth of numbers +from reaching the limit of the food-supply? Understand, we ask this time +merely for an expression of opinion--of course, you cannot, any more than +anyone else, <i>know</i> certainly how this has been done and is being done in +individual cases; and if your answer should happen to be simply, 'We have +formed no definite opinion upon the subject,' we should not on that account +entertain any doubt whatever as to the self-evident truth that every living +being possesses the characteristic in question, and that the origin of that +characteristic must be sought somewhere in the struggle for existence. In +order to be convinced that the stag has acquired his fleetness, the lion +his strength, the fox his cunning, in the struggle for existence, it is not +necessary for us to know exactly how this has come about; yet it is well to +hear the opinions as to such subjects of men who have evidently thought +much about them. Therefore we ask for your opinions on the question of the +power of adaptation in fecundity.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Lothar Wallace</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): We think that the characteristic in question, +as it is common to all organisms, must have been acquired in a very early +stage of evolution of the organic world; from which it follows that we are +scarcely able to form definite conceptions of the details of the struggle +for existence of those times--as, for example, of the process of evolution +to which the stag owes his swiftness. We can only say in general that +between fecundity and the death-rate an equilibrium must have been +established through the agency of the mode of living. A species threatened +with extinction would increase its fecundity or (by changing its habits) +diminish its death-rate; whilst, on the other hand, a species threatened +with a too rapid increase would diminish its fecundity or (again by +changing its habits) increase its death-rate. Naturally the death-rate in +question is not supposed to depend upon merely sickness and old age, but to +be due in part to external dangers. The great fecundity, for example, of +the heiring would, according to this view, be both cause and effect of its +habits of life, which exposed it in its migrations to enormous destruction. +Whether the herring and other migratory fishes adopted their present habits +because of their exceptional fecundity--the origin of which would then have +to be sought in some other natural cause--or whether those habits were +originally due to some other cause, and provoked their exceptional +fecundity, we cannot tell. But that a relation of action and reaction +exists and must necessarily exist here is evident, since a species whose +death-rate is increased by an increase of danger must die out if this +increase of death-rate is not accompanied by an increased fecundity; and, +in the same way, increased fecundity, when not followed by an increased +death-rate, must in a short time lead to deterioration. At any rate, it can +be shown that, whether deterioration or extermination has been the agent, +species have died out; and it can be inferred thence that some species do +not possess this power of effecting an equilibrium between fecundity and +death-rate. But this conclusion would be too hasty a one. All natural +processes of adaptation take place very gradually; and if a violent change +in external relations suddenly produces a very considerable increase in the +death-rate, it may be that the species cannot adapt its fecundity to the +new circumstances rapidly enough to save itself from destruction. To infer +thence that the species in question did not possess this power of +adaptation at all would be as great a mistake as it would be to argue that, +for example, because the stag, or the lion, or the fox, notwithstanding +their fleetness, strength, or cunning, are not protected from extermination +in the face of overpowering dangers, therefore these beasts do not possess +swiftness, strength, or cunning, or that these properties of theirs are not +the outcome of an adaptation to dangers called forth in the struggle for +existence.</p> + +<p>Since there can be no doubt that the power of adaptation, of which we have +just spoken, was absolutely necessary to the perpetuation of any species in +the struggle for existence in the very beginning of organic life upon our +planet, it must have been acquired in immemorial antiquity, and must +consequently be a part of the ancient heritage of all existing organisms. +There certainly was a time, in the very beginning of life, when this power +of adaptation was not yet acquired; but nature has an infallible means of +making not only useful but necessary characters the common property of +posterity, and this means is the extirpation of species incapable of such a +power of adaptation. The selection in the struggle for existence is +effected by the preservation of those only who are capable of development +and of transmitting their acquired characters to posterity until those +characters become fixed, such individuals as revert to the former condition +being exterminated as they appear.</p> + +<p>The reciprocal adaptation of fecundity to death-rate has thus belonged +unquestionably for a long time to the specific character of all existing +species without exception. Its presence is manifested not merely in the +great universal fact that all species, despite many varying +dangers--leaving out of view sudden external catastrophes and attacks of +special violence--are preserved from either extermination or deterioration, +but also in isolated phenomena which afford a more intimate glimpse into +the physiological processes upon which the adaptation in question depends. +Human knowledge does not yet extend very far in this direction, but +accident and investigation have already given us a few hints. Thus, for +example, we know that, as a rule, high feeding diminishes the fecundity of +animals; stallions, bulls, etc., must not become fat or their procreative +power is lessened, and the same has been observed in a number of female +animals. As to man, it has long been observed that the poor are more +fruitful than the rich, and, as a rule, notwithstanding the much greater +mortality of their children, bring up larger families. The word +'proletarian' is derived from this phenomenon as it was known to the +Romans; in England, Switzerland, and in several other countries the upper +classes--that is, the rich--living in ease and abundance, have relatively +fewer children--nay, to a great extent decrease in numbers. The census +statistics in civilised countries show a general inverse ratio between +national wealth and the growth of the population--a fact which, however, +will be misinterpreted unless one carefully avoids confounding the wealth +of certain classes in a nation with the average level of prosperity, which +alone has to be taken into account here. In Europe, Russia takes the lead +in the rate of growth of population, and is without question in one sense +the poorest country in Europe. France stands lowest, the country which for +more than a century has exhibited the most equable distribution of +prosperity. That the English population increases more rapidly, though the +total wealth of England is at least equal to that of France, is explained +by the unequal distribution of its wealth. Moreover, it is not merely +wealth that influences the growth of population--the ways in which the +wealth is employed appear to have something to do with it. In the United +States of America, for example, we find--apart from immigration--a large +increase with an average high degree of prosperity, offering thus an +apparent exception to our rule. Yet if we bear in mind the national +character of the Yankees, excitable and incapable of calm enjoyment, the +exception is sufficiently explained, and it is brought into harmony with +the above principle. But the study of this subject is still in its infancy, +and we cannot expect to see it clearly in its whole complex; nevertheless +the facts already known show that the connection between the habits and +life of fecundity is universally operative.</p> + +<p><span class="name">John Vuketich</span> (<i>Right</i>): Certain phenomena connected with variations in +population appear, however, to contradict the principles that disastrous +circumstances act as stimuli to fecundity. For example, the fact that the +number of births suddenly increases after a war or an epidemic, in short +when the population has been decimated by any calamity, is to be explained +by the sudden increase in the relative food-supply on account of the +diminution of the number of the people. In this case, the greater facility +of supplying one's wants produces a result which our theory teaches us to +expect from a greater difficulty in doing so.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Jan Velden</span> (<i>Right</i>): I know that this is the customary explanation of the +well-known phenomenon just mentioned, and I must admit that an hour ago I +should have accepted this explanation as plausible. Now, however, I do not +hesitate to pronounce it absurd. Or can we really allow it to be maintained +that, after a war or an epidemic, it is easier to get a living, wealth is +greater, than before these misfortunes? I think that generally the contrary +is the fact; after wars and epidemics men are more miserable than before, +and on that account, and not because it is easier to get a living, their +fecundity increases.</p> + +<p>The conception to which our friend has just appealed is exactly like that +concerning the famishing herrings or elephants; it has been entertained +only because economic prejudice was in want of it, and it prevails only so +far as this prejudice still requires it. If we were not now discussing the +population question, but were speaking merely of war and peace, disease and +health, the previous speaker would certainly regard me with astonishment, +would indeed think me beside myself, if I were to be guilty of the +absurdity of contending that, for example, after the Thirty Years' War the +decimated remains of the German nation enjoyed greater prosperity and found +it easier to live, or that the survivors of the great plagues of antiquity +and the Middle Ages were better off than was the case before the plagues. +His sound judgment would at once reject this singular notion; and if I +showed myself to be obstinate, he could speedily refute me out of the old +chronicles which describe in such vivid colours the fearful misery of those +times. But since it is the population question which is under +consideration, and some of the shreds of that veil of which our honoured +President spoke seem to flutter before his eyes, he heedlessly mistakes the +absurdity in question for a self-evident truth which does not even ask for +closer examination. The misery that follows war and disease now +becomes--and is treated as if it must be so, as if it cannot be imagined +otherwise--a condition in which it is easier to obtain a supply of food, +since--thus will the veil of orthodoxy have it--misery is produced only by +over-population. Since men suffer want because they are too numerous, it +<i>must</i> be better for them when they have been decimated by war and disease. +From this categorical 'must' there is no appeal, either to the sound +judgment of men, or to the best known facts; and should rebellious reason +nevertheless venture to appeal, something is found wherewith to silence her +too loud voice, as for example the reminder that the survivors would find +their wealth increased by what they inherited from the dead, that the +supply of hands--the demand is simply conveniently forgotten in this +connection--has been lessened, and so on.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Edmond Renauld</span> (<i>Centre</i>): I wish to draw attention to another method of +violently bringing the fact that the growth of the population bears an +inverse ratio to the national prosperity into harmony with the Malthusian +theory of population, or at least of weakening the antagonism to this +theory. For example, in order to explain the fact that the French people, +'in spite of their greater average well-being,' increase more slowly than +many poorer nations, the calumny is spread abroad that the blame attaches +to artificial prevention, the so-called 'two-children system.' Even in +France many believe in this myth, because they--ensnared by Malthus's false +population law--are not able to explain the fact differently. Yet this +two-children system is a foolish fable, so far as the nation, and not +merely a relatively small section of the nation, is concerned. It is true +that in France there are more families with few children than there are in +other countries; but this is very easily explained by the fact that the +French, on account of their greater average prosperity, are on the whole +less fruitful than most other peoples. But that the Frenchman intentionally +limits his children to two is an absurdity that can be believed only by the +bitter adherents of a theory which, finding itself contradicted by facts, +distorts and moulds the facts in order to make them harmonise with itself. +It should not be overlooked that such a limitation would mean, where it was +exercised, not a slow increase, but a tolerably rapid extinction. Nothing, +absolutely nothing, exists to prove that French parents exercise an +arbitrary systematic restraint; the irregularity of chance is as +conspicuous here as in any other country, with only the general exception +that large families are rarer and small ones more frequent than elsewhere, +a fact which, as has been said, is due to diminished fecundity and not to +any 'system' whatever.</p> + +<p>At the same time, I do not deny that the wealthy classes, particularly +where the bringing up of children is exceedingly costly, do to some extent +indulge in objectionable preventive practices, which, however, are said to +be not altogether unknown in other countries.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Albert Molnár</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The just mentioned fable of the two-children +system is also prevalent among certain races living in Hungary, +particularly among the Germans of Transylvania and among the inhabitants of +certain Magyar districts on the Theiss. The truth here also is, +that--apart, of course, from a few exceptions--the cause of the small +increase in population must be sought in a lower degree of fecundity, which +fecundity--and I would particularly emphasise this--everywhere in Hungary +bears an inverse proportion to the prosperity of the people. The slaves of +the mountainous north, who live in the deepest poverty, and the Roumanians +of Transylvania, who vegetate in a like miserable condition, are all very +prolific. Notwithstanding centuries of continuous absorption by the +neighbouring German and Magyar elements, these races still multiply faster +than the Germans and the Magyars. The Germans, living in more comfortable +circumstances, and the few Magyars of the northern palatinate, are far less +prolific, yet they multiply with tolerable rapidity. The Germans and +Magyars of the plains, in possession of considerable wealth, are almost +stationary, as are the already mentioned Saxons of Transylvania.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Robert Murchison</span> (<i>Right</i>): In the second place, we would ask whether, +contrary to the former assumption that man in his character of natural +organism was subject to a universal law of nature imposing no check upon +increase in numbers but that of deficiency of food--we would ask whether, +on the contrary, the power acquired by man over other creatures does not +constitute him an exception to that now correctly stated law of nature +which provides that an equilibrium between fecundity and death-rate shall +automatically establish itself before a lack of food is experienced. Our +misgiving is strengthened by the fact that among other animals, as a rule, +it is not so much the change that occurs in the fecundity of the species, +as that which occurs in the relation of the species to external foes, that +restores the equilibrium when the death-rate has been altered by any cause. +Let us assume, for example, the herrings have lost a very dangerous +foe--say that man, for some reason or other, has ceased to catch them--it +is probable that their indefinite increase will not in the first instance +be checked by a change in their fecundity, but an actual large increase in +the number of the herrings will most likely lead to such an increase in the +number and activity of their other natural foes that an equilibrium will +again be brought about by that means.</p> + +<p>Man, as lord of the creation, especially civilised man, has generally no +other foe but himself to fear. Here, then, when the death-rate happens to +be diminished by the disappearance of evils which he had brought upon +himself, the equilibrium could be restored <i>only</i> by a diminution of +fecundity; here it would be as if nature was prevented from employing that +other expedient which, in the world of lower animals, she, as a rule, +resorts to at once, the increase of the death-rate by new dangers. I admit +that several facts mentioned by the last speaker belonging to the Freeland +government show that nature would find this, her only remaining +expedient--the spontaneous diminution of fecundity--quite sufficient. It +cannot be denied that the number of births decreases with increasing +prosperity; but is it certain that this will take place to a sufficient +extent permanently and radically to avert any danger whatever of +over-population? For, apart from very rare exceptions which tire too +insignificant to make a rule in such an important matter, the births have +everywhere a little exceeded the deaths, though the latter have hitherto +been everywhere unnaturally increased by misery, crime, and unwholesome +habits of life; and if in future it remains the rule that the births +preponderate, let us say to only a very small extent, then eventually, +though not perhaps for many thousands of years, over-population must occur, +for the lack of any external check.</p> + +<p>In order permanently to prevent this, there must be established sooner or +later an absolute equilibrium between births and deaths. Can we really +depend upon nature spontaneously to guarantee us this? Is it absolutely +certain that nature will, as it were, say to man: 'My child, you have by +the exercise of your reason emancipated yourself from my control in many +points. You have made ineffectual and inapplicable all but one of those +means by which I protected your animal kindred from excessive increase, and +the one means you have left untouched is just that which I have been +accustomed to employ only in extreme cases. Do not look to me alone to +furnish you with effectual protection against that evil, but make use of +your reason for that purpose--<i>for that also is my gift</i>.'</p> + +<p>The supposition that, in this matter, nature really indicates that man is +to exercise some kind of self-help gains weight when one recalls the course +of human evolution. Our Freeland friends have very appositely and +strikingly shown us how the men of the two former epochs of civilisation +treated each other, first as beasts for slaughter and then as beasts of +burden. And what was it but want that drove them to both of these courses? +Is not the conviction forced upon us that our ancestors were compelled at +first to eat each other, and, when they refrained from that, to decimate +each other, simply because they had become too strong to be saved from +over-population by the interposition of nature? In the first epoch of +civilisation man protected himself against a scarcity of food by slaying +and, driven by hunger, straightway devouring, his competitor at nature's +table. What happened in the second epoch of civilisation was essentially +the same: men were consumed slowly, by piecemeal, and a check put upon +their increase by killing them and their offspring slowly through the pains +and miseries of servitude. In short, since man has learnt to use his reason +he has ceased to be a purely natural creature, his own will has become +partly responsible for his fate; and it seems to me that in the population +question of the future he will not be left to the operation of nature +alone, but must learn how to help himself.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Lothar Montfort</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): That man, by the exercise of his reason, has +made himself king of nature, and has no special need to fear any foe but +himself, is certainly true; and it is just as true that he can and ought to +use this reason of his in all the relations of the struggle for existence. +Moreover, I do not doubt that if it were really true, as the previous +speaker apprehended, that man has become too strong for nature to save him +from over-population in the same way in which she saved his lower +fellow-creatures, then man would be perfectly able to solve this problem by +a right use of his own reason. Should he actually be threatened by +over-population after he had left off persecuting his fellow men, recourse +could and would be had to the voluntary restriction of the number of +children.</p> + +<p>In the first place, it is not too much to expect that physiology would be +able to supply us with means which, while they were effectual, would not be +injurious to health or obnoxious to the aesthetic sentiment, and would +involve the exercise of no ascetic continence; though all the means +hitherto offered from different quarters, and here and there actually +employed, fail to meet at least one or more of these conditions. In the +second place, it is certain that public opinion would be in favour of +prevention as soon as prevention was really demanded in the public +interest. That the declamations of the apostles of prevention, powerful as +they have been, have not succeeded in winning over the sympathies of the +people is due to the fact that those apostles have been demanding what was +altogether superfluous. There has hitherto been, and there is now, no +over-population; the working classes would not be in the least benefited by +refraining from the begetting of children; hence, prevention would in truth +have been nothing but a kind of offering up of children to the Moloch of +exploitational prejudice. The popular instinct has not allowed itself to be +deceived, and moral views are determined by the moral instincts, not by +theories. On the other hand, if there were a real threat of +over-population, in whatever form, the restriction of the number of births +would then be a matter of general interest, and the public views upon +prevention would necessarily change. Should such a change occur, it would +be quite within the power of society to regulate the growth of population +according to the needs of the time. It may safely be assumed that no +interference on the part of the authorities will be called for; the +exercise of compulsion by the authorities is absolutely foreign to the free +society, and cannot be taken into consideration at all. The modern opinion +concerning the population question, the opinion that is gradually acquiring +the force of a moral principle--viz. that it is reprehensible to beget a +large number of children--must prove itself to be sufficiently powerful for +the purpose, it being taken for granted, of course, that means of +prevention were available which were absolutely trustworthy, and did not +sin against the aesthetic sentiment. But if this did not suffice, the +incentive to restriction would be furnished by the increased cost of +bringing up children, or by some other circumstance.</p> + +<p>But it is really superfluous to go into these considerations, for in this +matter nature has no need whatever of the conscious assistance of man. Man +is, in this respect, no exception; what he expects from nature has been +given in the same degree to other creatures, and all that is essential has +already been furnished to him.</p> + +<p>As to the first point, I need merely remark that, though man is the king of +animals, he is in no way different from all the others as to the point +under consideration. There are animals which, when the danger from one foe +diminishes, may be exposed to increased danger from other foes, and in the +case of such, therefore, as the previous speaker quite correctly said, the +restoration of the disturbed equilibrium does not necessarily presuppose a +diminution of fecundity. But there are other animals which, in this matter, +are exactly in the same position as man. They have no foes at all whom they +need fear, and a change of death-rate among them can therefore be +compensated for only by a corresponding change in the power of propagation. +The great beasts of prey of the desert and the sea, as well as many other +animals, belong to this category. What foe prevents lions and tigers, +sperm-whales, and sharks from multiplying until they reach the limit of +their food supply? Does man prevent them? If anyone is really in doubt as +to this, I would ask who prevented them in those unnumbered thousands of +years in which man was not able to vie with them, or did not yet exist? But +they have never--as species--suffered from lack of food; consequently +nature must have furnished to them exactly what <i>we</i> expect from her.</p> + +<p>In fact, as I have said, she has already furnished us with it. For it is +not correct that, in the earlier epochs of civilisation, man assisted +nature in maintaining the requisite equilibrium between the death-rate and +the fecundity of his species. It is true that men assisted in increasing +their own death-rate by slaying each other, and by torturing each other to +death; but they did not in this way restore an equilibrium that had been +disturbed by too great fecundity or too low a mortality; on the contrary, +they disturbed an equilibrium already established by nature, and compelled +nature to make good by increased fecundity the losses occasioned by the +brutal interference of man. The previous speaker is in error when he +ascribes the rise of anthropophagy in the first competitive struggles in +human society to hunger, to the limitation of the food supply, by which the +savages were driven to kill, and eventually to eat, their fellow savages. +Whether the opponent was killed or not made no material difference in the +relations between these two-legged beasts of prey and their food supply. +Nature herself took care that they never increased to the actual limit of +their food supply; if they had been ten times more numerous they would have +found the food in their woods to be neither more nor less abundant. They +opposed and murdered each other out of ill-will and hatred, impelled not by +actual want but by the claim which each one made to everything (without +knowing how to be mutually helpful in acquiring what all longed for, as is +the case under the <i>régime</i> of economic justice). Whether there were many +or few of them is a matter of indifference. Put two tribes of ten men each +upon a given piece of land, and they will persecute each other as fiercely +as if each tribe consisted of thousands. It is true that the popular +imagination generally associates cannibalism with a lack of food or of +flesh; but this mistake is possible only because the doctrine of +exploitation fills the minds of its adherents with the hallucination of +over-population. Certainly cannibals do not possess abundance in the sense +in which civilised men do, but this is because they are savages who have +not, or have scarcely, risen out of the first stage of human development. +To suppose that they were driven into cannibalism by over-population and +the lack of food, is to exhibit a singular carelessness in reasoning. For +it is never the hungry who indulge in human flesh, but those who have +plenty, the rich; human flesh is not an article of food to the cannibal, +but a dainty morsel, and this horrible taste is always a secondary +phenomenon; the cannibal acquires a taste for a practice which originally +sprang from nothing but his hatred of his enemy.</p> + +<p>Again, neither is the action of the exploiter induced by a diminution of +the food supply, nor would such a diminution prevent future +over-population. Men resort to mutual oppression, not because food is +scarcer, but because it is more abundant, and more easily obtainable than +before; and the misery which is thereby occasioned to the oppressed does +not diminish but increases their number. It is true that misery at the same +time decimates those unfortunates whose fecundity it continually increases; +but experience shows that the latter process exceeds the former, otherwise +the population could not increase the more rapidly the more proletarian the +condition of the people became, and become the more stationary the higher +the relative prosperity of the people rose.</p> + +<p>That, apart from insignificant exceptions, an actually stationary condition +has never been known is easily explained from the fact that actual +prosperity, real social well-being, has never yet been attained. When once +this becomes an accomplished fact the perfect equilibrium will not be long +in establishing itself. The same applies to every part of nature in virtue +of a great law that dominates all living creatures; and there is nothing to +justify the assumption that man alone among all his fellow-creatures is +<i>not</i> under the domination of that law.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>End of Fourth Day's Debate</i>)</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVII</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">Fifth Day</span></p> + +<p>The fourth point in the Agenda was: <i>Is it possible to introduce the +institutions of economic justice everywhere without prejudice to inherited +rights and vested interests; and, if possible, what are the proper means of +doing this?</i></p> + +<p><span class="name">Ernst Wolmut</span> (<i>belonging to no party</i>) opened the debate: I do not think it +necessary to lay stress upon the fact that the discussion of the subject +now before us cannot and ought not materially to influence our convictions. +Whether it be everywhere possible or not to protect vested interests will +hinder no one from adopting the principle of economic justice, and that at +once and with all possible energy. We are not likely to be prevented from +according a full share of justice to the immense majority of our working +fellow-men by a fear lest the exploiting classes should suffer, any more +than the promoters of the railroads were stayed in their work by the +knowledge that carriers or the innkeepers on the old highways would suffer. +It is, however, both necessary and useful to state the case clearly, and as +speedily as possible to show to those who are threatened with inevitable +loss what will be the extent of the sacrifice they will have to make. For I +take it to be a matter of course that such a sacrifice is inevitable. No +one suffered anything through the establishment of the Freeland +commonwealth; but this was because there were here no inherited rights or +vested interests to be interfered with. There were no landlords, no +capitalists, no employers to be reckoned with. It is different with us in +the Old World. What is to be done with our wealthy classes, and how shall +we settle all the questions concerning the land, the capital, and the +labour over which the wealthy now have complete control? Will it not be +humane, and therefore also prudent, to make some compensation to those who +will be deprived of their possessions? Will not the new order work better +if this small sacrifice is made, and embittered foes are thereby converted +into grateful friends?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Alonso Campeador</span> (<i>Extreme Left</i>): I would earnestly warn you against such +pusillanimous sentimentality, which would not win over the foes of the new +order, but would only supply them with the means of attacking it, or shall +we say allow them to retain those means. If we would exercise justice +towards them, we should give to them, as to all other men, an opportunity +of making a profitable use of their powers. They cannot or will not labour. +They are accustomed to take their ease while others labour for them. Does +this constitute a just claim to exceptional treatment? But it will be +objected that they ask for only what belongs to them, nay, only a part of +what belongs to them. Very well. But what right have they to this so-called +property? Have they cultivated the ground to which they lay claim? Is the +capital which they use the fruit of <i>their</i> labour? Does the human +labour-force which carries on their undertakings belong to them? No; no one +has a natural right to more than the produce of his own labour; and since +in the new order of things this principle deprives no one of anything, but, +on the contrary, leads to the greatest possible degree of productiveness, +no one has any ground for complaint--that is to say, no one who is content +with what is his own and does not covet what rightly belongs to some one +else. To acknowledge the claims of those who covet what is not theirs would +be like acknowledging the claims of the robber or thief to the property he +has stolen.</p> + +<p>It will be said that owners possess what they have <i>bonâ fide</i>; their claim +is based upon laws hitherto universally respected. Right. Therefore we do +not <i>punish</i> these <i>bonâ fide</i> possessors; we simply take from them what +they can no longer possess <i>bonâ fide</i>. But the owners have paid the full +value for what they must now give up: why should they lose their +purchase-money, seeing that the purchase was authorised by the law then in +force? Is the new law to have a retrospective force? These are among the +questions we hear. But no one need be staggered by these questions unless +he pleases. For the purchase-money rightly belonged to the possessor of it +as little as the thing purchased; he who buys stolen goods with stolen +money has no claim for compensation. If he acts in good faith he is not +obnoxious to punishment--but entitled to compensation?</p> + +<p>Yet--and this is the last triumph of the faint-hearted--the purchase-money, +that is, the capital sunk in land or in any business, can be legally the +property of the possessor even in our sense of the term. The possessor may +have produced it by his own labour and saved it: is he not in that case +entitled to compensation? Yes, certainly; in this case, to refuse +compensation for such capital would be robbery; but is not the +establishment of economic justice, which gives a right to the produce of +any kind of future labour, a fully adequate compensation for that capital +which has really been produced by the possessor's own labour? Consider how +poorly a man's own labour was remunerated under the exploiting system of +industry, what capital could be saved out of what was really one's own +labour, and you will not then say that a real worker who possessed any such +savings will not find a sufficient compensation in the ten-fold or +hundred-fold increase of the produce of his labour. But perhaps a +difficulty is found in the possibility that this small capitalist might no +longer be capable of work? Granted; and provision is made for this in the +new order of things. The honest worker receives his maintenance allowance +when his strength has left him; even he will have no occasion to sigh for +what he had saved in the exploiting times of the past. To these maintenance +allowances I refer also those other exploiters whose habits have robbed +them of both desire and ability to work. The free community of the future +will be magnanimous enough not to let them suffer want; even they have, as +our fellow-men, this claim upon the new order; but any right beyond this I +deny.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Stanislaus Llowski</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): We in Freeland take a different +standpoint. The exploiting world could, without being false to itself, +forcibly override acquired rights in order to carry out what might be the +order of the day; it could--and has almost always done so--carry into force +any new law based upon the sword, without troubling itself about the claims +of the vanquished; it could do all this because force and oppression were +its proper foundation. Its motto was, 'Mine is what I can take and keep'; +therefore he who took what another no longer had the power to keep acted in +perfect accordance with his right, whether he could base his claim upon the +fortune of war or upon a parliamentary majority. If we recognised this +ancient right, matters would be very simple: we have become the stronger +and can take what we please. The hypocrisy of the modern so-called +international law, which has a horror of brutal confiscations, need not +stand in our way any more than it has ever stood in the way of anyone who +had power. Conquerors no longer deprived the conquered of their land, they +no longer plundered or made men their slaves; but in truth, it was only in +appearance that these practices had ceased: it was only the form, not the +essence of the thing, that had changed. The victor retained his right of +legislating for the vanquished; and the earnings of the vanquished were +more effectually than ever transferred to the pockets of the victors in the +forms of all kinds of taxes, of restrictions, and rights of sovereignty. +'Property' was 'sacred,' not even that of the subjugated was touched; +merely the fruits of property were taken by the strong. This we, too, could +do. Take the property from its owners? How brutal; what a mockery of the +sacred rights of property! But to raise the taxes until they swallowed up +the whole of the property--who in the exploiting world would be able to say +<i>that</i> was contrary to justice? Yet we declare it to be so, for we +recognise no right to treat the minority of possessors differently from the +minority of workers; and as in our eyes property is sacred, we must respect +it when it belongs to the wealthy classes as much as when it belongs to +ourselves.</p> + +<p>But--objects the member on the Left--the victorious majority make no claim +of right of private property in the land and in the productive capital. +Certainly; but they do not possess anything which they will have to +renounce in the future, while the minority does; hence to dispossess the +possessors in favour of those who did not possess, in order that equality +of right might prevail in future, would not be to treat both alike.</p> + +<p>But--and this is the weightiest argument in the eyes of our friend--the +minority is said to have at present no valid title to their property; they +owe it to exploitation, and we do not recognise this as a just title; +exploitation is robbery, and he who has stolen, though he did it in good +faith, possesses no claim to compensation. This reasoning is also false. +Exploitation is robbery only in an economic, not in a juridical, sense; it +was not merely <i>considered</i> to be permissible--it <i>was</i> so. The exploiter +did not act illegally though in good faith; rather he acted legally when in +his day he exploited; and acted legally not merely on the formal ground +that the law, as it then existed, allowed him thus to act, but because he +could not act otherwise. This appropriation of other men's earnings, which, +in an economic sense, we are compelled, and rightly so, to call robbery, +was--let us not forget that--the necessary condition of any really +productive highly organised labour whatever, so long as the workers were +not able to freely organise and discipline themselves. Economic robbery, +the relation of master held by the few towards the many, constituted an +effective economic service that had the strongest right to claim the profit +of other men's labour, which was in fact rendered profitable by it. +Subsequently to confiscate the thus acquired compensation for the services +rendered, because such services had become superfluous or indeed +detrimental, would in truth be robbery, not merely in an economic sense, +but in a legal sense--an offence against the principles of economic +justice.</p> + +<p>Then are those who have been exploiters to retain undiminished the fruit of +their 'economic robbery'? Yes; but two things must be noted. In all ages it +has been held to be the right of the community to dispossess owners of +certain kinds of property without committing any offence against the +sacredness of property, provided full compensation was offered to the +owners. In the abolition of slavery, of serfdom, of certain burdens on the +land, and the like, no one has ever found anything that was reprehensible, +provided the owner of the slaves or of the land was compensated to the full +value of the property taken from him. In the second place, it is to be +noted that the community is bound to guarantee to the owners their +property, but not the profit which has hitherto been obtained from it.</p> + +<p>If you apply these two principles to the acquired rights which the Free +Society found existing, you will find that, while the land is taken from +the landowners, the value of it must be paid; the Society has nothing to do +with movable capital, and the same holds good of the profit which the +employers have hitherto drawn from their relation to the workers. The +Society can also claim the right of obtaining possession of the movable +productive property, so far as it may appear to be to the public interest +to do this. Such an interest does not here come in question, for, apart +from the fact that movable means of production can be created in any +quantity that is required, there is no reason to fear that the owners will +hold back theirs when they find what is both the only and the absolutely +best employment for it in dealing with the associated workers. But, in the +future, capitalists will not receive interest for their property, or, if +they do, it will be only temporarily. There is as little occasion as there +is right to forbid the receiving of interest; but, as every borrower will +be able to get capital without interest, the paying of interest will cease +automatically. Just as little can or need the Free Society forbid the +former employers to hire workers to labour for them for stipulated wages; +such workers will no longer be found.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Ali Ben Safi</span> (<i>Right</i>): Where is the Free Commonwealth to obtain the means +to purchase all the land, and at the same time to furnish the workers with +business capital? It is possible that some rich countries may be able to +accomplish this by straining all their resources; but how could we in +Persia find the £125,000,000, at which the fixed property was estimated at +the last assessment, to say nothing of the hitherto totally lacking +business capital?</p> + +<p><span class="name">François Renaud</span> (<i>Right</i>): On the contrary, I fear that the--from a legal +standpoint certainly unassailable--justice to the former owners will +occasion the greatest difficulties to just the richest countries. Their +greater means involve the heavier claims upon those means; for in +proportion as those countries are really richer will the value of the land +be higher, and the workers, because more skilful in carrying on highly +developed capitalistic methods of industry, will at once require larger +amounts of business capital, which the community will have to furnish. So +far, then, the greater strength and the heavier burden balance each other. +But to this it must be added that in the more advanced countries the amount +of mobile capital requiring compensation is far greater than that of poor +countries. As interest is to cease, all these numberless invested milliards +then bearing interest will be withdrawn: whence will the means be suddenly +obtained promptly to meet all these calls?</p> + +<p><span class="name">Clark</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): The last two speakers entertain unnecessary fears. The +sums required to get possession of the land, to pay back the circulating +capital, and to furnish the workers with more abundant means for carrying +on business, are certainly enormous--are at any rate larger than the +material advance of any country whatever can even approximately supply +quickly enough to place the country in a position to bear such burdens in +their full extent. Certainly, if the transition to economic justice were +followed immediately by its full results--if, for example, such transition +lifted any country at once to that degree of wealth which we enjoy in +Freeland--comparatively little difficulty would be experienced in +responding to the heavy demands that would be made; but this condition +would not be reached for years; the tasks you must undertake would be more +than you could perform, if you had at once to discharge the whole of your +responsibilities. But you have no reason whatever to fear this. Simply +because interest will cease will neither landowner nor capitalist have any +motive for insisting upon immediate payment, but will be quite content to +accept payment in such instalments as shall suit the convenience of the +community or the private debtors--should there be any such--and which could +be easily accommodated to the interests of those who were entitled to +receive the payment. When it is considered that the latter would be +compelled either to let their capital lie idle or to consume it, it will +appear evident that, if only the slightest advantage were offered them, +they would prefer to receive their property in instalments, so far as they +did not actually want to use it themselves.</p> + +<p>You have quite as little reason to fear the demand which will be made for +supplying the workers with the means of carrying on business. If your +exploited masses already possessed the ability to make use of all those +highly developed capitalistic implements of industry which we employ in +Freeland, then certainly the Old World would have to renounce any attempt +even approximately to meet at once the enormous demand for capital which +would be made upon it. In such a case the milliard and a-half of souls who +would pass over to the new order of things would require two billions of +pounds; but the two milliards of men will not require these two billions, +because they would not know what to do with the enormous produce of the +labour called forth by such means of production. To dispose of so much +produce it would be necessary for every family in the five divisions of the +globe to possess the art of consuming a minimum of from £600 to £700 per +year, as our Freeland families do; and, believe us, dear friends, your +masses, just escaped from the servitude of many thousands of years, at +present entirely lack this art. You will not produce more than can be +consumed. You have not been able to do so yet, and will certainly not be +able to do it when the consumption of the workers is able to supply the +only reason for production. The extent and the intensity of production have +been and remain the determinating factors in the extent and kind of the +means of production. You will at any time be able to create what you are +able to make use of; and if here and there the demand grow somewhat more +rapidly than can be conveniently met out of the surplus acquired by the +continually increasing productiveness of labour, you must for a time be +content to suffer inconvenience--that is, you must temporarily forego the +gratification of some of your newly acquired wants in order the more +rapidly to develop your labour in the future.</p> + +<p>For the rest, I can only repeat that the Freeland commonwealth will always +be prepared, in its own interests, to place its means at your disposal, so +far as they will go. We calculate that your wealth--that is, looking at the +subject from the standpoint of <i>our</i> material interests, your ability to +purchase those commodities which we have special natural facilities for +producing, and your power of producing those commodities which we can take +in exchange for ours with the greatest advantage to you--will, in the +course of the next two or three years, at least double, and probably treble +and quadruple. From this we promise ourselves a yearly increase of about a +milliard pounds sterling in our Freeland income. We have determined to +apply this increase for a time, not to the extension of our consumption and +of our own investments, but to place it at your disposal, as we have +already done the unemployed surplus of our insurance reserve fund, and to +continue to do this as long as it may seem necessary. [Tremendous +applause.]</p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span>: I believe I am expressing the wish of the assembly when I +ask William Stuart, the special representative of the American Congress, +who arrived at Eden Vale this morning, to state to us the proposals laid +before the congress of his country by the committee entrusted with the +drawing up of the scheme for adopting the <i>régime</i> of economic equality of +rights.</p> + +<p><span class="name">William Stuart</span>: In the name of the representatives of the American people, +I ask the kind attention of this distinguished assembly, and particularly +of the representatives of Freeland who are present, to a series of +legislative enactments which it is proposed to make for the purpose of +carrying us--with the energy by which we are characterised, and, at the +same time, without injury to existing interests--out of the economic +conditions that have hitherto existed into those of economic equality of +rights. Our government found themselves obliged to take this step because +our nation is the first outside of Freeland--at least, so far as we are +aware--which has passed the stage of discussion, and is about immediately +to take action and carry out the work. The institutions of economic justice +are no longer novelties; we can follow a well-proved precedent, the example +of Freeland, and we intend to follow that example, with a few unessential +modifications rendered necessary by the special characteristics of the +American country and people. On the other hand, we lack experience; and as, +notwithstanding our well-known 'go-ahead' habits, we would rather have +advice before than after undertaking so important a task, I am sent to ask +your opinion and report it to the American Congress before the +recommendations of the committee have become law.</p> + +<p>It is proposed to declare all the land in the United States to be +ownerless, but to pay all the present owners the full assessed value. In +order to meet the cases of those who may think they have not received a +sufficient compensation, special commissions of duly qualified persons will +be appointed for the hearing of all appeals, and the public opinion of the +States is prepared to support these commissions in treating all claims with +the utmost consideration. It is proposed to deal with buildings in the same +way, with the proviso that dwelling-houses occupied by the owners may be +excepted at the owners' wish. The purchase-money shall be paid forthwith or +by instalments, according to the wish of the seller, with the proviso that +for every year over which the payment of the instalment shall be extended a +premium of one fifth per cent. shall be given, to be paid to the seller in +the form of an additional instalment after the whole of the original +purchase-money has been paid. The payment is not to extend over more than +fifty years. Suppose a property be valued at ten thousand dollars; then the +owner, if he wishes to have the whole sum at once, receives his ten +thousand, with which he can do what he pleases; but if he prefers, for +example, to receive it in ten yearly instalments of 1,000 dollars, he has a +right to ten premiums of 20 dollars each, which will be paid to him in a +lump sum of 200 dollars as an eleventh instalment. If he wishes the payment +to be in fifty instalments of 200 dollars, then his premiums will amount to +fifty times twenty dollars--that is, to 1,000 dollars--which will be paid +in five further instalments of 200 dollars. The national debt is to be paid +off in the same way.</p> + +<p>The existing debit and credit relations of private individuals remain +intact, except that the debtor shall have the right of immediate repayment +of the borrowed capital, whatever may have been the terms originally agreed +upon. As the commonwealth will be prepared to furnish capital for any kind +of production whatever, the private debtor will be in a position to +exercise the right above-mentioned; but, according to the proposal of the +committee, the commonwealth shall, for the present, demand of its debtors +the same premium which it guarantees to its creditors. The object of this +regulation is obvious: it is to prevent the private creditors--in case no +advantage accrues to them--from withdrawing their capital from business and +locking it up. If those who needed capital had their needs at first +supplied without cost, simply upon undertaking gradually to repay the +borrowed capital, they would not be disposed to make any compensatory +arrangement with their former creditors, whilst, should the committee's +proposal be adopted, they would be willing to pay to those creditors the +same premiums as they would have to pay to the commonwealth.</p> + +<p>The opinions of the committee were at first divided as to the amount of the +premiums to be guaranteed and demanded. A minority was in favour of fixing +a maximum of one in a thousand for each year of delayed payment: they +thought that would be sufficient to induce most of the capitalists to place +in the hands of the commonwealth or of private producers the property which +otherwise they must at once consume or allow to lie idle. Eventually, +however, the minority came over to the view of the majority, who preferred +to fix the maximum higher than was necessary, rather than by untimely +parsimony expose the commonwealth to the danger of seeing the capital +withdrawn which could be so profitably used in the equipment of production. +The voting was influenced by the consideration that we, as the first, +outside of Freeland, among whom capital would receive no interest, must be +prepared, if only temporarily, to stand against the disturbing influences +of foreign capital. That such disturbing influences have not been felt in +Freeland, though here no premium of any kind has ever been in force, whilst +interest has been paid everywhere else in the world, was an example not +applicable to our case, as we have not to decide--as you in Freeland +have--what to do with capital which we do <i>not</i> need, and which, after all +conceivable demands on capital have been met, still remains disposable; +but, on the other hand, we have to attract and to retain capital of which +we have urgent need. But that the proposed one-fifth per cent. will suffice +for this purpose we are able with certainty to infer from the double +circumstance that, in the first place, the anticipated adoption of this +proposal, which naturally became known at once to our world of capitalists, +has produced a decided tendency homewards of our capital invested abroad. +It is evident, therefore, that capitalists scarcely expect to get elsewhere +more for large amounts of capital than we intend to offer. In the second +place, the capitalistic transactions which have recently been concluded or +are in contemplation show that our home capital is already changing hands +at a rate of interest corresponding to our proposed premium. Anyone in the +United States who to-day seeks for a loan gets readily what he wants at +one-fifth per cent., particularly if he wishes to borrow for a long period. +Such seekers of capital among us at present are, of course, in most cases +companies already formed or in process of formation.</p> + +<p>Thanks to the fact that the election for the Constituent Congress has been +the means of universally diffusing the intelligence that it was intended to +act upon the principle of respecting most scrupulously all acquired rights, +productive activity during the period of transition has suffered no +disturbance, but has rather received a fresh impetus. The companies in +process of formation compel the existing undertakers to make a considerable +rise in wages in order to retain the labour requisite for the provisional +carrying on of their concerns; and as this rise in wages has suddenly +increased the demand for all kinds of production it has become still more +the interest of the undertakers to guard against any interruption in their +production. These two tendencies mutually strengthen each other to such a +degree that at the present time the minimum wages exceed three dollars a +day, and a feverish spirit of enterprise has taken possession of the whole +business world. The machine industry, in particular, exhibits an activity +that makes all former notions upon the subject appear ridiculous. The dread +of over-production has become a myth, and since the undertakers can reckon +upon finding very soon in the associations willing purchasers of +well-organised concerns, they do not refrain from making the fullest +possible use of the last moments left of their private activity. Even the +landlords find their advantage in this, for the value of land has naturally +risen very materially in consequence of the rapidly grown demand for all +kinds of the produce of land. In short, everything justifies us in +anticipating that the transition to the new order of things with us will +take place not only easily and smoothly, but also in a way most gratifying +to <i>all</i> classes of our people.</p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span> asked the assembly whether they would continue the debate on +the fourth point on the Agenda, by at once discussing the message from the +American Congress; or whether they would first receive the report which the +Freeland commissioner in Russia had sent by a messenger who had just +arrived in Eden Vale. As the congress decided to hear the report,</p> + +<p><span class="name">Demeter Novikof</span> (messenger of the Freeland commissioner for Russia) said: +When we, the commissioners appointed by the Freeland central government at +the wish of the Russian people, arrived in Moscow, we found quiet--at least +externally--so far restored that the parties which had been attacking each +other with reckless fury had agreed to a provisional truce at the news of +our arrival. Not merely the cannons and rifles, but even the guillotine and +the gallows were at rest. Radoslajev, our plenipotentiary commissioner, +called the chiefs of the parties together, induced them to lay down their +weapons, to give up their prisoners, to dissolve the seven different +parliaments, each one of which had been assuming the authority of exclusive +representative of the Russian people; and then, after he had furnished +himself for the interim with a council of reliable men belonging to the +different parties, he made arrangements for the election of a constituent +assembly with all possible speed.</p> + +<p>As production and trade were nearly at a standstill, the misery was +boundless. To be an employer was looked upon by several of the extreme +parties as a crime worthy of death; hence no one dared to give workers +anything to do. In most parts of the empire the ignorant masses, who had +been held down in slavish obedience, were altogether incapable of +organising themselves; and as the most extreme of the Nihilists had begun +to guillotine the organisers of the free associations as 'masters in +disguise,' it seemed almost as if mutual slaughter could henceforth be the +only occupation that would be pursued in Russia.</p> + +<p>The proclamation, in which Radoslajev called upon the people to elect an +assembly, and in which he insisted upon the security of the person and of +property as <i>conditio sine quâ non</i> of our continued assistance, calmed the +minds of the people, but it did not suffice to produce a speedy growth of +productive activity. When, therefore, the constituent assembly met, +Radoslajev proposed a mixed system as transition stage into the <i>régime</i> of +economic justice. In this mixed system a kind of transitory Communism was +to be combined with the germs of the Free Society and with certain remnants +of the old industrial system.</p> + +<p>In the first place, however, order had to be restored in the existing legal +relationships. During the reign of terror previous to our arrival, all +fixed possessions were declared to be the property of the nation, without +giving any compensation to the former owners. All existing debts were +simply cancelled; and the first business now was to make good as far as +practicable the injury done by these acts of violence. But at first the new +national assembly showed itself to be intractable upon these points. Hatred +of the old order was so universal and so strong that even those who had +been dispossessed did not venture to endorse our views. The private +property of the epoch of exploitation was considered to be merely robbery +and theft, the claims for compensation were so obnoxious to many that a +deputation of former landowners and manufacturers, headed by two who had +borne the title of grand-duke, conjured Radoslajev to desist from his +purpose, lest the scarcely sleeping nihilistic fanaticism should be awaked +anew. The latter, nevertheless, persisted in his demands, after he had +consulted us Freelanders who had been appointed to assist him. He announced +to the national assembly that we were far from wishing to force our views +upon the Russian nation, but that, on the other hand, Russia could not +require us to take part in a work based--in our eyes--upon robbery; and +this threat, backed by our withdrawal, finally had its effect. The national +assembly made another attempt to evade the task of passing a measure which +it disliked: it offered Radoslajev the dictatorship during the period of +transition. After he had refused this offer, the assembly gave in and +reluctantly proceeded with the consideration of the compensation law. +Radoslajev drafted a bill according to which the former owners were to be +paid the full value in instalments; and the old relations between the +debtors and creditors were to be restored, and the debts discharged in full +also in instalments. However, Radoslajev could not get this bill passed +unaltered. The national assembly unanimously voted a clause to the effect +that no one claim for compensation should exceed 100,000 rubles; if debts +were owing to the owner, the amount was to be added, yet no claim for +compensation for debts owing to any one creditor was to exceed 100,000 +rubles. For property that had been devastated or destroyed a similar +maximum of compensation was voted.</p> + +<p>In the meantime we had made all the necessary arrangements for organising +production upon the new principles. Private undertakers did not venture to +come forward, though the field was left open to them; on the other hand, +free associations of workers, after the pattern of those in Freeland, were +soon organised, particularly in the western governments of Russia. The +great mass of the working population, however, proved to be as yet +incapable of organising themselves, and the government was therefore +compelled to come to their assistance. Twenty responsible committees were +appointed for twenty different branches of production, and these +committees, with the help of such local intelligence as they found at their +disposal, took the work of production in hand. The liberty of the people +was so far respected that no one was compelled to engage in any particular +kind of work; but those who took part in the work organised by the +authorities had to conform to all the directions of the latter. At present +there are 83,000 such undertakings at work, with twelve and a-half millions +of workers. The division of the profits in these associations is made +according to a system derived in part from the principles of free +association and in part from those of Communism. One half of the net +profits is equally divided among the whole twelve and a-half millions of +workers; the other half is divided by each undertaking among its own +workers. In this way, we hope on the one hand to secure every undertaking +from the worst consequences of any accidental miscarriage in its +production, and on the other to arouse the interest of the workers in the +success of each individual undertaking. The managers of these productive +corporations are paid according to the same mixed system.</p> + +<p>The time of labour is fixed at thirty-six hours per week. Every worker is +forced to undergo two hours' instruction daily, which instruction is at +present given by 65,000 itinerant teachers, the number of whom is being +continually increased. This obligation to learn ceases when certain +examinations are passed. Down to the present time, 120,000 people's +libraries have been established, to furnish which with the most needful +books a number of large printing works have been set up in Russia, and the +aid of the more important foreign printing establishments has also been +called in; the Freeland printing works alone have already supplied +twenty-eight million volumes. And as the teaching of children is being +carried on with all conceivable energy--780 teachers' seminaries either +have been or are about to be established; large numbers of teachers, &c., +have been brought in from other Slav countries, particularly Bohemia--we +hope to see the general level of popular culture so much raised in the +course of a few years that the communistic element may be got rid of.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the control provisionally exercised over the masses who +willingly submit to it will be utilised in the elevation and ennoblement of +their habits and needs. Spirituous liquors, notably brandy, are given out +in only limited quantities; on the other hand, care is taken that breweries +are erected everywhere. The workers receive a part of their earnings in the +form of good clothing; the wretched mud huts and dens in which the workmen +live are being gradually superseded by neat family dwellings with small +gardens. At least once a month the authorities appoint a public festival, +when it is sought to raise the aesthetic taste of the participators by +means of simple but good music, dramatic performances and popular +addresses, and to cultivate their material taste by viands fit for rational +and civilised beings. Special care is devoted to the education of the +women. Nearly 80,000 itinerant women-teachers are now moving about the +country, teaching the women--who are freed from all coarse kinds of +labour--the elements of science as well as a more civilised style of +household economy. These teachers also seek to increase the self-respect +and elevate the tastes of the women, to enlighten them as to their new +rights and duties, and particularly to remove the hitherto prevalent +domestic brutality. As these apostles of a higher womanhood--as well as all +the teachers--are supported by the full authority of the government, and +devote themselves to their tasks with self-denying assiduity, very +considerable results of their work are already visible. The wives of the +working classes, who have hitherto been dirty, ill-treated, mulish beasts +of burden, begin to show a sense of their dignity as human beings and as +women. They no longer submit to be flogged by their husbands; they keep the +latter, themselves, and their children clean and tidy; and emulate one +another in acquiring useful knowledge. Thanks to the maintenance allowance +for women, which was at once introduced, an incredible progress--nay, a +veritable revolution--has taken place in the morals of the people. Whilst +formerly, particularly among the urban proletariate, sexual licence and +public prostitution were so generally prevalent that--as our Russian +friends assure us--anyone might accost the first poorly clad girl he met in +the streets without anticipating refusal, now sexual false steps are seldom +heard of. Moreover, it is particularly interesting to observe the +difference which public opinion makes between such offenders in the past +and those of the present. Whilst the mantle of oblivion is thrown over the +former, public opinion has no indulgence for the latter. 'The woman who +sold herself in former times was an unfortunate; she who does it now is an +abandoned woman,' say the people. The woman who in former times was a +prostitute but is now blameless carries her head high, and looks down with +haughty contempt upon the girl or the wife who, 'now that we women are no +longer compelled to sell ourselves for bread,' commits the least offence.</p> + +<p class="center">(<i>End of Fifth Day's Debate</i>)</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVIII</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="name">Sixth Day</span></p> + +<p>The business begins with the continuation of the debate upon point 4 of the +Agenda.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Ibrahim El Melek</span> (<i>Right</i>): The very instructive reports from America and +Russia, heard yesterday, afford strong proof that the transition to the +system of economic justice is accomplished not merely the more easily, but +also the more pleasantly for the wealthy classes, the more cultured and +advanced the working classes are. In view of this, it will cause no wonder +that we in Egypt do not expect to effect the change of system without +painful convulsions. The nearness of Freeland, with the consequently speedy +advent of its commissioners, who were received by the violently excited +fellaheen with almost divine honours, has preserved us from scenes of cruel +violence such as afflicted Russia for weeks. No murders and very little +destruction of property have taken place; but the Egyptian national +assembly, called into being by the Freeland Commissioners, shows itself far +less inclined than its Russian contemporary to respect the compensation +claims of the former owners. In this I see the ruling of fate, against +which nothing can be done, and to which we must therefore submit with +resignation. But I would exculpate from blame those who have had to suffer +so severely. Though no one has expressly said it, yet I have an impression +that the majority of the assembly are convinced that those who have +composed the ruling classes are now everywhere suffering the lot which they +have prepared for themselves. As to this, I would ask whether the +landlords, capitalists, and employers of America, Australia, and Western +Europe were less reckless in taking advantage of their position than those +of Russia or Egypt? That they could not so easily do what they pleased with +their working classes as the latter could is due to the greater energy of +the American national character and to the greater power of resistance +possessed by the masses, and not to the kindly disposition of the masters. +Hence I cannot think it just that the Russian boyar or the Egyptian bey +should lose his property, whilst the American speculator, the French +capitalist, or the English lord should even derive profit from the +revolution.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Lionel Spencer</span> (<i>Centre</i>): The previous speaker may be correct in supposing +that the wealthy classes of England, like those of America, will come out +of the impending revolution without direct loss. There cannot be the +slightest doubt that in England, as well as in France and in several other +countries in which the government has had a democratic character, nothing +will be taken from the wealthy classes for which they will not be fully +compensated. But I am not able to see in this the play of blind fate. +Observe that the sacrifices involved in the social revolution everywhere +stand in an inverse ratio to what has hitherto been the rate of wages, +which is the chief factor in determining the average level of popular +culture. Where the masses have languished in brutish misery, no one can be +surprised that, when they broke their chains, they should hurl themselves +upon their oppressors with brutish fury. Again, the rate of wages is +everywhere dependent upon the measure of political and social freedom which +the wealthy classes grant to the masses. The Russian boyar or the Egyptian +bey may be personally as kindly disposed as the American speculator or the +English landlord; the essential difference lies in the fact that in America +and England the fate of the masses was less dependent upon the personal +behaviour of the wealthy classes than in Russia and Egypt. In the former +countries, the wealthy classes--even if perhaps less kindly in their +personal intercourse--were politically more discreet, more temperate than +in the latter countries, and it is the fruit of this political discretion +that they are now reaping. It may be that they knew themselves to be simply +compelled to exercise this discretion: they exercised it, and what they +did, and not their intentions, decided the result. Those that were the +ruling classes in the backward countries are now atoning for the excessive +exercise of their rights of mastership; they are now paying the difference +between the wages they formerly gave and the--meagre enough--general +average of wages under the exploiting system.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Tei Fu</span> (<i>Right</i>): The previous speaker overlooks the fact that the rate of +wages depends, rot upon the will of the employer, but upon supply and +demand. That the receiver of a hunger-wage has been degraded to a beast is +unfortunately too true, and the massacres with which the masses of my +fatherland, driven to desperation, everywhere introduced the work of +emancipation are, like the events in Russia, eloquent proofs of this fact. +But how could any political discretion on the part of the ruling classes +have prevented this? The labour market in China was over-crowded, the +supply of hands was too great for any power on earth to raise the wages.</p> + +<p><span class="name">Alexander Ming-Li</span> (<i>Freeland</i>): My brother, Tei Fu, thinks that wages +depend upon supply and demand. This is not an axiom that was thought out in +our common fatherland, but one borrowed from the political economy of the +West, but which, in a certain sense, is none the less correct on that +account. It holds good of every commodity, consequently of human labour so +long as that has to be offered for sale. But the price depends also upon +two other things--namely, on the cost of production and the utility of the +commodity: in fact, it is these two last-named factors that in the long run +regulate the price, whilst the fluctuations of supply and demand can +produce merely fluctuations within the limits fixed by the cost of +production and the utility. In the long run as much must be paid for +everything as its production costs; and in the long run no more can be +obtained for a thing than its use is worth. All this has long been known, +only unfortunately it has never been fully applied to the question of +wages. What does the production of labour cost? Plainly, just so much as +the means of life cost which will keep up the worker's strength. And what +is the utility of human labour? Just as plainly, the value of what is +produced by that human labour. What does this mean when applied to the +labour market? Nothing else, it seems to me, than that the rate of +wages--apart from the fluctuations due to supply and demand--is in the long +run determined by the habits of the worker on the one hand, and by the +productiveness of his labour on the other. The first affects the demands of +the workers, the second the terms granted by the employers.</p> + +<p>But now, I beg my honoured fellow-countryman particularly to note what I am +about to say. The habits of the masses are not unchangeable. Every human +being naturally endeavours to live as comfortably as possible; and though +it must be admitted that custom and habit will frequently for a time act +restrictively upon this natural tendency to expansion in human wants, yet I +can assert with a good conscience that our unhappy brethren in the Flowery +Land did not go hungry and half-clad because of an invincible dislike to +sufficient food and clothing, but that they would have been very glad to +accustom themselves to more comfortable habits if only the paternal wisdom +of all the Chinese governments had not always prevented it by most severely +punishing all the attempts of the workers to agitate and to unite for the +purpose of giving effect to their demands. Workers who united for such +purposes were treated as rebels; and the wealthy classes of China--this is +their folly and their fault--have always given their approval to this +criminal folly of the Chinese government.</p> + +<p>I call this both folly and crime, because it not merely grossly offended +against justice and humanity, but was also extremely detrimental to the +interests of those who thus acted, and of those who approved of the action. +As to the government, one would have thought that the insane and suicidal +character of its action would long since have been recognised. A blind man +could have seen that the government damaged its financial as well as its +military strength in proportion as its measures against the lower classes +were effective. The consumption by the masses has been in China, as in all +other countries, the principal source of the national income, and the +physical health of the people the basis of the military strength of the +country. But whence could China derive duties and excise if the people were +not able to consume anything; and how could its soldiery, recruited from +the proletariate, exhibit courage and strength in the face of the enemy? +This oppression of the masses was equally injurious to the interests of the +wealthy classes. While the Chinese people consumed little they were not +able to engage in the more highly productive forms of labour--that is, +their labour had a wretchedly small utility because of the wretchedly small +cost at which it was produced.</p> + +<p>Thus the Chinese employer could pay but little for labour, because the +worker was prevented from demanding much in such a way as would influence +not merely the individual employer, but the labour market in general. The +individual undertaker could have yielded to the demands of his workers to +only a limited degree, since he as individual would have lost from his +profits what he added to wages. But if wages had risen throughout the whole +of China, this would have increased the demand to such a degree that +Chinese labour would have become more productive--that is, it would have +been furnished with better means of production. The employers would have +covered the rise in wages by the increased produce, not out of their +profits; in fact, their profits would have grown--their wealth, represented +by the capitalistic means of labour in their possession, would have +increased. Of course this does not exclude the possibility that some +branches of production might have suffered under this general change, for +the increase of consumption resulting from better wages does not affect +equally all articles in demand. It may be that while the average +consumption has increased tenfold, the demand for a single commodity +remains almost stationary--in fact, diminishes; but in this case it is +certain that the demand for certain other commodities will increase more +than ten-fold. The losses of individual employers are balanced by the +proportionately larger profits of other employers; and it may be taken as a +general rule that the wealth of the wealthy classes increases in exact +proportion to the increase of wages which they are obliged to pay. It +cannot be otherwise, for this wealth of the wealthy classes consists mainly +of nothing else than the means of production which are used in the +preparation of the commodities required by the whole nation.</p> + +<p>Perhaps my honoured fellow countryman thinks that in the matter of rise of +wages we move in a circle, inasmuch as on the one hand the productiveness +of labour--that is, the utility of the power expended in labour--certainly +cannot increase so long as the nation's consumption--that is, the amount +which the labour power itself costs--does not increase, while on the other +hand the latter increase is impossible until the former has taken place. If +so, I would tell him that this is just the fatal superstition which the +wealthy classes and the rulers of so many countries have now so cruelly to +suffer for. Since, in the exploiting world, only a part, and as a rule a +very small part, of the produce of labour went to wages, the +employers--with very rare exceptions--were well able to grant a rise in +wages even before the increase of produce had actually been obtained, and +had resulted in a <i>universal</i> rise in wages. I would tell him that, +especially in China, on the average even three or four times the wages +would not have absorbed the whole profits--that is, of course, the old +profits uninfluenced by the increase of produce. The employers <i>could</i> pay +more, but they <i>would not</i>. From the standpoint of the individual this was +quite intelligible; everyone seeks merely his own advantage, and this +demands that one retains for one's self as large a part of any utility as +possible, and hands over as little as possible to others. In this respect +the American speculators, the French capitalists, and the English +landlords, were not a grain better than our Chinese mandarins. But as a +body the former acted differently from the latter. Notwithstanding the fact +that the absurdity that wages <i>cannot</i> be raised was invented in the West +and proclaimed from all the professorial chairs, the Western nations have +for several generations been compelled by the more correct instinct of the +people to act as if the contrary principles had been established. In theory +they persisted in the teaching that wages could not be increased; in +practice, however, they yielded more and more to the demands of the working +masses, with whose undeniable successes the theory had to be accommodated +as well as possible. You, my Chinese brethren, on the contrary, have in +your policy adhered strictly to the teaching of this theory: you have first +driven your toiling masses to desperation by making them feel that the +State is their enemy; and you have then immediately taken advantage of +every excess of which the despairing people have been guilty to impose +'order' in your sense of the word. Your hand was always lifted against the +weaker: do not wonder that when they had become the stronger they avenged +themselves by making you feel some small part of the sufferings they had +endured.</p> + +<p>This does not prevent us in Freeland--as our actions show--from condemning +the violence that has been offered to those who formerly were oppressors, +and from trying to make amends for it as well as we can. Hence we hold that +the people of Russia, Egypt, and China--in short, everybody--would do well +to follow the example given by the United States of America. We think thus +because this wise generosity is shown to be advantageous not merely for the +wealthy classes, but also for the workers. Unfortunately it is not in our +power at once to instil into the Russian muzhik, the Egyptian fellah, or +the Chinese cooley such views as are natural to the workers of the advanced +West. History is the final tribunal which will decree to everyone what he +has deserved.</p> + +<p>As no one else was down to speak on this point of the Agenda, the President +closed the debate upon it, and opened that upon the fifth point:</p> + +<p><i>Are economic justice and freedom the ultimate outcome of human evolution; +and what will probably be the condition of mankind under such a régime?</i></p> + +<p><span class="name">Engelbert Wagner</span> (<i>Right</i>): We are contemplating the inauguration of a new +era of human development; want and crime will disappear from among men, and +reason and philanthropy take possession of the throne which prejudice and +brute force have hitherto occupied. But the apparent perfection of this +condition appears to me to involve an essential contradiction to the first +principle of the doctrine of human blessedness--namely, that man in order +to be content needs discontent. In order to find a zest in enjoyment, this +child of the dust must first suffer hunger; his possessions satiate him +unless they are seasoned with longing and hope; his striving is paralysed +unless he is inspired by unattained ideals. But what new ideal can +henceforth hover before the mind of man--what can excite any further +longing in him when abundance and leisure have been acquired for all? Is it +not to be feared that, like Tannhaüser in the Venusberg, our descendants +will pine for, and finally bring upon themselves, fresh bitternesses merely +in order to escape the unchangeable monotony of the sweets of their +existence? We are not made to bear unbroken good fortune; and an order of +things that would procure such for us could therefore not last long. That +the world if once emancipated from the fetters of servitude will again cast +itself into them, that the old exploiting system shall ever return, is +certainly not to be feared, according to what we have just heard; even a +relapse into the material misery of the past through over-population is out +of the question. But the more irrefragably the evidence of the +impossibility of the return of any former kind of human unhappiness presses +upon us, so much the more urgently is an answer demanded to the question: +What will there be in the character of man's future destiny, what new +ideals will arise, to prevent him from being swamped by a surfeit of +happiness?</p> + +<p>The <span class="name">President</span> (Dr. Strahl): I take upon myself to answer this question from +the chair, because I hope that what I am about to say will close the +discussion upon the point of the Agenda now before us, and consequently the +congress itself. From the nature of the subject we cannot expect any +practical result to follow from the debate upon this last question, which +was added to the Agenda merely because our foreign friends wished to learn, +by way of conclusion to the previous discussions, what were our ideas as to +the future. No mortal soul can have any definite ideas as to the future, +for we can know only the past and the present. I venture to make only one +positive assertion--namely, that the order of things which we propose to +inaugurate will be in harmony with the general laws of evolution, as every +foregoing human order has been; that it cannot be permanent and eternal; +and that consequently it will by no means put an end to human striving and +change and improvement. This holds good even with respect to the material +conditions of mankind. In the future, as in the past, labour will be the +price of enjoyment, and there is no reason to fear that in future the wish +will lag behind the effort necessary to realise it. Thus mankind will not +lack even the material stimulus to progress and to further striving. But +man possesses intellectual as well as material needs, and the less +imperative the latter become, so much the more widely and powerfully do the +former make themselves felt. Intellectual hunger is a far more influential +stimulus to effort than material hunger; and at present at least we are +forced to believe that the former will never be appeased.</p> + +<p>The fear that our race will sink into stagnation when the aims which have +hitherto almost exclusively dominated its circle of ideas have been +attained, is like the fancy of the child that the youth will give himself +up to idleness as soon as he escapes the dread of the rod. It would be +useless to attempt to make the child understand those other, and to him +unknown, motives for activity by which the youth is influenced; and so we, +standing now on the threshold of the youthful age of mankind and still half +enslaved by the ideas of the childhood of our race, cannot know what new +ideas mankind will conceive after the present ones have been realised. We +can only say that they will be different, and presumably loftier ones. The +new conditions of existence in which man will find himself in consequence +of the introduction of economic freedom, will bring to maturity new +properties, notions, and ideas, which no sagacity, no gift of mental +construction possessed by anyone now living, is able to prefigure with +accuracy. If, nevertheless, I venture to indicate some of the features of +the future, I ask you not to attach to them any greater importance than you +would to the fancies of a savage who, standing on the threshold leading +from cannibalism to exploitation, might thousands of years ago have +undertaken to form a conception of those changes which the invention of +agriculture and of slavery would produce in the circumstances of his +far-off successors. In this respect I have only one advantage over our +remote ancestor: I know his history, while that of his ancestors was +unknown to him. I can, therefore, seek counsel of the past in order to +understand the future, while for him there was merely a present. I will now +make use of this advantage; the course of human evolution in the past shall +give us a few hints as to the significance of that phase of evolution into +which we are now passing.</p> + +<p>The original condition of mankind was freedom and peace in the animal +sense--that is, freedom and peace among men, together with absolute +dependence upon nature. The first great stage in evolution reached its +climax when man turned against his fellow-men the weapon which had in the +beginning been employed only in conflict with the world of beasts: +dependence upon nature remained, but peace among men was broken.</p> + +<p>The second stage in evolution is distinguished by the fact that man turns +against nature, who had hitherto been his sovereign mistress, the +intelligence which he had employed in mutually destructive warfare. He +discovers the art of compelling nature to yield what she will not offer +voluntarily--he produces. The chain by which the elements hold him bound is +in this way loosened; but the first use which man makes of this gleam of +deliverance from the bonds of merely animal servitude is to place fetters +upon himself. The relaxing of dependence upon external nature and the +alleviation of the conflict among men themselves--these are the acquisition +of the second period.</p> + +<p>The third stage of development begins with the dominion over nature +gradually acquired by controlling the natural forces, and ends with the +deliverance of mankind from the bonds of servitude. Independence of +external control, freedom and peace among men, are its distinguishing +features.</p> + +<p>Here I would point out that the theatre of each of these phases of human +progress has been a different one. The original home of our race was +evidently the hottest part of the earth; under the tropics, in our +struggles with the world of animals, we gained our first victories, and +developed ourselves into warlike cannibals; but against the forces of +nature, which reign supreme in that hot zone, we in our childhood could do +nothing. Production, and afterwards slavery, could be carried on only +outside of the tropics. On the other hand, it is quite as certain that man +could not remove himself very far from the tropics so long as the +productivity of his labour was still comparatively small, and he could not +compel nature to furnish him with much more than she offered voluntarily. +It is no mere accident that all civilisation began and first flourished +exclusively in that zone which is equally removed from the equator and from +the polar circle. In that temperate zone were found united all the +conditions which protected the still infantile art of production from the +danger of being crushed on the one hand or stunted on the other by the +overwhelming power or the parsimony of nature. But this mean temperature, +so favourable to the second phase of evolution, proved itself altogether +unsuitable to the last step towards perfect control over nature. As human +labour met with a generous reward, there was nothing to stimulate man's +inventiveness to compel nature to serve man by her own, instead of by +human, forces. This could happen only when the civilisation, which had +acquired strength in the temperate zone, was transplanted into colder and +less friendly regions, where human labour alone could no longer win from +reluctant nature wealth enough to satisfy the claims of the ruling classes. +Then first did necessity teach men how to employ the elemental forces in +increasing the productiveness of human labour; the moderately cold zone is +the birthplace of man's dominion over nature.</p> + +<p>But when the third phase of evolution has found its close in economic +justice, there will be, apparently, yet another change of scene. It might +be said, if we cared to look for analogies, that this change of scene will +be of a double character, corresponding to the double character of the +change in institutions. The perfected control over nature will be seen in +the fact that the whole earth, subjugated to man, has become man's own +property; on the other hand, peace and freedom--which in themselves +represent nothing new to mankind, but are as it were merely the return of +the primitive relation of man to man--will find their analogies in the +return to the primitive home of our race, the tropical world. That vigorous +nature, which had formerly to be left lest civilisation should be killed in +the very germ, can no longer be a hindrance, can only be a help to +civilisation now that man, awaked to freedom, has attained to a full +control over those forces which can be made serviceable to him. It will +probably need several centuries before the civilised nations, whose +northern wanderings and experiences have made them strangers in their +birthplace, have afresh thoroughly acclimatised themselves here. In the +meantime, the charming highlands which nature has placed--one might almost +believe in anticipation of our attempt--directly under the equator, offer +to the wanderers the desired dwelling-places, and, at any rate, the +agriculture of the now commencing epoch of civilisation will have its +headquarters here. Slowly but surely will man, who henceforth may freely +choose his dwelling-place wherever productiveness and the charms of nature +attract him, press towards the south, where merely to breathe and to behold +is a delight beyond anything of the kind which the north has to offer. The +notion that the torrid zone engenders stagnation of mind and body is a +foolish fancy. There have been and there are strong and weak, vigorous and +vigourless peoples in the north as well as in the south; and that +civilisation has celebrated its highest triumphs under ice and snow is not +due to anything in chilly temperatures essentially and permanently +conducive to progress, but simply to the temporary requirements of the +transition from the second to the third epoch of civilisation. In the +future the centres of civilisation will have to be sought in proximity to +the equator; while those countries which, during the last centuries--a +short span of time--have held up the banner of human progress will +gradually lose their relative importance.</p> + +<p>That man, having attained to control over the forces of nature and to +undivided proprietorship of the whole planet, will ever actually take +possession of and productively exploit the whole of the planet, is scarcely +to be expected. In fact, past history almost tempts us to believe that the +population of the earth has undergone scarcely any material change since +civilisation began. Certainly, Europe to-day is several times more populous +than it was thousands of years ago; and in America--putting out of sight +the unquestionable extraordinary diminution in the population of Mexico and +Peru--there has undeniably been a large increase in the number of +inhabitants. Against all this we have to place the fact that large parts of +Asia and Africa are at present almost uninhabited, though they formerly +were the homes of untold millions. Thus, taking everything into +consideration, the variations in population can never have exceeded a few +hundred million souls. But assuming that the introduction of the new order +of things, with its sudden and general diminution of the death-rate, will +produce a revolution in this respect, that man's control over nature will +be connected with a general increase in the number of the earth's masters, +yet it may be considered as highly improbable that this increase will be +particularly rapid, and that it will go on for any great length of time.</p> + +<p>In one respect, certainly, there can and will be a sudden and considerable +increase in the number of the living. In consequence of the greater +longevity which will be the necessary result of rational habits of life, +generations that have hitherto been consecutive will then be +contemporaneous. In the exploiting world, on the average the father, worn +out by misery, toil, and vice, died ere the son had reached maturity; in +the future the parents will be buried by their great-grandchildren, and +thus the number of the living will be speedily rained from a milliard and +a-half to two milliards or to two and a-half, without any increase in human +fecundity. But assuming that there be for a time an actual growth in +population over and above that caused by this greater longevity, I hold it +to be in the highest degree improbable that this growth can be a rapid one, +and still less a continuous one. My opinion--based, it is true, upon +analogy--is that a doubling of the population is the utmost we need reckon +upon, so that the maximum population of the world may grow to five +milliards. This number, very small in proportion to the size and productive +capacity of our planet, will find abundant room and food in the most +beautiful, most agreeable, and most fertile parts of the earth. Ninety-nine +per cent. of the land superficies of the earth will be either not at all or +very sparsely populated--so far as the population depends upon the +production of the locality--and ninety per cent, will be cultivated either +not at all or only to a very trifling extent.</p> + +<p>That under the new order the earth will be transformed into a swarming +ant-hill of thickly crowded inhabitants, that complete control over the +elemental forces will lead to a destruction of all primitive natural +fertility, there is therefore no reason whatever to fear. On the contrary, +the more rationally distributed inhabitants will not crowd upon each other +in the way in which they do at present in most civilised countries; and the +greater fertility of the cultivated land of the future, in connection with +the improved methods of cultivation, will make it possible to obtain from a +smaller area a ten-fold greater supply for a double or a triple number of +people than can be now obtained by the plough. The beauty and romance of +nature are exposed to no danger whatever of being destroyed by the +levelling instruments of future engineers; nay, it may be anticipated that +a loving devotion to nature will be one of the chief pleasures of those +future generations, who will treasure and guard in every natural wonder +their inalienable and undivided property.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to predict what course the development of material +progress will take under the dominion of the new social principle. So much +is evident, that the spirit of invention will apply itself far more than it +has hitherto done to the task of finding out fresh methods of saving +labour. This is a logical consequence of the fact that arrangements for the +sparing of labour will now become profitable and applicable under all +circumstances--which has hitherto been the case only exceptionally. But it +is probable that the future will surpass the present also in its +comparative estimate of intellectual as more valuable than material +progress. Hitherto the reverse has been the case: material wealth and +material power have been the exclusive aims of human endeavour; +intellectual culture has been at best prized merely as the means of +attaining what was regarded as the real and final end. There have always +been individuals who looked upon intellectual perfection as an end in +itself; but there have always been isolated exceptions who have never been +able to impress their character upon the whole race. The immense majority +of men have been too ignorant and rude even to form a conception of purely +intellectual endeavour; and the few who have been able to do so have been +so absorbed in the reckless struggle for wealth and power, that they have +found neither time nor attention for anything else. In fact, it lay in the +essence of the exploiting system that under its dominion intellectual +interests should be thrust into the background. In the mutual struggle for +supremacy only those could succeed in becoming the hammer instead of the +anvil who knew how to obtain control of material wealth; hence it was only +these latter who could imprint their character upon the society they +dominated, whilst the 'impractical,' who chased after intellectual aims, +were forced down into the great subjugated herd. And the teaching of the +history of civilisation compels us to admit that in the earlier epochs the +chase after wealth could legitimately claim precedence over purely +intellectual endeavour. It is true that intellectual perfection is the +highest and final end of man; but as a certain amount of wealth is an +indispensable condition of success in that highest sphere of effort, man +must give to the acquisition of wealth his chief attention until that +condition of higher progress is attained. That condition has now been +attained, that amount of wealth has been acquired which makes the supply of +the highest intellectual needs possible to all men; and there can be no +doubt whatever that man will now awake to a consciousness of his proper +destiny. That which he has hitherto striven after only incidentally, and, +as it were, accidentally, will now become the object of his chief +endeavour.</p> + +<p>That this intellectual progress must produce a radical revolution in the +sentiments and ideas of the coming generations is a matter of course. This +holds good also of religious ideas. These have always been the faithful and +necessary reflection of the contemporary conditions of human existence. In +primitive times, so long as man carried on the struggle for existence only +passively, like the beasts, he, like them, was without any religious +conceptions. When he had taken the first step towards active engagement in +the struggle for existence, and his dependence upon nature was to some +extent weakened, but peace had not yet been broken with his fellow-men, he +began to believe in helpful higher Powers that should fill his nets and +drive the prey into his hands. When the war of annihilation broke out +between man and man, then these higher Powers acquired a cruel and +sanguinary character corresponding to the horribly altered form of the +struggle for existence; the devil became the undisputed master of the +world, which, regarded as thoroughly bad, was nevertheless worshipped as +such. Next the struggle for supremacy superseded the struggle of +annihilation; the first traces of humanity, consideration for the +vanquished, showed itself, and in harmony with this the good gods were +associated with the gods of evil, Ormuzd with Ahriman; and the more the +horrors of cannibalism were forced into the background by the chivalrous +virtues of the new lords of the world, the more pronounced became the +authority of the good gods over the bad. But since it was the dominant +classes who created the new faith, and since they needed for their +prosperity the obedience of the subjugated, they naturally transplanted the +principle of servitude into their heaven. The gods became severe, jealous +masters; they demanded blind obedience, and punished with tyrannical +cruelty every resistance to their will. This did not prevent the rulers +from holding this to be the best of all worlds, despite its servitude and +its vices; for to <i>them</i> servitude was well-pleasing, and as to the vices, +they would be rid of the 'evil gods' if only the last remnant of resistance +and disobedience--the only sources of all evil--were rooted out.</p> + +<p>This kind of despotism was first attacked when the slaves found spokesmen. +The most logical of these was Buddha, who, as he necessarily must from the +standpoint of the slaves, again declared the world to be evil, and thence +arrived at the only conclusion consistent with this assumption--namely, +that its non-existence, Nirvana, was to be preferred to its continued +existence. Christ, on the other hand, opposed to the optimism of domination +the optimism of redemption. Like Buddha, he saw evil in oppression, not in +disobedience; whilst, in the imagination of other nations, the good gods +had fought for the conquerors and the bad ones for the subjugated, he now +represented the Jewish Jehovah as the Father of the poor and Satan as the +idol of those who were in power. To him also the world was bad, but--and +this was the decisive difference between him and Buddha--not radically so, +but only because of the temporary sway of the devil. It was necessary, not +to destroy the world, but to deliver it from the power of the devil, and +therefore, in contrast to Buddhistic Quietism, he rightly called his church +a 'militant' one. Both founders, however, being ignorant of the law of +natural evolution, were at one in regarding the contemporary condition of +civilisation as a permanent one, and therefore they agreed that oppression +could be removed only by condemning riches and declaring poverty to be the +only sinless state of man. The Indian king's son, familiar with all the +wisdom of the Indians of his day, saw that reversion to universal poverty +meant deterioration, therefore destruction, and, in his sympathy with the +oppressed in their sorrow, he did not shrink from even this. The +carpenter's Son from Galilee held the equality of poverty to be possible, +and He was therefore far removed from the despondent resignation of His +Indian predecessor--He proclaimed the optimism of poverty.</p> + +<p>The later official Christianity has nothing at all in common with this +teaching of Christ. The official Christianity is the outcome of the +conviction, derived from experience, that the millennial kingdom of the +poor preached by Christ and the Apostles is an impossibility, and of the +consequent strange amalgamation of practical optimism with theoretical +pessimism. Jehovah now again became the gaoler of the powerful, Satan the +tempter who incites to disobedience to the commands of God; at the same +time, however, the order of the world--though instituted by God--was +declared to be fundamentally bad and incapable of improvement, the work of +redemption no longer being regarded as referring to this world, but merely +to the next. The exploiting world for the last fifteen centuries has +naturally adhered to the new doctrine, leaving asceticism to a few +anchorites and eccentric persons, whose conduct has remained without +influence upon the sphere of practical human thought. Not until the last +century, when the old industrial system approached its end, and the +incipient control of man over nature gradually made the institution of +servitude a curse to the higher classes, did pessimism--this time, +philosophic pessimism--lift up its head once more. The world became more +and more unpleasant even to the ruling classes; they were made to feel +fettered and anxious by the misery around them, which they had previously +been able easily to explain by a reference to the inscrutable counsels of +God; they were seized by a dislike to those enjoyments which could be +obtained only by the torture of their brethren, and, as they held this +system, despite its horrible character, to be unchangeable, they gave +themselves up to pessimism--the pessimism of Buddha, which looked for +redemption only in the annihilation of just those more nobly constituted +minds who did not allow themselves to be forced by the hereditary +authoritative belief to mistake a curse for a blessing.</p> + +<p>But another change is now about to be effected. The gods can no longer rule +by terror over a race that has robbed the clouds of their lightning and the +underworld of its fire; and, now that servitude has ceased to be the basis +of the terrestrial order, it must also disappear from the celestial. The +fear of God is as inconceivable as pessimism of any kind whatever as a +characteristic of the coming generations, who, released from the suffering +of the world, will pass their existence in the enjoyment of a lifelong +happiness. For the great thinkers who, looking beyond their own times, give +expression to truths the full meaning of which is understood only by +subsequent generations, have never failed to see that this suffering, this +'original sin,' is based upon nothing else than the injustice of +exploitation. The evils which mankind brought upon itself--want and +vice--were what converted earth into hell; what nature imposed upon +us--sickness and death--can no more embitter life to us than it can any +other kind of living creatures. Sickness cannot, because it is only +transitory and exceptional, especially since misery and vice no longer +minister to it; and death cannot, because, in reality, it is not death, but +merely the fear of it, which is an evil.</p> + +<p>But it will be said that this fear of death, foolish as it may be in +itself, is a real evil which is infinitely more painful to man, who +reflects upon the future, than to the animal that lives merely in the +present and knows of and fears death only when it is imminent. This was, in +fact, the case, but it will not continue to be so when man, by his return +to the innocence of nature, has won back his right to the painlessness of +death. The fear of death is only one of the many specific instincts by +which nature secures the perpetuation of species. If the beasts did not +fear destruction, they would necessarily all perish, for their means of +warding off the powerful dangers with which they are threatened are but +weak. It is different with man, who has not merely become king of the +living world, but has at last made himself master of the elements. In order +to preserve the human species from perishing, nature needed to give to man +the blind fear of death only so long as he had to defend himself against +himself and his fellow-men. So long as he was the victim of the torture of +subjection, man had also to think of death with emotions of invincible +shuddering if he would not prefer destruction to suffering. Just because it +was so painful, life had to be fenced round with the blind dread of death +even in the case of that highest species, man, which did not need +protection from external dangers. But now is this last and worst danger +overcome; the dread of death has become superfluous even as a protection +against suicide; it has no longer any use as a specific instinct of man, +and it will disappear like every specific character which has become +useless. This evil, also, will vanish with injustice from mankind; life +spreads out full of serene joyousness before our successors, who, free from +the crippling influence of pessimism, will spend their days in unending +progress towards perfection.</p> + +<p>But we, my friends, now hasten to open the doors to this future!</p> + +<p>Here closed the sixth and last day of the Universal Congress of Eden Vale.</p> + + +<h3>CONCLUSION</h3> + +<p> +The history of 'Freeland' is ended. I could go on with the thread of the +narrative, and depict the work of human emancipation as it appears to my +mental eye, but of what use would it be? Those who have not been convinced, +by what I have already written, that we are standing on the threshold of a +new and happier age, and that it depends solely upon our discernment and +resolve whether we pass over it, would not be convinced by a dozen volumes.</p> + +<p>For this book is not the idle creation of an uncontrolled imagination, but +the outcome of earnest, sober reflection, and of profound scientific +investigation. All that I have described as really happening <i>might</i> happen +if men were found who, convinced as I am of the untenability of existing +conditions, determined to act instead of merely complaining. +Thoughtlessness and inaction are, in truth, at present the only props of +the existing economic and social order. What was formerly necessary, and +therefore inevitable, has become injurious and superfluous; there is no +longer anything to compel us to endure the misery of an obsolete system; +there is nothing but our own folly to prevent us from enjoying that +happiness and abundance which the existing means of civilisation are +capable of providing for us.</p> + +<p>It will perhaps be objected, 'Thus have numberless reformers spoken and +written, since the days of Sir Thomas More; and what has been proposed to +mankind as a panacea for all suffering has always proved to be Utopian.' +And I am willing to admit that the dread of being classed with the legion +of authors of Utopian romances at first filled my mind with not a few +qualms as to the form which I had chosen for my book. But, upon mature +deliberation, I decided to offer, not a number of dry abstractions, but as +vivid a picture as possible, which should clearly represent in concrete +conceptions what abstract ideas would have shown in merely shadowy +outlines. The reader who does not for himself discover the difference +between this book and the works of imagination above referred to, is lost +to me; to him I should remain the 'unpractical enthusiast' even if I were +to elaborate ever so dry a systematic treatise, for it is enough for him to +know that I believe in a change of the existing system to condemn me as an +enthusiast. It matters not, to this kind of readers, in what form I state +my proofs; for such readers, like fanatics in the domain of religion, are +simply disqualified to estimate aright the evidence which is pointed +against what exists.</p> + +<p>The impartial reader, on the other hand, will not be prevented by the +narrative form of this book from soberly endeavouring to discover whether +my propositions are essentially true or false. If he should find that I +have started from false premises, that the system of freedom and justice +which I have propounded is inconsistent in any way with the natural and +universally recognised springs of human action--nay, if, after reading my +book, he should not have attained to the firm conviction that the +realisation of this new order--apart, of course, from unimportant +details--is absolutely inevitable, then I must be content to be placed in +the same category as More, Fourier, Cabet, and the rest who have mistaken +their desires for sober reality.</p> + +<p>I wish once more expressly to state that the intrinsic practicability of my +book extends beyond the economic and ethical principles and motives +underlying it, to the actual stage upon which its scenes are placed. The +highlands in Equatorial Africa exactly correspond to the picture drawn in +the book. In order that 'Freeland' may be realised as I have drawn it, +nothing more is required, therefore, than a sufficient number of vigorous +men. Shall I be privileged to live until these men are found?</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Freeland, by Theodor Hertzka + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREELAND *** + +***** This file should be named 9866-h.htm or 9866-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/9/8/6/9866/ + +Produced by Suzanne Shell, Christopher Lund and PG +Distributed Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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