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You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Independent Bohemia + +Author: Vladimir Nosek + +Release Date: January, 2006 [EBook #9650] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 13, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEPENDENT BOHEMIA *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Kline and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Illustration: Professor Thomas G. Masaryk] + + + +INDEPENDENT BOHEMIA + +AN ACCOUNT OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAK STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY + +By VLADIMIR NOSEK + +Secretary to the Czecho-Slovak Legation in LONDON + +1918 + + + +PREFACE + +In the following pages I have attempted to outline the story of our +movement for independence. The manuscript of this book was completed over +four months ago. Since then many important changes have occurred in the +international situation. Chapters in which we dealt with the then still +existing Dual Monarchy must of course be read in the past tense, since +Austria exists no more. And again, many things which we anticipated and +hoped for in the future have already become accomplished facts. However, I +trust that the story itself has not only lost none of its value thereby, +but has acquired an additional interest from a historical point of view. +Our aim of national independence, only quite recently declared by our +adversaries to be "an empty dream of moonstruck idealists," has become +to-day not only a practical proposition, but an accomplished fact. We have +our own army, which is by no means the smallest Allied army, and we also +have our own Provisional Government in Paris, recognised not only by the +Allies and by all Czecho-Slovaks abroad, but even by Czech leaders in +Bohemia, with whom we have since the beginning of the war worked in +complete harmony and understanding. The organisation of our independent +State is rapidly proceeding. Austria-Hungary, exhausted economically and +bankrupt politically, has fallen to pieces by the free-will of her own +subject peoples, who, in anticipation of their early victory, broke their +fetters and openly renounced their allegiance to the hated Habsburg and +Hohenzollern rule, even before Austria had actually surrendered to +the Allies. + +Events have moved rapidly in Austria, especially since the momentous +British declaration of August 9, 1918, recognising the +Czecho-Slovaks--those resident in the Allied countries as much as those in +Bohemia--as an Allied nation, and the Czecho-Slovak National Council--in +Paris as well as in Prague--as the Provisional Government of Bohemia. +British statesmen already then foresaw the coming collapse of Austria and +acted accordingly. It is also no more a secret to-day that because of the +promulgation of the British and United States declarations our Council was +able to conclude special conventions with all the Allied Governments during +September last, whereby all the powers exercised by a real government have +been granted to it. + +In the meantime Germany had been losing more and more control over her +allies, being herself hard pressed on the Western front, and the +consequence of this was a growing boldness on the part of the Austrian +Slavs. On October 2 deputy Stanek declared in the name of the whole Czech +deputation that the National Council in Paris were their true spokesmen and +representatives with whom Austria would have to negotiate. Soon afterwards +the Austrian Poles went to Warsaw, where they formed a new all-Polish +Government, and the Southern Slavs entrusted the government of their +territories to their National Council in Zagreb. Similar councils were +formed also by the Ruthenes and Rumanians. On October 14 the Czecho-Slovak +National Council in Paris constituted itself as a Government of which the +Council in Prague acts as an integral part. The latter took over the reins +of government in Bohemia a fortnight later. On October 19 the Czecho-Slovak +Council issued a Declaration of Independence which we publish in the +Appendix, and from which it will be seen that Bohemia will be progressive +and democratic both in her domestic and foreign policy. A glorious future +is no doubt awaiting her. She will be specially able to render an immense +service to the League of Nations as a bulwark of peace and conciliation +among the various peoples of Central Europe. + +The break-up of Austria will, of course, affect enormously the constitution +of the future Europe, and in our last chapter we have tried to give an +outline of these impending changes of conditions and international +relations. The break-up of Austria was bound to come sooner or later, +whether some misinformed critics or prejudiced pro-Austrian politicians +liked it or not. We ourselves were always convinced, and we declared +openly, that Austria could not survive this war, because she was at war +with the majority of her own subjects, who wished for nothing more than for +her destruction. Unfortunately the fact that the sympathies of the thirty +million of Austrian Slavs and Latins were on the side of the Entente, +constituting such an incontestable moral asset for the Allies as it does, +has not always been fully appreciated by Allied public opinion. We +ourselves, however, never doubted for a moment that the Allied cause would +ultimately triumph and that we would achieve our independence, because we +knew that in struggling for this aim we were only carrying out the +unanimous will of our whole nation. Without waiting for any pledges, +without regard as to which side would be victorious, our nation has from +the beginning staked its all on the Allied victory and has contributed with +all its powers to hasten it. Despite all adverse circumstances, our people, +at first completely at the mercy of their enemies, ruthlessly persecuted +and tortured by them, nevertheless remained firm and resolute. Their +attitude was most outspoken and courageous at all times, and they have also +rendered the Allies active assistance, which is being duly appreciated by +them. It is chiefly due to the efforts of the subject peoples themselves, +of whom the Czechs have certainly been the most outspoken, that the +collapse of Austria has occurred, which finally sealed the fate of +Kaiserism and of the Pan-German plans of Mitteleuropa. + +To-day our hopes for a better future are at last being fulfilled as a +result of the Allies' complete victory, assuring the creation of a new and +just international order. Our much-afflicted yet undaunted people already +consider themselves as independent. The Peace Conference, at which the +Czecho-Slovak Government will be represented, will only confirm the +existence of an independent Czecho-Slovak State. + +In conclusion, we should like to express our deep gratitude to all our +English friends for their valuable assistance in our struggle for the +realisation of our ideals. We especially wish to thank once more the +British Government for the generous step taken by them in recognising us as +an Allied and belligerent nation. It was chiefly because of this +recognition and of the gallant deeds of our army that we achieved all our +subsequent diplomatic and political successes. We may assure Great Britain +that the Czecho-Slovaks will never forget what they owe to her, and that +they will endeavour to do their best to merit the trust so generously +placed in them. + +VLADIMIR NOSEK. + +9, GROSVENOR PLACE, LONDON, +_November_, 1918. + + + +[Illustration: The International Position Of The Czecho Slovak Republic In +Future Europe] + + + +CONTENTS + +I. WHAT is AUSTRIA-HUNGARY? +II. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND THE PRESENT WAR +III. CZECH POLITICAL PARTIES BEFORE AND DURING THE WAR +IV. TERRORISM IN BOHEMIA DURING THE WAR + _(a)_ Czech Deputies and Leaders imprisoned and sentenced to Death; + _(b)_ Monster Trials, Arbitrary Executions, Internment of Civilians, + etc.; + _(c)_ Persecution of the Press; + _(d)_ Reichsrat Interpellations. +V. HOW THE CZECHO SLOVAKS AT HOME ASSISTED THE ALLIES +VI. THE MILITARY AND POLITICAL ACTION OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAKS ABROAD +VII. THE CZECHS AT HOME BEGIN TO SPEAK + _(a)_ Czech Declaration of May 30, 1917; + _(b)_ Courageous Speeches delivered by Czech Deputies in the Reichsrat; + _(c)_ After the Amnesty; + _(d)_ During Peace Negotiations with Russia; + _(e)_ The Constituent Assembly of Prague on January 6, 1918; + _(f)_ The Oath of the Czecho Slovak Nation; + _(g)_ The Slovaks' Attitude; + _(h)_ The Czecho-Slovak National Council in Prague. +VIII. CZECHO-SLOVAK CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER NON-GERMAN NATIONS OF CENTRAL +EUROPE + _(a)_ The Congress of Rome; + _(b)_ The May Manifestations in Prague. +IX. BOHEMIA AS A BULWARK AGAINST PAN-GERMANISM + +APPENDIX OF SOME RECENT DOCUMENTS + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + +I + +WHAT IS AUSTRIA-HUNGARY? + +1. The Habsburg Empire is built upon centuries-old traditions of reaction +and violence. Its present power is chiefly based on the alliance which +Bohemia and Hungary concluded with Austria against the Turkish peril in +1526. The Czechs freely elected the Habsburgs to the throne of Bohemia +which remained a fully independent state, its alliance with Austria and +Hungary being purely dynastic. But soon the Habsburgs began to violate the +liberties of Bohemia which they were bound by oath to observe, and this led +finally to the fateful Czech revolution of 1618. At the battle of the White +Mountain in 1620 the Czechs suffered a defeat and were cruelly punished for +their rebellion. All their nobility were either executed or sent into +exile, and their property confiscated. The country was devastated by the +imperial hordes, and its population was reduced from 3,000,000 to 800,000 +during the Thirty Years' War. + +In 1627 Ferdinand II. greatly curtailed the administrative rights of +Bohemia, yet he did not dare to deprive her entirely of her independence. +In his "Renewed Ordinance of the Land" Ferdinand declared the Bohemian +crown to be hereditary in the House of Habsburg, and reserved legislative +power to the sovereign. But otherwise the historical rights of Bohemia +remained valid, notwithstanding all subsequent arbitrary centralising +measures taken by the Habsburgs. Bohemia's rights were repeatedly +recognised by each succeeding Habsburg. Legally Bohemia is an independent +state to-day. + +The heavy persecutions inflicted upon Bohemia had a disastrous effect upon +her intellectual life and national development which were completely +paralysed until the end of the eighteenth century, when owing to the +humanitarian ideals of those times, and as a reaction against the +Germanising centralistic efforts of Joseph II., the Czechs again began to +recover their national consciousness. This revival marked the beginning of +the Czecho-Slovak struggle for the re-establishment of their independence. +The movement was at first literary, and only in the forties became +political. It was a continuous struggle against reaction and absolutism, +and if the Czecho-Slovaks to-day can boast of an advanced civilisation, it +is only owing to their perseverance and hard endeavours, and not because of +any good-will on the part of the Austrian Government which put every +possible obstacle in their way. + +2. _The present Austria-Hungary_ is primarily a dynastic estate, for the +crown was always its supreme political driving force, although at present +the Habsburgs are mere slaves of their masters, the Hohenzollerns. It is +this characteristic which justifies us in concluding that Austria is an +autocratic state _par excellence_. If there were no other reason, this +should be sufficient to make every true democrat an enemy of Austria. +Furthermore, it is this characteristic which makes us comprehend why the +Habsburg monarchy is fighting side by side with German autocracy and +imperialism against the allied democracies of the world. + +Notwithstanding the so-called constitution which is a mere cloak for +absolutism, the monarch in Austria is emperor by "Divine Right" alone, and +is the absolute master of his subject peoples in virtue of his privileged +position which confers on him an inexhaustible amount of power and +influence. The internal as well as the foreign policy of the monarchy is +directed in the real or supposed interests of the dynasty. The principle +_divide et impera_ is its leading idea in internal politics, and the +increase of dynastic power in foreign policy. The question of war and peace +is decided by the emperor, to whom it also appertains to order matters +concerning the management, leadership and organisation of the whole army. +And though in Hungary the power of the monarch largely depends on the +Budapest Parliament, yet even here the constitutional power of the dynasty +is enormous, the King of Hungary being a governing and legislative factor +by no means inferior to that of the parliament. + +Even when attempts were made at enfranchising the masses (as in 1896 and +finally in 1905), the motive again was purely dynastic. Such constitutional +measures as were taken, only strengthened racial dissensions and were +equally insincere and inefficient. The present constitution of 1867, as +well as the previous constitutions of 1849, 1860 and 1861, was granted by +the crown, to whom it was reserved to reverse or modify the same. The +parliament is absolutely powerless in Austria. It is a mere cloak for +absolutism, since the famous Paragraph 14 provides for absolutist +government by means of imperial decrees without parliament in case of +emergency. The dynasty took ample advantage of this clause during the first +three years of this war when absolutism and terrorism reigned supreme in +the Dual Monarchy. While since 1861 up to the beginning of the war 156 +imperial decrees had been issued, fully 161 have been passed during the +first three years of the present war. + +The arbitrary power of the dynasty is based: upon the organisation of the +army, the leadership of which is entrusted to the Germans; upon the feudal +aristocracy who are the only real Austrians, since they have no +nationality, though they invariably side with the dominant Germans and +Magyars; upon the power of the police who form the chief instrument of the +autocratic government and who spy upon and terrorise the population; upon +the German bureaucrats who do not consider themselves the servants of the +public, but look upon the public as their servant, and whose spirit of +meanness and corruption is so characteristic of the Austrian body politic; +finally, the dynasty relies upon the Catholic hierarchy who hold vast +landed property in Austria and regard it as the bulwark of Catholicism, and +who through Clericalism strive for political power rather than for the +religious welfare of their denomination. In alliance with them are the +powerful Jewish financiers who also control the press in Vienna and +Budapest. Clearly Austria is the very negation of democracy. It stands for +reaction, autocracy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and it is therefore no +exaggeration to say that nobody professing democratic views can reasonably +plead for the preservation of this system of political violence. + +When we remember the enormous power of the dynasty and the political system +which supports it, we understand why in the past Austria has always played +the part of the most reactionary, autocratic and tyrannic state in Europe. +Hopes have indeed been expressed by some Austrophils in the good-will of +the new Austrian Emperor on account of his amiable character. The Slavs +have ample reason to distrust the Habsburgs who have proved to be +treacherous autocrats in the past, and whose records show them as an +incapable and degenerate family. As a political power Kaiser Karl is the +same menace to his subject Slavs as his predecessors. Above all, however, +he is of necessity a blind tool in the hands of Germany, and he cannot +possibly extricate himself from her firm grip. The Habsburgs have had their +chance, but they missed it. By systematic and continuous misgovernment they +created a gulf between the Slavs and themselves which nothing on earth can +remove. Every Habsburg believes he has a "mission" to fulfil. The only +mission left for Kaiser Karl is to abdicate and dissolve his empire into +its component parts. There is no reason whatever why Austria should be +saved for the sake of the degenerate and autocratic Habsburg dynasty. + +3. Let us now examine the much misunderstood racial problems of the Dual +Monarchy. There is no Austrian nation, since there is no Austrian language. +Austria is a mere geographical expression. In fact the Slavs, constituting +the majority of Austrian subjects, would think it an insult to be called +Austrians. During the war they have been treated as subjects of an enemy +state, and to-day they have no part or lot with Austria. The Czech +statesman Rieger once declared that when the Slavs no longer desired the +existence of Austria, no one would be able to save her. And indeed, the +claims raised by the majority of Austria's population to-day mean the death +warrant of the Dual Monarchy. + +To get a clear idea of the racial issue, we will quote the official +Austrian statistics, which tell us that in Austria-Hungary there are: + + AUSTRIA. HUNGARY. BOSNIA. TOTAL. +SLAVS: Million. Million. Million. Million. Million. + +Czecho-Slovaks 6.4 2 -- 8.4 +Yugoslavs 2 3 1.8 6.8 +Poles 5 -- -- 5 +Ruthenes 3.5 0.5 -- 4 + -- 24.2 +LATINS: +Italians 0.8 -- -- 0.8 +Rumanians 0.3 2.9 -- 3.2 + -- 4 +GERMANS 10 2 -- 12 +MAGYARS -- 10 -- 10 +OTHERS 0.6 0.4 -- 1 + + 28.6 20.8 1.8 51.2 + +Thus it appears that the Slavs alone (without Italians and Rumanians) form +about 48 per cent. of the total population. The Germans form only 24 per +cent. of the population of Austria-Hungary, while in Hungary proper the +dominant Magyars do not form quite 50 per cent. of the population. The +predominance of the German and Magyar minorities is apparent not only from +the fact that they hold the reins of government, but also from their unfair +proportional representation in both parliaments. Thus instead of 310 seats +out of 516 in the Reichsrat the Slavs hold only 259, while the Germans hold +232 instead of 160. By gaining 83 Polish votes in return for temporary +concessions, the Germans have thus always been in the majority in the +Reichsrat in the past. In Hungary the proportion is still more unjust. The +Magyars hold 405 seats instead of 210 in the parliament of Budapest out of +the total number of 413, while the non-Magyars, entitled according to their +numbers to 203 seats, have in reality only five representatives in the +"democratic" parliament of Budapest. + +All the above calculations are based upon official statistics which are +grossly exaggerated in favour of the Germans and Magyars. The picture would +be still more appalling if we took into consideration the actual number of +the Slavs. The Austrian census is not based upon the declaration of +nationality or of the native language, but upon the statement of the +"language of communication" ("Umgangsprache"). In mixed districts economic +pressure is brought against the Slavs, who are often workmen dependent upon +German masters and bound to declare their nationality as German for fear +they should lose their employment. From private statistics it has been +found that the percentage of Germans in Bohemia can hardly exceed 20 per +cent, as against 37 per cent, given by the official census. Still greater +pressure is brought to bear against the Slavs by the Magyars in Hungary, +who are famous for the brutal methods in which they indulge for the purpose +of shameless falsification of their official statistics. Thus the actual +strength of the rival races of Austria-Hungary may with every justification +be estimated as follows: + +SLAVS: + Czecho-Slovaks 10 million \ + Yugoslavs 7-1/2 " | + > 27 million + Poles 5 " | + Ruthenes 4-1/2 " / +LATINS: + Italians 1 million \ + > 5 " + Rumanians 4 " / +GERMANS 10 " \ + > 18 " +MAGYARS 8 " / +OTHERS 1 " + __________________________ + 51 million + +4. The rule of the German-Magyar minority over the Slav and Latin majority, +finally established by the introduction of dualism in 1867, was made +possible only by the demoralising system of violence described above. One +race was pitted against the other in Austria and this enabled the Germans +to rule them better, while the Magyars in Hungary, by keeping their subject +races in the darkness of ignorance and by using the most abominable methods +of violence, succeeded in securing for themselves the entire monopoly of +government. The Magyars, who are a race of Asiatic origin, are truly the +faithful descendants of the ancient Huns, and true allies of the Huns +of to-day. + +When Kossuth came to England in 1848, he was hailed as the champion of +freedom and liberty, and entranced his audiences in London and other +English cities by his remarkable oratory. As a matter of fact Kossuth, +though called "the father of the Magyars," was himself a denationalised +Slovak; instead of a "champion of liberty," he might with much greater +justification have been called the champion of the greatest racial tyranny +in Europe. For even then, while fighting for their own liberty and for the +independence of Hungary, the Magyars denied the most elementary political +and national rights to the other peoples living in Hungary. + +In 1910 there were 2,202,165 Slovaks in Hungary according to the official +census. These two million Slovaks had only two deputies (Dr. Blaho and +Juriga), while the 8,651,520 Magyars had 405 seats, so that every Slovak +deputy represented one million electors, every Magyar deputy, however, +21,000. As regards administration, all civil service officials in Hungary +have to be of Magyar nationality. The cases of persecution for political +offences are innumerable: Slovak candidates were prevented from being +elected by being imprisoned. Corruption and violence are the two main +characteristics of all elections in "democratic" Hungary. Even to-day when +some Radicals in Budapest talk of electoral reform, they want suffrage to +be extended to Magyar electors only, and also stipulate that the candidates +shall be of Magyar nationality. No Magyar politicians will ever abandon the +programme of the territorial integrity of Hungary, their aims being +expressed in the words of Koloman Tisza: "For the sake of the future of the +Magyar State it is necessary for Hungary to become a state where only +Magyar is spoken. To gain the Slovaks or to come to a compromise with them +is out of the question. There is only one means which is +effective--Extirpation!" And this aim the Magyars have faithfully kept +before them for at least the last hundred years. + +In the same way also the economic development of the non-Magyar +nationalities has been systematically hampered, because the Magyars know +that economic dependence means also political subservience. The Slovaks and +Rumanians are not allowed to found co-operative societies or banks on the +ground that such institutions "are opposed to the interests of the elements +which hold the Magyar State together." + +But it is not only the non-Magyars who suffer. The Magyar working classes +and the majority of the Magyar country people themselves are deprived of +political rights, for Hungary is ruled by an oligarchy and scarcely 5 per +cent. of the population has the suffrage right. + +We may say, therefore, without exaggeration that to-day Hungary is the most +reactionary country of Europe. Nowhere else (not even in Prussia) have the +people so little power as in Hungary, where the Socialists have not a +single seat in parliament. The "politics" in Hungary are the privilege of a +few aristocrats. Hungary is a typical oligarchic and theocratic state. + +When the Magyars plead to-day for "peace without annexations" and for the +integrity of Hungary, they want to be allowed to continue to oppress and +systematically magyarise the Slavs and Rumanians of Hungary. The triumphant +allied democracies will not, however, stoop before autocratic Hungary. The +dismemberment of Hungary, according to the principle of nationality, is a +_sine qua non_ of a permanent and just peace in Europe. + +5. The four strongest races in Austria-Hungary, then, are the Germans, +Magyars, Czecho-Slovaks and Yugoslavs, numbering from eight to ten million +each. The Austrian Germans and the Magyars occupy the centre, while the +Czecho-Slovaks inhabit the north (Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Slovakia), +and the Yugoslavs ten provinces in the southern part of the monarchy. In +order to facilitate German penetration and domination and to destroy the +last remnants of Bohemia's autonomous constitution, the Austrian Government +attempted, by the imperial decree of May 19, 1918, to dismember Bohemia +into twelve administrative districts with German officials at the head, who +were to possess the same power to rule their respective districts as had +hitherto appertained only to the Governor (Statthalter) of Bohemia, legally +responsible to the Bohemian Diet. + +But not only are the Czecho-Slovaks and Yugoslavs divided between both +halves of the monarchy and among numerous administrative districts which +facilitate German penetration. Dissensions were fomented among the +different parties of these two nations and religious differences exploited. +The Yugoslavs, for instance, consist of three peoples: the Serbs and +Croats, who speak the same language and differ only in religion and +orthography, the former being Orthodox and the latter Catholic; and the +Slovenes, who speak a dialect of Serbo-Croatian and form the most western +outpost of the Yugoslav (or Southern Slav) compact territory. It was the +object of the Austrian Government to exploit these petty differences among +Yugoslavs so as to prevent them from realising that they form one and the +same nation entitled to independence. At the same time Austria has done all +in her power to create misunderstandings between the Slavs and Italians, +just as she tried to create dissensions between Poles and Ruthenes in +Galicia, and between Poles and Czechs in Silesia, well knowing that the +dominant races, the Germans and Magyars, would profit thereby. Fortunately +the war has opened the eyes of the subject peoples, and, as we shall show +later on, to-day they all go hand in hand together against their common +enemies in Berlin, Vienna and Budapest. + + + +II + +AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND THE PRESENT WAR + +In order to understand fully what is at stake in this war and why the Slavs +are so bitterly opposed to the further existence of Austria-Hungary, it is +necessary to study the foreign policy of the Central Powers during the past +century. The "deepened alliance" concluded between Germany and +Austria-Hungary in May, 1918, resulting in the complete surrender of +Austria's independence, is in fact the natural outcome of a long +development and the realisation of the hopes of Mitteleuropa cherished by +the Germans for years past. The scares about the dangers of "Pan-slavism" +were spread by the Germans only in order to conceal the real danger of +Pan-Germanism. + +1. The original theory of Pan-Germanism was the consolidation and unity of +the whole German nation corresponding to the movement of the Italians for +national unity. In fact it was a German, Herder, who first proclaimed the +principle of nationality and declared the nation to be the natural organ of +humanity, as opposed to the idea of the state as an artificial +organisation: "Nothing seems to be so opposed to the purpose of government +as an unnatural extension of territory of a state and a wild confusion of +holding different races and nations under the sway of a single sceptre." It +was this humanitarian philosophy recognising the natural rights of all +nations, great or small, to freedom which inspired the first Czech +regenerators such as Dobrovsky, Jungman and Kollar. + +The legitimate claims of the Germans to national unity became unjust and +dangerous for Europe when the Germans began to think of subduing the whole +of Central Europe to their hegemony, which meant the subjugation of some +100 million Slavs and Latins. At first it was Austria which, as the head of +the former Holy Roman Empire, and the traditional bulwark of Germany in the +east (Osterreich--an eastern march), aspired to be the head of the +Pan-German Empire. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Austrian Emperor +became the head of the German Confederation. Prussia at that time entirely +gave way and left the leadership to Metternich's system of absolutism. + +By and by, it became obvious that Austria was, on account of her non-German +population, internally weak, condemned to constant employment of violence +and reaction, and therefore unfit to stand at the head of a strong modern +Pan-Germany. Prussia therefore, as the greatest of the homogeneous German +states, became Austria's rival and was accepted by the Frankfurt Assembly +as the leader of the Confederation. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia +ended in 1866, when after Austria's defeat the clever diplomacy of Bismarck +turned the rivalry between Austria and Prussia into friendship. Since the +Germans in Austria began to feel their impotence in the face of the growing +Slav power, a year later the centralising efforts of the Habsburgs were +finally embodied in the system of dualism which gave over the Slavs and +Italians in Austria to German hegemony and the Slavs and Rumanians in +Hungary to Magyar tyranny. For the support of this hegemony the Austrian +Germans and Magyars, whose ambitions are identical with those of Germany, +were entirely dependent on Berlin. Thus Austria-Hungary became inevitably +Germany's partner and vanguard in the south-east. Finally, the present war +was started by the Germans and Magyars with the object of achieving the +ambitious plans preached and expounded by Pan-German writers for years +past. The Germans wanted at all costs to become the masters of Central +Europe, to build an empire from Berlin to Bagdad, and finally to strike for +world domination. + +2. In this turn of events Magyar influence played a greater part than might +be thought. Already in 1848 Kossuth defined the Hungarian foreign policy as +follows:-- + + "The Magyar nation is bound to maintain the most cordial relations with + the free German nation and help it in safeguarding Western + civilisation." + +And while the Hungarian Slavs were prohibited from attending the Pan-Slav +Congress held in Prague in 1848, the Magyars sent two delegates to +Frankfurt in order to give practical expression to the above Magyar policy. + +The value of Hungary for the Pan-German plans has been expressed by +Friedrich List who, in 1862, dreamt of "a powerful oriental German-Magyar +Empire," and declared: + + "The way towards the realisation of this plan runs through Hungary, and + while without Hungary we can do nothing, with her aid we can do + everything. Hungary is for Germany the clue to Turkey and the Near + East, and at the same time a bulwark against a superior power from the + north." + +The Magyars realised from the beginning the importance of an understanding +between themselves and Prussia, and they directed their foreign policy +accordingly. The setting up of dualism in 1867, which finally established +the German-Magyar hegemony in Austria-Hungary in the interests of Prussia, +was the work of two Magyars--Julius Andrassy and Francis Deak, who took +advantage of Austria's defeat at Sadova to further their interests. In +1870, when Vienna contemplated revenge against Prussia, the Magyars again +intervened in favour of Prussia. When questioned as to Hungary's attitude, +Andrassy, then Premier, declared in the Hungarian Parliament that under no +circumstances would he allow any action against Prussia, and exerted all +his influence in Vienna to that effect. It was also due mainly to Magyar +influence that all attempts of the Czechs to weaken German influence in +Austria were frustrated. Francis Joseph always promised to be crowned King +of Bohemia when he wished to placate the Czechs in times of stress for +Austria: in 1861, 1865, 1870 and 1871. But he never carried out his +promises. In this he was guided not only by considerations of dynastic +interest, but also by the advice of the Magyars. + +But the most decisive and fateful exercise of Magyar influence upon +Austria's foreign policy occurred in 1879, when the Austro-German Alliance +was finally concluded. This was equally the work of Bismarck, who spared +the defeated Austria in order to make an ally of her, and of a +Magyar--Count Andrassy--who from 1871 to 1879 was the Austro-Hungarian +Foreign Minister. It was this Magyar help which made Bismarck utter words +of gratitude and declare in 1883: + + "Our political judgment leads us to the conviction that German and + Magyar interests are inseparable." + +It is true that there always was a Magyar opposition against Austria +(though never against Prussia). But this opposition was used as a weapon to +extort concessions from Austria. At the bottom of their hearts, however, +the Austrian Germans were always at one with the Magyars in their common +desire to oppress the Slavs. And the responsibility of Count Tisza for the +present world catastrophe is just as great as that of the Kaiser himself. + +3. The Czechs saw clearly the progress of events. Bismarck was well aware +of the importance of Bohemia, for he declared that the master of Bohemia +would become the master of Europe. He did not desire to annex any Austrian +territory, since he knew that sooner or later Germany would swallow the +whole of Austria, as she has done in this war. Indeed, at the Congress of +Berlin in 1878, Bismarck did not conceal his intention of using +Austria-Hungary in Germany's interests. At the bottom of his heart he was +at one with the radical Pan-German writers, like Lagarde, Treitschke, +Mommsen, Naumann and others, who openly declared that the Slavs should be +subjugated and the Czechs, as the most courageous and therefore the most +dangerous of them, crushed. + +The Slavs always bitterly opposed the encroachments of Germanism, and saw +in it their chief enemy. The Czech leader Palacky rejected the invitation +to Frankfurt in 1848 and summoned a Slav Congress to Prague. It is true +that Palacky at that time dreamt of an Austria just to all her nations. He +advocated a strong Austria as a federation of nations to counterbalance +Pan-Germanism. Yet at the same time Palacky has proved through his history +and work that Bohemia has full right to independence. He was well aware +that a federalistic and just Austria would have to grant independence to +the Czecho-Slovaks. But later on he gave up his illusions about the +possibility of a just Austria, when he saw that she abandoned the Slavs +entirely to German-Magyar hegemony, and declared that Bohemia existed +before Austria and would also exist after her. In 1866 he wrote: + + "I myself now give up all hope of a long preservation of the Austrian + Empire; not because it is not desirable or has no mission to fulfil, + but because it allowed the Germans and Magyars to grasp the reins of + government and to found in it their racial tyranny." + +Exasperated by the pact of dualism which the Czechs never recognised, +Palacky went to Moscow and on his return declared: + + "I have already said that I do not cherish any hopes of the + preservation of Austria, especially since the Germans and Magyars made + it the home of their racial despotism; the question therefore as to + what will happen to the Slavs hitherto living in Austria is not without + significance. Without attempting to prophesy future events which for a + mortal man it is difficult to foreshadow, I may say from my inner + conviction that the Czechs as a nation, if they fell under the + subjection of either Russia or Prussia, would never rest contented. It + would never fade from their memory that according to right or justice + they should be ruled by themselves, that is by their own government and + by their own sovereign. They would regard the Prussians as their deadly + enemies on account of their germanising rage. But as to the Russians, + the Czechs would regard them as their racial brothers and friends; they + would not become their faithful subjects, but their true allies and, if + need be, vanguards in Europe." + +Moreover, modern Czech politicians always clearly saw what the Germans were +aiming at. Dr. Kramar, for instance, foresaw the present situation with +remarkable perspicacity. In the _Revue de Paris_ for February, 1899, he +wrote on "The Future of Austria," declaring that her subject nationalities +should be on guard lest she should become a vassal of Germany and a bridge +for German expansion into Asia: + + "The Austrian Germans wish to see Austria subordinated to German + policy, and with the help of a subordinated Austria, the sphere of + German political and economic activity would extend from Hamburg to + Asia Minor." + +Similarly also he warned Great Britain in the _National Review_ for +October, 1902, that if Pan-German plans were realised, + + "Austria would become an appanage of Germany as regards international + relations, and the policy of Europe would be obliged to reckon, not + with a free and independent Austria, but, owing to Austria's + unconditional self-surrender, with a mighty, almost invincible + Germany.... The Pan-Germans are right, the Czechs are an arrow in the + side of Germany, and such they wish to and must and will remain. Their + firm and unchangeable hope is that they will succeed in making of + themselves an impenetrable breakwater. They hope for no foreign help; + they neither wish for it nor ask for it. They have only one desire, + namely, that non-German Europe may also at last show that it + understands the meaning of the Bohemian question." + +In 1906 Dr. Kramar wrote again in detail on the plans of German domination +in Central Europe, in the Adriatic and in the Near East. In a book on Czech +policy he declared that to prevent the realisation of these plans was the +vital interest of the Czech nation: "A far-seeing Austrian policy should +see in the Czech nation the safeguard of the independence of the State." +And then followed the famous passage which formed part of the "evidence" +quoted against him during his trial for high treason: + + "If Austria-Hungary continues her internal policy by centralising in + order to be better able to germanise and preserve the German character + of the State, if she does not resist all efforts for the creation of a + customs and economic union with Germany, the Pan-German movement will + prove fatal for her. To preserve and maintain a state the sole ambition + of which was to be a second German State after Germany, would be + superfluous not only for the European Powers, but also for the + non-German nations of Europe. _And if, therefore, a conflict should + break out between the German and the non-German world and the definite + fate of Austria should be at stake, the conflict would surely not end + with the preservation of Austria_." + +And on November 10, 1911, he admitted that his former hopes for the +destruction of the Austro-German Alliance and a rapprochement between +Austria and Russia proved to be in vain: + + "... _I had an aim in life and a leading idea. The events of the + annexation crisis have proved calamitous for the policy which I + followed all my life_. I wished to do everything which lay within the + compass of my small powers, to render my own nation happy and great in + a free, powerful and generally respected Austria ... _I have always + resented the fact that when they talked about Austria people really + meant only the Germans and Magyars, as if the great majority of Slavs + upon whom rest the biggest burdens did not exist_. But now--and no + beautiful words can make me change my opinion on that point--an + entirely independent policy has become unthinkable, because the only + path which remains open to Vienna leads by way of Berlin. Berlin will + henceforward direct our policy." + +4. To offer any proofs that the present war was deliberately planned and +provoked by the Governments of Berlin, Vienna and Budapest seems to me +superfluous. Who can to-day have any doubt that Austria wilfully provoked +the war in a mad desire to crush Serbia? Who can doubt that Austria for a +long time entertained imperialist ambitions with respect to the Balkans +which were supported by Berlin which wished to use Austria as a "bridge to +the East"? + +No more damning document for Austria can be imagined than Prince +Lichnowsky's Memorandum. He denounces Austria's hypocritical support of the +independence of Albania. In this respect he holds similar views to those +expressed in the Austrian delegations of 1913 by Professor Masaryk, who +rightly denounced the Austrian plan of setting up an independent Albania on +the plea of "the right of nationalities" which Austria denied her own +Slavs. Professor Masaryk rightly pointed out at that time that an outlet to +the sea is a vital necessity for Serbia, that the Albanians were divided +into so many racial, linguistic and religious groups and so uncivilised +that they could not form an independent nation, and that the whole project +was part and parcel of Austria's anti-Serbian policy and her plans for the +conquest of the Balkans. Prince Lichnowsky admits that an independent +Albania "had no prospect of surviving," and that it was merely an Austrian +plan for preventing Serbia from obtaining an access to the sea. + +He apparently disagrees with the idea of "the power of a Ruling House, the +dynastic idea," but stands up for "a National State, the democratic idea." +That in itself seems to indicate that he is in favour of the destruction of +Austria and its substitution by new states, built according to the +principle of nationality. He admittedly disagrees with the views of Vienna +and Budapest, and criticises Germany's alliance with Austria, probably +knowing, as a far-sighted and well-informed politician, that +Austria-Hungary cannot possibly survive this war. + +Prince Lichnowsky frankly admits that the murder of the Archduke Francis +Ferdinand was a mere pretext for Vienna, which in fact had resolved on an +expedition against Serbia soon after the second Balkan war by which she +felt herself humiliated. In scathing terms he denounces the Triple Alliance +policy and thinks it a great mistake that Germany allied herself with the +"Turkish and Magyar oppressors." And though he says that it was Germany +which "persisted that Serbia must be massacred," he makes it quite clear +that it was Vienna that led the conspiracy against Europe, since on all +questions Germany "took up the position prescribed to her by Vienna." The +policy of espousing Austria's quarrels, the development of the +Austro-German Alliance into a pooling of interests in all spheres, was "the +best way of producing war." The Balkan policy of conquest and strangulation +"was not the German policy, but that of the Austrian Imperial House." What +better testimony is required to prove that Austria was not the blind tool, +but the willing and wilful accomplice of Germany? + + + +III + +CZECH POLITICAL PARTIES BEFORE AND DURING THE WAR + +The Czech policy during the past seventy years has always had but one +ultimate aim in view: the re-establishment of the ancient kingdom of +Bohemia and the full independence of the Czecho-Slovak nation. From the +very beginning of their political activity Czech politicians resisted the +Pan-German scheme of Central Europe. They preached the necessity of the +realisation of liberty and equality for all nations, and of a federation of +the non-Germans of Central Europe as a barrier against German expansion. + +The chief reason for the failure of their efforts was the fact that they +sometimes had illusions that the Habsburgs might favour the plan of such an +anti-German federation, although the Habsburgs always mainly relied on the +Germans and Magyars and could not and would not satisfy the Czech +aspirations. The Czechs were greatly handicapped in their political +struggle, because they had only just begun to live as a nation and had to +face the powerful German-Magyar predominance, with the dynasty and the +whole state machinery behind them. Moreover, the Czechs had no national +aristocracy like the Poles or Magyars, and their leaders lacked all +political experience and all sense of reality in politics which was so +marked in a state built on deceit and hypocrisy. They continually defended +themselves with declarations about the justice of their claims, satisfied +themselves with empty promises which Austria has never kept, and cherished +vain illusions of obtaining justice in Austria, while Austria was _via +facti_ steadily depriving them of all their rights. On the other hand, it +should be remembered that they were faced with a government that had the +whole powerful German Empire behind it, and that they had to struggle for +freedom in a state where genuine constitutional government and democracy +were unknown. The Czech efforts to obtain some measure of freedom by +struggling for democratic reforms were consistently opposed by the dominant +Germans. To-day, of course, the situation has greatly improved as compared +with the situation seventy years ago. The Czecho-Slovak nation, through its +own work and energy, is a highly advanced and economically self-supporting +and rich nation, and in its struggle for a just resettlement of Central +Europe it has the support not only of all the other non-German nations of +Central Europe, but also of the Entente on whose victory it has staked its +all. The Czecho-Slovaks are resolved not to let themselves be fooled by +Austria any longer and claim full independence from Berlin, Vienna and +Budapest, which alone will safeguard them against the possibility of being +again exploited militarily, economically and politically against their own +interests for a cause which they detest. + +1. Although as early as 1812 the Bohemian Diet (then a close aristocratic +body) demanded the restitution of the rights of the kingdom of Bohemia, the +political activity of the Czechs did not really begin until 1848 when, on +April 8, the emperor issued the famous Bohemian Charter recognising the +rights of Bohemia to independence. It was that year which marked the end of +Metternich's absolutism and in which revolution broke out in Western and +Central Europe, including Hungary and Bohemia. Already at that time the +Czechs counted on the break-up of Austria. Havlicek, who in 1846 began to +publish the first national Czech newspaper, wrote on May 7, 1848, when +inviting the Poles to attend the Pan-Slav Congress in Prague: + + "An understanding between us--the Czecho-Slovaks and the Poles--would + be to the mutual advantage of both nations, especially under the + present circumstances when everything, even the break-up of Austria, + may be anticipated. I am sure that if the government continues to + pursue its present policy, Austria will fall to pieces before next + winter and the Czechs are not going to save her. The Czecho-Slovaks, + Poles and Yugoslavs, united politically and supporting each other, will + surely sooner or later attain their object, which is to obtain full + independence, national unity and political liberty." + +It is characteristic of Austria that during the present war she has +prohibited the circulation of this article written seventy years ago. + +Similarly, also, Palacky in his letter to Frankfurt, explaining why the +Czechs would not attend the Pan-German Parliament, made it clear that he +had no illusions about the good-will of Austria to adopt a just policy +towards her nationalities: + + "In critical times we always saw this state, destined to be the bulwark + against Asiatic invasions, helpless and hesitating. In an unfortunate + blindness this state has never understood its true interests, always + suppressing its moral duty to accord to all races justice and equality + of rights." + +At the Pan-Slav Congress presided over by Palacky, Bakunin, the Russian +revolutionary, openly advocated the dismemberment of Austria in the +interests of justice and democracy, and proposed a free Slav federation in +Central Europe. + +The Pan-Slav Congress, in which also the Poles and Yugoslavs participated, +issued a manifesto to Europe on June 12, 1848, proclaiming the "liberty, +equality and fraternity of nations." It ended prematurely by the outbreak +of an abortive revolt in Prague, provoked by the military, which resulted +in bloodshed and in the re-establishment of reaction and absolutism. + +2. In the first Austrian Parliament of 1848, eighty-eight Czech deputies +formed a united _Nationalist Party_ (later on called the _Old Czech +Party_), led by Palacky, Rieger and Brauner. They formed the Right wing +which stood for democratic and federalist ideals. The Left was formed by +the Germans who stood for centralism and a close union with Germany. Only +an insignificant number of Germans formed the Centre which stood for the +preservation of Austria. + +In October, 1848, fresh troubles broke out in Vienna, partly directed +against the presence of the Czechs. On November 15, the parliament was +summoned to Kremsier, in which the Czechs, Ruthenes, Yugoslavs and some +Poles formed a Slav _bloc_ of 120 members. On December 2, Francis Joseph +ascended the throne, and a constitution was proposed by a parliamentary +committee of which Rieger was a member. The proposal was opposed by the +government, because it defined "the people's sovereignty as the foundation +of the power of the State," and not the dynasty. On March 6, 1849, the +parliament was dissolved and a constitution imposed by an imperial decree. + +The _Czech Radical Democrats_, led by Fric, Sabina and Sladkovsky, who +already in 1848 stood for a more radical policy than that of the Liberal +Nationalists led by Palacky, now again thought of organising an armed +revolt against Austria. But the leaders of the conspiracy were arrested and +sentenced to many years' imprisonment. After the Austrian victories in +Italy and the collapse of the Hungarian revolution, absolutism again +reigned supreme. + +During the ten years that followed, Bach tried, relying upon the army and +the hierarchy, to centralise and germanise the empire. In January, 1850, +Havlicek's _Narodni Noviny_ was suppressed and later, also, three of the +other remaining Czech journals. Palacky openly declared that he abandoned +political activity and Rieger went abroad. Havlicek continued to work for +the national cause under great difficulties, until he was arrested in +December, 1851, and interned without a trial in Tyrol where he contracted +an incurable illness to which he succumbed in 1856. Even as late as 1859 +the Czechs were not allowed to publish a political newspaper. + +3. After the defeats at Magenta and Solferino in 1859, Austria began to see +the impossibility of a continued rule of terrorism and absolutism. Bach was +obliged to resign, and on March 5, 1860, a state council was summoned to +Vienna. Bohemia was represented only by the nobility who had no sympathy +with the Czech national cause, and on September 24 the Rumanian delegate, +Mosconyi, openly deplored the fact that "the brotherly Czech nation was not +represented." + +The era of absolutism was theoretically ended by the so-called "October +Diploma" of 1860, conferring on Austria a constitution which in many +respects granted self-government to Hungary, but ignored Bohemia, although +formally admitting her historical rights. This "lasting and irrevocable +Constitution of the Empire" was revoked on February 26, 1861, when +Schmerling succeeded Goluchowski, and the so-called "February Constitution" +was introduced by an arbitrary decree which in essence was still more +dualistic than the October Diploma and gave undue representation to the +nobility. The Czechs strongly opposed it and sent a delegation on April 14 +to the emperor, who assured them on his royal honour of his desire to be +crowned King of Bohemia. + +In the meantime Dr. Gregr founded the _Narodni Listy_ in Prague in +November, 1860, to support the policy of Rieger, and in January, 1861, the +latter, with the knowledge of Palacky, concluded an agreement with +Clam-Martinic on behalf of the Bohemian nobility, by which the latter, +recognising the rights of the Bohemian State to independence, undertook to +support the Czech policy directed against the centralism of Vienna. The +Bohemian nobility, who were always indifferent in national matters and who +had strong conservative and clerical leanings, concluded this pact with the +Czech democrats purely for their own class interests This unnatural +alliance had a demoralising influence on the Old Czech Party and finally +brought about its downfall. + +The Czechs elected two delegates to the parliament summoned for April 29, +1861, while Hungary and Dalmatia sent none, so that the parliament had 203 +instead of 343 deputies. In the Upper House the Czechs were represented by +Palacky. In the Lower House the Slavs, forming a united body, again found +themselves in a hopeless minority which was absolutely powerless against +the government. In June, 1863, the Czechs decided not to attend the chamber +again, seeing that all hopes of a modification of the constitution in the +sense of the October Diploma were in vain. The government replied by +depriving them of their mandates and by suspending the constitution in +1865. A period of "Sistierung," that is of veiled absolutism, then set in. + +4. In the meantime, a new political group came to the front in Bohemia, +called the Young Czechs. The party was led by Sladkovsky, and had more +democratic leanings than the Old Czechs. In the diet, however, the Czechs +remained united in a single body. The Young Czechs opposed the policy of +passive resistance which the Old Czechs pursued for fully sixteen years, +that is up to 1879. The Young Czechs clearly saw that it enabled Vienna to +rule without the Czechs and against them. The Czechs, of course, still +reckoned upon the break-up of Austria, although, as we shall see later on, +they failed entirely to profit from Austria's difficulties in that period. +In 1865 Rieger openly warned Austria: + + "Those who direct the destinies of Austria should remember that + institutions based on injustice and violence have no duration. If you + desire to save Austria, the whole of Austria, you must make justice the + basis of your policy towards the Slavs. Do not then say that we did not + warn you. _Discite justitiam moniti_." + +In the same sense also Palacky warned the government against dualism, +pointing out that if it were introduced it would inevitably lead to the +break-up of Austria. Seeing that Austria did not listen to his warning, he +later on declared that he no longer believed in the future of Austria, and +added: "We existed before Austria, we shall also exist after her." + +The greatest mistake the Czechs made was when in 1866, after the battle of +Sadova, they thought that Austria would cease to be the bulwark of +Pan-Germanism and would do justice to her subject Slavs, and thus become a +protection against Germany. It is true that Austria did cease to be the +head of the Pan-German Confederation, but instead of becoming a bulwark +against Prussia, she became her faithful ally and obedient tool. The +Czechs, who feared lest they should be annexed by Prussia, failed to grasp +the subtle plans of Bismarck who in a short time succeeded in converting +Austria into Germany's bridge to the East. + +When the victorious Prussians entered Prague in 1866, they issued a +proclamation to the Czechs recognising their right to independence. This +proclamation was probably drafted by the Czech exile J.V. Fric, an ardent +democrat who fled abroad after the abortive revolution of 1848. Fric, who +was a man of keen sense for political reality and a great friend of the +Poles, exerted all his influence with the Czech leaders to proclaim Bohemia +independent, without an armed revolt, simply by means of a plebiscite, as +he was aware that the masses were always thoroughly anti-Austrian and +desired nothing more than independence. He proposed to his +fellow-countrymen to establish a monarchy, with some other dynasty than the +Habsburgs on the throne, preferably the youngest son of the Italian king, +Victor Emmanuel. Even while peace negotiations between Prussia and Austria +were going on, he conducted an active propaganda and distributed a +proclamation all over Bohemia in which he declared himself as "the deadly +enemy of the Habsburg dynasty and of Austrian militarism and bureaucracy": + + "The Hungarians are preparing, the Yugoslavs are ready. Let us come to + a common agreement with them and we shall succeed. And when all the + Austrian nations have been freed they may form a great federation on + the basis of international law which will be an example to Europe. _A + federation without the freedom and independence of the nations who form + part of it is an empty dream. Let him who desires a federation work for + the independence of his nation first_. It is not a question of a + revolution, it is a question of a public proclamation of the Czech + nation so that Europe may realise that we live and what we want. Europe + will surely lend us a helping hand, but she expects us to ask for it. + Let us therefore, my brother Czecho-Slovaks, proclaim aloud, so that + the whole world may hear us: '_We do not want Austria because we + realise that she not only does no good to us, but directly threatens + our very existence. We are able to and want to maintain an independent + state existence without Austria_." + +Unfortunately, however, the Czech leaders at that time did not follow +Fric's advice and, as we have already pointed out, they fell into +Bismarck's trap. + +In November, 1866, the Bohemian Diet uttered a warning against the danger +of dualism, pointing out that Bohemia had the same right to independence as +Hungary. Relying upon the support of the other Slav races of Austria, the +Czechs declared they would never enter the Reichsrat. + +In February, 1867, Beust concluded an agreement with Hungary, and on +December 21 the "December Constitution" was introduced. Thus _dualism_ +became a _fait accompli_. + +5. Exasperated by this step, the Czech leaders visited Moscow in the same +year and fraternised with the Russians, thus showing their hostility to +Austria. In 1868 they published an eloquent declaration, written by Rieger, +declaring that they would never recognise dualism and emphasising Bohemia's +right to independence. When Francis Joseph visited Prague in the same year, +people left the city in crowds, anti-Austrian demonstrations were held +throughout the country, and flowers were laid on the spot where prominent +members of the Bohemian nobility had been executed by the Austrians +in 1621. + +Vienna answered by fierce reprisals. Baron Koller was sent to Prague where +a state of siege was proclaimed. Czech papers were suppressed, and their +editors imprisoned. This only strengthened Czech opposition. The passive +policy of the Old Czechs gained popularity and the Czechs did not even +attend the Bohemian Diet. Finally, when the Franco-Prussian War was +imminent, the dynasty was forced to yield, and Potocki began to negotiate +with the Czechs. + +Meanwhile the Czechs again entered the Bohemian Diet on the day of the +battle of Sedan, August 30, 1870, and issued a declaration of rights with +which also the Bohemian nobility for the first time publicly identified +themselves. On December 8, 1870, the Czechs (without the nobility) +presented the Imperial Chancellor, Beust, with a memorandum on Austrian +foreign policy, declaring their sympathy with France and Russia and +protesting against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and against an +alliance of Austria with Germany. + +In February, 1871, Hohenwart was appointed Minister President with the +object of conciliating the Czechs, and Francis Joseph addressed to them an +imperial proclamation, called the "September Rescript," in which he +declared:-- + + "Remembering the constitutional ('Staatsrechtliche') position of the + Crown of Bohemia and the glory and power which the same has lent to Us + and Our ancestors, remembering further the unswerving loyalty with + which the population of Bohemia at all times supported Our throne, We + gladly recognise the rights of this Kingdom and We are ready to + acknowledge this recognition by Our solemn Royal Oath." + +It is well known, of course, that Francis Joseph did not keep his word and +was never crowned King of Bohemia. + +6. In answer to the rescript, the Czechs formulated their demands in the +so-called "fundamental articles," the main point of which was that the +Bohemian Diet should directly elect deputies to the delegations. The +_Narodni Listy_ declared that the "fundamental articles" meant minimum +demands, and that the Czechs would in any case work "for the attainment of +an independent Czecho-Slovak state, as desired by the whole nation." + +At this stage Berlin and Budapest intervened. The emperor yielded to the +advice of William I. and Andrassy, and signed an unfavourable reply to the +Czech address on October 30, 1871. Czech opposition was now openly directed +against the dynasty. Hohenwart resigned on October 27. In November, Baron +Koller was again appointed Governor of Bohemia and repressive methods of +administration were once more introduced. + +In 1873 elections were held, marked by violence and corruption. +Notwithstanding the passive resistance of Czech deputies, the parliament +continued to meet in Vienna. In 1878 Austria occupied Bosnia and thus +inaugurated the conquest of the Balkans for Germany. In 1879 Count Taaffe +at last induced the Czechs to abandon their policy of "passive resistance" +and to enter the parliament in return for some administrative and other +concessions, including a Czech university. On September 9, the Czechs, +united in a party of fifty-two members, entered the Reichsrat to maintain +their protest against the dual system. + +7. In parliament it became clear that the Old Czech Party, now led by +Rieger, was inclined to be too conservative and too opportunist. In 1887 +the Young Czechs left the national party and entered into opposition. Their +party grew steadily, and during the elections in 1889 gained a decided +victory in the country districts. The Old Czechs finally sealed their fate +when, in 1890, they concluded an unfavourable agreement with the Germans, +called the _punctations_, to the detriment of Czech interests and of the +integrity of Bohemia. This roused popular indignation throughout Bohemia +and brought about the complete collapse of the Old Czech Party. + +At the same time the so-called _"Realist" movement_ originated in Bohemia, +led by Professor Masaryk, Professor Kaizl and Dr. Kramar. It was not a +separate party movement, but a philosophic effort for a regenerated +democratic national policy. The Realists demanded a practical, forward +movement, such as would at last secure independence for the Czechs. In 1890 +the Realists published their programme and joined the Young Czechs. This +meant the end of the political career of Rieger and the Old Czechs. + +8. In parliament the Young Czechs inaugurated a radical anti-German policy. +In 1891 they openly attacked the Triple Alliance, and in 1892 Dr. Menger +called Masaryk a traitor for his outspoken defence of the right of Bohemia +to independence. + +A _Radical movement_ was also started at this time in Bohemia, mainly by +students and advanced workers of the Young Czech Party, which called itself +"Omladina" (Czech word for "youth"). Its object was to rouse the young +generation against Austria. In 1893 anti-dynastic demonstrations were +organised by the "Omladina." A state of siege was proclaimed in Prague and +seventy-seven members of this "secret society" were arrested; sixty-eight +of them, including Dr. Rasin, were condemned for high treason, and +sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. + +In 1893 Professor Masaryk, realising the futility of his efforts against +the encroachments of Germanism, resigned his mandate and devoted his +energies to scientific and philosophical work. In 1900, however, he founded +a party of his own, with a progressive democratic programme. + +In the elections to the Bohemian Diet in 1895, the Young Czechs gained +eighty-nine seats out of ninety-five; in the Moravian Diet seventeen seats +were held by the _People's Party_, corresponding to the Young Czech Party +in Bohemia, thirteen by the Old Czechs and five by the Clericals. In 1896 +Badeni made an attempt at enfranchising the masses; seventy-two additional +deputies were to be elected by universal suffrage. In these elections the +Young Czechs again won in Bohemia. In Moravia the People's Party concluded +a compromise with the Old Czechs and gained fifteen seats, the Socialists +gained three seats and the Clericals one. On entering the parliament the +Czechs again made a declaration of state right. In 1897 Badeni, a Pole, +issued his famous Language Ordinances, asserting the equality of the Czech +and German languages in Bohemia and Moravia. The Germans raised a fierce +opposition, supported by the Socialists, and the Reichsrat became the scene +of violent attempts on the part of the Germans to obstruct sittings by +throwing inkstands at the leader of the House and using whistles and bugles +to make all proceedings impossible. Badeni lost his head and resigned, and +his decrees were rescinded. The dynasty, afraid of a repetition of German +obstruction, gave the Germans a completely free hand in all matters of +government. + +9. Owing to the rapid cultural, economic and industrial development of +Bohemia, the Czech party system began to expand. The _Czecho-Slav Social +Democratic Party_, founded in 1878, began to acquire increasing influence. +At first it was based on purely international socialism, and in 1897 it +even opposed the national Czech demands. Later, seeing the duplicity of +their German comrades who recognised the state right of Finland and +Hungary, but not that of Bohemia, and who openly preached the necessity of +assimilating the Slavs, the Czech Socialists began to identify themselves +more and more with the national struggle for independence. They organised +their own trade unions, which brought them into open conflict with the +Austrian Socialists. This question was discussed at the Socialist +International Conference at Copenhagen in 1910. It is, moreover, on account +of these differences on nationality questions that the various Socialist +parties of Austria have not met since 1905. + +In April, 1898, the _Czech National Social Party_, led by Klofac, was +formed in opposition to the Socialists. It was radically nationalist, and +consisted mainly of workmen, as it was evolved from the workers' +organisation in the Young Czech Party. + +On January 6, 1899, the _Agrarian Party_ was formed. It was chiefly +composed of farmers and peasants. It defended the interests of their class +and acquired considerable influence among them. In national matters it +subscribed to the programme of Bohemian independence, and its organs have +during the present war adopted a courageous anti-Austrian attitude. + +In 1900 the so-called _State Right Party_ was founded by some of the +members of the former "Omladina." It had a radical programme and stood +uncompromisingly against Austria, demanding independence for Bohemia +chiefly on the ground of her historic rights. + +In the elections of 1901 the United Czech Club gained fifty-three seats, +the National Socialists four and the Agrarians five. But the real influence +of the various new parties began to appear only in 1907, after the +introduction of the universal suffrage which deprived the Young Czechs of +their predominance. The Reichsrat elected in 1907 consisted of 257 non-Slav +and 259 Slav members, of whom 108 were Czechs. The result of the election +in Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia was as follows:-- + +28 Agrarians +24 Social Democrats +23 Young Czechs +17 National Catholics +9 Radicals +4 Moravian People's Party +2 Realists +1 Independent Candidate. + +This result showed that the Young Czechs, owing to their deficient +organisation, had lost ground, especially among the country population, +which formed the bulk of the nation. Among the workers Socialist doctrines +were spreading with remarkable rapidity. + +The parliamentary activity of the Czechs soon revealed to them how vain +were their hopes that a new era of democracy was dawning in Austria. They +soon found out that in Austria parliamentary institutions were a mere cloak +for absolutism and that all their efforts were doomed to failure. + +The Czechs were strongly opposed to the annexation of Bosnia. In 1909 +Professor Masaryk gained a world reputation by his courageous defence of +the Yugoslav leaders, who were accused of high treason at Zagreb (Agram). +During the Friedjung trial it was again chiefly due to Professor Masaryk's +efforts that forgeries of the Vienna Foreign Office, intended to discredit +the Yugoslav movement, were exposed and the responsibility for them fixed +on Count Forgach, the Austro-Hungarian minister in Belgrade. Professor +Masaryk clearly saw that Austria aimed at the conquest of the Balkans and +intended at all costs to crush Serbia. + +10. In 1911 new elections to the Reichsrat took place with the following +result for the Czechs:-- + +40 Agrarians +25 Social Democrats +14 Young Czechs +13 National Socialists +7 Radicals +7 Clericals +1 Old Czech +1 Socialist (Centralist). + +The Radicals (four Moravian People's Party, two State Right Party, one +Realist) formed a party of independent deputies with Professor Masaryk at +their head. They demanded full independence for Bohemia, some of them +laying greater stress on her historical rights, some on the natural right +of Czecho-Slovaks to liberty. + +The whole group of Czech deputies stood in opposition against Vienna with +the exception of Kramar, who tried to imitate the Polish positivist policy +in the hope of obtaining concessions in return. But, as we have already +shown in a previous chapter, Dr. Kramar abandoned this policy even before +the war, when he saw how completely Austria was tied to Germany. The bulk +of the Czech people were, of course, always solidly anti-Austrian. During +the Balkan War the Czechs openly showed their sympathies with their brother +Slavs who were struggling for liberty. + +The _Clerical Party_ had comparatively little influence and prestige. All +their deputies (seven) were elected in country districts of Moravia, where +civilisation is comparatively less developed than in Bohemia. In Bohemia +and in the more developed districts of Moravia, people resist the efforts +of the clergy to mix religion with politics. The three million Slovaks in +Hungary, who speak a dialect of Czech and who form with the Czechs a single +Czecho-Slovak nation, had only two deputies (Dr. Blaho and Father Juriga), +and were without any influence in the Budapest Parliament. + +11. Although many Czech politicians foresaw that Austria's anti-Serbian +policy in the Balkans and her increasing dependence on Germany must lead to +war, yet on the whole the Czechs were not prepared for this contingency. +The Reichsrat was closed when war broke out, and the Diet of Bohemia had +been replaced by an Imperial Commission in 1913. War was declared by +Austria against the will of the Slavs, and yet they did not dare to +protest, as an organised revolution was impossible in view of the presence +of German troops and of the perfect police spy system in Austria. Two +German divisions would have been sufficient to suppress the best organised +revolutionary movement in Bohemia. + +The immediate effect of the declaration of war was the unity of the whole +Czech nation. One of the leaders, Professor Masaryk, escaped abroad, and is +at the head of the Czecho-Slovak Government, recognised by the Allies as +the trustee and representative of the Czecho-Slovak nation. + +Political activity was of course out of the question until the Reichsrat +reopened on May 30, 1917. Before that date there was an absolute reign of +terror in Bohemia. Some of the leading Czech newspapers were suspended soon +after the outbreak of the war. The few Slovak papers published in Hungary +were suppressed at the same time. + +Those newspapers which survived were subject to strict censorship and were +compelled to publish leading articles written by government officials and +supplied to them by the police. Dr. Kramar, one of the most prominent Czech +leaders, his colleague Dr. Rasin, and five National Socialist deputies were +thrown into prison, and some of them even sentenced to death. + +The effect of these persecutions was that all the Czecho-Slovaks became +unanimous in their desire to obtain full independence of Austria-Hungary. +Old party differences were forgotten and some of the Czech deputies who had +formerly been opportunist in tendency, such as Dr. Kramar and the Agrarian +ex-minister Prasek, now at last became convinced that all hopes of an +anti-German Austria were futile, that Austria was doomed, as she was a +blind tool in the hands of Germany, and that the only way to prevent the +ten million Czecho-Slovaks from being again exploited in the interests of +German imperialism was to secure their complete independence. On entering +the Reichsrat on May 30, 1917, all the Czech deputies, united in a single +"Bohemian Union," made a unanimous declaration that it was their aim to +work for the union of all Czechs and Slovaks in an independent, democratic +state. To-day Dr. Kramar is in complete agreement with the Radicals who +formerly were his most bitter opponents. In fact four Czech nationalist +parties (the Young Czech, Realist, State Right and Moravian People's +Parties) united in February, 1918, as a single body under the name of "The +Czech State-Right Democracy." The president of its executive is the former +Young Czech leader Dr. Kramar, who was sentenced to death in 1916, but +released in July, 1917. The executive committee of the new party included +all the leaders of the four former parties, namely, Dr. Stransky, Dr. +Herben, M. Dyk, Professor Drtina, and others. + +In their proclamation published in the _Narodni Listy_ of February 10, +1918, the executive declared that: + + "The chief aim of the new party will be to engage in a common national + effort for the creation of an independent Bohemian State, the + fundamental territory of which will be composed of the historical and + indivisible crown-lands of Bohemia and of Slovakia. The Bohemian State + will be a democratic state. All its power will come from the people. + And as it will come from the Czech people, it will be just towards all + nationalities, towards all citizens and classes." + +In a speech to the Young Czech Party before its dissolution, Dr. Kramar +openly declared that "at the moment of the outbreak of the war it became +quite clear that, despite all tactics of opportunism, our party remained +true to the programme of Czech independence. It became at once evident to +all of us that _the chapter of our former policy was forever closed for +us_. We felt with our whole soul that the Czech nation would not go through +the sufferings of the world war only to renew the pre-war tactics of a slow +progress towards that position to which we have full historical rights as +well as the natural rights of a living and strong nation...." And again, in +an article in the _Narodni Listy_ of December 25, 1917, Kramar wrote under +the heading "By Order of the Nation": + + "We have sought with utmost sacrifice to find a compromise between our + just claims and the international situation which was unfavourable to + us. The war has completely changed all our policy, removing the + possibility of a compromise to which we might have been disposed, and + we cannot once more roll up our flag now so proudly unfurled, and put + it aside for the next occasion." + +As we shall show also later on, there is not the least doubt that the +necessity for the independence of Bohemia was proclaimed not by a few +extremists, but by all the Czech parties with the approval of the +entire nation. + +When Kramar in 1917 again took over the leadership of the Young Czech +Party, which led to the amalgamation of four nationalist parties, a change +took place also in the leadership of the Czech Social Democratic Party +which hitherto was in the hands of a few demagogues and defeatists, such as +Smeral, who dominated the majority of the members. The return of the +Socialist Party to its revolutionary traditions and its entire approval of +the Bohemian state right and the national policy of Czecho-Slovak +independence means a complete and absolute consolidation of the whole +Czech nation. + +As the Social Democrats became quite loyal to the Czech cause, the National +Socialist Party lost its _raison d'etre_. Owing to the great sufferings of +the working class during the war, it became imbued with Socialist ideas. + +On April 1, 1918, the Czech National Socialist Party held its eighth annual +conference in Prague, at which it adopted a resolution endorsing +international Socialism and changing its name to "The Czech Socialist +Party." The conference was attended also by two representatives of the +Czecho-Slav Social Democratic Party, J. Stivin and deputy Nemec. The +National Socialist leader, deputy Klofac, welcomed the representatives of +the Social Democrats "whom we have for years past been struggling against, +but with whom the trials of this war have united us." He declared that his +party accepted the Socialist programme and would join the new Socialist +International. On September 6, 1918, the executive committees of the two +parties elected a joint council. Its object is to work for the +consolidation of the Czech working classes and for the formation of a +united Czech Labour Party, composed of Social Democrats as well as of the +former National Socialists. A similar process of consolidation is taking +place also among the other parties, so that soon there will probably be +only three Czech parties, on the basis of class difference, viz. +Socialists, Agrarians and Democratic Nationalists (_bourgeoisie_), all of +whom will stand behind the programme of full Czecho-Slovak independence. + +The most significant demonstration of the Czech national sentiment took +place at Prague on January 6, 1918, at a meeting of all the Czech deputies +of the Reichsrat and of the diets of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia, +with which we deal in another chapter, and at which a resolution was +unanimously carried demanding full independence and representation at the +peace conference. + +Finally, on July 13, 1918, a National Council or Committee was formed in +Prague on which all the parties are represented and which may rightly be +described as part of the Provisional Government of Bohemia. + +The whole Czech nation to-day is unanimously awaiting the victory of the +Entente, from which it expects its long-cherished independence. The +Czecho-Slovaks are only waiting for a favorable opportunity to strike the +death-blow at the Dual Monarchy. + + + +IV + +TERRORISM IN BOHEMIA DURING THE WAR + +Austria-Hungary declared war not only on her enemies outside her frontiers, +but also on her internal enemies, on her own Slav and Latin subjects. From +the very first day of war terrorism reigned supreme in Bohemia, where the +Austrian Government behaved as in an enemy country. Three political parties +(the National Socialist, Radical and Realist Parties) were dissolved and +their organs suppressed. Fully three-quarters of all Czech journals and all +Slovak journals were suspended. Political leaders were arrested, +imprisoned, and some of them even sentenced to death. Many leaders have +been imprisoned as hostages in case an insurrection should break out. Over +20,000 Czech civilians have been interned merely for being "politically +suspect," and about 5000 were hanged in an arbitrary way by military +tribunals, since juries had been abolished by an imperial decree. Other +Slav districts were no better off: the Polish Socialist deputy Daszynski +stated in the Reichsrat that 30,000 persons were hanged in Galicia alone, +and another deputy stated that the number of Slavs (Austrian subjects) who +were executed by Austria exceeded 80,000. Czech troops were marched to the +trains watched by German soldiers like prisoners of war. Thousands of them +were massacred at the front. The property of those who surrendered was +confiscated, while the families of those Czech leaders who escaped abroad +were brutally persecuted. It is impossible for us to give a detailed +description of all the persecutions committed by Austria on the +Czecho-Slovaks, but the following is a brief summary of them:-- + +_(a) Czech Deputies and Leaders imprisoned and sentenced to Death_ + +The most important perhaps was _the case of Dr. Kramar,_ one of the most +moderate of the Czech leaders. Dr. Kramar was arrested on May 21, 1915, on +a charge of high treason as the leader of the Young Czechs; together with +him were also arrested his colleague, deputy Dr. Rasin, Mr. Cervinka, an +editor of the _Narodni Listy_, and Zamazal, an accountant. On June 3, 1916, +all four of them were sentenced to death, although no substantial proofs +were produced against them. Subsequently, however, the sentence was +commuted to long terms of imprisonment, but after the general amnesty of +July, 1917, they were released. Among the reasons for which they were +imprisoned and sentenced to death were the following, as given in the +official announcement, published in the Austrian press on January 4, 1917: + +Dr. Kramar before the war was "the leader of Pan-Slav propaganda and of the +Russophil movement in Bohemia." He was also alleged to have kept up a +connection with the pro-Ally propaganda conducted by the Czecho-Slovaks and +their friends abroad during the war, and the Czech military action against +Austria on the side of the Entente. Dr. Kramar was further blamed for the +"treasonable" behaviour of Czech regiments who voluntarily surrendered to +Russia and Serbia, and for the anti-German sentiments cherished by the +Czecho-Slovaks for centuries past. Obviously in striking Dr. Kramar Austria +meant to strike at the Czech nation. The "proofs" for the high treasonable +activity of Dr. Kramar before and during the war were the following:[1] + +(1) Dr. Kramar was (before the war) in communication with Brancianov, +Bobrinski, Denis, Masaryk, Pavlu and others, who now preach the +dismemberment of Austria-Hungary. + +(2) In his articles in the _Narodni Listy_, published during the war, Dr. +Kramar advocated the liberation of small nations as proclaimed by the +Entente. His organ, "the _Narodni Listy_, laid special stress on news +favourable to our enemies and on the state of disruption of Austria, and +indirectly invited Czechs to passive resistance." + +(3) A copy of _La Nation Tcheque_ was found in Dr. Kramar's pocket at the +time of his arrest. + +(4) Dr. Kramar had a conversation with the Italian consul in April, 1915, +which is "an important cause of suspicion." + +(5) In a letter to the Governor of Bohemia, Prince Thun, Dr. Kramar +admitted that, always faithful to his political principles, he refrained +from everything that might appear as approval of the war. + +This was the evidence brought up against Kramar, on the ground of which he +was to be hanged. These are the "proofs" of his responsibility for the +distribution of treasonable Russian proclamations in Bohemia, repeated +manifestations of sympathy with the enemy, and the refusal of Czech +deputies to take part in any declarations or manifestations of loyalty. + +Equally characteristic is also _the case of the National Socialist leader, +deputy Klofac_, who was arrested in September, 1914. Owing to lack of +proofs the trial was repeatedly postponed, while Klofac was left in prison. +A formal charge was brought against him only when the Reichsrat was about +to open in May, 1917, so as to prevent him from attending the meeting. +Nevertheless he was released after the amnesty of July, 1917. Writing in +the _Narodni Politika_ about his experience in prison, deputy Klofac says: + + "Many educated and aged political prisoners were not allowed out to + walk in the yard for five months or more, which is contrary to all + regulations. They were also not allowed to read books given to them by + the judge, and they had to do the lowest work. One student who refused + to wash the floor was beaten and confined to a dark cell. No wonder + that many committed suicide. Dr. Vrbensky could tell how he used to get + excited by the cry of the ill-treated prisoners. Even his nerves could + not stand it. It is quite comprehensible, therefore, that Dr. Scheiner + (the president of the 'Sokol' Union) in such an atmosphere was + physically and mentally broken down in two months. Dr. Kramar and Dr. + Rasin also had an opportunity of feeling the brutality of Polatchek and + Teszinski. In the winter we suffered from frosts, for there was no + heating. Some of my friends had frozen hands. We resisted the cold by + drilling according to the Mueller system. This kept us fit and saved us + from going to the prison doctor, Dr. A. Prinz, who was a Magyar and + formerly a doctor in Karlsbad. If a prisoner went to this 'gentleman,' + he did not ask after his illness, but after his nationality, and for + the reason of his remand imprisonment. On hearing that a prisoner was + Czech and on remand for Par. 58_c_ (high treason), he only hissed: 'You + do not want any medicine. It would be wasted, for in any case you will + be hanged.'" + +Besides Klofac, the following four National Socialist deputies were also +imprisoned: Choc, Burival, Vojna and Netolicky. The accused were condemned +on July 30, 1916, for "failing to denounce Professor Masaryk's +revolutionary propaganda." + +_Professor Masaryk_, who escaped abroad in 1915, was sentenced to death in +Austria in December, 1916. Unable to reach him, the Austrian Government +revenged themselves on his daughter, Dr. Alice Masaryk, whom they +imprisoned. Only after an energetic press campaign abroad was she released. +A similar fate also met the wife of another Czech leader, Dr. Benes, who +escaped abroad in the autumn of 1915 and became secretary general of the +Czecho-Slovak National Council. + +_Dr. Scheiner_, president of the "Sokol" Gymnastic Association, was +imprisoned, but was again released owing to lack of proofs. A similar fate +also met the Czech Social Democratic leader _Dr. Soukup_, who was for some +time kept in prison. + +_(b) Monster Trials, Arbitrary Executions, Internment of Civilians, etc_. + +A notorious reason for imprisonment, and even execution, was the possession +of the so-called Russian Manifesto dropped by Russian aeroplanes, being a +proclamation of the Tsar to the people of Bohemia promising them the +restoration of their independence. Mr. Matejovsky, of the Prague City +Council, and fifteen municipal clerks were sentenced to many years' +imprisonment for this offence in February, 1915. In May, 1915, six persons, +among them two girls, were condemned to death in Kyjov, Moravia, for the +same offence. On the same charge also sixty-nine other persons from Moravia +were brought to Vienna and fifteen of them sentenced to death. One of the +Czech girls who were executed for this offence was a Miss Kotikova, aged +twenty-one, who, according to the _Arbeiter Zeitung_ of September 8, 1917, +refused to say from whom she had received the manifesto, and through her +heroic attitude saved the lives of others. + +Without a fair trial and without evidence, the editor of the National +Socialist organ _Pokrok_ in Prostejov, Mr. Joseph Kotek, was sentenced to +death on Christmas Eve of 1914. The sentence was passed at noon, confirmed +at half-past four and carried out at half-past six. As no one could be +found to act as hangman, Kotek was shot. The reason given for the verdict +was that the accused editor of the _Pokrok_, which was suppressed as being +dangerous to the State, delivered a speech at a meeting of a co-operative +society in which he said that all Czechs were unanimous that they knew that +Austria was losing the war and that they prayed to God that her downfall +might be soon. He was further alleged to have said that it was doubtful how +Europe would be divided after the war, but that in any case the +Czecho-Slovak countries would be made independent as a wedge between +Germany and Austria, and that if Germany won the Czechs would be +germanised, like the Poles in Germany. The accused admitted that he did +speak about the reorganisation of Europe, but not in the words used by the +prosecution. But, as the _Arbeiter Zeitung_ said, even if he did say what +the prosecution alleged, as a civilian he should never have been sentenced +to death by a military tribunal. According to Czech papers, Kotek was +buried among ordinary criminals outside the cemetery. The grave of the +innocent martyr was not even marked with his name, and his wife was not +allowed to visit it, because the military authorities forbade the sexton of +the church to allow any one to see the graves of those executed for +high treason. + +_Dr. Preiss_, the manager of the Czech bank, Zivnostenska Banka, which has +its branches in Galicia, Rumania, Serbia and elsewhere, and four of his +colleagues were imprisoned, because the Czechs would not subscribe to +Austrian war loans and Dr. Preiss had done nothing to induce them to do so. + +As regards the horrors of the internment camps, in which over 20,000 +innocent Czechs, men, women and children, were confined, we will only quote +the revelations of the Czech National Socialist deputy Stribrny, who +declared in the Reichsrat on June 14, 1917: + + "This war was begun by the Austrian Government without the consent of + the Austrian Parliament, against the will of the Czech people. + + "In Bohemia, the most brutal cruelties have been perpetrated by the + Austrian authorities against the Czech population. An anonymous + denunciation suffices to bring about the arrest and imprisonment of any + Czech man, woman or child. Thousands of Czech citizens have simply been + seized and placed in internment camps on the ground that their + political opinions are dangerous to the existence of Austria. + + "Such prisoners were led away from their homes handcuffed and in + chains. They included women, girls and old grey-haired men. They were + conveyed from their homes to internment camps in filthy cattle trucks + and were cruelly ill-treated with a strange persistence. On one + occasion forty-three Czechs, who were being conveyed to a camp of + internment, were killed on the way by a detachment of Honveds + (Hungarian militia) which was escorting them to their place of + imprisonment. + + "The conditions under which the Czechs were interned at the Talerhof + Camp, near Graz, were absolutely outrageous. They were beaten and + tortured on their way there. Immediately after their arrival many were + tied to stakes and kept thus day and night in absolutely indescribable + sanitary conditions. Many were done to death by their guards. When the + thermometer showed 20 degrees of frost, old men, women and girls were + left to sleep in the open air, and mortality increased amongst them to + a frightful extent. Two thousand unhappy victims of Austria's brutal + tyranny lie buried in the cemetery attached to the Talerhof Camp of + internment. Of these, 1200 died of epidemics." + +Other information concerning the same camp of Talerhof fully corroborates +this statement. In a letter to his friends, a Czech interned at Talerhof +wrote as follows: + + "Many of my friends died from bayonet wounds; out of 12,000 at least, + 2000 have so perished. The majority of us did not know why we were + interned. Many were hanged without a trial on mere denunciation. Human + life had no value for them. The soldiers had orders to strike us with + bayonets for the slightest movement.... + + "We were covered with insects. One day an order was given that + everybody should undress to be rubbed with paraffin. Some ladies who + objected were undressed by force before our eyes, since men and women + slept together, and the soldiers rubbed them with paraffin. + + "A Ruthene who protested against the ill-treatment of women, who were + forced to do the lowest work, was bayonetted. He was lying for five + days between two barracks more dead than alive. His face and body were + all green and covered with lice and his hands were bound. Then the + Austrian officers and soldiers ill-treated him till he died." + +In consequence of the general political amnesty, over 100,000 political +prisoners in Austria were released. Thousands of them emerged from prison +or internment camps reduced to mere skeletons by the systematic lack +of food. + +According to reports published in the Austrian press, one of the Ukrainian +prisoners, named Karpinka, was left in solitary confinement without any +fire in winter, so that his feet were frost-bitten and had to be amputated. + +A Czech named Jary, who was condemned to twelve years' hard labour, came +out with consumption contracted through the rigour of his imprisonment. +Many others were reduced to such weakness through starvation that they had +to be carried out of the prison. + +(c) _Persecution of the Press_ + +Among the Czech journals suppressed in Bohemia at the beginning of the war, +the following deserve to be especially mentioned: + +_Ceske Slovo_, organ of the National Socialist Party; the editors have been +imprisoned. _Cas_ ("Times"), organ of Professor Masaryk (Realist Party); +the editors Dusek and Hajek were imprisoned. _Samostatnost_, organ of the +State Right (Radical) Party; the editors were imprisoned or sent to +the front. + +The _Narodni Listy_ (Kramar's organ) was twice suspended, and in May, 1918, +suppressed altogether because it "fostered sympathies for the Entente." + +The _Lidove Noviny_, organ of Dr. Stransky (Moravian People's Party), was +also several times suspended during the war. + +All Socialist journals were suppressed except _Pravo Lidu_ and _Rovnost_. + +According to the _Wiener Zeitung_, seventy-eight Czech journals were +suspended during the months of April, May and June, 1916, alone. All Slovak +newspapers were also suppressed. + +As regards censorship, we need only mention that even speeches delivered in +the Austrian Parliament were censored in the press. The sense of the +speeches delivered by Allied statesmen was invariably distorted and +declarations in favour of Czecho-Slovak independence were suppressed. +Foreign newspapers were not allowed to be quoted; and the journals were +forced to publish unsigned articles supplied to them by the police.... + +The Union of Czech Journalists declared on April 25, 1917 + + "We protest against the practice prevailing in Prague as against means + quite contradictory to the moral principles of modern journalism, as in + Prague the newspapers are forced to publish articles supplied by the + Official Press Bureau, as though written by the editor, without being + allowed to mark them as inspired. Thus the journals are not in reality + edited by the editors themselves, but by the Press institution of the + state." + +The same union again protested on November 16, 1917 + + "After the victorious Russian Revolution which brought about also the + opening of the Reichsrat, the fetters binding the Czech press were a + little relaxed, but only for a short time, and to-day we see the same + conditions prevailing in which we lived for the first three years of + war. Every free reflection in the Czech journals is confiscated. They + are even prohibited to publish articles which appeared in the German + and Austrian press. Furthermore, they are again compelled to publish + articles written by officials without marking them as such. They cannot + even inform their readers correctly about parliamentary debates, _as + speeches and interpellations delivered in parliament are suppressed_. + We ask the Union of Czech Deputies to protest again against this + violation of parliamentary immunity, and to obtain a guarantee that in + future the Czech papers will not be compelled to print articles not + written by the editorial staff and that the Czech press shall enjoy at + least the same freedom as the press in Berlin, Vienna and Budapest." + +_(d) Reichsrat Interpellations_ + +To complete the picture of Austrian terrorism, we will quote some of the +interpellations addressed to the Austrian Government by Czech deputies in +the summer of 1917. + +The Czech deputies_ Prokes, Jaros and Charvat_ (Socialists) have demanded +an explanation from the Minister for Home Defence respecting 300 Czech +teachers from Moravia who were interned in 1915, being suspected of +disloyalty, although there was no charge made against them either by the +civil or by the military authorities. They were first interned in Lower +Austria and then in Hungary, and had to do the hardest work. Though the +educational authorities reclaimed them they were not set free even to +attend to the burials of their relatives. The only exception made was when +one teacher was allowed to be married in Vienna, and even then he was +followed by the guard with fixed bayonets. In Hungary the conditions were +still worse, and many of these teachers died and many of them are still in +hospitals. + +A long interpellation was addressed to the government by the Czech +deputies_ Binovec, Filipinsky and Stejskal_ (Socialists) regarding the +outrageous and inhuman treatment of the Czech political prisoners. They +mentioned a vast number of appalling instances of deliberate torturing and +starving of the prisoners. All rights of the prisoners were suspended and +they depended entirely on the will of the commander: many of these +political prisoners were imprisoned together with ordinary murderers; they +were not allowed to read books or to write letters; their families were not +permitted to visit them or even to send them provisions from home, so they +starved in prison. Such cruel treatment did not affect only political +prisoners but even people on remand, and it was nothing extraordinary for +them to be imprisoned for years on remand only. The deputies asked whether +the authorities wanted these prisoners to die from starvation. + +The most interesting document is the interpellation of deputies _Stanek, +Tobolka and Co_. on the persecutions against the Czech nation during the +war. The interpellation has been published as a book of 200 pages which has +been prohibited by Austria to be sent abroad, but a copy of which we have +nevertheless been able to secure. The following are short extracts from +the volume: + + +The Behaviour of the Austrian Government towards the Czech Nation during +the War + + + "YOUR EXCELLENCY,--At a time when it proved impossible to continue to + rule in an absolute way in this empire and when after more than three + years the Reichsrat is sitting again, we address to you the following + interpellation in order to call your attention to the persecutions + which during the past three years have been perpetrated on our nation, + and to demand emphatically that these persecutions shall be + discontinued. They were not done unintentionally or accidentally, but, + as will be shown from the following survey, this violence was committed + deliberately and systematically by the Austrian Government on our + nation, which took the abominable view that the present war is the most + suitable period for realising the plans and aims of German centralism + in the Habsburg Monarchy by curing the Czechs forever of all + hallucinations about equality among nations, and about the glorious + past of Bohemia and her relationship with other Slav nations. A general + attack was made upon the Czech nation during the critical situation + created by the war: our participation in civil service was curtailed, + German was made the official language of the state, the press was + muzzled, schools persecuted, the Sokol idea declared to be high + treason, men distinguished for service in the state arrested, + imprisoned, persecuted and sentenced to death, everything reminding the + population of the famous past of Bohemia removed, the ancient Czech + aspirations for political independence or even aims for a mere + reorganisation of the Habsburg Monarchy on a federal basis were not + allowed and were suppressed, even the name of the ancient kingdom of + Bohemia, which was the foundation stone to the Habsburg Monarchy in + 1526, was to disappear for ever. + + "The persecutions against our nation were very cruel indeed. + + "In the first place, _Dr. Kramar_ was attacked as the veritable leader + of the Czech nation. In return for his valuable services for this state + and for his nation, in return for his endeavours to educate the Czech + nation towards realism in politics, he was recompensed by being + arrested, imprisoned and sentenced to death, although a member of the + delegations and therefore enjoying immunity. He was not brought up + before the ordinary tribunal, but before a judge who was absolutely + ignorant of Czech or foreign politics, so that his condemnation might + be assured. + + "The same fate also met his political friends, deputy Dr. Rasin and the + editor of _Narodni Listy_, V. Cervinka. + + "Incredible proceedings were taken against the deputy Klofac. Although + being a member of the delegations and therefore enjoying immunity, he + was arrested on September 7, 1914, and has been imprisoned ever since. + A charge was hurriedly prepared against him on May 24, 1917, that is + when the Reichsrat was to be opened. Both Dr. Kramar and Klofac were + prosecuted by the Vienna court-martial under the direction of Colonel + Gliwitzki and Dr. Preminger in such a way that no ordinary judge would + dare to act. + + "The way in which the military tribunals treated the ordinary + uneducated people is apparent from the following examples: + + "The tailor Smejkal in Vienna was sentenced to six months' hard labour + for saying, 'The government does not want to give us Czech schools in + Vienna.' + + "For saying, 'I do not know whether the Emperor Francis Joseph was ever + crowned King of Bohemia or not,' a boy gardener named Tesar was + sentenced to six months' hard labour, which sentence was altered to + sixteen months by the High Court of Justice (the poor boy died in + prison). + + "The shoemaker's assistant Hamouz, of Vienna, sixty-seven years of age, + ill and mentally stunted, served in his youth with the 28th Regiment. + He defended this regiment, therefore, by saying, 'It is a good + regiment.' He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. + + "Private Cepera from Moravia was sentenced to three years' hard labour + for saying, 'The German Kaiser is responsible for the war.' + + "For saying that 'those of the 28th Regiment are our "boys,"' gunner + Purs, of Benatky, was sentenced to four years' imprisonment. He was + sent in chains to the military prison in Moellersdorf. + + "The wilfulness of military tribunals, culminating in many cases in + apparent hatred against everything that is Czech, is shown by the + following, out of many examples: + + "The editor of _Ceske Slovo_, E. Spatny, of Prague, was arrested on + September 26, 1914, and interned in Prague, without being told the + reason. In March, 1915, he was transferred to the internment camp at + Goellersdorf, in Lower Austria. The Czechs interned there arranged on + July 5 a Hus anniversary at which the editor E. Spatny and Dr. Vrbensky + spoke about the life and importance of Hus. Being accused by a certain + fellow-prisoner, Davidovsky, that they had been speaking against the + Germans and that 'the speakers expected deliverance by a certain state + but were disappointed,' they were transferred to the military prison in + Vienna, and charged with high treason according to Par. 58_c_. The + latter was discharged for want of proofs, but the editor Spatny was + sentenced to fourteen years' hard labour. + + "The Sarajevo prisoners were not allowed to be visited by their + relatives in contravention of the orders of the official statutes D 6. + Out of five of those prisoners, three have already died, the fourth is + dying, and the last one, a student Cubulic, was allowed a visit after + two years when it became certain that the Reichsrat would meet. + + "The extent to which starvation and inhuman treatment is raging in the + state prisons is best shown by the conditions prevailing in the prison + of Moellersdorf. In the years 1915-16, 61 prisoners died there out of + 350 to 450 prisoners on the roll. Between January 1, 1917, and May, + 1917, 101 prisoners were doomed to death. The majority belong to the + sixth category of prisoners. The thieves, criminals and impostors, if + they had served previously in the army, enjoy special treatment in + Moellersdorf prison. They wear civilian clothes, and are treated with + consideration and well fed. On the other hand, political prisoners, + especially those classed as second category, are dying from + ill-treatment and insufficient nourishment. The judge, auditor A. + Koenig, famous for his arbitrary verdicts against the Czech people, was + a solicitor's clerk in civil life, and now recommends to his wealthy + defendants his Vienna lawyer friends as splendid specialists and + advocates in political matters. Thus, for instance, he forced Dr. + Glaser upon Mr. Kotik as the counsel. Kotik was sentenced to death by + Koenig, and Glaser sent him a bill for 10,000 kronen (L400) for the + 'successful defence.' + +_The Persecutions of the Sokols_ + + "Terrible persecutions were inflicted on the Sokol Gymnastic + Association during the war. The sphere of the Sokols' activity does not + touch political affairs at all, being reserved to gymnastics and + spiritual education. Their activity was public, open to official + inquiries and supervision. But this did not save them from + persecutions. The first persecution was already committed in 1914 in + Moravia, when some branches of the Sokol Association were dissolved for + various reasons. Numerous societies were afterwards dissolved + throughout Bohemia and Moravia. + + "_On November_ 23, 1915, _the Central Czech Sokol Association (Ceska + Obec Sokolska) was dissolved_ as the centre of the Czech Sokol + movement, which before the war kept up lively relations with foreign + countries and manifested brotherly feelings of sympathy towards Serbia + and Russia. It was alleged that the Central Sokol Association had had + relations with the American Sokol branches during the war through its + president, Dr. J. Scheiner, and conducted an active propaganda against + Austria. The alleged relations were founded on a communication of the + American branches to the president, Dr. Scheiner, asking him whether he + would be willing to distribute money collected in America to people in + Bohemia afflicted by the war. Dr. Scheiner was arrested and kept in + prison for two months. + + "Very characteristic was the way in which the military authorities + treated the members of Sokol societies. In many cases soldiers, + especially recruits, were questioned whether they belonged to the Sokol + Association. The authorities searched for Sokol badges or membership + cards, and those who were found to have these in their possession were + severely punished. The members of the Sokol societies as long as they + were in the army were invariably subjected to ill-treatment and + persecution. They were transferred to do heavy work, and not + recommended for promotion, and in every way treated more brutally than + other soldiers. In the case of both civil and military trials, one of + the most important questions asked, was whether the accused belonged to + any Sokol society, and if the accused did belong to a society this + always went against him. + +_Bohemian History_ + + "Every possible means was employed to wipe out the memory of important + events in Bohemian history. Not only were historical books (like + Luetzow's _Bohemia_ and others) confiscated, but even scientific + lectures on John Hus and the Hussite movement were prohibited. The + metal memorial plate with the names of Bohemian lords executed in 1621 + inscribed upon it was removed from the Town Hall, and that part of the + square which showed the spot on which they were executed was ordered to + be repaved. + + "In order to destroy the idea that the Czechs are of Slav origin, any + use of red, blue and white colours was prohibited. Varnishes in these + colours were not allowed to be used. The street plates of pre-war times + had to be repainted in black and yellow. Newspaper posters, match-boxes + and other articles were not allowed to be sold or exhibited, if they + were painted in the Slav tricolours. + +_The Suppression of Czech Literature_ + + "More than two hundred books published before the war were confiscated. + The tendency of this action was clear. The government wanted to destroy + the memory of the glorious past of Bohemia, of John Hus and the Hussite + movement, of the suffering of the Czech nation after the defeat of the + White Mountain, to restrict all progressive and liberal movements and + to kill the 'Sokol' idea, and further to destroy the consciousness that + Czechs and Slovaks are the same nation and belong to the great Slav + family. The apostles of this idea were proclaimed traitors, especially + Dr. Kramar, J.S. Machar and others. These persecutions cover a great + period before the war, and the following is a list of the books + suppressed (follows a list comprising eleven foolscap columns). The + government treated the Czech nation with special brutality. The + persecutions in Bohemia were opposed not only to the liberal ideas of + Czechs, but especially to their national feelings. The anxiety of the + censor for the safety of the monarchy often bordered on absurdity. The + word 'shocking' was deleted from a play, for instance, because it was + English. _Henry IV_. was not allowed to be played 'until we reach a + settlement with England,' and it was only when it was reported by the + Vienna and Berlin papers that the prohibition was withdrawn. + +_Persecution of the Czech Press_ + + "The Czech press was persecuted in a peculiar manner. Its editors were + not allowed to receive papers from neutral countries and to express + their own opinions as regards the propaganda of the Czechs abroad. + Under threats of suppression of the journals and imprisonment of the + editors, the journals were obliged to print and publish articles + supplied to them by the police, without mentioning the source from + whence they came. The articles had to be put in in such a way that they + appeared as if they were the editors' views. The articles betrayed the + low intellectual level of the authors who lacked any knowledge of Czech + affairs. Such articles which the Czech journals were compelled to + publish were, for instance: 'In Foreign Pay,' published March 25, 1916; + 'The Czechs in America against Masaryk's Agents,' published in all + Czech papers on April 8, 1916; on January 16, 1917, the article 'Our + Answer to the Quadruple Entente.' + + "The Police Directorate ordered first that such articles should appear + on the same day in all papers and in the same wording, but recognising + the stupidity of such an action, they compelled only one journal to + publish them and the others had to 'quote' from them. + + "Preventive censorship was established and a number of articles were + passed by the censor for publication in Czech papers only when proofs + were supplied that the articles had already appeared in some other + journal in Austria. _Independent articles or reports were not allowed + to be published_. The _Narodni Listy_ was treated with special spite by + the censorship. + + "_Almost ninety important journals were suppressed by the government_, + the majority of them without any apparent reason or justification. + +_The Suppression of Czech School and National Literature_ + + "Words, sentences or whole paragraphs in school books were found + objectionable, since they were alleged to propagate Pan-Slavism and to + encourage in the pupils hostile feelings against Austria's allies. + According to the official ideas about Austrian patriotism, purely + educational paragraphs were considered as wanting in patriotic feeling; + not only literary but also historical paragraphs were 'corrected,' and + official advice was issued as to how to write handbooks on patriotic + lines on special subjects, as for instance on natural history, physics, + geometry, etc. The foundations of all knowledge to be supplied to the + pupils in the public schools had to reflect the spirit of the world + war. + + "Numerous folk-songs with absolutely no political tendency in them were + confiscated, merely because they expressed the Czech national spirit. + All songs were suppressed which mentioned the word Slav--'The Slav + Linden Tree'--the army or the Allies. Even if the publishers offered to + publish new editions without the objectionable songs they were not + allowed to do so, and were asked to put in more 'loyal songs' and to + replace melancholy songs with cheerful ones. + + "In every secondary school a zealous library revision was started and + many books were removed, so that these libraries lost all their value + for the students. The Czech youth must not know the principal works + either of their own or foreign literature. Certain libraries had to be + deprived of some hundreds of books. All this happened at a time when + the discussions here and abroad were taking place about the importance + of raising the standard of knowledge of the educated classes. + + "The opening of Czech minority schools has been postponed since the + beginning of 1914. Consequently the Czech School Society must keep them + up and pay the expenses in connection with them, amounting to a loss of + more than two million kronen up till now. On the other hand, many + German schools have been established in Bohemia. + + "The steps which are being taken against Czech schools in Lower + Austria, especially in Vienna, are not only contrary to the standing + laws but also to the decisions of the ministry concerned. + + "We conclude by asking: + + "Are the above facts of systematic persecution of the Czech nation + during the war known to your Excellency? + + "Is your Excellency prepared to investigate them thoroughly? + + "Is your Excellency prepared to stop the persecution of the Czech + nation and the wrongs suffered by us through these proceedings? + + "_In Vienna, June_ 6, 1917." + +[Footnote 1: For the full text of this document see Dr. Benes' _Bohemia's +Case for Independence_.] + + + +V + +HOW THE CZECHO-SLOVAKS AT HOME ASSISTED THE ALLIES + +From the foregoing chapters it is clear that by continuous misrule and by +the attempt to reduce the Czecho-Slovak nation to impotence through +terrorism and extermination during this war, the Habsburgs have created a +gulf between themselves and their Czecho-Slovak subjects which can never +again be bridged over. Realising this, and seeing that since Austria has +voluntarily sold herself to Berlin their only hope for a better future lies +in the destruction of the political system called Austria-Hungary, the +Czecho-Slovaks have from the beginning staked their all on the victory of +the Entente, towards which they have contributed with all possible means at +their disposal. + +1. Since they could not think of revolting, the Czecho-Slovaks at home +tried to paralyse the power of Austria in every way. Not only individuals +but also Czech banks and other institutions refused to subscribe to the war +loans. Their newspapers published official reports with reluctance, and +between the lines laid stress on news unfavourable to Austria so as to keep +up the spirit of the people. Czech peasants refused to give up provisions, +and thus the Czechs, who already before the war boycotted German goods, +accelerated the present economic and financial ruin of Austria. + +2. Politically, too, they contributed to the internal confusion of the Dual +Monarchy, and to-day their opposition forms a real menace to the existence +of Austria. Czech political leaders unanimously refused to sign any +declaration of loyalty to Austria, and they never issued a single protest +against Professor Masaryk and his political and military action abroad. On +several occasions they even publicly expressed their sympathies and +approval of this action. For nearly three years they prevented the opening +of the Austrian Parliament which would have been to their prejudice. Only +after the Russian Revolution, when Austria began to totter and her rulers +were apprehensive lest events in Russia should have a repercussion in the +Dual Monarchy, did the Czechs decide to speak out and exerted pressure to +bring about the opening of the Reichsrat, where they boldly declared their +programme, revealed Austria's rule of terror during the first three years +of war, and by their firm opposition, which they by and by induced the +Poles and Yugoslavs to imitate, they brought about a permanent political +deadlock, menacing Austria's very existence internally and weakening her +resistance externally. + +3. But the most important assistance the Czechs rendered to the Allies was +their refusal to fight for Austria. + +Out of 70,000 prisoners taken by Serbia during the first months of the war, +35,000 were Czechs. Of these, 24,000 perished during the Serbian retreat, +and 8000 died of typhoid fever and cholera at Asinara. The remaining 3000 +were transferred to France and voluntarily joined the Czecho-Slovak army. + +Over 300,000 Czecho-Slovaks surrendered voluntarily to Russia whom they +regarded as their liberator. Unfortunately the old regime in Russia did not +always show much understanding of their aspirations. They were scattered +over Siberia, cut off from the outer world, and often abandoned to the +ill-treatment of German and Magyar officers. It is estimated that over +thirty thousand of them perished from starvation. It was only after great +efforts, after the Russian Revolution, and especially when Professor +Masaryk himself went to Russia, that the Czecho-Slovak National Council +succeeded in organising a great part of them into an army. Finally, when +Austria desired to strike a death-blow at Italy in 1918, and began again to +employ Slav troops, she failed again, and this failure was once more to a +large extent caused by the disaffection of her Slav troops, as is proved by +the Austrian official statements. Indeed, whenever Austria relied solely on +her own troops she was always beaten, even by the "contemptible" Serbians. +The Czechs and other Slavs have greatly contributed to these defeats by +their passive resistance. It was only the intervention of German troops +which saved Austria from an utter collapse in 1915, and which prevented the +Czechs from completing their aim of entirely disorganising the military +power of Austria. Slav regiments have since then been intermixed with +German and Magyar troops. The Slavs receive their ammunition only at the +front, where they are placed in the foremost ranks with Germans or Magyars +behind them, so that they are exposed to a double fire if they attempt to +surrender. Nevertheless, up to 1916 some 350,000 Czechs out of a total of +600,000 in the Austrian army surrendered to the Allies. + +4. From the very beginning of the war Czech soldiers showed their real +feelings. They were driven to fight against the Russians and Serbs who were +their brothers by race and their sincere and devoted friends. They were +driven to fight for that hated Austria which had trampled their liberties +underfoot for centuries past, and for a cause which they detested from the +bottom of their hearts. They were driven to fight in the interests of their +German and Magyar enemies against their Slav brothers and friends under +terrible circumstances. + +In September, 1914, the 8th Czech Regiment refused to go to the front until +threatened by the German troops. The 11th Czech Regiment of Pisek refused +to march against Serbia and was decimated. The 36th Regiment revolted in +the barracks and was massacred by German troops. The 88th Regiment, which +made an unsuccessful attempt to surrender to Russia, was shot down by the +Magyar Honveds. A similar fate befell the 13th and 72nd Slovak Regiments. + +On the other hand, many Czech troops succeeded in surrendering. The 35th +Regiment of Pilsen went over to the Russians in a body half-an-hour after +arriving at the front. Soon after, the 28th Regiment of Prague surrendered +_en masse_, having been "fetched" by the Czechs fighting on the Russian +side. Immediately afterwards the Austrian commander-in-chief issued an +order of the day in which he declared. + + "On April 3, 1915, almost the whole of the 28th Regiment surrendered + without fighting to a single enemy battalion.... This disgraceful act + not only destroys the reputation of this regiment, but necessitates its + name being struck off the list of our army corps, until new deeds of + heroism retrieve its character. His Apostolic Majesty has accordingly + ordered the dissolution of this regiment, and the deposition of its + banners in the army museum." + +And indeed "new deeds of heroism" did follow. A fresh battalion was founded +composed of Czech youths who were sent to the Isonzo front and exposed in a +dangerous position to deadly artillery fire. Almost the whole battalion was +thus unscrupulously wiped out. Only eighteen of them survived. This was +followed by a new imperial order saying that the disgrace of the 28th +Regiment was "atoned for" by the "sacrifice" of this regiment on +the Isonzo. + +As regards Italy, over 20,000 Czechs surrendered voluntarily on the Italian +front up to 1917, and 7000 during the last offensive on the Piave in June, +1918. Of recent cases we need mention only the "treachery of Carzano," +where, on September 18, 1917, some Czech officers went over to the +Italians, communicated to them the Austrian plans of campaign and led them +against the Austrians whose front was thus successfully broken through. +This incident was not the only one of its kind. It has been repeated +several times by Czech officers whenever they found an opportunity of going +over to the Italians. During the offensive of June, 1918, the Austrian +press openly attributed the Austrian failure to "Czech treachery," +asserting that the plan of the offensive was communicated to the Italian +headquarters staff by Czecho-Slovak officers. This the Austrian military +authorities themselves admitted later, when they published the following +official statement, which appeared in the German press on July 28: + + "On the morning of June 15, we started a vigorous offensive on the + whole front between the Tyrolese mountains and the Adriatic, with a + power that can be attained only by complete co-operation of all the + units and with an accurate execution and a common and uniform action. + But, just at the beginning of the attack, it became apparent that the + enemy were making a counter-attack according to a well-defined plan, as + in the case of a projected vigorous offensive. It was also found out + that the enemy was perfectly aware of the extent, the day and the hour + of our attack. The intended surprise, so important for the success of + an offensive, has thus failed. In due course Italy also obtained, from + documents which some deserters handed to the Italian high command, + information which gave her a sufficiently precise idea of our + dispositions. English, French and Italian officers and men captured by + us declare unanimously that their regiments were advised on the evening + of June 14 that the Austrian offensive would start at two o'clock on + the following morning. + + "The exact time of the beginning of our offensive must have been + betrayed by _Yugoslav and Czech deserters_. The enemy took steps + against the bombardment by means of gas, which was expected. These + steps later proved insufficient. As an example we may mention only the + following facts: The battalion of bersaglieri received, at 3.20 on June + 14, a quantity of ammunition at 72 to 240 cartridges per man. The + Pinerolo Brigade took up fighting position at 2 o'clock at night. An + order, captured late on July 14, said: 'According to reports received, + the enemy will commence early on June 15 their bombardment preparations + for attack. At midnight hot coffee and meat conserves will be + distributed. The troops will remain awake, armed and prepared to use + their gas-masks.' + + "For some time now the Italian command have tried to disorganise our + troops by high treasonable propaganda. In the Italian prisoners-of-war + camps the Slavs are persuaded by promises and corruption to enlist in + the Czecho-Slovak army. This is done in a way prohibited by law. Their + ignorance of the international situation and their lack of news from + home, partly caused by Italian censorship, are exploited by means of + propaganda without scruples. An order of the 5th Italian Army Corps + (1658 Prot. R. J.) of May 14, 1918, refers to active propaganda by + Czecho-Slovak volunteers with the object of disorganising the + Austro-Hungarian army. The Italian military authorities on their part + deceive the Czecho-Slovaks by telling them of the continuous disorders + and insurrections in Bohemia. In the above-mentioned order it is + asserted that in the corps to which it is addressed, as well as in + other corps, some attempts of the Czecho-Slovak elements have been + successful in causing confusion among enemy ranks. _Some of our + Czecho-Slovak soldiers deserted and went over to the Italians_. Others + remained in touch with them and declared themselves ready to stay in + our positions as a source of ferment for future insurrections. Although + the high treason miscarried owing to the heroic resistance which our + troops, without distinction of nationality, offered to the enemy, it is + nevertheless true that some elements succumbed to the treacherous enemy + propaganda. + + "The gunner Rudolf Paprikar, of the machine gun section, according to + reports of the 8th Army Corps jumped off the river bank into the Piave + below Villa Jacur and swam across under danger of being drowned. He + betrayed the position, strength and composition of his sector, and + through observation and spying, he acquired some valuable information + by which our projected attack against Montello was disclosed. Further, + he revealed to the enemy some very secret preparations for the crossing + of the river Piave, and also supplied him with plans of the + organisation of troops, battery positions, etc. + + "The principal part in the treachery is attributed by the Italian high + command, not without reason, to Lieutenant Karel Stiny of an infantry + regiment, who deserted near Narenta. It appears from the detailed + Italian official report in which his statements are embodied, that he + betrayed all our preparations on the Piave and provided the enemy with + a great deal of most important information. Let us mention further that + Stiny in his mendacious statements to the Italian command about the + Austro-Hungarian situation at the front and in the interior, followed + the line of all traitors in order to appear in a favourable light. It + is characteristic that in his declaration about our offensive he said + that many Austro-Hungarian troops would have surrendered if it had not + been for the German and Bulgarian bayonets behind their backs. + + "_It is proved by various documents to what extent the Czechs have + forgotten their honour and duty_. By breaking their oath to Austria and + her emperor and king, they have also forgotten all those who were with + them at the front, and they are responsible for the blood of our + patriots and the sufferings of our prisoners in Italy. The false glory + which is attributed to them by the Italian command, who have lost all + sense of the immorality of these proceedings, cannot efface the eternal + crime which history always attaches to the names of traitors." + +5. We could give many proofs of the great service the Czecho-Slovaks +rendered the Allies by their surrenders. But for our purpose it will be +sufficient to quote only some more admissions of the Germans and Magyars +themselves. + +Count Tisza admitted that Czech troops could not be relied upon, and Count +Windischgraetz stated that the chief of staff dare not use them except when +mixed with Magyars and Germans. + +Deputy Urmanczy declared in the Budapest Parliament on September 5, 1916, +that during the first encounters with Rumania, a Czech regiment retired +without the slightest resistance, provided themselves with provisions, +entered a train and disappeared. The men went over to Rumania. He blamed +the Czechs for the Austrian reverse in Transylvania. + +On June 22, 1917, when the case of deputy Klofac was discussed by the +Immunity Committee of the Reichsrat, General von Georgi, Austrian Minister +for Home Defence, according to the Czech organ _Pozor_ of June +24, described + + "... the conditions prevailing in the army, especially the behaviour of + certain Czech regiments, and brought forward all the material which had + been collected against the Czechs since the outbreak of the war, and + which had been used against them. He referred to the 28th and 36th + Regiments as well as to eight other Czech regiments which had + voluntarily surrendered to the Russians. He mentioned also that Czech + officers, not only those in reserve but also those on active service, + including some of the highest ranks of the staff, surrendered to the + enemy; in one instance fourteen officers with a staff officer thus + surrendered. Czech soldiers in the Russian and French armies, as well + as in other enemy armies, are fighting for the Entente and constitute + legions and battalions of their own. The total number of Czechs in the + enemy armies exceeds 60,000. In the prisoners' camps in the enemy + countries, non-German prisoners were invited to join the enemy's ranks. + Czech legions and battalions are composed almost entirely of former + prisoners of war. The minister further went on to describe the + propaganda of the Czechs abroad, the activity of Czech committees in + enemy and neutral countries, especially in Russia and Switzerland. He + also mentioned the case of Pavlu, a Czech soldier, who in a Russian + newspaper described how he penetrated the Austrian trenches in the + uniform of an Austrian officer, annihilated the occupants and after a + successful scouting reconnaissance returned to the Russian ranks. The + minister described the attitude of the 'Sokols' and the Czech teachers. + The tenor of his speech was that Klofac is responsible for the + anti-Austrian feeling of the Czech nation and that therefore he should + not be released." + +When the Russian offensive of July, 1917, started, Herr Hummer, member of +the Austrian Reichsrat, addressed the following interpellation to the +Austrian Minister for Home Defence: + + "Is the Austrian Minister for Home Defence aware that in one of the + early engagements of the new Russian offensive, the 19th Austrian + Infantry Division, which consists almost entirely of Czecho-Slovaks and + other Slavs, openly sided with the enemies of Austria by refusing to + fight against the Russians and by surrendering as soon as an + opportunity offered itself?" + +The most interesting document in regard to the attitude of Czecho-Slovaks +during the war is the interpellation of ninety German Nationalist deputies +(Schurf, Langenhahn, Wedra, Richter, Kittinger and others), of which we +possess a copy. It contains 420 large-size printed pages, and it is +therefore impossible for us to give a detailed account of it. The chapters +of this interpellation have the following headings: + +1. The dangers of Pan-Slavistic propaganda. +2. The situation at the outbreak of the war. +3. Motives for the arrest of Kramar. +4. The behaviour of Czechs in Austria: + _(a)_ Demonstrations of Czech national spirit in Prague; + _(b)_ Czech school-books; + _(c)_ Czech officials; + _(d)_ The activities of the "Sokols"; + _(e)_ What happened at Litomerice and elsewhere; + _(f)_ The Czech attitude towards war loans; + _(g)_ The Zivnostenska Banka and the war loans; + _(h)_ The financial policy of the Zivnostenska Banka; + _(i)_ The Czechs and war emergency affairs; + _(k)_ The Czechs and the question of food supplies. +5. The anti-Austrian attitude of Czechs abroad: + _(a)_ In France; + _(b)_ In England; + _(c)_ In Russia; + _(d)_ In America; + _(e)_ In Switzerland; + _(f)_ The campaign of Professor Masaryk; + _(g)_ The Czech secret intelligence service. +6. The conduct of Czech soldiers on the battlefield. +7. Military consequences. +8. Some recent documents. + +According to the _Neue Freie Presse_ of June 6, 1918, the Austrian Minister +for Home Defence made the following important admissions in reply to the +part of this interpellation concerning the Czech contribution to the +defeats of Austria: + + "The 36th Regiment, according to unanimous reports of the high command, + failed to do its duty in May, 1915, on the Russian front, and thereby + caused a heavy defeat of other detachments. This regiment was dissolved + by the imperial decree of July 16, 1915. + + "The unsuccessful fighting and heavy losses of the 19th Division in the + battle north of Tarnopol between September 9 and 11, 1915, were caused + by the weak resistance of the 35th Regiment.... During the battles of + June 29 to July 2, 1917, near Zloczow the resistance offered by this + regiment was weak. + + "As regards Regiment No. 28 of Prague, according to the statement of + regimental commanders, it appears that the whole detachment, without + firing a single shot, was taken prisoner by a single enemy battalion, + or rather was brought by that battalion from its position." + +And in this policy Czech soldiers continue by surrendering voluntarily to +the Entente troops whenever they have the opportunity. + + + +VI + +THE MILITARY AND POLITICAL ACTION OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAKS ABROAD + +When war broke out, the Czecho-Slovaks all over the world felt it their +duty to prove by deeds that their place was on the side of the Entente. The +Czecho-Slovaks in Great Britain, France and Russia volunteered to fight for +the Allies, while in the United States of America, where there are some one +and a half million Czecho-Slovaks, they have counteracted German propaganda +and revealed German plots intended to weaken the American assistance to +the Allies. + +1. In France 471 Czechs, _i.e._ over 60 per cent., entered the Foreign +Legion and greatly distinguished themselves by their bravery. The majority +of them have been mentioned in dispatches and received the Military Cross. +They have also won five crosses and twenty medals of the Russian Order of +St. George. Their losses amount to more than 70 per cent. + +Further, many Czechs living in Great Britain at the outbreak of the war +joined the French Foreign Legion in France, and after His Majesty's +Government allowed Czechs to volunteer for service in the British army in +the autumn of 1916, practically all Czechs of military age resident in +Great Britain enrolled so far as they were not engaged on munitions. In +Canada, too, the Czechs joined the army in order to fight for the +British Empire. + +The most important part was taken, however, by the Czecho-Slovak colonies +in Russia and America. In Russia, where there are large Czecho-Slovak +settlements, numbering several thousand, a Czecho-Slovak legion was formed +at the outbreak of the war which has rendered valuable services, especially +in scouting and reconnoitring. This legion grew gradually larger, +especially when Czech prisoners began to be allowed to join it, and +finally, under the direction of the Czecho-Slovak National Council, it was +formed into a regular army. In September, 1917, it had already two +divisions, and in 1918 fresh prisoners joined it, so that it counted +some 100,000. + +In order to be able fully to appreciate this achievement, we must remember +that this was an army of volunteers, organised by the Czecho-Slovak Council +without the powers of a real government. At the beginning of the war the +Czecho-Slovaks not only had no government of their own, but not even any +united organisation. And if we realise that to-day, after three and a half +years of strenuous effort, the National Council are recognised by the +Allies as the Provisional Government of Bohemia with the right of +exercising all powers appertaining to a real government, including the +control of an army as large as Great Britain had at the outbreak of the +war, it must be admitted that the action of the Czecho-Slovaks abroad was +crowned with wonderful success. + +In Russia the difficulties with which the National Council had to cope were +especially grave, and mainly for two reasons. In the first place, the +Czecho-Slovak prisoners who voluntarily surrendered were scattered all over +Russia. It was extremely difficult even to get into touch with them. In +addition there was a lack of good-will on the part of the old Russian +Government. Thus very often these prisoners, who regarded Russia as +Bohemia's elder brother and liberator, were sadly disillusioned when they +were left under the supervision of some German officers, and thousands of +them died from starvation. Nevertheless they never despaired. Eager to +fight for the Allies, many of them entered the Yugoslav Division which +fought so gallantly in the Dobrudja. Nearly all the Czech officers in this +division were decorated with the highest Russian, Serbian and Rumanian +orders. Half of them committed suicide, however, during the retreat rather +than fall into the hands of the enemy. + +It was not until after the Russian Revolution, and especially after the +arrival of Professor Masaryk in Russia in May, 1917, that the Czecho-Slovak +army in Russia became a reality. + +The Czecho-Slovaks have been mentioned in Russian official _communiques_ of +February 2, 1916, and March 29, 1917. The most glorious part was taken by +the Czecho-Slovak Brigade during the last Russian offensive in July, 1917, +in which the Czechs showed manifestly the indomitable spirit that animates +them. Since every Czech fighting on the side of the Entente is shot, if he +is captured by the Austrians, the Czechs everywhere fight to the bitter +end, and rather commit suicide than be captured by their enemies. For this +reason they are justly feared by the Germans. As in the Hussite wars, the +sight of their caps and the sound of their songs struck terror in the +hearts of the Germans and Magyars. At the battle of Zborov on July 2, 1917, +the Czechs gave the whole world proof of their bravery. Determined to win +or fall, they launched an attack almost without ammunition, with bayonets +and hand-grenades--and they gained a victory over an enemy vastly superior +in numbers. + +According to the official Russian _communique_: + + "On July 2, at about three o'clock in the afternoon, after a severe and + stubborn battle, the gallant troops of the Czecho-Slovak Brigade + occupied the strongly fortified enemy position on the heights to the + west and south-west of the village of Zborov and the fortified village + of Koroszylow. Three lines of enemy trenches were penetrated. The enemy + has retired across the Little Strypa. The Czecho-Slovak Brigade + captured sixty-two officers and 3150 soldiers, fifteen guns and many + machine guns. Many of the captured guns were turned against the enemy." + +Finally, however, when the Russians refused to fight, the Czechs had to +retire as well. General Brussiloff declared: + + "The Czecho-Slovaks, perfidiously abandoned at Tarnopol by our + infantry, fought in such a way that the world ought to fall on its + knees before them." + +2. The spontaneous and unanimous political action of the Czecho-Slovaks +abroad became co-ordinated when Professor Masaryk escaped from Austria and +placed himself at the head of the movement. + +_Professor Masaryk_, the distinguished Czech leader and scholar, whose name +we have already mentioned in the preceding chapters, went to Italy in +December, 1914, and although he desired once more to return to Austria +before leaving finally for France, he found it too dangerous, as the reign +of terror had already been established in Bohemia. He accordingly went to +Switzerland and afterwards on to France and England. In October, 1915, he +was appointed lecturer at the newly founded School of Slavonic Studies at +King's College, University of London. Mr. Asquith, then Prime Minister, who +was prevented through indisposition from presiding at Professor Masaryk's +inaugural lecture on October 19, 1915, sent the following message to +the meeting: + + "I congratulate King's College on Professor Masaryk's appointment, and + I can assure him that we welcome his advent to London both as a + teacher--the influence of whose power and learning is felt throughout + the Slav world--and as a man to whose personal qualities of candour, + courage and strength we are all glad to pay a tribute. We believe that + his presence here will be a link to strengthen the sympathy which + unites the people of Russia and Great Britain." + + "First and foremost the Allies are fighting for the liberties of small + nations, to the end that they may be left in future free from the + tyranny of their more powerful neighbours to develop their own national + life and institutions. Above all, to-day our thoughts and our + sympathies are moved towards Serbia, whose undaunted courage wins day + by day our unbounded sympathy and admiration." + +During the lecture on the Problem of Small Nations in the European Crisis, +Professor Masaryk outlined his political programme which he has ever since +insisted the Allies should adopt, to destroy the German plans of +Mitteleuropa. He declared: + + "Great Britain came into this war to protect little Belgium, and now + with her Allies she is faced by the task of protecting Serbia. This + evolution of the war is almost logical, for Germany's aim is and was + Berlin--Bagdad, the employment of the nations of Austria-Hungary as + helpless instruments, and the subjection of the smaller nations which + form that peculiar zone between the west and east of Europe. _Poland, + Bohemia, Serbo-Croatia (the South Slavs) are the natural adversaries of + Germany_, of her _Drang nach Osten_; to liberate and strengthen these + smaller nations is the only real check upon Prussia. Free Poland, + Bohemia and Serbo-Croatia would be so-called buffer states, their + organisation would facilitate and promote the formation of a Magyar + state, of Greater Rumania, of Bulgaria, Greece and the rest of the + smaller nations. If this horrible war, with its countless victims, has + any meaning, it can only be found in the liberation of the small + nations who are menaced by Germany's eagerness for conquest and her + thirst for the dominion of Asia. The Oriental question is to be solved + on the Rhine, Moldau and Vistula, not only on the Danube, Vardar and + Maritza." + +Soon afterwards Professor Masaryk issued a proclamation signed by +representatives of all Czecho-Slovaks abroad, the full text of which reads +as follows: + + "We come before the political public at a moment when the retreat of + the victorious Russian army is exploited against Russia and her Allies. + We take the side of the struggling Slav nations and their Allies + without regard to which party will be victorious, simply because the + Allies' cause is just. The decision as to which party in this fatal + struggle is defending the right, is a question of principle and + political morality which to-day cannot be evaded by any honest and + clear-thinking politician nor by any self-conscious nation. But we are + prompted to step forward also by our vivid sense of Slav solidarity: we + express our ardent sympathies to our brother Serbs and Russians, as + well as to our brother Poles, so heavily struck by the war. We believe + in the ultimate victory of the Slavs and their Allies, and we are + convinced that this victory will contribute towards the welfare of the + whole of Europe and humanity. The spiteful anti-Slav attitude of + Ferdinand the Koburg and his government cannot retard the victory of a + just cause. + + "The Czech nation made an alliance with Hungary and the Austrian + Germans by a free election of a Habsburg to the throne of the kingdom + of Bohemia in 1526; but the dynasty created through a systematic + centralisation and germanisation a unitary absolutist state, thus + violating their treaty guaranteeing the independence of the Bohemian + State within and without. The Czech nation, exhausted by the European + and Habsburg anti-reformation, has only since the Czech regeneration at + the end of the eighteenth century been able to resist this violence. It + was especially the revolution of 1848 which challenged it. + + "The revolution was crushed, and the secured rights of nations, + especially of the Czechs, were again sacrificed to absolutism which, + however, was shattered by the war of 1859, and replaced by an + incomplete constitutionalism. Then Vienna gave way to the Magyars. But + the Czechs had to content themselves with solemn promises that were + never kept. The Czech nation started a struggle of passive opposition. + Later on it also took an active part in the new parliament, but whether + in parliament or in the diets, it always claimed its historic right of + independence and struggled against the German-Magyar dualism. The + attempts made to come to an understanding were frustrated by the + obstinate spirit of domination of the Germans and Magyars. + + "The present war has only accentuated the Czecho-Slovak opposition to + Austria-Hungary. War was declared without the parliament being + consulted: all other states presented the declaration of war to their + parliaments for ratification, only the Viennese Government was afraid + to consult its peoples, because the majority of them would have + declared against the war. The representatives of the Czech nation would + have certainly protested with the greatest emphasis. That is why the + government did not consult a single Czech deputy or politician with + regard to taking so momentous a step. + + "The Czech nation has always in modern times defended a thoroughly Slav + programme. Also during this war, which has found our nation unprepared + like all other peaceful nations, the Czechs have since the very + beginning expressed their sympathies for Russia, Serbia and their + Allies, notwithstanding the unprecedented Austrian terrorism, + suppressing every manifestation of the real feelings of the people. The + pro-Austrian declarations are enforced by the government. To-day the + leading Czech politicians are in prison, the gallows have become the + favourite support of the incapable administration, and Czech regiments + have been decimated for acting spontaneously up to our national Czech + programme. The rights of the Czech language have been ruthlessly + violated during the war, and the absolutist military rule has reigned + throughout Bohemia and other non-German and non-Magyar parts of the + monarchy as in enemy countries. Every declaration in the Czech journals + is suppressed, while our national adversaries are not only allowed to + make propaganda against the Czech nation, but even the pan-German + orgies in the spirit of Lagarde, von Hartmann, Mommsen, and Treitschke + are supported by Vienna and Budapest. + + "Under these circumstances the Czech nation cannot continue to keep + silence. That is why the Czech and Slovak emigrants abroad deem it + their duty to inform foreign opinion about the true situation of + Bohemia, to interpret the aspirations of the Czecho-Slovak nation to + the Allied statesmen, politicians and journalists, and to defend the + Czecho-Slovak programme. + + "The Czech parties have hitherto striven for the independence of their + nation inside Austria-Hungary. _The course which this fratricidal war + has taken and the ruthless violence of Vienna make it necessary for all + of us to strive for independence without regard to Austria-Hungary. We + are struggling for an absolutely independent Czecho-Slovak State_. + + "The Czech nation has come to the conclusion that it must take its + destiny into its own hands. Austria was defeated not only by Russia, + but also by the small and despised Serbia, and became a dependency of + Germany. To-day it has recovered a little under the direction of + Berlin, but that desperate strain of forces does not deceive us: it is + only a proof of the abdication of Austria-Hungary. We have lost all + confidence in the vitality of Austria-Hungary, and we no more recognise + its right to existence. Through its incapability and dependence it has + proved to the whole world that the assumption of the necessity of + Austria has passed, and has through this war been proved to be wrong. + Those who have defended the possibility and necessity of + Austria-Hungary--and at one time it was Palacky himself--demanded a + confederated state of equal nations and lands. But the dualist + Austria-Hungary became the oppressor of non-German and non-Magyar + nationalities. It is the obstacle to peace in Europe and it has + degenerated into a mere tool for Germany's expansion to the East, + without a positive mission of its own, unable to create a state + organisation of equal nations, free and progressive in civilisation. + The dynasty, living in its absolutist traditions, maintains itself a + phantom of its former world empire, assisted in government by its + undemocratic partners, the barren aristocracy, the anti-national + bureaucracy, and the anti-national military staff. + + "To-day there is no doubt that Austria-Hungary wrongly used the + assassination at Sarajevo as a pretext against Serbia. Vienna and + Budapest did not hesitate to use forged documents manufactured by their + own embassy against the Yugoslavs, and in this policy of deceit Vienna + and Budapest have persisted during this war. To this deceit they have + now added revengeful spitefulness and cruelty truly barbarian against + the non-Germans and non-Magyars. + + "Germany shares the guilt with Austria-Hungary; it was in Germany's + power and it was her duty towards civilisation and humanity to prevent + the war and not to take advantage of the imperialist lust of Vienna and + Budapest. + + "Austria-Hungary and Germany are fighting with their Turkish and + Bulgarian Allies for a cause which is unjust and doomed." + +Later on, when _Dr. Edward Benes_, lecturer at the Czech University of +Prague and author of several well-known studies in sociology, also escaped +abroad, the Czecho-Slovak National Council was formed, of which Professor +Masaryk became the president, _Dr. Stefanik_, a distinguished airman and +scientist, Hungarian Slovak by birth, the vice-president, and Dr. E. Benes +the general secretary. A French review was started in Paris (_La Nation +Tcheque_) in May, 1915, which became the official organ of the +Czecho-Slovak movement. Up to May, 1917, it was published under the +editorship of Professor Denis, and since then its editor has been Dr. +Benes. A Central Czech organ is also published in Paris called +_Samostatnost_ ("Independence"), edited by Dr. Sychrava, an eminent Czech +journalist. + +The undisputed authority enjoyed by Professor Masaryk among all the +Czecho-Slovaks is undoubtedly the secret of the great strength and unity of +the movement. It is also the reason for the great diplomatic successes +achieved by the Czechs. The chief lieutenants of Professor Masaryk were Dr. +Benes, an untiring worker with rare political instinct and perspicacity, +and Dr. Milan Stefanik, who entered the French army as a private at the +beginning of the war, was gradually promoted, and in May, 1918, rose to the +rank of brigadier-general. He rendered valuable service to France as an +astronomist before the war, and as an airman during the war. He has +rendered still greater service to the Czecho-Slovak cause as a diplomat. +These three men, unanimously recognised by the two million Czecho-Slovaks +in the Allied countries as their leaders, were finally, in the summer of +1918, recognised also by the Allies as the _de facto_ provisional +government of the Czecho-Slovak State, with all rights and powers of a real +government. The central seat of the Czecho-Slovak Government is in Paris, +and official Czecho-Slovak representatives and legations are in all the +Allied capitals. + +3. The first political success of the National Council was the Allies' Note +to President Wilson of January 10, 1917. The Czechs are especially grateful +to France for this first recognition of their claims. + +In this Note, in which the Allies for the first time stated publicly and +explicitly their war aims, the Allies declared that these include: + + "The reorganisation of Europe guaranteed by a stable settlement, based + upon the principle of nationality, upon the right which all peoples, + whether small or great, have to the enjoyment of full security and free + economic development, and also upon territorial agreements and + international arrangements so framed as to guarantee land and sea + frontiers against unjust attacks; the restitution of provinces or + territories formerly torn from the Allies by force or contrary to the + wishes of their inhabitants; _the liberation of Italians, Slavs, + Rumanians and Czecho-Slovaks from foreign domination_; the liberation + of the peoples who now lie beneath the murderous tyranny of the Turks, + and the expulsion from Europe of the Ottoman Empire, which has proved + itself so radically alien to Western civilisation." + +The greatest success of the Czecho-Slovak National Council, however, has +been the formal recognition by France of the formation of an autonomous +Czecho-Slovak army in France with the National Council at its head. By this +act France recognised: + +(1) That the Czecho-Slovaks have a right to form an army of their own, +which right appertains only to a sovereign and independent nation; + +(2) That the Czecho-Slovaks have a right to fight on the side of the +Entente, and therefore are to be considered as one of the Allies; + +(3) That the political direction of the army is reserved to the +Czecho-Slovak National Council, which right is usually accorded only to the +government of an independent state. + +The full text of this historic document, signed by the President of the +French Republic, M. Poincare, the French Premier, M. Clemenceau, and the +Foreign Secretary, M. Pichon, and dated December 19, 1917, reads +as follows: + + "1. The Czecho-Slovaks organised in an autonomous army and recognising, + from the military point of view, the superior authority of the French + high command, will fight under their own flag against the Central + Powers. + + "2. This national army is placed, from the political point of view, + under the direction of the Czecho-Slovak National Council whose + headquarters are in Paris. + + "3. The formation of the Czecho-Slovak army as well as its further work + are assured by the French Government. + + "4. The Czecho-Slovak army will be subject to the same dispositions as + regards organisation, hierarchy, administration and military discipline + as those in force in the French army. + + "5. The Czecho-Slovak army will be recruited from among: + + (_a_) Czecho-Slovaks at present serving with the French army; + + (_b_) Czecho-Slovaks from other countries admitted to be transferred + into the Czecho-Slovak army or to contract a voluntary engagement with + this army for the duration of war. + + "6. Further ministerial instructions will settle the application of + this decree. + + "7. The President of the War Cabinet, the Secretary of War, and the + Foreign Secretary are charged each in his own sphere to bring into + effect the present decree, which will be published in the _Bulletin des + Lois_ and inserted in the _Journal Officiel de la Republique + Francaise_." + +In a covering letter, dated December 16, 1917, and addressed to M. +Poincare, the French Premier and the Foreign Secretary declared: + + "France has always supported by all means in her power the national + aspirations of the Czecho-Slovaks. The number of volunteers of this + nationality who at the outbreak of the war enlisted to fight under the + French flag was considerable; the gaps created in their ranks prove + unquestionably the ardour with which they fought against our enemies. + + "Certain Allied governments, especially the Russian Provisional + Government, did not hesitate to authorise the formation on our front of + units composed of Czecho-Slovaks who had escaped from the oppression of + their enemy. + + "It is only just that this nationality should be given means of + defending, under their own flag and side by side with us, the cause of + right and liberty of peoples, and it will be in accord with French + traditions to assist the organisation of an autonomous Czecho-Slovak + army." + +Needless to say, the joy over this recognition was very great in Bohemia, +while the German papers were furious. The _Neue Freie Presse_ of December +28 devoted its leading article to the Czecho-Slovak army on the Western +front, and concluded with the following remarks: + + "Although the strength of this new army is estimated at 120,000 men, + the Czecho-Slovak army will not have a decisive influence on the + military operations. Nevertheless, it may do us considerable harm in + case we should transfer troops to the Western front. However, the + greatest harm is in the moral effect which this act of wholesale + treachery of the Czechs will have on the military power of the + monarchy. In any case the co-operation of the Czecho-Slovak army on the + side of the Entente will only strengthen the Allies' belief that right + is on their side." + +Soon afterwards Italy also generously allowed an expeditionary corps of the +Czecho-Slovak army to be formed from the Czecho-Slovak prisoners of war who +surrendered to her. On May 23, 1918, the Czecho-Slovak troops welcomed the +Prince of Wales to Rome, and soon afterwards they distinguished themselves +on the Piave and were mentioned in one of General Diaz's dispatches and +also in the official Italian _communique_ of September 22, 1918. + +From the recognition of the Czecho-Slovak army followed the full +recognition which the National Council obtained from the Allies. + +4. While the general secretariat was actively working for these concessions +in the West, Professor Masaryk, after devoting his attention to the +education of public opinion in Great Britain on the importance of Bohemia, +by means of private memoranda and various articles in the _New Europe, +Weekly Dispatch_ and elsewhere, decided in May, 1917, to go to Russia. + +In Russia, Professor Masaryk succeeded admirably in uniting and +strengthening all Czecho-Slovak forces, and in organising a regular army of +the many thousands of Czecho-Slovak prisoners there. As we have already +pointed out elsewhere, before the Revolution these efforts of the National +Council and the Czech prisoners, who were always eager to fight for the +Allies, were rendered immensely difficult by the obstacles inherent in the +geographic conditions of Russia and by obstacles placed in their way by the +old Russian regime. + +Unfortunately now, when the Czecho-Slovaks had at last succeeded after much +work in realising their plans, the Czecho-Slovak army became powerless +owing to the collapse of Russia. Without ammunition, without support from +anywhere, the Czecho-Slovaks thought they could no more render very +effective service to the Allies in the East. They decided, therefore, to go +over to join their compatriots in France. + +The position of our army was as follows: After the offensive of July, 1917, +the Czechs retreated to Kieff where they continued to concentrate fresh +forces. At that time they numbered about 60,000, and this number had +gradually increased to 80,000 by the end of 1917. They always observed +strict neutrality in Russia's internal affairs on the advice of their +venerable leader, Professor Masaryk. It was necessary to counsel this +neutrality for the sake of our army itself, since it contained partisans of +different creeds and parties disagreement among whom might have led to its +dissolution. On the whole, the Czecho-Slovaks, who are an advanced nation, +fully conscious of their national aspirations, remained unaffected by the +misleading Bolshevist theories. The Czechs abstained throughout from +interfering with Russian affairs, yet they did not wish to leave Russia as +long as there was any chance for them to assist her. It was not until the +shameful peace of Brest-Litovsk in February, 1918, that Professor Masaryk +decided that the Czecho-Slovak army should leave Russia _via_ Siberia and +join the Czecho-Slovak army in France. The Bolsheviks granted them free +passage to Vladivostok. + +This journey of some 5000 miles was not, however, an easy task for an army +to accomplish. The troops had to move in small echelons or detachments, and +concentration at the stations was prohibited. They had to procure their +trains and their provisions, and they had constant trouble with the +Bolsheviks, because in every district there was a practically independent +Soviet Government with whom the Czechs had to negotiate. The first +detachments with the generalissimo of the army, General Diderichs, at the +head arrived in Vladivostok at the end of April, 1918. But the other +detachments were constantly held up by the Bolsheviks and had great trouble +in passing through. + +They moved from Kieff _via_ Kursk, Tambov, Penza and Samara. The two +last-named towns lie on the line between Moscow and Tcheliabinsk at the +foot of the Urals, whence a direct line runs across Siberia to Vladivostok. + +As we have already pointed out, the Bolsheviks agreed in principle to allow +our troops to leave Russia. Their commander-in-chief, General Muraviev, +allowed the Czechs free passage to France on February 16. The same +concession had been granted by the Moscow Soviet. On the whole the Czechs +were on tolerably good terms with the Bolsheviks. Professor Masaryk +rejected every plan directed against the Bolsheviks submitted to him even +by such of their political adversaries as could not justly be called +counter-revolutionaries. The Czecho-Slovak troops went still further; they +actually complied with the request of the Bolsheviks and partially +disarmed. The trouble only began in May, 1918, when the Bolsheviks yielded +to German intrigues and resolved to destroy our army. + +Already at the beginning of May the Czechs had begun to feel embittered +against the Bolsheviks, because in defiance of the agreement their troops +were constantly being held up by local Soviets. At Tambov, for instance, +they were held up for a whole month. At Tcheliabinsk the Czechs had a +serious scuffle with Magyar ex-prisoners on May 26, and the Bolsheviks +sided entirely with the Magyars, even arresting some Czecho-Slovak +delegates. The Czechs simply occupied the city, liberated their comrades, +and at a congress held by them at Tcheliabinsk on May 28 it was decided to +refuse to surrender any more arms and ammunition and to continue transports +to Vladivostok, if necessary with arms in their hands. This was a reply to +Trotsky's telegram that the Czecho-Slovaks should be completely disarmed, +which the Czecho-Slovaks defied as they knew that another order had been +issued by Trotsky simultaneously, no doubt on the instigation of Count +Mirbach, saying that the Czecho-Slovak troops must be dissolved at all +costs and interned as prisoners of war. The Bolsheviks now arrested +prominent members of the Moscow branch of the Czecho-Slovak National +Council on the ground that they were "anti-revolutionaries." They alleged +also that they had no guarantee that ships would be provided for the Czechs +to be transported to France, and that the Czechs were holding up food +supplies from Siberia. The Bolsheviks deliberately broke their word, and +Trotsky issued an order to "all troops fighting against the +anti-revolutionary Czecho-Slovak brigades" in which he said: + + "The concentration of our troops is complete. Our army being aware that + the Czecho-Slovaks are direct allies of the anti-revolution and of the + capitalists, fights them well. The Czecho-Slovaks are retreating along + the railway. Obviously they would like to enter into negotiations with + the Soviets. We issued an order that their delegates should be + received. We demand in the first place that they should be disarmed. + _Those who do not do so voluntarily will be shot on the spot._ Warlike + operations on the railway line hinder food transports. Energetic steps + must be taken to do away with this state of affairs." + +The Czecho-Slovaks were greatly handicapped, since they were not only +almost unarmed, but were also dispersed along the trans-Siberian line in +small detachments which had considerable difficulty in keeping in touch +with each other. Nevertheless the fates were favourable to them. They were +victorious almost everywhere, thanks to their wonderful spirit and +discipline. + +The first victories gained by the Czecho-Slovaks over the Bolsheviks were +at Penza and Samara. Penza was captured by them after three days' fighting +at the end of May. Later the Czecho-Slovaks also took Sysran on the Volga, +Kazan with its large arsenal, Simbirsk and Yekaterinburg, connecting +Tcheliabinsk with Petrograd, and occupied practically the whole +Volga region. + +In Siberia they defeated a considerable force of German-Magyar ex-prisoners +in Krasnoyarsk and Omsk and established themselves firmly in Udinsk. On +June 29, 15,000 Czecho-Slovaks under General Diderichs, after handing an +ultimatum to the Bolsheviks at Vladivostok, occupied the city without much +resistance. Only at one spot fighting took place and some 160 Bolsheviks +were killed. The Czecho-Slovaks, assisted by Japanese and Allied troops, +then proceeded to the north and north-west, while the Bolsheviks and German +prisoners retreated to Chabarovsk. In September the Czech and Allied troops +from Vladivostok joined hands with the Czecho-Slovaks from Irkutsk and +Western Siberia, and thus gained control over practically the whole +trans-Siberian railway. By this means they have done great service to the +Allies, especially to Great Britain, by defending the East against the +German invaders. Furthermore, it was the Czecho-Slovaks' bold action which +induced Japan and America at last to intervene in Russia and for the sake +of Russia, and it was their control of the Siberian railway which made such +intervention possible. Let us hope that their action will lead to the +regeneration and salvation of the Russian nation. + +The service rendered by Czecho-Slovak troops to the Allied cause was, of +course, justly appreciated by the Allies. Mr. Lloyd George sent the +following telegram to Professor Masaryk on September 9: + + "On behalf of the British War Cabinet I send you our heartiest + congratulations on the striking successes won by the Czecho-Slovak + forces against the armies of German and Austrian troops in Siberia. The + story of the adventures and triumphs of this small army is, indeed, one + of the greatest epics of history. It has filled us all with admiration + for the courage, persistence and self-control of your countrymen, and + shows what can be done to triumph over time, distance and lack of + material resources by those holding the spirit of freedom in their + hearts. Your nation has rendered inestimable service to Russia and to + the Allies in their struggle to free the world from despotism. We shall + never forget it." + +The deeds of our army met with equal admiration and gratitude also in +Bohemia. This is clearly shown by the speech of the Czech deputy Stribrny, +delivered in the Austrian Reichsrat on July 17, and entirely suppressed in +the Austrian and German press. Despite the vigilance on the part of the +Austrian authorities, however, we have been able to secure the full text of +this remarkable speech which reads as follows: + + "GENTLEMEN,--Let me first of all emphasise that my speech is not a + defence of the Czech nation and of the Czech soldiers. There are no + judges in this parliament competent to judge us. + + "You call us traitors. We accept your declaration as the view of our + enemy. Nothing more--nothing less. + + "You gentlemen on the German benches, you dared, however, to touch the + honour of our soldiers--you called them cowards. And in this respect we + are not going to keep silent. We shall always protest against such + injustice! We shall never permit these heroes to be abused by being + called 'cowards.' If there is a single gentleman among you he ought for + a moment to reflect on the soul of a Czech soldier--a soldier who has + been compelled by force to fight in a war which the German Imperial + Chancellor has openly called 'a war of Germans against the Slavs'; a + soldier who was compelled under the threat of immediate execution to + take up arms against the interests of the Slavs, against the interests + of his brothers, against the interests of his own country--Bohemia. + Well then, was it cowardice on the part of this soldier when he, + exposed to the fire of Austrian and German guns and machine guns from + behind, went over to the other side? Was he a coward when, while free + to remain in his captivity as a prisoner of war safely waiting until + the end of the war, he volunteered to fight again and was ready to risk + his life and health once more? Is that Czech soldier a coward who went + once more into the trenches, although aware that if he were captured he + would not be treated as an ordinary prisoner of war but as a deserter, + and hanged accordingly? Is that man a coward who sacrifices his family + which he has left behind and his soil and property inherited from his + ancestors? Is that man a coward who sacrifices himself, his father and + mother, his wife and children for the sake of his nation and country? + + "Is that Czech soldier not a hero who to-day is voluntarily fighting + from the Ural Mountains to Vladivostok, on the Piave and in France? + + "If there is a single gentleman, a real gentleman among you, let him + stand up and answer these questions. + + "And if there is not such a gentleman among you, remember the words of + our bitter enemy the late Minister for Home Defence, Baron Georgi, who + related to this House in a secret sitting all that our regiments have + accomplished. He could not as a soldier suppress a sigh and say, 'We + regret all those treacheries of Czech soldiers, still more because from + their deeds committed on the side of our enemy we can realise what a + splendid military material we have lost.' And if this is not + sufficient, I will remind you of the opinion of those who are in your + eyes the best judges--the Prussian officers. In an Austrian officers' + canteen where Czech soldiers had been abused the whole evening by being + called cowards, the Prussian officers present were asked to give their + opinion on this point. They answered, 'We shall only be able to judge + as to whether the Czechs are cowards or not when they begin to fight + against us.' + + "You should at least be gentlemanly enough not to slander your enemies + who have proved themselves to be greater heroes than any other + soldiers, because they are voluntary heroes, whereas the others are + heroes under compulsion! + + "This question of cowardice is therefore, I hope, settled forever. + + "And now with regard to the title of 'traitors.' _We are traitors to + Austria--every one of us admits it honestly_. Not one of you, however, + has the right to reproach us for this. All of you are patriots by + order, and it cannot be otherwise in a dynastic state like Austria. + + "With regard to the patriotism of the Magyars, we have proofs of this + dating from 1866. They have done the same as we are doing to-day. They + surrendered and organised Klapka's legions against Austria. The fact + that they were punished for their treachery by being given their own + independence does not speak against us. + + "Yes, gentlemen, we are traitors as much as you Magyars, or as you + Germans were, or would be under similar circumstances. And _we want the + same as you want_, i.e. _to be free citizens of our own state_. Our own + state--that does not mean to have a few officials or one more + university. To have a state of our own--that means to be able to decide + freely if our soldiers shall go to war again, and if they do, to see + that they go only for the interests of their own nation, and not for + the interests of their enemies. An independent state--that means for us + no longer to die by order of foreigners, and no longer to live under + foreign domination. + + "Let me remind the gentlemen on the German benches of a lesson in + history. Up till 1866 Germany was nominally under the sceptre of the + Habsburg dynasty--a German dynasty, mind you. Prussia and Northern + Germany felt the indignity of the 'foreign' rule of the Habsburgs--and + they started the fratricidal war in 1866 in order to get rid of this + rule.... + + "It is for you gentlemen on the German benches to speak! Let him who + regrets the blood then spilt stand up and speak. Let him stand up and + condemn Bismarck and William I. who started the war in order to deliver + Germany from the same yoke from which we are trying to free ourselves + to-day. If there is a single man among the Germans who would be + prepared to say that the war against Austria should never have + happened, let him stand up. That war was carried on to free Germany + from the incapable rule of Vienna and it had the same aim in view which + you reproach us with to-day and call high treason! + + "You are silent, gentlemen! We are satisfied with your silence. And now + go and continue to stone and abuse us." + +5. In the meantime, Professor Masaryk arrived in the United States _via_ +Japan in May, 1918. He was accorded a splendid reception at Chicago where +some 200,000 Czecho-Slovaks, as well as various Allied representatives, +greeted him. His presence in the United States not only stimulated +recruiting among Czecho-Slovaks there, but had also political results, +especially when the Central Powers launched their peace offensive. + +At the end of May, Mr. Lansing issued the following statement: + + "The Secretary of State desires to announce that the proceedings of the + Congress of Oppressed Nationalities of Austria-Hungary which was held + in Rome in April have been followed with great interest by the + Government of the United States, and that the nationalist aspirations + of the Czecho-Slovaks and Jugoslavs have the earnest sympathy of this + government." + +This declaration was endorsed by the representatives of Great Britain, +France and Italy at Versailles on June 3, 1918. On June 29, Mr. Lansing +completed and explained his statement as follows: + + "Since the issuance by this government on May 29 of a statement + regarding the nationalist aspirations for freedom of the Czecho-Slovaks + and Jugoslavs, German and Austrian officials have sought to + misinterpret and distort its manifest interpretation. In order, + therefore, that there may be no misunderstanding concerning the meaning + of this statement, the Secretary of State to-day further announces the + position of the United States Government to be that _all branches of + the Slav race should be completely freed from German and Austrian + rule_." + +On the following day, that is on June 30, 1918, President Poincare +presented the Czecho-Slovak army with a flag and delivered an inspiring +speech to them. + +On the occasion of the handing of this flag by President Pioncare to the +Czecho-Slovak army, M. Pichon, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, on behalf +of the government of the French Republic, addressed the following letter to +Dr. Edouard Benes, the general secretary of the Czecho-Slovak National +Council in Paris: + + "At the moment when the 21st Regiment of Chasseurs, the first unit of + the autonomous Czecho-Slovak army in France, after receiving its flag, + is leaving its quarters to take up its position in a sector amongst its + French brothers-in-arms, the Republican Government, in recognition of + your efforts and your attachment to the Allied cause, considers it just + and necessary to proclaim _the right of your nation to its independence + and to recognise publicly and officially the National Council as the + supreme organ of its general interests and the first step towards a + future Czecho-Slovak Government_. + + "During many centuries the Czecho-Slovak nation has enjoyed the + incomparable benefit of independence. It has been deprived of this + independence through the violence of the Habsburgs allied to the German + princes. The historic rights of nations are imperishable. It is for the + defence of these rights that France, attacked, is fighting to-day + together with her Allies. The cause of the Czechs is especially dear to + her. + + "France will never forget the Prague manifestation of December 8, 1870. + Neither will she forget the resistance of its population and the + refusal of Czech soldiers to fight for Austria-Hungary, for which + heroism thousands of these patriots paid with their lives. France has + also heard the appeals of the Czech deputies of January 6, April 13, + and May 16, 1918. + + "Faithful to the principles of respect for nationalities and the + liberation of oppressed nations, _the Government of the Republic + considers the claims of the Czecho-Slovak nation as just and well + founded, and will, at the right moment, support with all its solicitude + the realisation of your aspirations to independence within the historic + boundaries of your territories_ at present suffering under the + oppressive yoke of Austria and Hungary. + + "It is very pleasant for me, Monsieur le Secretaire General, to make + this declaration. Your sentiments, reflecting those of your + compatriots, are for me the measure of the high degree of the future + happiness of your country. + + "In the name of the Government of the French Republic I tender _my + warmest and most sincere wishes that the Czecho-Slovak State may + speedily become, through the common efforts of all the Allies and in + close union with Poland and the Jugoslav State, an insurmountable + barrier to Teutonic aggression_ and a factor for peace in a + reconstituted Europe in accordance with the principles of justice and + rights of nationalities." + +It is unnecessary to add long comments to this clear and explicit state +paper which forms a veritable pledge on the part of France to secure +Czecho-Slovak independence. It is a recognition of Bohemia's right to +independence and of the National Council as the supreme organ of the +Czecho-Slovak nation abroad. At the same time it is also an acceptance of +our programme of the reorganisation of Central Europe, necessitating the +break-up of Austria, and in this respect it is also a success and a pledge +for the Poles and Yugoslavs. + +6. If France and Italy showed such deep understanding of the cause of +Bohemia's liberty, exhibited in practice by special military conventions +concluded with our National Council, Great Britain may be proud of no less +generosity. Although having no direct interests in seeing Bohemia +independent, Great Britain, true to her traditions as a champion of the +liberties of small nations, did not hesitate to give us a declaration which +not only fully endorses all pledges of France and Italy, but which goes +still further and practically recognises our full national sovereignty. + +On August 9, 1918, His Majesty's Government issued the following +declaration: + + "Since the beginning of the war the Czecho-Slovak nation has resisted + the common enemy by every means in its power. The Czecho-Slovaks have + constituted a considerable army, fighting on three different + battlefields and attempting, in Russia and Siberia, to arrest the + Germanic invasion. + + "_In consideration of their efforts to achieve independence, Great + Britain regards the Czecho-Slovaks as an Allied nation and recognises + the unity of the three Czecho-Slovak armies as an Allied and + belligerent army waging a regular warfare against Austria-Hungary and + Germany_. + + "Great Britain also recognises _the right of the Czecho-Slovak National + Council as the supreme organ of the Czecho-Slovak national interests, + and as the present trustee of the future Czecho-Slovak Government to + exercise supreme authority over this Allied and belligerent army_." + +It will be readily seen of what a tremendous significance this declaration +is from an international point of view. Apart from the fact that it +recognises our efforts towards independence, the declaration says +explicitly that the Czecho-Slovaks, abroad and at home, are an Allied +nation, which implies that the Allies will treat them henceforward as such, +and will allow their government to establish consular service and to send +representatives to Allied conferences. The sovereignty both of the +Czecho-Slovak army and of the National Council is fully recognised in this +declaration which proclaims "the unity of the three Czecho-Slovak armies +(in Russia, France and Italy) as an _Allied and belligerent army_ waging +_regular warfare_ against Austria." Only a sovereign army is a belligerent +army waging regular warfare. Thus the Czecho-Slovaks, according to +international law, are no more rebels but regular soldiers whom, when +captured, Austria has no more the right to execute. Similarly also the +recognition of the National Council as the "trustee" of the Czecho-Slovak +Government is clear and explicit; in fact a "trustee" is the word applied +to a provisional government of a state. As a matter of fact, the National +Council, on the ground of this recognition of full sovereignty, was +constituted as a Provisional Government on October 14, 1918, and has the +power to exercise all rights appertaining to a sovereign and independent +government. + +Thus implicitly Great Britain considers Czecho-Slovak independence already +a _fait accompli_. It speaks of and considers a Czecho-Slovak State no more +as a probability, but as a certainty. As with the Czecho-Slovaks so with +Great Britain, Austria exists no more. + +The recognition is of additional importance because it comes from Great +Britain who has always been considered a traditional friend of Austria, and +who is known for conservatism in foreign politics. The decision to issue a +declaration of such far-reaching importance was surely arrived at only +after due and careful deliberation. The step which Great Britain has taken +thereby once more proves the deep sense of justice and the far-sightedness +of British statesmen. Needless to say that the Czecho-Slovaks will always +remain grateful to Great Britain for this bold and generous act. Its +immediate effect has been consternation in Vienna and encouragement both to +the Czecho-Slovak soldiers fighting on the side of the Entente and to the +Czech leaders courageously defending Bohemia's rights in Vienna. As deputy +Klofac put it at a meeting in Laibach on August 15: + + "Henceforward the Czechs will refuse to hold any negotiations with + Vienna, with whom any compromise is now out of the question. The + Czecho-Slovaks will firmly continue the struggle for complete national + independence, strengthened by the support of other Slavs, and by the + knowledge that the British and other Allied governments had formally + acknowledged and were working for the establishment of an independent + Czecho-Slovak State." + +This chapter would not be complete if we did not quote the subsequent +declarations of the United States of America and Japan, practically +endorsing the British declaration. + +On September 3, Mr. Lansing issued the following statement: + + "The Czecho-Slovak peoples having taken up arms against the German and + Austro-Hungarian empires, and having placed in the field organised + armies, which are waging war against those empires under officers of + their own nationality and in accordance with the rules and practices of + civilised nations, and Czecho-Slovaks having in the prosecution of + their independence in the present war confided the supreme political + authority to the Czecho-Slovak National Council, the Government of the + United States recognises that a state of belligerency exists between + the Czecho-Slovaks thus organised and the German and Austro-Hungarian + empires. + + "It also recognises _the Czecho-Slovak National Council as a_ de facto + _belligerent government_, clothed with proper authority to direct the + military and political affairs of the Czecho-Slovaks. + + "The Government of the United States further declares that it is + prepared to enter formally into relations with the _de facto_ + government thus recognised for the purpose of prosecuting the war + against the common enemy, the empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary." + +A week later the Japanese Government, through the medium of its ambassador +in London, communicated the following declaration to the Czecho-Slovak +National Council: + + "The Japanese Government have noted with deep and sympathetic interest + the just aspirations of the Czecho-Slovak people for a free and + independent national existence. These aspirations have conspicuously + been made manifest in their determined and well-organised efforts to + arrest the progress of the Germanic aggression. + + "In these circumstances, the Japanese Government are happy to regard + the Czecho-Slovak army as an Allied and belligerent army waging regular + warfare against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and to recognise the + rights of the Czecho-Slovak National Council to exercise the supreme + control over that army. They are further prepared to enter into + communication with the duly authorised representatives of the + Czecho-Slovak National Council, whenever necessary, on all matters of + mutual interest to the Japanese and the Czecho-Slovak forces in + Siberia." + + + +VII + +THE CZECHS AT HOME BEGIN TO SPEAK + +The opening of the Reichsrat in May, 1917, was intended to give Austria the +appearance of a "democratic" country in which diverse nationalities live in +peace and happiness. Democratic indeed! A parliament, subject to +censorship, lacking the freedom of speech and all influence on the +government, with 463 members instead of 516, many of whom were still in +prison and in exile! And if there was still any person in the Allied +countries having any doubts concerning the attitude of the Czechs and +Yugoslavs, these doubts were certainly dispelled after the courageous +indictment against Austria made by the Slav deputies, representing +practically all the Czech and Yugoslav political parties. The declaration +of the Poles in favour of a united and independent Poland, the statement of +Messrs. Stanek and Korosec in the name of _all_ Czechs and Yugoslavs in +favour of a Czecho-Slovak and Yugoslav State, the speech of deputy Kalina +denying all responsibility of the Czechs for the war, and expressing Czech +sympathies with the Entente Powers, and the terrible story of persecutions +which the Czechs had to suffer from Austria during the war, told by deputy +Stribrny, formed a veritable "Mene Tekel," a death sentence pronounced by +the Austrian Slavs on their tyrants in Vienna and Budapest. + +The revelation in the Reichsrat of the hopeless state of decay prevailing +in Austria-Hungary was, of course, due to the Russian Revolution. If it was +not for the Russian Revolution, the Austrian Emperor and Clam-Martinic +would perhaps have continued their reign of absolutism by way of imperial +decrees, and they would never have dreamt of convoking the Reichsrat. + +However, the desperate economic and political situation forced Austria to +find some way out of her difficulties, and to plead for peace as she began +to realise that otherwise she was doomed. The change of order and the +situation in Russia and the uncertain attitude of some Allied statesmen +seemed favourable for the Austrian calculations respecting a separate +peace. But Austria could not possibly hope to deceive free Russia or the +Allies and lure them into concluding a premature peace if the reign of +terrorism and absolutism still prevailed in the Dual Monarchy. For this +reason Tisza, with his sinister reputation, was forced to go, and the +Reichsrat was convened. Austria based her plans on the ignorance of some +Allied politicians who really believed in the "new orientation" of the +Vienna Government because of the Bohemian _names_ (not sympathies) of +Clam-Martinic and Czernin. In the same way Austria wanted to make outsiders +believe that a change in the name of the Hungarian Premier meant a change +of system, and that the convocation of the Reichsrat meant a new era of +"democracy" in Austria. + +Neither of these assumptions was, of course, correct. If the Magyars talk +of introducing universal suffrage, they want to extend it to Magyar +electors, and on one condition only, viz. that all the candidates shall be +of _Magyar_ nationality, or, as the Hungarian Premier, Count Esterhazy, put +it, "democracy in Hungary can only be a Magyar democracy"--that is, a +system utterly at variance with the principles of justice. + +But far from averting the doom of Austria and bringing her peace and +consolation, the opening of the Reichsrat only hastened Austria's downfall, +for it enabled the Austrian Slavs, who now felt that the moment had come +for them to speak, to declare before the whole world their aspirations, and +their determination to destroy the monarchy. + +_(a) The Czech Declaration of May_ 30, 1917 + +Before entering the Reichsrat, the Czechs made it clear that they no longer +desired any compromise with Austria. In a manifesto signed by 150 Czech +authors and subsequently endorsed by professors, teachers and various +societies and corporations, the Czech deputies were reminded that the fate +of their nation was at stake: + + "The doors of the Austrian Parliament are opening and the political + representatives of the nations have for the first time the opportunity + of speaking and acting freely. Whatever they may say and decide will be + heard not only at home, but also throughout Europe and overseas.... The + programme of our nation is founded on its history and racial unity, on + its modern political life and rights. The present time emphasises the + necessity for carrying out this programme completely.... To-day you are + forced to develop this programme, to defend it to the last breath + before the forum of Europe, and to demand its realisation without + limitations.... Democratic Europe, the Europe of free and independent + nations, is the Europe of the future. The nation asks you to be equal + to this historic occasion, to devote to it all your abilities and to + sacrifice to it all other considerations...." + +And to this appeal of their nation the Czech, deputies did not turn a deaf +ear. + +On entering the Reichsrat on May 30, 1917, Mr. Stanek, president of the +Union of Czech Deputies, made the following memorable declaration in the +name of all the Czech deputies: + + "While taking our stand at this historic moment on the natural right of + peoples to self-determination and free development--a right which in + our case is further strengthened by inalienable historic rights fully + recognised by this state--we shall, at the head of our people, work for + _the union of all branches of the Czecho-Slovak nation in a single + democratic Bohemian State_, comprising also the Slovak branch of our + nation which lives in the lands adjoining our Bohemian Fatherland." + +Both the Yugoslav and the Polish press greeted this declaration with +undisguised joy and sympathy. + +The _Glos Naroda_ welcomed the Czech declaration, and added: "Those who +to-day are asking for an independent national existence do not claim +anything but the minimum of their rights. Nothing less could satisfy them +(_i.e._ the Czechs and Yugo-slavs), seeing that even smaller and less +historic nations claim the same." The _Nowa Reforma_ also said that the +Czechs were quite right to ask for full independence. "They are entitled to +it by their position in which they can lose nothing more than they have +lost already, but gain a great deal. Among the Entente Powers there is +nobody who would have an open or disguised interest in opposing even the +boldest claims of the Czecho-Slovak nation." + +The declaration of deputy Stanek was completed by a statement of deputy +Kalina who made it quite clear that the Czechs refuse responsibility for +the war, and that their sympathies are with the Entente. Kalina, a +prominent leader of the State Right Party, said: + + "As deputies elected by the Czech nation, _we absolutely reject every + responsibility for this war_. + + "After three years, the government has summoned the _Reichsrat, which + the Czechs never recognised_, and against which, as well as against the + so-called constitution, they again make a formal protest. The great + Russian Revolution forced the government to a plausible restoration of + constitutional life. + + "_The Czech nation hails with unbounded joy and enthusiasm the + liberation of Eastern Europe_. The main principles of that memorable + Revolution are closely related to our own traditions, _i.e._ to the + principle of _liberty, equality and fraternity of all nations_. Bohemia + is a free country. Never in her history did she accept laws from + aliens, not even from her powerful neighbours in Europe. Liberty of + individuals, liberty of nations is again our motto which the nation of + Hussites is bringing before the world. In these historic moments, when + from the blood-deluged battlefields a new Europe is arising, and the + idea of the sovereignty of nations and nationalities is triumphantly + marching throughout the Continent, _the Czech nation solemnly declares + before the world its firm will for liberty and independence_ on the + ground of the ancient historic rights of the Bohemian Crown. In + demanding independence, the Czech nation asks, in the sense of the new + democracy, for the extension of the right of self-determination to the + whole Czecho-Slovak nation." + +_(b) Courageous Speeches delivered by Czech Deputies in the Reichsrat_ + +During the subsequent session of the Reichsrat, various Czech deputies, +representing all the Czech parties, made declarations, some of which we +will quote in order to show the remarkable unanimity of the Czechs in their +opposition to Austria and in their demand for independence. _It was chiefly +this unanimity of all Czech parties and classes in Bohemia and the absolute +harmony between their action and the Czecho-Slovak action abroad which +formed the real strength of the movement_. + +_Dr. Stransky_, leader of the Moravian People's Party, delivered a long +speech in the Reichsrat on June 12, 1917, from which we quote the following +significant passages: + + "The Germans say that germanisation is not carried out except where it + is in the interests of the state. We do not think that the interests of + the state should go first. If the interests of a state are not + identical with the liberties and interests of a nation, then _such a + state has for that nation no right to exist_. + + "If Clam-Martinic thinks that we will enter the Reichsrat which the + Polish deputies would not attend in their present strength, then he is + greatly mistaken. We heartily wish the Poles to achieve their national + independence, but should we be denied an equal right, then it would + mean an end to this Reichsrat. We want to enjoy the same happiness as + the rest, _we want to be free from all oppression, from all foreign + domination. We want to decide for ourselves the form of our political + existence_. We want to choose our own laws, we want to govern + ourselves. _We claim the restitution of our political independence and + of the supreme historic right of the Czech nation in the lands of the + Bohemian Crown. The time is ripe also when the Austrian fortresses of + St. Peter and St. Paul will open, and when their prisoners will change + places with their persecutors. The state and dynasty have lately taken + away the rights and liberties of our nation and trampled them + underfoot_." + +On June 15, the National Socialist deputy _Stribrny_, openly demanded the +creation of a Czecho-Slovak Republic: + + "The German annexationist plans are doomed. The Czechs greet with joy + the new era of equality and fraternity, an era in which a _democratic + republic_ is considered as the best form of government. The Czechs + demand the creation of a Bohemia in which they will possess their own + independent government. _Too long have they been oppressed by Austria, + and now they are determined to achieve their national liberty_." + +On June 26, _Dr. Soukup_, the leader of the Czecho-Slav Social Democratic +Party, made an equally remarkable statement: + + "As a Social Democrat I say that we, the Czecho-Slovak nation, have + also a right to a place in the sun, and we want to be seen. Do you + consider that a nation numbering over ten million and boasting of a + highly developed civilisation can continue to breathe under such + oppressive conditions, seeing what an important role is being played by + four million Bulgars, two million Greeks, two million Danes and other + small nations? _We welcome the resurrection of the great and united + Polish State, we witness the great Yugoslav nation shaping its + boundaries along the Adriatic, and we also see Ukrainia arising. At + such moments we want to live as well, and we will live_!" + +_(c) After the Amnesty_ + +The political amnesty of July, 1917, intended to appease the Slavs, had +just the opposite effect: it only strengthened the Slav resistance which +acquired fresh strength and impetus by the return of the old leaders. + +Kramar was hailed like a sovereign when he entered Prague again. He now +became the recognised leader of the whole nation. The _Narodni Listy_ +became the mouthpiece of all the most eminent leaders of the nation without +party distinction. Its issue of October 31, 1917, contained a map of the +future independent Czecho-Slovak State and a series of articles. We will +quote only a few passages from an article written by deputy Rasin which +read as follows: + + "The war has brought our problem home not only to us but to the whole + world. Nothing could have better expressed our situation than the + propaganda of Mitteleuropa. Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria had to form a + bridge for the imperialistic march of Germany to the Persian Gulf _via_ + Constantinople and Bagdad. The Czechs and Yugoslavs were to be crushed + and become the victims of those plans. This was the ideal that the + German nation considered as its war aim and as a war aim of + Austria-Hungary. They could not have obtained a better reply than was + given to them by the Czechs and Yugoslavs in their demand for their own + independent states, which would be able to form a permanent bulwark + against the _Drang nach Osten_ as planned by the Germans and Magyars. + Even if Herr Naumann ceases to promote the idea of Central Europe, in + reality _a new programme which would do away with the old evils and + assign a new mission to Austria-Hungary is inconceivable_. All the + declarations of the government are only destined to conceal their real + intentions. The German-Magyar hegemony is as strong as ever, and the + Polish question is to be solved only according to the Pan-German + programme. During this war Austria's real face has been unmasked before + the whole world by her persecutions, arbitrary decrees and the + Pan-German propaganda. + + "The Czechs, who in their policy always went hand in hand with the + Yugoslavs, saw all this, and consequently the only thing left for them + to do is to insist on their attitude, constantly to reveal Austria's + insincerity, to reject all pretty phrases without any meaning in them, + and all compromises, which we know would never be kept. _We also must + reject a compromise peace which would lead to fresh wars_. + + "_The policy of the Czechs cannot but aim at the absolute independence + of the whole Czecho-Slovak nation_, and all our action at home and + abroad must tend towards persuading the world that only thus can a + stable peace in Europe be achieved." + +It was about this time also when Seidler made desperate attempts to induce +the Slav leaders to participate in a special commission for the revision of +the Austrian Constitution. Dr. Stransky, speaking in the name of the +Czechs, openly refused the proposal, declaring that the Czech problem could +not be solved by Austria, but only by the Peace Conference, that is after +the victory of the Entente. A joint committee of representatives of the +Young Czech, National Socialist, Progressive Independence and Moravian +Progressive Parties issued a proclamation protesting against any +participation of Czechs in Austrian politics, and declaring that since the +Czech question is an international one and can therefore be decided only at +the Peace Conference, the duty of the Czech deputies is not to assist in +the revision of the Austrian Constitution, but to insist upon the creation +of an "_independent Czecho-Slovak State with all the attributes of +sovereignty_." + +Simultaneously also the Czech Agrarian deputy, _Zahradnik_, made the +following remarkable declaration in the Reichsrat on September 26: + + "In view of the prevailing policy directed against the Czech people, + can any one wonder that _they have lost all confidence in Vienna_ and + that they refuse to let this parliament decide their fate? _It is + necessary to secure for all peoples, great or small, the right to + decide their own destinies_. This applies also to the ten million + Czecho-Slovaks who, moreover, cannot rightly be considered merely as a + 'small' nation: the Czechs, too, do not desire anything more than + peace, but it must not be forgotten _that our men did not shed their + blood merely for imperialism or for Pan-Germanism. We do not want + anything but an honourable peace which would bring equality to all + peoples_, a peace assuring liberty and equality to all, and not a peace + which would leave our fetters unbroken. We regret that the Pope omitted + to mention the Czechs in his peace offer although he mentioned the + Poles. _But we shall obtain our right without alien support. The Czechs + will never swerve from their demand for an independent Slovak State + with all the attributes of sovereignty. The Czechs are convinced that + the question of Bohemia is too great to be solved in Vienna. It must be + decided at the Peace Conference_." + +On November 9, deputy Stanek made it clear that the Czecho-Slovaks expect +the resurrection of their independence only from the break-up of Austria: + + "We cannot conceive of peace or of the transformation of Europe except + when _on the ruins of the Dual Monarchy_ new national states shall + arise. The German-Magyar misrule must be destroyed." + +And when on November 21 Seidler talked about the peace conditions of the +"enemy," Dr. Stransky interrupted him by exclaiming, "Our enemies are here, +in Vienna and in Budapest!" + +_(d) During Peace Negotiations with Russia_ + +When peace negotiations were opened with the Bolsheviks, the +Austro-Hungarian delegations were also summoned, for the first time during +the war, on December 3, 1917. During the speech from the throne the Czechs +demonstratively left the hall. On the same day the Bohemian Union, the +Yugoslav Club and the Ruthenes issued a protest against the government +having published a distorted version of the Russian peace offer. In this +protest the Slav deputies asked: + + "How can the government answer for having purposely distorted such a + highly important document as the Russian Note of November 28, and why + did the government suppress just the paragraph out of it containing + guarantees for national self-determination?" + +Their declaration naturally exasperated the Germans and the government. The +organ of the Austrian Foreign Office, the _Fremdenblatt_, expressed regret +that the Slav parties in the Reichsrat "place obstacles in the way of +peace." It also regretted that "some parties in the Austrian Parliament +should take up an attitude incompatible with our state's +self-preservation." On the next day, M. Stanek made a declaration in the +delegations in the name of Czechs and Yugoslavs, saying: + + "We Czech and Yugoslav delegates declare that it is our deep conviction + as well as the firm will of our respective nations that a lasting peace + is possible only on the ground of the full right of self-determination. + _The Imperial Government deliberately and wilfully distorted the most + important part of the Russian peace offer_, viz. the demand for the + self-determination of nations. It is still more surprising that the + prime ministers in both halves of the monarchy should try to deceive + the public opinion of the world by a false interpretation of the right + of self-determination. The Austrian Premier, Dr. Seidler, declared that + the Viennese Parliament is a forum through which the nations could + obtain self-determination, while the _Hungarian Premier had the + impudence to describe the conditions in Hungary, which are a mockery of + all civilisation, as the ideal of national liberty._ We, therefore, + declare in regard to any peace negotiations: _Our national development + can only then be secured when the right of self-determination of all + nations shall be fully, clearly and unreservedly recognised_ with + binding guarantees of its immediate realisation." + +At the same time the Slavs made a proposal in the Austro-Hungarian +Delegations, insisting that the peace negotiations with Russia should be +conducted by a committee selected from both parliaments on the basis of +nationality, and consisting of twelve Germans, ten Magyars, ten +Czecho-Slovaks, seven Yugoslavs, five Poles, four Ruthenes, three Rumanians +and one Italian. + +Finally, on December 5, the Czech Socialist deputy Tusar declared in the +Reichsrat: + + "We want to be our own masters, and if it is high treason to ask for + liberty and independence, then let us say at once that _each of us is a + traitor, but such high treason is an honour, and not a dishonour_. As + regards the negotiations with Russia, we declare that _Count Czernin + does not represent the nations of Austria_ and has no right to speak in + our name; he is merely the plenipotentiary of the dynasty. _The old + Austria, based on police, bureaucracy, militarism and racial tyranny, + cannot survive this war_. We also want peace, but it must be a just + peace. The Czecho-Slovaks will under all circumstances defend their + rights." + +In conjunction with this declaration we may quote two other Czech +Socialists showing the opinion of the Czechs on the Russian Revolution. + +On November 29, deputy Modracek declared in the Reichsrat: + + "The Revolution of the Bolsheviks is a misfortune for the Russian + Revolution, the Russian Republic and all the oppressed nations of + Europe. _So long as the German Social Democracy permits the working + masses to be brought to the battlefield in the interests of + Imperialism, the action of the Bolsheviks is not the work for Socialism + but for German Tsarism_. I do not undervalue the significance and the + greatness of the Russian Revolution: it is the German Social Democrats + who fail to perform their moral duty in this war and do not comprehend + the Russian Revolution." + +Still more outspoken is the declaration of deputy Winter, who said in the +Reichsrat on February 21, 1918: + + "The workers of the whole world will never forget that the Russian + Revolution was the first social revolution on a large scale. And on + this revolutionary movement Germany has directly and Austria-Hungary + indirectly declared war. _Perhaps Austria-Hungary wants to repay the + Romanoffs in_ 1918 _for the aid which they rendered to the Habsburgs + in_ 1848.... Austria-Hungary once before engaged in the European + reaction by crushing revolution in Italy. She gathered the fruits of + this act in 1848, 1859, 1866, and in the present war. Formerly France + and Russia participated in the Holy Alliance, but _to-day the Central + Powers are the only refuge of reaction in Europe_." + +_(e) The Constituent Assembly of Prague on January_ 6, 1918 + +The most important manifestation of Czecho-Slovak national will took place +in Prague on January 6, 1918, when all the Czech deputies assembled in +order to give expression to their deep gratitude for the French recognition +of the constitution of a Czecho-Slovak army on the side of the Entente. At +the same time it was a protest against Austria-Hungary and a demand for +representation at the Peace Conference. + +As to the resolution unanimously adopted by this constituent assembly, +there is no doubt about its meaning: in it the Czecho-Slovaks no more act +with Austria but demand full liberty. This even the Austrian Premier, Dr. +Seidler, had to admit, when he declared in the Reichsrat on January 22: + + "This resolution, in which we in vain look for a distant echo of + dynastic or state allegiance, adopts to a certain extent an + international standpoint, and shows that this people is ready, at any + rate on the conclusion of peace, to accept international support with a + view to obtaining the recognition of foreign states. Such a standpoint + is calculated to encourage our enemies and to prolong the war. + + "The resolution demands the right of self-determination in order to + dissolve the existing unity of the state, and to assure full + independence and sovereignty. _The resolution gives the impression of + having been conceived in a sense absolutely hostile to the state_, and + must be indignantly rejected by every Austrian and resisted by every + Austrian Government with all the means in its power." + +The Czech declaration of January 6, which is the most important of all +declarations of the Czechs and which has been suppressed in the Austrian +press, reads as follows: + + "In the fourth year of this terrible war, which has already cost the + nations numberless sacrifices in blood and treasure, the first peace + efforts have been inaugurated. We Czech deputies recognise the + declarations in the Reichsrat, and deem it our duty emphatically to + declare, in the name of the Czech nation and of its oppressed and + forcibly-silenced Slovak branch of Hungary, our attitude towards the + reconstruction of the international situation. + + "When the Czech deputies of our regenerated nation expressed + themselves, during the Franco-Prussian War, on the international + European problems, they solemnly declared in the memorandum of December + 8, 1870, that 'only from the recognition of the equality of all nations + and from natural respect of the right of self-determination could come + true equality and fraternity, a general peace and true humanity.' + + "We, deputies of the Czech nation, true even to-day to these principles + of our ancestors, have therefore greeted with joy the fact that all + states, based upon democratic principles, whether belligerent or + neutral, now accept with us the right of nations to free + self-determination as a guarantee of a general and lasting peace. + + "The new Russia also accepted the principle of self-determination of + nations during its attempts for a general settlement and as a + fundamental condition of peace. The nations were freely to determine + their fate and decide whether they want to live in an independent state + of their own or whether they choose to form one state in common with + other nations. + + "On the other hand, the Austro-Hungarian delegate declared, in the name + of the Quadruple Alliance, that the question of the self-determination + of those nations which have not hitherto enjoyed political independence + should be solved in a constitutional manner within the existing state. + This point of view of the Austro-Hungarian representative is not our + point of view, because we know, from our own numberless bitter + experiences, that it means nothing but the negation of the principle of + self-determination. We indignantly express our regret that our nation + was deprived of its political independence and of the right of + self-determination, and that by means of artificial electoral statutes + we were left to the mercy of the German minority and of the government + of the centralised German bureaucracy. + + "Our brother Slovaks became the victims of Magyar brutality and of + unspeakable violence in a state which, notwithstanding all its apparent + constitutional liberties, remains the darkest corner of Europe, and in + which the non-Magyars who form the majority of the population are + ruthlessly oppressed by the ruling minority, extirpated, and + denationalised from childhood, unrepresented in parliament and the + civil service, and deprived of public schools as well as of all private + educational institutions. + + "The constitution to which the Austro-Hungarian representative refers, + nullified even the right of general suffrage by an artificial creation + of an over-representation of the German minority in the Reichsrat, and + its utter uselessness for the liberty of nations was clearly + demonstrated during the three years of unscrupulous military absolutism + during this war. Every reference to this constitution, therefore, means + in reality only a repudiation of the right of self-determination for + the non-German nations of Austria who are at the mercy of the Germans: + and it means an especially cruel insult and injury to the non-Magyar + nations _in Hungary, where the constitution is nothing but a means of + shameful domination by the oligarchy of a few Magyar aristocratic + families_, as was again proved by the recent electoral reform proposal. + + "Our nation longs with all the democracies of the world for a general + and lasting peace. But our nation is fully aware that _no peace can be + permanent except a peace which will abolish old injustice_, brutal + force and the predominance of arms, as well as the predominance of + states and nations over other nations, which will assure a free + development to all nations, great or small, and which will liberate + especially those nations which are still suffering under foreign + domination. That is why it is necessary that this right of free + national development and of self-determination of nations, great or + small, to whatever state they may belong, should become the foundation + of future international rights, a guarantee of peace, and of a friendly + co-operation of nations, as well as a great ideal which will liberate + humanity from the terrible horrors of a world war. + + "_We deputies of the Czech nation declare that a peace which would not + bring our nation full liberty could not be and would not mean a peace + to us_, but would only be the beginning of a new, desperate and + continuous struggle for our political independence, in which our nation + would strain to the utmost its material and moral forces. And in that + uncompromising struggle it would never relax until its aim had been + achieved. _Our nation asks for independence_ on the ground of its + historic rights, and is imbued with the fervent desire to contribute + towards the new development of humanity on the basis of liberty and + fraternity in a free competition with other free nations, which our + nation hopes to accomplish in a sovereign, equal, democratic and + socially just state of its own, built upon the equality of all its + citizens within the historic boundaries of the Bohemian lands and of + Slovakia, guaranteeing full and equal national rights to all + minorities. + + "Guided by these principles, we solemnly protest against the rejection + of the right of self-determination at the peace negotiations, and + _demand that, in the sense of this right, all nations, including, + therefore, also the Czecho-Slovaks, be guaranteed participation and + full freedom of defending their rights at the Peace Conference_." + +_(f) The Oath of the Czecho-Slovak Nation_ + +It will be remembered that Count Czernin delivered a speech to the Vienna +Municipal Council on April 2, 1918, which caused his downfall. In this +pronouncement he also attacked Czech leaders and blamed them for the +failure of his peace efforts. This interesting passage of his speech reads +as follows: + + "What terrible irony it is that, while our brothers and sons are + fighting like lions on the battlefield and millions of men and women at + home are heroically bearing their losses and are sending up urgent + prayers to the Almighty for the speedy termination of the war, certain + leaders of the people and the people's representatives agitate against + the German Alliance, which has so splendidly stood the test, _pass + resolutions which no longer have the slightest connection with the + state idea, find no word of blame for the Czech troops which criminally + fight against their own country_ and their brothers-in-arms, would tear + parts out of the Hungarian State, under the protection of their + parliamentary immunity _make speeches which cannot be considered + otherwise than as a call to enemy countries to continue the struggle_ + solely in order to support their own political efforts, and ever anew + kindle the expiring war spirit in London, Rome and Paris. _The wretched + and miserable Masaryk is not the only one of his kind. There are also + Masaryks within the borders of the monarchy._ I would much rather have + spoken on this sad matter in the delegations, but, as I have already + mentioned, the convoking of the committee has at present proved to be + impossible and I cannot wait." + +Thereupon he attempted to absolve the Czech "people" from the charge of +high treason. + +The Czech leaders did not resent his charge that they were "traitors" like +Masaryk. Indeed, the _Lidove Noviny_ openly declared: "We are proud to be +called traitors." But they resented his subsequent allegation that the +Czech people do not stand behind their leaders. In order to refute this +allegation and to assure the Czech soldiers fighting on the side of the +Entente of their solidarity, the Czechs summoned a meeting at Prague in +which some 6000 _delegates of all Czech parties and classes took part_, as +well as twenty-three delegates of the Yugoslavs. The meeting was most +solemn and impressive. It was a new manifestation by the whole nation of +its unanimity in the struggle for independence. The Czecho-Yugoslav +solidarity was again emphasised. Finally, a solemn oath was unanimously +taken by the whole assembly. The following are some of its passages: + + "To the Czecho-Slovak Nation! + + "The terrible world war is approaching its culmination. In awe and + sorrow a great number of Czecho-Slovak men and women are standing here. + + "The Czecho-Slovak blood has been and is still being shed in torrents. + + "Unbroken, united in suffering, our nation believed and believes that + the storm of the world war will ultimately result in a better future + and that its humanitarian ideals will be sanctioned by a universal + peace which will forever guard humanity against a repetition of the + present catastrophe. + + "We never asked for anything but to be able to live a free life, to + govern our own destinies free from foreign domination, and to erect our + own state after the manner of all other civilised nations. That is our + sacred right. It is the national and international right of a nation + which has done great service to civilisation and can proudly range + itself among the most civilised and democratic nations of Europe. + + "This is the firm and unanimous will of the nation: + + "_We have assembled here to-day as the legitimate representatives of + the Czecho-Slovak nation in order to manifest unmistakably that the + whole nation is united as it never was before, and that it stands like + a rock behind the memorable and historic declarations of its deputies_. + + "_So we are standing here, firmly convinced of the ultimate victory of + Justice, of the victory of Right over Might, of Liberty over Tyranny, + of Democracy over Privilege and of Truth over Falsehood and Deceit_. + + "At the cross-roads of history, we swear by the glorious memory of our + ancestors, before the eyes of the sorrow-stricken nation, over the + graves of those who have fallen for the cause of liberty, to-day and + for all eternity: + + "_We will hold on and will never give way!_ + + "_We will be faithful in all our work, struggles and sufferings, + faithful unto death!_ + + "_We will hold on unto victory!_ + + "_We will hold on until our nation obtains independence_. + + "_Long live the Czecho-Slovak nation!_ + + "Let our nation grow and flourish freely in the great family of + nations, for its own welfare as well as for the welfare of the future + liberated humanity!" + +_(g) The Slovaks' Attitude_ + +The appalling terrorism prevailing in Hungary made it impossible for the +Slovaks to manifest their feelings as they would have liked to do. The +Slovaks abroad, of course, work hand in hand with the Czechs for their +common cause. + +Nevertheless, even in Hungary the Slovaks showed their unanimity with the +Czechs. + +According to the _Narodni Listy_ of July 24, 1917, the Slovak political +leaders, especially their two deputies, Father P. Juriga and Dr. P. Blaho, +and the veteran leader of the Slovak National Party, M. Dula, have been +subjected to all sorts of persuasions and threats on the part of the +Magyars who were anxious that the Slovaks should disavow the declaration of +the Bohemian Club in favour of the union of all Czechs and Slovaks in an +independent state. The Slovak leaders, however, refused to become the dupes +of the Magyar Government. + +According to the _Narodni Listy_ of May 5, 1918, a great manifestation was +arranged by Slovak Socialists in St. Miklos on May 1 in favour of the union +of the Hungarian Slovaks with the Czechs of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. +Several thousand Slovaks took part in the manifestation despite the +obstacles put in the way by the Magyar gendarmerie and police spies. A +resolution was carried unanimously demanding amongst other things a just +and lasting peace which would prevent the outbreak of fresh conflagrations +and assure liberty to all nations in Europe, and "_self-determination for +all nations_, including also that branch of the Czecho-Slovak nation which +lives in Hungary." Besides this manifestation, the Slovaks sent +representative delegates to the National Theatre celebrations in Prague, +with which we deal in our next chapter. + +_(h) The Czecho-Slovak National Council in Prague_ + +On July 13, 1918, an important event took place in Prague. The +Czecho-Slovaks established an inter-party council which may well be +described as part of the _Provisional Government of Bohemia_, whose +programme is identical with that of the Czecho-Slovak Provisional +Government in Paris. + +The inaugural meeting of the council in Prague was opened by the president +of the Agrarian Party, Mr. Svehla, who gave a report about the preparatory +work and principles which led to the constitution of the council. On the +proposal of M. Stanek, president of the Union of Czech Deputies, _Dr. Karel +Kramar_, the leader of the Independent Democratic Party, was elected +president of the council, _M. Klofac_, leader of the National Socialists, +and _M. Svehla_ vice-presidents, and _Dr. Soukup_, leader of the +Socialists, secretary. Dr. Kramar greeted the assembly in the name of the +presidency. Afterwards deputy Klofac delivered a speech in the name of the +Socialists, and the vice-president of the Czech Union, supported by deputy +Habermann, proposed that the presidency should itself select members of the +council. The proposal was unanimously accepted. Deputy Stanek greeted the +National Council in the name of the Czech Union as the supreme +representative of the whole Czecho-Slovak nation, of all its classes and +parties. Thereupon Dr. Soukup proposed a resolution which was carried +unanimously and the chief passages of which read as follows: + + "To the Czecho-Slovak Nation! + + "On the decision of all political parties, representing the united will + of our whole nation, the Czecho-Slovak National Council has been formed + to-day. The immense gravity of the present times and our common concern + for the future fate of the Czecho-Slovak nation have united us in a + national organisation. + + "The ultimate aim of the Czecho-Slovak National Council in Prague is + postulated by the demand of these times: _to enlist for systematic + work, to organise and lead the great spiritual, moral and national + resources of the nation_ to that end which is the most sacred and + inalienable right of every nation and which cannot and will not be + denied also to our nation: + + "_The right of self-determination in a fully independent Czecho-Slovak + State with its own administration within its own borders and under its + own sovereignty_. + + "The Czecho-Slovak National Council wish to interpret this will of the + nation and to be the executive organ of all the common declarations of + its delegates which culminated in the solemn oath of April 13, 1918. + + "Our work will not be easy. We shall have to suffer much more + opposition and _we shall have to undergo another great test._ But no + obstacles are able to arrest our nation's progress. In full mutual + agreement with our delegates and with the whole cultural and economic + Czech world, the Czecho-Slovak National Council will faithfully fulfil + its difficult and responsible task, so that it may be truly said before + the conscience of the nation that we did everything that was in our + human power. + + "_We know that our whole nation stands behind the Czecho-Slovak + National Council_ as one united rampart. Full of joy at the great + political act which the constitution of the National Council + represents, and full of confidence in the victory of our common cause, + we address to-day to the whole Czecho-Slovak nation an urgent appeal to + support our work with all its strength, to obey all orders of common + discipline and to follow firmly our common national aim." + +It is significant that the presidency of this council is composed of four +of the most eminent leaders of the four greatest parties in Bohemia: Dr. +Kramar, Klofac, Svehla and Soukup. All of these have been in prison during +this war, as well as the following members of the council: Dr. Rasin and +Cervinka, friends of Kramar; Cyril Dusek, former editor of Masaryk's organ +_The Times_; Dr. Scheiner, president of the "Sokol" Gymnastic Association; +and Machar, the eminent Czech poet. Besides these the members of the +council include: the Socialist leaders Bechyne, Habermann, Krejci, Nemec, +Stivin, Meissner, Tusar and Vanek; the Clerical leaders Hruban, Sramek and +Kordac; the author Jirasek; Agrarians Stanek (president of the Czech +Union), Udrzal and Zahradnik, Dr. Herben, of Professor Masaryk's party, and +others. _All Czech parties are represented on the council without +exception,_ from the Socialists on the extreme Left to the Clericals on the +extreme Right. + +The council is the supreme organ of the Czecho-Slovak nation, and +represents all its classes and parties. It is a national organ and its sole +aim is to work for the welfare of Bohemia, without any regard to Austria. +It stands above all party politics and is the supreme organ to which all +disputes are referred that may arise affecting Czecho-Slovak national +interests. Its aim is, in the words of its proclamation, "to enlist for +systematic work, to organise and lead the great spiritual, moral and +national resources of the Czecho-Slovak nation." Its ultimate object is to +realise "the right of self-determination in a fully independent +Czecho-Slovak State with its own administration within its own borders and +under its own sovereignty." Its aims are obviously identical with those of +the Czecho-Slovak Government in Paris, who alone, of course, are able to +exercise the executive power as a government, especially to organise armies +fighting on the side of the Entente. On the other hand, the National +Council in Prague is organising the nation for the final blow which the +Slavs will, no doubt at an opportune moment, strike at the Dual Monarchy. + +Immediately after this important event most significant declarations were +made by Czech deputies in the Reichsrat of Vienna. The Czech deputy _Tusar_ +declared that "_the war must end with the creation of a Czecho-Slovak +State_, with the victory of democratic ideas and with the defeat of +militarism and despotism. We will obtain freedom, cost what it may." +Thereupon the Czech deputies sang the Czech national anthem. + +The next day deputy _Stribrny_ delivered a speech which we have quoted in a +previous chapter. + +The most significant speech, however, was that of _Dr. Stransky_ in the +Austrian Reichsrat on July 23, which surpasses any of those we have quoted +hitherto in its frank anti-Austrian spirit and expression: + + "We want to expose and show up before the whole world the _intolerable + state of foreign domination over us_. You cannot prevent us, not only + before a helpless curtailed parliament, not only before an illusory + high court, but before the whole world, raising our voice against the + Premier who is a typical representative of that _Austria whose mere + existence is a constant and automatic prolongation of the war. One of + the obstacles to peace is the oppression of nationalities in Austria_ + and their domination by the Germans. _In this war the Germans, even if + they do not openly admit it, have come to the conclusion that the + German hegemony in Central Europe, and especially in Austria, is + standing on its last legs_. Since they see that their predominance can + no longer be maintained, they endeavour to translate all that they have + acquired into reality, so as to secure the spoils for themselves. Thus + the Germans conceived the idea of establishing a province + 'Deutschboehmen' which must be prepared by the establishment of district + governments. From this a very interesting conclusion may be + drawn--_that the Germans themselves lost faith in the further existence + of Austria_, otherwise they would not be in a hurry to save their + province Deutschboehmen in the present Austria. Because they rather wish + for no Austria than for an Austria where they would not be able to + rule, _they are already counting upon the break-up of Austria:_ since + the Germans do not want to accept the solution of a free Danubian + confederation of nations, they prepare already their union with the + Hohenzollerns. + + "But then we must ask the Germans to take nothing with them that does + not belong to them. It is more than questionable whether Deutschboehmen + really is German. + + "There is another reason which speaks against the creation of a + Deutschboehmen. I am convinced that _if a plebiscite were carried out + among German people in Northern Bohemia, they would declare against + separation from Bohemia_. Why? Because the Germans are too clever not + to know that Bohemia forms not only a historical and geographical + unity, but that this unity has besides a historical basis, also a + practical foundation. The relation between the Czech part of Bohemia + and Northern Bohemia is to a large degree the relation of the consumer + and the producer. Where do you want to export your articles if not to + your Czech hinterland? How could the German manufacturers otherwise + exist? When after the war a Czecho-Slovak State is erected, _the + Germans of Bohemia will much rather remain in Bohemia and live on good + terms with the Czech peasant than be identified with Germany, + boycotted, opposed and hated by the whole world_, especially if we + guarantee, not only by promises, but by deeds and laws, full autonomy + to the German population within the Bohemian State. + + "_The real question which puzzles us to-day is: How can Austria exist + at all?_ That is the question. And I again repeat solemnly Palacky's + word that _Austria may exist only so long as her nations wish for it_, + and that _she will cease to exist_ as soon as her nations do not want + her to exist. The Slav nations of Austria declared clearly and + emphatically their wishes and desires in their proclamations. If + instead of working for the conversion of the ruling factor in favour of + these wishes Dr. Seidler shows us Gessler's hat of Austria with a + German head and backbone, then let him remember that _we shall hate + this Austria for all eternity_ (loud cheers and applause) _and we shall + fight her, and God willing, we shall in the end smash her to pieces so + completely that nothing will remain of her_." + + _The President:_ "I cannot admit such an expression about this state + and I call the deputy to order." + + _Dr. Stransky_: "Excellency, I really do not deserve such a rebuke. It + would be sad if we could not speak freely and with proper emphasis + against a state form which has been imposed upon us. + + "Let Dr. Seidler remember that _we regard Austria, whose integrity + according to him must not be questioned, as a centuries-old crime on + the liberties of humanity. Let him remember that it is not only our + political intention, not only our instinct of self-preservation, but + our highest duty and--do not hesitate to say so--our national religion + and our greatest moral mission to damage Austria wherever and whenever + possible, and that our loyalty to our own nation, to our native + country, to our history, to our future and to the Bohemian Crown, + prompts us to betray Austria which is backed up by Germany. We are + therefore determined faithfully to betray her whenever and wherever we + can_. I tell you further, gentlemen, that this state, this Austria + which Seidler talks about, is not a state at all. _It is a hideous, + centuries-old dream, a nightmare, a beast, and nothing else_. It is a + state without a name, it is _a constitutional monarchy without a crown + and without a constitution_. For what kind of a constitution is it if + it has not the necessary confirmation by oath and won the general + approval of nations because it was found to be untenable? _It is a + state without patriots and without patriotism_, it is a state which + arose by the amalgamation of eight irredents--the German one + included--it is a state which had no future and in which the dynasty + ... (suppressed) ... in a word, it is a state which is no state at all. + _As a matter of fact, Austria no longer exists_, it is an absurdity and + an impossibility. If I spoke about Czech regiments which went to + embrace their 'enemies,' I must admit that personally I know nothing + about them except what I heard from my German colleagues who persist in + making complaints against us. We believe every word of what they say to + be true, but ... (suppressed by censor). Did you ever hear that a + husband conscious of his honour and respectability told the whole world + about the infidelity of his wife who left him because he ill-treated + her? No, because the husband knows that it is his shame and not hers. + _And if Czecho-Slovak brigades are to-day fighting against + Austria-Hungary it is only a proof that there is something very wrong + with Austria, that Austria is more rotten than Shakespeare's Denmark._ + For what other state has soldiers who ran over voluntarily to the + enemy? You keep on saying that England has the Irish problem. _Did you + ever hear of Irish brigades, did you ever hear that any French legions + were fighting for the Central Powers against France_, or Russian + legions against Russia when we were at war with Russia? Indeed, + gentlemen, not even Turkey has any legions fighting with the enemy + against her. _There must therefore be some deep reason for + Czecho-Slovak, Polish and Yugoslav legions fighting on the side of the + Entente_." + +We think that any comments on this explicit declaration, in which a Czech +deputy representing his whole nation openly expressed hope for the +dismemberment of Austria and praised the Czecho-Slovak troops fighting for +the Allies, are superfluous. + + + +VIII + +CZECHO-SLOVAK CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER NON-GERMAN NATIONS OF CENTRAL EUROPE + +The Czechs have always clearly seen that one of the chief reasons which +enable the German-Magyar minority to rule over the Slav majority is the +lack of co-operation amongst the subject peoples. Already before the war +the Czechs were pioneers of Slav solidarity and reciprocity, wrongly called +Pan-Slavism. Thanks to their geographic position, they have no claims +conflicting with any nations except the Germans and Magyars who are their +only enemies. + +In these efforts for promoting Slav solidarity the Czechs met serious +obstacles. In the case of some of their Slav friends it was lack of +internal unity which prevented co-operation. In other cases it was the +quarrels artificially fomented by Austria between her subject nations, +notably between the Poles and Ruthenes and between the Yugoslavs and +Italians. Finally, the Poles lacked a definite international point of view. +They were justly sceptical of Slav solidarity seeing that they were +oppressed by a government which claimed to represent a great Slav nation. + +All these obstacles, however, have one by one disappeared as the war has +gone on. All the subject peoples of Central Europe saw that they were +persecuted and driven to be slaughtered by the same enemies in Berlin, +Vienna and Budapest. The oppressed races found at last that they have +common aspirations and interests, and the collapse of Russia to-day makes +even the Poles realise where their real enemies are. The Polish people may +to-day have only one orientation: against the Central Powers. It is an +inspiriting sign that even some Polish "Realpoliticians" begin to realise +that Austria is doomed and that it is bad politics to count upon Vienna, to +say nothing of Berlin. + +_(a) The Congress of Rome_ + +In order to give practical expression to the growing sense of co-operation +amongst the oppressed nations of Austria-Hungary, their representatives +assembled in Rome at the beginning of April, 1918. In those days the great +spirit of Mazzini revived again in Rome, and from that moment Italy +definitely became the champion of the movement of the oppressed nations of +Austria-Hungary towards independence. + +The congress was attended by numerous Italian senators, deputies, ministers +and other leading men. The Yugoslav Committee was represented by its +president, Dr. Trumbic, the Dalmatian sculptor Mestrovic, the Bosnian +deputy Stojanovic and others; the Czecho-Slovak Council by Dr. Benes and +Colonel Stefanik; the Poles by the Galician deputy Mr. Zamorski, and by +Messrs. Seyda, Skirmunt, Loret and others; the Rumanians by the senators +Draghicescu and Minorescu, the deputy Lupu and the Transylvanians Mandrescu +and De Luca. The Serbian Skupstina sent a deputation of twelve deputies and +a delegation of officers from the Yugoslav division at Salonica. Among the +foreign visitors invited to the congress were M. Franklin-Bouillon, +President of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the French Chamber of +Deputies, the ex-minister M. Albert Thomas, M. Fournol, M. Pierre de +Quirielle, Mr. H.W. Steed, Mr. Seton-Watson, and Mr. Nelson Gay. + +The congress unanimously adopted the following general resolutions agreed +upon between the various nationalities and the special Italo-Yugoslav +Convention concluded between Messrs. Torre and Trumbic: + + "The representatives of the nationalities subjected in whole or in part + to the rule of Austria-Hungary--the Italians, Poles, Rumanians, Czechs + and Yugoslavs--join in affirming their principles of common action as + follows: + + "1. Each of these peoples proclaims its right to constitute its own + nationality and state unity or to complete it and to attain full + political and economic independence. + + "2. Each of these peoples recognises in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy + the instrument of German domination and the fundamental obstacle to the + realisation of its aspirations and rights. + + "3. The assembly recognises the necessity of a common struggle against + the common oppressors, in order that each of these peoples may attain + complete liberation and national unity within a free state. + + "The representatives of the Italian people and of the Yugoslav people + in particular agree as follows: + + "1. In the relations between the Italian nation and the nation of the + Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes--known also under the name of the Yugoslav + nation--the representatives of the two peoples recognise that the unity + and independence of the Yugoslav nation is of vital interest to Italy, + just as the completion of Italian national unity is of vital interest + to the Yugoslav nation, and therefore pledge themselves to employ every + effort in order that at the moment of the peace these decisions + _(finalita)_ of the two nations may be completely attained. + + "2. They declare that the liberation of the Adriatic Sea and its + defence against every present and future enemy is of vital interest to + the two peoples. + + "3. They pledge themselves also in the interest of good and sincere + relations between the two peoples in the future, to solve amicably the + various territorial controversies on the basis of the principles of + nationality and of the right of peoples to decide their own fate, and + in such a way as not to injure the vital interests of the two nations, + as they shall be defined at the moment of peace. + + "4. To such racial groups _(nuclei)_ of one people as it may be found + necessary to include within the frontiers of the other there shall be + recognised and guaranteed the right of preserving their own language, + culture, and moral and economic interests." + +The Polish delegates laid before the congress a special memorandum of their +own from which we quote the following: + + "The Polish question admits of no cut-and-dried solution and of no + compromise. Poland will either be saved by the Allies or she will + become dependent upon Germany, whether the latter is associated with + Austria or not; above all, upon all-powerful Prussia. + + "There is only one way of avoiding this latter alternative, and that is + by countering the plans of the Central Powers with regard to Poland by + the proclamation of the Polish programme, which is that of the Allies. + This programme is the restitution to Poland of the mouth of the + Vistula, of Dantzig and of the Polish portion of the Baltic coastline. + This programme will prevent Lithuania and the Ukraine from becoming + instruments of Prusso-German oppression and Austrian intrigue. It is + only such a Poland as this which will be able to fulfil its historic + mission as a rampart against the Germans. + + "Its resistance will be still more effectual when united with that of + an independent Czecho-Slovak State, and of a strong Rumania, healed of + all the wounds inflicted by the war, and if, at the same time, the + Yugoslav peoples achieve their unity and independence. The Poles, in + claiming the Polish districts of Austria, declare themselves + categorically for the complete liberation of Bohemia, which would + otherwise be left at the mercy of the German-Austrians. _The + independence of neighbouring Bohemia is as necessary to an independent + Poland as a great independent Poland is necessary to the very existence + of Bohemia._ The united forces of the Polish, Czecho-Slovak and + Rumanian nations, forming a great belt from the Baltic to the Black + Sea, will prove a barrier against the German 'Drang nach Osten.' For, + since the collapse of Russia, these are the only real forces upon which + the Allies can depend." + +On the day following the congress its leaders were officially received by +the Italian Premier, Signer Orlando, who conveyed to them the warm +greetings of the government: + + "We have seen with keen satisfaction this assembly here in Rome, where + for centuries the representative spirits of all peoples and races have + always found refuge, and where hard facts seem to assume a prophetic + form and ideal meaning. + + "These neighbouring nationalities are, in their turn, subjected to + Austria, and it has only been the traditional astuteness of this state + which has unchained the ethnic passions of the oppressed races, + inciting one against the other in order more easily to rule them. + Hence, it seems natural and necessary to follow the opposite policy + from that which has so greatly helped the enemy, _and to establish a + solidarity sprung from common suffering_. There is no substantial + reason for a quarrel, if we sincerely examine the conditions of mutual + existence, remember the mutual sacrifices and agree in our + determination to grant just guarantees to those racial minorities which + necessity may assign to one or the other of the different state groups. + + "Italy should be able to understand better than any other country the + aspirations of the nationalities, since the history of Italy, now + completed, is simply your history now awaiting completion.... No other + people, before forming itself into a free and independent state, had to + undergo so long an apprenticeship, so methodical an oppression, such + varied forms of violence. Like generous Poland, Italy was shattered, + partitioned by strangers, and treated for centuries as a _res nullius. + The firm resolve of the Bohemian people to revive the glorious kingdom + which has so valiantly stemmed the onset of the Germans is the same + resolve which moved our ancestors and our fathers to conspiracy and + revolt, that Italy might become a united state_. The impetuous and + vigorous character of the Southern Slavs and the Rumanians of + Transylvania already has led to the making of heroes and martyrs; and + here they are met by the endless stream of our heroes and martyrs; who + across time and space fraternise on the scaffold erected by their + common enemy. + + "For your nations 'To be or not to be' is the inexorable choice at this + moment. Here cautious subtleties are of no avail, nor the adroit + reservations borrowed from diplomacy, nor discussions more or less + Byzantine, 'while the Turk is at the gates.' The necessities are Faith + and Work; it is thus that nations are formed." + +We have already mentioned that the U.S. Government identified themselves +with the resolutions adopted by the Rome Conference. As regards Great +Britain, Lord Robert Cecil made the following declaration on May 23, 1918: + + "Above all _I welcome especially the recent congress at Rome_, which + has done so much to strengthen the Alliance of which Italy is a part. I + believe that the congress was valuable for its wisdom and its + moderation. I believe that it was valuable for the spirit of + brotherhood which it displayed. But above all I welcome it because it + showed that the Italian Government, as expressed by the speech of the + Italian Prime Minister (Signor Orlando), recognise to the full that the + principles on which the kingdom of Italy was founded were not only of + local application, but extend to international relations. (Cheers) + _Italy has shown herself ready to extend to the Poles, to those gallant + Czecho-Slovaks, to the Rumanians, and last, but not least, to the + Yugoslavs, the principles on which her own 'Risorgimento' was founded_, + and on which she may still go forward to a greater future than she has + ever seen in the past. (Cheers.) _That is a great work, and those who + have borne any part in it may well be proud of their accomplishment_. + + "People talk sometimes about the dismemberment of Austria. I have no + weakness for Austria; but I venture to think that that is the wrong + point of view. The way to regard this problem is not the dismemberment + of Austria, _but the liberation of the population subject to her rule. + We are anxious to see all these peoples in the enjoyment of full + liberty and independence; able by some great federation to hold up in + Central Europe the principles upon which European policy must be + founded,_ unless we are to face disasters too horrible to contemplate. + The old days of arbitrary allotment of this population or that to this + sovereignty or that are gone--and, I trust, gone forever. We must look + for any future settlement, to a settlement not of courts or cabinets, + but of nations and populations. _On that alone depends the whole + conception of the League of Nations,_ of which we have heard so much; + and unless that can be secured as the foundation for that great idea, I + myself despair of its successful establishment." + +_(b) The May Manifestations in Prague_ + +A direct re-percussion of the Rome Conference was the great meeting which +took place in Prague on May 16, on the occasion of the jubilee celebration +of the foundation of the Czech National Theatre. + +The manifestations took pre-eminently a political character, especially as +they were attended by numerous distinguished foreign guests. These included +delegates from all parts of the Southern Slav territories, Poles, Rumanians +and Italians. The Russians, although invited, could not take part, because +of the obstacles placed in the way by the Austrian Government. As regards +the Yugoslavs, there were over 100 delegates from the Slovene districts +alone, including Dr. Pogacnik, deputies Ravnicar and Rybar, the Mayor of +Lublanja, Dr. Tavcar, President of the Chamber of Commerce, J. Knez and +others. The Yugoslavs were further represented by Count Vojnovitch and M. +Hribar, by delegates of the Croatian Starcevic Party, the Serbian +Dissidents, Dr. Budisavljevic, Mr. Val Pribicevic, Dr. Sunaric, Mr. Sola +from Bosnia, representatives of the national, cultural, economic +institutions, and representatives of the city of Zagreb, with the mayor, +Dr. Srpulje, at the head. + +There were seventeen Italians with deputies Conci and De Caspari at the +head. The Rumanians from Hungary and Bukovina also arrived. The Slovaks of +Hungary met with the most hearty welcome. They were led by the poet +Hviezdoslav. An inspiring feature was the presence of the Poles, of whom +about sixty took part in the manifestations, the majority of them from +Galicia, three from Silesia and one from Posen. + +The delegation from Galicia included prominent representatives of the +Polish Democratic Party, Count Dr. A. Skarbek, deputy and ex-minister +Glombinski and deputy Witos, the Socialist leader Moraczewski whose father +took part in the Pan-Slav Congress of Prague in 1848, deputy Tetmajer, +representatives of the cities of Lvoff and Cracow and of the University of +Cracow, members of municipal and county councils, journalists, artists, +painters, sculptors, authors and others. + +At a meeting arranged in honour of the Slav guests, Dr. Kramar declared +that "the Czech nation is stronger to-day than ever before. There is no +worse policy than that which gives in before danger. I am sure that our +people will not give way. We have suffered so much that there is no horror +which could divert us from the path we follow. Happily enough, we see that +what we want is also desired by the whole world. We see that we are not +alone. To-day the representatives of other nations, which have suffered in +the same way as ourselves, have come to us. Of course, they did not come to +us only to take part in our festivals, but also to express on the Bohemian +soil their determination that their nations want to live freely. We are +united by the same interests. Our victory is theirs and theirs is ours." + +The Yugoslav deputy Radic thanked the Czechs, in the name of the Yugoslavs, +for unity and solidarity. The Polish deputy Moraczewski expressed his +thanks not only for the welcome accorded to the Poles in Prague, but also +for the proclamation of the watchword: "For your liberty and ours!" + +The main celebrations took place in the Bohemian Museum on May 16. Since +the speeches delivered on that occasion were of such significance and are +sure to prove of great international importance in the near future, we +propose to quote at least the chief passages from them. + +The first speaker was Dr. Kramar who declared: + + "You know that they are in vain trying to crush us. Every wrong will + come back to the authors. That is our firm belief, and therefore you + will find no despondency in Bohemia, but only _firm determination not + only to defend to the last the integrity of our kingdom, but also to + accomplish the unity of the whole Czecho-Slovak nation. We firmly + believe in the ultimate victory of the right of nations to liberty and + self-determination._ And we therefore welcome you in our beautiful + golden city of Prague, because we know that your presence here to-day + is the best proof that our faith is the faith of all nations who have + hitherto been clamouring in vain for right and justice. + + "Allow me to make a personal remark. We were far away from public life, + confined in prison, and only very little news reached us. Various + events filled us with anxiety and despondency. Bohemia seemed to be + like a large, silent and dead churchyard. And all of a sudden we heard + that underneath the shroud with which they tried to cover our nation + there still was some life. Czech books were read more than ever, and + the life of the national soul expressed itself in the performances in + the National Theatre. When we heard about the storm of enthusiasm which + greeted the prophecy in Smetana's opera _Libusha_, we felt suddenly + relieved, and we knew that our sufferings were not in vain. + + "We placed everything that we want into the prophecy of Libusha--a new + life, free, not constrained by disfavour or misunderstanding. _We do + not want to remain within the limits prescribed to us by Vienna_ + (applause), we want to be entire masters of our national life as a + whole. We do not need foreign spirit and foreign advice; our best guide + is our past, the great democratic traditions of our nation. We have + enough strength and perseverance not to be afraid of anything that + threatens us, because _we want the full freedom for the whole nation, + including the millions of our oppressed brothers beneath the Tatra + Mountains_. (A stormy applause.) + + "That does not depend on any circumstances outside our scope; it + depends entirely upon ourselves, upon our will. _We must show that we + are worthy of liberty and of the great future which we are striving + for_. It must not be left to the generosity of individuals to support + our peoples who under oppressive conditions are awakening national + consciousness in their countrymen. _We must mobilise our whole nation_. + All of us will be required to assist in the great tasks which are + awaiting us. + + "I think we may confidently look into the future. The war has united us + internally, and it has taught us that all party politics which for a + long time past have poisoned our life, are insignificant in view of the + great issues of our national future which are at stake. We have lived + long enough to see our whole people united in the demand for an + independent Czecho-Slovak State, although the modern times have + deepened class differences. + + "We recollect our past to-day with a firm hope for a better future. The + hearts of all are to-day filled with joyous confidence and expectation + that we shall live to see the day when in our National Theatre we shall + rejoice over the victory of liberty, justice and self-determination of + nations. _Our golden Slav Prague will again become a royal city, and + our Czech nation will again be free, strong and glorious_." + +After Dr. Kramar had finished, the aged Czech author Jirasek described the +history of the National Theatre during the past fifty years, and concluded: + + "To-day as fifty years ago our nation is united without party + distinction. _We form a single front, and follow a single policy. We + all demand our natural and historic rights, and strengthened by the + co-operation of the Yugoslavs, we firmly believe that as we succeeded + in erecting our National Theatre, so shall we also obtain our rights + and be able to rejoice with a song of a full and free life_." + +When the enthusiasm which followed Jirasek's speech subsided, the great +Slovak poet Hviezdoslav "conveyed the greeting from that branch of the +Czecho-Slovak nation which lives in Hungary," and assured the assembly that +after going back he would spread everywhere the news of the enthusiasm +animating the Czechs so as to cheer up his sorely suffering +fellow-countrymen, the Slovaks of Hungary. + +Professor Kasprovicz from Lemberg, who followed, declared in the name of +the Poles: + + "We are united with you not only by blood affinity, but by our united + will, and we can reach the goal only by co-operation and by joint + efforts. + + "This co-operation is perplexing to our enemies who, therefore, do all + in their power to disrupt this union. Their endeavours are in vain. + _All of us believe that neither the Czech nor the Polish nation will + perish_, that even a great war cannot bring about their extirpation; + that besides the war there is something greater than all human efforts, + that the day of justice will also come, and that the _Czech and Polish + nations not only must be but already are victorious_." + +A tremendous applause ensued, and the people sang "Jeszcie Polska +niezgynela" ("Poland has not perished yet"). And when the chairman +announced that the next speaker was to be the Italian Irredentist deputy, +Signer Conci, another storm of applause and cries of "Eviva!" burst out. +Signor Conci declared: + + "I convey to you the expression of the heartiest greetings from all + Italians who are participating in this brilliant manifestation, and + from all those who, like myself, follow with great sympathy everything + that concerns the fate of the noble Czech nation. + + "An old verse speaks about 'Socii dolorum' ('Friends in suffering'), + and I must say that this consolation for the different nations of this + state has been amply provided for. _But nothing helps the union and + brotherhood better than the common misfortune and common persecutions_ + which strengthen the character of the nation. In defence against this + menace, we and you have written on our shield: 'Fanger, non flector' + ('I can be broken but not bent'). + + "When I saw with what indomitable firmness you withstood all unjust + persecutions, and with what a fervent devotion and enthusiasm the whole + nation supported your best and unjustly persecuted leaders, I realised + that _this nation cannot die_, and that when the time comes its just + cause will triumph. And I bring you our sincere wish that this may be + as soon as possible. _It is a wish from one oppressed nation to + another_, from a representative of an afflicted nation which has + suffered and still is suffering intolerable oppression. May the roaring + Bohemian lion soon be able to repose in peace and fully enjoy his own + triumph." + +Dr. Tavcar, representing the Slovenes, declared: + + "We Yugoslavs are deeply feeling how much the Czech culture is helping + us and how great is its influence upon us. _We are the most faithful + allies of our brother Czechs_, and at the same time their assiduous and + I dare say very gifted pupils. At a moment when our oppressors want to + build a German bridge over our bodies to the Slav Adriatic, we come to + you as your allies. We shall fall if you fall, but our victory is + certain." + +Two other Yugoslav leaders, Dr. Srpulje, Mayor of Zagreb, for the Croats, +and V. Sola, President of the Bosnian Sabor, for the Serbs, expressed the +same sentiments. + +After the speech of the Czech author Krejci, M. Stanek, President of the +Bohemian Parliamentary Union, concluded the meeting. + +Stormy demonstrations then took place in the streets of Prague, where the +people loudly cheered Professor Masaryk and the Entente. + +On the same day also the Socialists had a meeting in which prominent Czech, +Polish and Yugoslav Socialists took part. + +The Polish Socialist deputy Moraczewski, from Cracow, declared that "the +Poles, like the Czechs, are fighting for self-determination of nations." +Comrade Kristan, speaking for the Slovene workers, emphasised the idea of +Yugoslav unity. The spokesman of the Social Democrats from Bosnia, comrade +Smitran, hailed the Czecho-Yugoslav understanding, and said that, although +living under intolerable conditions, his nation hopes for deliverance, and +like the Czecho-Slovak nation, demands liberty and independence. After the +Polish comrade Stanczyk, the leaders of the two Czech Socialist parties, +Dr. Soukup and Klofac, delivered long speeches in which they emphasised the +solidarity of the three Western Slav nations, the Poles, Czecho-Slovaks and +Yugoslavs, and their identical claims for liberty and independence. Dr. +Soukup declared that "Socialism is to-day a great factor not only in +Bohemia, but in the whole world." The manifestation was concluded by the +Czech Socialist deputy Nemec, and by the singing of the Czech +national anthem. + +On the day following, fresh manifestations were held in Prague, and a +meeting was arranged, described by the Czech press as the Congress of +Oppressed Nations of Austria-Hungary. Among those who supported the +resolutions were representatives of Czecho-Slovaks, Yugoslavs, Rumanians +and Italians, as well as Poles. The resolution carried unanimously by the +assembly reads as follows: + + "The representatives of Slav and Latin nations who for centuries past + have been suffering under foreign oppression, assembled in Prague this + seventeenth day of May, 1918, have united in a common desire to do all + in their power in order to assure full liberty and independence to + their respective nations after this terrible war. They are agreed that + a better future for their nations will be founded and assured by the + world democracy, by a real and sovereign national people's government, + and by a universal League of Nations, endowed with the necessary + authorities. + + "They reject emphatically all steps of the government taken without the + consent of the people. They are convinced that the peace which they, + together with all other democratic parties and nations, are striving + for, will only be a just and lasting peace if it liberates the world + from the predominance of one nation over another and thus enables all + nations to defend themselves against aggressive imperialism by means of + liberty and equality of nations. All nations represented are determined + to help each other, since the victory of one is also the victory of the + other, and is not only in the interests of the nations concerned, but + in the interests of civilisation, of fraternity and equality of + nations, as well as of true humanity." + + + +IX + +BOHEMIA AS A BULWARK AGAINST PAN-GERMANISM + +From the foregoing chapters it is clear that: + +_(a)_ The Austro-Hungarian Government represents only the Habsburgs, and +the Austrian Germans and the Magyars, who form a minority of the total +population of the monarchy. The majority, consisting of Slavs and Latins, +is opposed to the further existence of Austria-Hungary. + +_(b)_ The Austrian Germans and Magyars, who exercised their hegemony in +Austria and Hungary respectively, will always be bound to look to Germany +for the support of their predominance as long as Austria-Hungary in +whatever form exists. The collapse of the Habsburg Empire in October, 1918, +practically put an end to this possibility. + +_(c)_ The Habsburgs, Austro-Germans and Magyars, just like the Bulgars, +became the willing and wilful partners of Prussia in this war, while the +Austrian Slavs, especially the Czecho-Slovaks, have done all in their power +to assist the Allies at the price of tremendous sacrifices. Under these +circumstances, the only possible policy for the Allies is to support the +claims of those peoples who are heart and soul with them. Any policy which +would not satisfy the just Slav aspirations would play into the hands +of Germany. + +_(d)_ The restoration of the _status quo ante bellum_ of Austria or Hungary +is out of the question. The Allies have pledged themselves to unite the +Italian and Rumanian territories of Austria with Italy and Rumania +respectively. The aim of Serbia is to unite all the Yugoslavs. Deprived of +her Italian, Rumanian and Yugoslav provinces, Austria-Hungary would lose +some twelve million Slavs and Latins. The problem of Poland also cannot be +solved in a satisfactory way without the incorporation in Poland of the +Polish territories of Galicia. If the _status quo_ were re-established, the +Czecho-Slovaks, whom Great Britain has recognised as an Allied nation, +would be placed in a decisive minority and would be powerless in face of +the German-Magyar majority. This the Allies in their own interests cannot +allow. They must insist upon the restoration of Bohemia's full +independence. + +_(e)_ The disappearance of Austria-Hungary therefore appears to be the only +solution if a permanent peace in Europe is to be achieved. Moreover, as we +have already pointed out, her dissolution is a political necessity for +Europe, and is to-day already an accomplished fact. + +The dismemberment of Austria does not mean a destructive policy. On the +contrary, it means only the destruction of oppression and racial tyranny. +It is fundamentally different from the dismemberment of Poland, which was a +living nation, while Austria is not. The dismemberment of Austria will, on +the contrary, unite nations at present dismembered, and will reconstruct +Europe so as to prevent further German aggressive attempts towards the East +and South-East. A close alliance between Poland, Czecho-Slovak Bohemia, +Greater Rumania, Greater Serbia (or Yugoslavia) and Italy would assure a +stable peace in Central Europe. + +The issue really at stake was: Central Europe either Pan-German or +anti-German. If Germany succeeded in preserving Austria-Hungary, the +Pan-German plans of Mitteleuropa would be a _fait accompli_, and Germany +would have won the war: the Germans would, with the aid of the Magyars and +Bulgars, directly and indirectly control and exploit over one hundred +million Slavs in Central Europe. On the other hand, now that Austria has +fallen to pieces the German plans have been frustrated. The Germans will +not only be unable to use the Austrian Slavs again as cannon-fodder, but +even the economic exploitation of Central Europe will be barred to them. + +From the international point of view, Bohemia will form the very centre of +the anti-German barrier, and with the assistance of a new Poland in the +north, and Italy, Yugoslavia and Rumania in the south, she will +successfully prevent German penetration to the East, Near East and +the Adriatic. + +Austria and Hungary, reduced to their proper racial boundaries, will be +states of about eight million each. The Magyars, being situated in the +Lowlands, which are mainly agricultural, hemmed in between Bohemia, Rumania +and Yugoslavia, will be in a hopeless strategic and economic position. They +will be unable to attack any of their neighbours, and they will be wholly +dependent on them for industrial products. Hungary will thus be forced to +come to an understanding with her neighbours. Austria will be in a similar +position: deprived of her richest provinces, she will no longer be of any +great economic or military value to Germany. + +Let us now examine the probable future relations between Bohemia and her +neighbours. + +1. The formation of a strong _Polish-Czech block_ is the only means of +arresting the German expansion towards the East. To-day, when Russia has +collapsed, the liberation of the non-Germans of Central Europe can alone +save Europe from the hegemony of the German Herrenvolk. The creation of a +strong and united Poland with access to the sea at Gdansk (Dantzig) and an +independent Czecho-Slovak State has become a necessity for Europe. + +The understanding between the Poles and Czechs is of vital interest to both +peoples concerned, and to Europe as a whole. It is by no means +hypothetical, considering that geographically the Poles and Czechs are +neighbours, that they speak almost the same language, and that their +national spirit, history and traditions bear a close resemblance. The +history of Poland offers many strange parallels to that of Bohemia. It is +specially interesting to note that in the fifteenth century, as to-day, the +Poles and Czechs together resisted the German "Drang nach Osten." The Czech +with their famous leader Zizka participated in the splendid Polish victory +over the Teutonic knights at Gruenwald in 1410, while on the other hand, +there were many Poles in the Hussite regiments who so gloriously defended +the Czech religious and national liberties in the fifteenth century. Poland +and Bohemia were also united several times under a common dynasty. + +After Bohemia lost her independence at the battle of the White Mountain in +1620, she became the prey of Austrian barbarity. The Habsburgs have done +their best to extirpate the Czech heretics and abolish and destroy the +Bohemian Constitution. With Bohemia's loss of independence her contact with +Poland also ceased. And Poland herself became the prey of Prussia, Russia +and Austria some 170 years later, notwithstanding the constitution of May 3 +and the heroic resistance of Kosciuszko. + +The regeneration of the Czechs at the end of the eighteenth century meant +the resumption of friendly relations between Czechs and Poles. The Czechs +desired to come to an agreement with the Poles because the latter are their +nearest kinsmen in race and language, and like themselves have suffered +terribly from alien oppression. There were many Polonophils amongst the +first Czech regenerators, and the Polish revolutions always evoked sincere +sympathy in Bohemia. The modern Czech writers were all sincere friends of +the Poles. Thanks to their efforts, Sienkiewicz and Mickiewicz are read in +every household in Bohemia, and the dramas of Slowacki, Krasinski, +Wyspianski and others are frequently played on the stage of our National +Theatre in Prague. + +The present interests and aspirations of Poles and Czechs are identical. +Like the Czechs, the Poles are threatened by the Pan-German schemes of +Mitteleuropa and "Drang nach Osten," to which they are bitterly opposed. +These plans can be checked effectively only by the establishment of a +strong and united Poland with access to the sea, a strong Czecho-Slovak +State, and a united and independent Yugoslavia and Rumania. + +It was proved by events that Russian imperialism and oppression was never +so dangerous to Europe as Pan-Germanism, since the former was built upon +sand and opposed by the Russian people themselves; while Pan-Germanism +rests upon effective organisation, and its brutal principles of domination +are supported by the bulk of the German people. The Central Powers are +to-day Poland's only enemies, and are a danger to her as to all Europe. +Poland's interests lie only in one orientation: in absolute opposition to +Pan-Germany. + +The alliance between Poland and Bohemia will provide the latter with an +outlet to the sea (Gdansk). This will draw the two countries still closer +together. Economically such an alliance would be to the mutual interests of +both countries. Since Bohemia has not, like Poland, been devastated during +this war, she could greatly assist Poland in rebuilding her trade and +industries, and this would prevent German economic penetration to the East. +On the other hand, Poland could supply her with oil and salt from Galicia. + +The Czecho-Polish block would prevent German penetration in Russia, which +would thus be able to set her own affairs in order. The Czecho-Polish block +would also frustrate the German plans of creating a Polish-German-Magyar +combination by means of a small Poland, completely dependent on the Central +Powers, or by means of the so-called Austro-Polish solution. The +Czecho-Slovaks, owing to their geographic position and past traditions, and +owing to their advanced civilisation, may be fully relied upon as the +pioneers of peace and stability in Central Europe. + +2. The Czecho-Slovak State will probably have a common frontier with +_Rumania_. The Rumanians-and Czecho-Slovaks will have common interests, and +their mutual political and economic relations will be of great importance. +Economically, agricultural Rumania and industrial Bohemia will complete +each other. Prague will have direct railway connection with Bukarest and +Jassy, while the Danube will connect the Czecho-Slovaks both with the +Yugoslavs and the Rumanians, under the protection of the League of Nations. + +Politically the alliance between a united Poland, Bohemia and Greater +Rumania is of paramount importance, because if Poland and Rumania remain as +small as they are at present, and if the Czecho-Slovaks and Yugoslavs are +left at the mercy of Vienna and Budapest, the Germans will be masters of +Central Europe. + +3. The relations between _Czechs and Yugoslavs_ have always been cordial, +since both of them have always had the same anti-German and anti-Magyar +orientation. By way of the Danube the Czecho-Slovaks would be in direct +communication with Belgrade. The Czechs could further also be accorded an +international railway connecting Pressburg with the Adriatic. The Czechs, +being well developed industrially and commercially, could greatly assist +the Yugoslavs in organising a state sufficiently strong to arrest German +and Magyar penetration in the Balkans. + +The Czechs, being good friends of the Yugoslavs and Italians, will at the +same time exert their efforts to prevent all misunderstandings between +these two Adriatic nations from which only the Germans would profit. A +close alliance between Bohemia, Italy, Yugoslavia and Rumania will form an +effective safeguard against German penetration in the Near East. Since +Rumania will border both on Bohemia and Yugoslavia, the Germans will be +completely encircled by a strong Latin-Slav barrier, of which Bohemia will +form the centre, working for stability in Central Europe and safeguarding +Europe from a repetition of the German attempts at world domination. + +4. The Czecho-Slovak State itself will be strong both strategically and +economically. It will number over twelve million, and its territory, +comprising Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian-Silesia and Slovakia, will be about +50,000 square miles, that is a territory as large as England (without +Scotland, Ireland and Wales). + +Surrounded by high mountains, Bohemia forms a veritable fortress in the +heart of Europe. Economically, too, she will be strong and self-supporting. + +In the past Bohemia was the richest part of the Habsburg Empire, with +well-developed agriculture and industries. Bohemia produced 829 lbs. of +grain per inhabitant, the rest of Austria 277 lbs. The Bohemian lands are +responsible for 93 per cent. of Austria's, production of sugar, most of +which has been exported to England. Hops of remarkable quality are produced +in Bohemia, and Pilsen beer is known all over the world. Bohemia +manufactures over 50 per cent. of all the beer produced in Austria. Bohemia +has also abundant wealth in minerals, the only mineral which is not found +there being salt. Bohemia produces 60 per cent. of Austria's iron and 83 +per cent. (26 million tons) of her coal. As regards trade, almost all the +business between Bohemia and Western Europe has always passed through +Vienna, which of course greatly profited thereby. This will cease when +Bohemia becomes independent. + +Two-thirds of the total Austrian exports, the value of which was over +L63,000,000 in 1912, come from the Bohemian lands. To England alone Austria +exported L9,000,000 worth of Bohemian sugar annually. Bohemian beer, malt +and hops were exported especially to France, textiles and machines to +Italy. On the other hand, Germany and German-Austria imported from the +Bohemian lands especially agricultural products (butter, eggs, cheese, +cereals, fruit), also coal and wood manufactures. + +In 1905 Austria exported 425,000 metric tons of wheat and 186,000 metric +tons of malt, which were mostly produced in Bohemia. The export of Bohemian +beer brings Austria 15,000,000 kronen annually (L625,000), of malt +55,000,000 kronen (L2,290,000). The Bohemian lands further export +130,000,000 kronen (L5,430,000) worth of textiles annually. + +The Austrian import trade is also largely dependent on Bohemia. All French +articles bought by Bohemia come through Vienna, two-thirds of the whole +French export being destined for that country. + +As regards England, in 1914 L2,676,000 worth of goods were exported to +Austria-Hungary, the greater part of which again was destined for Bohemia, +the chief articles being printing and agricultural machines and textile +manufactures. England will after the war find a good market in Bohemia, and +valuable assistants in Czech banks and business men in the economic +competition against the Germans in the Near East, since the Czechs +boycotted German goods even before the war. Prague is a railway centre of +European importance, being situated just midway between the Adriatic and +the Baltic Sea. An agreement with her neighbours (Poland, Yugoslavia and +Rumania) and the League of Nations arrangement would secure her an outlet +to the sea by means of international railways, while the Elbe and Danube +would also form important trade routes. Bohemia would become an +intermediary between the Baltic and Adriatic as well as between East +and West. + +Also the future relations of Bohemia with the British colonies are not +without importance. More than half the trade of Austria with the British +colonies was transacted by the Czechs, and Austria-Hungary exported to +British colonies L3,500,000 and imported from them L10,500,000 worth of +goods annually. + +5. One of the most important reasons why the Czecho-Slovaks, when +independent, will be able to render such valuable services to the Allies, +is the high degree of their civilisation. Despite all efforts of the +Austrian Government to the contrary, the Czechs have nevertheless been able +to attain a high standard of education, and they also excel in literature, +music and the arts. + +The Czechs are not only the most advanced of all Slavs, but they are even +the most advanced of all nations of Austria-Hungary. In Austria as a whole +6.7 per cent. of the children do not attend school; in Bohemia only 1-1/2 +per cent. The standard of education of the Czechs compares with that of the +Austrian-Germans and Magyars, according to the _Monatschrift fuer Statistik_ +of 1913, as follows: + + Czechs. Austrian Magyars. + Germans. +Persons knowing how to write +and read 95-1/2% 92% 40% +Persons knowing how to read +only 3% 1% 4% +Illiterates 1-1/2% 7% 56% + +The Czechs have accomplished this by their own efforts, as is shown by the +fact that 151 Czech schools are kept up by a private Czech society. These +151 schools have altogether 287 classes and 522 teachers, and are attended +by more than 15,000 children. The unjust treatment of the Czechs in regard +to schools is further shown by the fact that 9,000,000 Germans in Austria +had five universities, 5,000,000 Poles two universities, while 7,000,000 +Czechs had only one. The German University in Prague had 878 students in +1912, the Czech University 4713. The Germans in Prague number some 10,000 +(_i.e._ 1-1/2 per cent.), yet they have their public schools and even a +university; while the Czechs in Vienna, numbering at least some 300,000 +(_i.e._ over 15 per cent.), are deprived even of elementary schools, to say +nothing of secondary schools and universities. + +The Slovaks of Hungary were, of course, in an absolutely hopeless position +in view of the terrible system of Magyar oppression. The Magyars consider +the schools as the most effective means for magyarisation. In the 16 +counties inhabited by the Slovaks there are only 240 Slovak schools, and +even in those schools Magyar is taught sometimes fully 18 hours a week. The +number of Slovak schools has been systematically reduced from 1921 in 1869 +to 440 in 1911, and 240 in 1912, and these are attended by some 18,000 +children out of 246,000, _i.e._ 8 per cent. The Slovaks opened three +secondary schools in the early seventies, but all three were arbitrarily +closed in 1874. They have, of course, no university. Thus they were +deprived of intellectual leaders and are doomed to complete +denationalisation, unless liberated and united with the Czechs in an +independent Bohemia. + +In literature the Czechs may rightly range themselves side by side with the +great nations of Western Europe. Practically all the most important works +of foreign literature have been translated into Czech. The Czechs have many +good dramas, novels, and much excellent poetry which can be fully +appreciated only by those knowing their language. They are also very +musical, and their composers such as Dvorak, Smetana, Novak or Suk, singers +such as Emmy Destinn, and violinists such as Kubelik, are known all over +the world. They are also developed in all other arts, and their folk-songs, +peasant arts and industries, especially those of the Slovaks, bear ample +testimony to their natural talents and sense for beauty and art. + +6. It is obvious that the cause of Bohemia is of very great importance to +the very existence of the British Empire. If Germany succeeded in +preserving her grip on Austria-Hungary, the Balkans and Turkey, she would +soon strike at Egypt and India, and thus endanger the safety of the British +Empire. Germany would control vast resources in man-power and material +which would enable her to plunge into another attempt at world-domination +in a very short time. On the other hand, when the non-German nations of +Central Europe are liberated, Germany will be absolutely prevented from +repeating her present exploits, Great Britain will be no more menaced by +her, and a permanent peace in Europe will be assured. Thus with the cause +of Bohemia the cause of Great Britain will either triumph or fall. Bismarck +truly said that the master of Bohemia would be the master of Europe. + +Bohemia has many traditions in common with England, and she will become her +natural ally and friend. In the Czecho-Slovaks, the most democratic, +homogeneous and advanced nation of Central Europe, Great Britain will find +a true ally and fellow-pioneer in the cause of justice, freedom and +democracy. + + + +APPENDIX OF SOME RECENT DOCUMENTS + +THE CZECHO-SLOVAK RESOLUTION OF SEPTEMBER 29, 1918 + +The following is the text of the resolution passed by the Czecho-Slovak +National Council in Prague, in conjunction with the Union of Czech +Deputies, on September 29, 1918, and suppressed by the Austrian censor: + + "Our nation once more and with all possible emphasis lays stress on the + fact that it firmly and unswervedly stands by the historical + manifestations of its freely elected representatives, firmly convinced + of the ultimate success of its highest ideals of full independence and + liberty. _Our silenced and oppressed nation has no other answer to all + attempts at a change of the constitution than a cool and categorical + refusal_, because we know that these attempts are nothing except + products of an ever-increasing strain, helplessness and ruin. _We do + not believe to-day in any more promises given and not kept_, for + experience has taught us to judge them on their merits. The most + far-reaching promises cannot blind us and turn us away from our aims. + The hard experiences of our nation order us imperatively to hold firm + in matters where reality is stronger than all promises. _The Vienna + Government is unable to give us anything we ask for_. Our nation can + never expect to get its liberty from those who at all times regarded it + only as a subject of ruthless exploitations; and who even in the last + moment do not shrink from any means to humiliate, starve and wipe out + our nation and by cruel oppression to hurt us in our most sacred + feelings. _Our nation has nothing in common with those who are + responsible for the horrors of this war_. Therefore there will not be a + single person who would, contrary to the unanimous wish of the nation, + deal with those who have not justice for the Czech nation at heart and + who have also no sympathy with the Polish and Yugoslav nations, but who + are only striving for the salvation of their present privileged + position of misrule and injustice. _The Czech nation will follow its + anti-German policy, whatever may happen, assured that its just cause + will finally triumph, especially to-day when it becomes a part of the + great ideals of the Entente, whose victory will be the only good + produced by this terrible war_." + +CZECH LEADERS REFER THE AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT TO THE CZECHO-SLOVAK GOVERNMENT +AS THEIR AUTHORISED REPRESENTATIVES + +Speaking in the Reichsrat, deputy Stanek declared in the name of the Union +of Czech Deputies on October 2, 1918: + + "This terrible war, started against the will and despite the warnings + of the Czecho-Slovaks, has now reached the culminating point. Two + worlds have been struggling in this war. One of them stood for the + Middle Ages and has with daring impudence inscribed upon its banner + 'Might is Right.' Inspired by this watchword, the spirit of German + Imperialism believed it had a mission to rule the whole world, and it + was voluntarily joined by the rulers of Austria-Hungary in the mad + desire of enslaving the whole world. + + "It was not difficult to guess which side would win unless civilisation + were to be thrown back for centuries. On one side stood the mediaeval + spirit of autocracy; on the other, pure love of liberty and democracy. + And we who have been oppressed by Austria for centuries and who have + tasted Austrian 'education' have naturally not formed voluntary legions + on the side of Austria. In fact _the Czecho-Slovaks have not + voluntarily shed a single drop of blood for the Central Powers_. But + our compatriots abroad, remembering the centuries-old Austrian + oppression, have _formed voluntary legions in all the Allied armies_. + They are shedding their blood for the most sacred rights of humanity + and at a moment of the greatest danger for the Allies they saved the + situation. In Russia, too, they are fighting for democracy. Nobody will + succeed in arresting the triumphant progress of true democracy, not + even the Austrian and German Governments, nor any diplomacy, nor any + peace notes or crown councils. The world will not be deceived again and + nobody takes the Central Powers and their governments seriously any + more. + + "Your peace offensives will avail nothing to you, nobody will speak + with you again. _Even the Austrian peoples refuse to negotiate with + you, knowing the value of your words. We have no intention of saving + you from destruction_. Your aim is still the German-Magyar hegemony and + the oppression of Slavs and Latins. You must look elsewhere for + support. The fateful hour for you and the Magyars has come sooner than + we expected. + + "And the dynasty? Look at the electoral reform in Hungary sanctioned by + the emperor! This reform is intended to destroy completely the + political and national existence of the non-Magyars in Hungary. This is + how the emperor keeps his word. + + "In view of these events we must ask ourselves: Are there any moral + guarantees in this empire? We do not see them and therefore we declare + that we _reject all community with the political system of this empire. + We want a single front of three Slav States extending from Gdansk + (Dantzig) via Prague to the Adriatic._ We protest against any partial + solution of the Czecho-Slovak question. The Czecho-Slovak State which + must also include the Slovaks of Hungary is our minimum programme. We + again emphasise our solidarity with our Yugoslav brethren, whether they + live in Belgrade, Sarajevo, Mostar or Lubljana, and we ask for the + removal of those statesmen who wish to subjugate the remainder of the + Bosnian population. _A free Yugoslavia, an independent Greater Poland + and the Czecho-Slovak State_ are already in process of formation, + closely allied to each other, not only by the knowledge of common + economic interests, but also on the ground of the moral prerogatives of + international right. + + "Peace is in sight. We wanted to be admitted to peace negotiations with + representatives of other nations. The Germans refused and replied: 'If + you insist you will be hanged.' Of course the Germans never kept their + word except when they promised to hang some one! But the Entente + replied by deeds recognising the Czecho-Slovak army as an Allied and + belligerent army. Thereupon _the Austrian Government asked us, Czech + leaders in Austria, to protest against it. But of course we refused._ I + said so openly to the Premier, and if you like, I will tell it to the + Austrian Emperor himself. _You would not admit us to the peace + negotiations with Russia, and now you will have to negotiate with Czech + leaders after all_, whether you like it or not. _These leaders will be + representatives of the same Czecho-Slovak brigades which Count Hertling + called rascals_ ('_Gesindel_'). _You will have to negotiate with them, + and not with us_, and therefore we will not speak with you. Our + question will not be solved in Vienna. If you accept President Wilson's + terms, if the German people, and not the German bureaucrats, accept + them, then you can have peace at once and save humanity from further + bloodshed. There is no other way out, and _we therefore advise you + honestly and frankly to surrender to the Allies unconditionally_, + because in the end nothing else will be left to you. + + "In agreement with the whole Yugoslav nation, in agreement with Polish + representatives, voicing the will of the Polish people, the + Czecho-Slovaks declare before the whole world: + + 'Forward in our struggle for liberty and for a new life in our own + liberated, restored state!'" + +PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY TO THE AUSTRIAN PEACE OFFER + +In reply to the Austro-Hungarian proposal for an armistice of October 7, +1918, Mr. Robert Lansing addressed the following communication from +President Wilson to the Austrian Government through the medium of the +Swedish Legation in Washington on October 18, 1918: + + "The President deems it his duty to say to the Austro-Hungarian + Government that he cannot entertain the present suggestion of that + government because of certain events of the utmost importance which, + occurring since the delivery of his address of January 8 last, have + necessarily altered the attitude and responsibility of the Government + of the United States. + + "Among the fourteen terms of peace which the President formulated at + that time occurred the following: + + "'The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we + wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest + opportunity of autonomous development.' + + "Since that sentence was written and uttered to the Congress of the + United States, the Government of the United States has recognised that + a state of belligerency exists between the Czecho-Slovaks and the + German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and that the Czecho-Slovak + National Council is a _de facto_ belligerent government, clothed with + proper authority to direct the military and political affairs of the + Czecho-Slovaks. + + "It has also recognised in the fullest manner the justice of the + nationalistic aspirations of the Yugo-Slavs for freedom. + + "The President therefore is no longer at liberty to accept a mere + 'autonomy' of these peoples as a basis of peace, but is obliged to + insist that they, and not he, shall be the judges of what action on the + part of the Austro-Hungarian Government will satisfy their aspirations + and their conception of their rights and destiny as members of the + family of nations." + +THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAK PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT + +On October 14, Dr. E. Benes addressed the following letter to all the +Allied Governments: + + "By the declaration of the Government of the United States of September + 3, 1918, the Czecho-Slovak National Council, whose seat is in Paris, + has been recognised as a _de facto_ Czecho-Slovak Government. This + recognition has been confirmed by the following Allied Governments: by + Great Britain in her agreement with the National Council of September + 3, 1918; by France in her agreement of September 28, 1918, and by Italy + in the declaration of her Premier on October 3,1918. I have the honour + to inform you that in view of these successive recognitions a + Provisional Czecho-Slovak Government has been constituted by the + decision of September 26, 1918, with its provisional seat in Paris and + consisting of the following members: + + "_Professor Thomas G. Masaryk_, President of the Provisional + Government and of the Cabinet of Ministers, and Minister of + Finance. + + "_Dr. Edward Benes_, Minister for Foreign Affairs and of the + Interior. + + "General Milan R. Stefanik, Minister of War. + + "The undersigned ministry has subsequently decided to accredit the + following representatives with the Allied Powers: + + "_Dr. Stephan Osusky_. Charge d'Affaires of the Czecho-Slovak + Legation in London, accredited with His Majesty's Government in + Great Britain. + + "_Dr. Leo Sychrava_, Charge d'Affaires of the Czecho-Slovak + Legation in Paris, accredited with the French Government. + + "_Dr. Leo Borsky_, Charge d'Affaires of the Czecho-Slovak Legation + in Rome, accredited with the Royal Government of Italy. + + "_Dr. Charles Pergler_, Charge d'Affaires of the Czecho-Slovak + Legation in Washington, accredited with the Government of the + United States. + + "_Bohdan Pavlu_, at present at Omsk, is to represent our Government + in Russia. + + "Our representatives in Japan and Serbia will be appointed later. + + "We have the honour to inform you that we have taken these decisions in + agreement with the political leaders at home. During the past three + years our whole political and military action has been conducted in + complete agreement with them. Finally, on October 2, 1918, the + Czecho-Slovak deputy Stanek, President of the Union of Czech Deputies + to the Parliament in Vienna, solemnly announced that the Czecho-Slovak + National Council in Paris is to be considered as the supreme organ of + the Czecho-Slovak armies and that it is entitled to represent the + Czecho-Slovak nation in the Allied countries and at the Peace + Conference. On October 9, his colleague, deputy Zahradnik, speaking in + the name of the same union, declared that the Czecho-Slovaks are + definitely leaving the Parliament in Vienna, thereby breaking for ever + all their ties with Austria-Hungary. + + "Following the decision of our nation and of our armies, we are + henceforth taking charge as a Provisional National Government for the + direction of the political destinies of the Czecho-Slovak State, and as + such we are entering officially into relations with the Allied + Governments, relying both upon our mutual agreement with them and upon + their solemn declarations. + + "We make this declaration in a specially solemn manner at a moment when + great political events call upon all the nations to take part in + decisions which will perhaps give Europe a new political regime for + centuries to come. + + "Assuring you of my devoted sentiments, believe me to remain, in the + name of the Czecho-Slovak Government, + +_(Signed)_ "DR. EDWARD BENES, + +Minister for Foreign Affairs." + +CZECHO-SLOVAK DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE + + "At this grave moment when the Hohenzollerns are offering peace in + order to stop the victorious advance of the Allied armies and to + prevent the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary and Turkey, and when the + Habsburgs are promising the federalisation of the empire and autonomy + to the dissatisfied nationalities committed to their rule, we, the + Czecho-Slovak National Council, recognised by the Allied and American + Governments as the Provisional Government of the Czecho-Slovak State + and nation, in complete accord with the declaration of the Czech + deputies in Prague on January 6, 1918, and realising that + federalisation and, still more, autonomy mean nothing under a Habsburg + dynasty, do hereby make and declare this our Declaration of + Independence: + + "Because of our belief that no people should be forced to live under a + sovereignty they do not recognise and because of our knowledge and firm + conviction that our nation cannot freely develop in a Habsburg + confederation which is only a new form of the denationalising + oppression which we have suffered for the past three centuries, we + consider freedom to be the first pre-requisite for federalisation and + believe that the free nations of Central and Eastern Europe may easily + federate should they find it necessary. + + "We make this declaration on the basis of our historic and natural + right: we have been an independent state since the seventh century, and + in 1526 as an independent state, consisting of Bohemia, Moravia and + Silesia, we joined with Austria and Hungary in a defensive union + against the Turkish danger. We have never voluntarily surrendered our + rights as an independent state in this confederation. The Habsburgs + broke their compact with our nation by illegally transgressing our + rights and violating the constitution of our state, which they had + pledged themselves to uphold, and we therefore refuse any longer to + remain a part of Austria-Hungary in any form. + + "We claim the right of Bohemia to be reunited with her Slovak brethren + of Slovakia, which once formed part of our national state, but later + was torn from our national body and fifty years ago was incorporated in + the Hungarian State of the Magyars, who by their unspeakable violence + and ruthless oppression of their subject races have lost all moral and + human right to rule anybody but themselves. + + "The world knows the history of our struggle against the Habsburg + oppression, intensified and systematised by the Austro-Hungarian + dualistic compromise of 1867. This dualism is only a shameless + organisation of brute force and exploitation of the majority by the + minority. It is a political conspiracy of the Germans and Magyars + against our own as well as the other Slav and Latin nations of the + monarchy. + + "The world knows the justice of our claims, which the Habsburgs + themselves dare not deny. Francis Joseph in the most solemn manner + repeatedly recognised the sovereign rights of our nation. The Germans + and Magyars opposed this recognition, and Austria-Hungary, bowing + before the Pan-Germans, became a colony of Germany and as her vanguard + to the East provoked the last Balkan conflict as well as the present + world war, which was begun by the Habsburgs alone without the consent + of the representatives of the people. + + "We cannot and will not continue to live under the direct or indirect + rule of the violators of Belgium, France and Serbia, the would-be + murderers of Russia and Rumania, the murderers of tens of thousands of + civilians and soldiers of our blood, and the accomplices in numberless + unspeakable crimes committed in this war against humanity by the two + degenerate and irresponsible dynasties of Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns. + We will not remain a part of a state which has no justification for + existence and which, refusing to accept the fundamental principles of + modern world organisation, remains only an artificial and immoral + political structure, hindering every movement towards democratic and + social progress. The Habsburg dynasty, weighed down by a huge + inheritance of error and crime, is a perpetual menace to the peace of + the world, and we deem it our duty towards humanity and civilisation to + aid in bringing about its downfall and destruction. + + "We reject the sacrilegious assertion that the power of the Habsburg + and Hohenzollern dynasties is of divine origin. We refuse to recognise + the divine right of kings. Our nation elected the Habsburgs to the + throne of Bohemia of its own free will and by the same right deposes + them. We hereby declare the Habsburg dynasty unworthy of leading our + nation and deny all their claims to rule in the Czecho-Slovak land, + which we here and now declare shall henceforth be a free and + independent people and nation. + + "We accept and shall adhere to the ideals of modern democracy as they + have been ideals of our nation for centuries. We accept the American + principles as laid down by President Wilson, the principles of + liberated mankind of the actual equality of nations and of governments, + deriving all their just power from the consent of the governed. We, the + nation of Comenius, cannot but accept those principles expressed in the + American Declaration of Independence, the principles of Lincoln and of + the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. For these + principles our nation shed its blood in the memorable Hussite wars five + hundred years ago. For these same principles beside her Allies our + nation is shedding its blood to-day in Russia, Italy and France. + + "We shall outline only the main principles of the constitution of the + Czecho-Slovak nation. The final decision as to the constitution itself + falls to the legally chosen representatives of the liberated and united + people. The Czecho-Slovak State shall be a republic in constant + endeavour for progress. It will guarantee complete freedom of + conscience, religion and science, literature and art, speech, the press + and the right of assembly and petition. The Church shall be separated + from the State. Our democracy shall rest on universal suffrage; women + shall be placed on an equal footing with men politically, socially and + culturally, while the right of the minority shall be safeguarded by + proportional representation. National minorities shall enjoy equal + rights. The government shall be parliamentary in form and shall + recognise the principles of initiative and referendum. The standing + army will be replaced by militia. The Czecho-Slovak nation will carry + out far-reaching social and economic reforms. The large estates will be + redeemed for home colonisation, and patents of nobility will be + abolished. Our nation will assume responsibility for its part of the + Austro-Hungarian pre-war public debt. The debts for this war we leave + to those who incurred them. + + "In its foreign policy the Czecho-Slovak nation will accept its full + share of responsibility in the reorganisation of Eastern Europe. It + accepts fully the democratic and social principle of nationality and + subscribes to the doctrine that all covenants and treaties shall be + entered into openly and frankly without secret diplomacy. Our + constitution shall provide an efficient, national and just government + which will exclude all special privileges and prohibit class + legislation. + + "Democracy has defeated theocratic autocracy, militarism is overcome, + democracy is victorious. On the basis of democracy mankind will be + reorganised. The forces of darkness have served the victory of light, + the longed-for age of humanity is dawning. We believe in democracy, we + believe in liberty and liberty for evermore. + + "Given in Paris on the 18th October, 1918. + +_(Signed)_ "PROFESSOR THOMAS G. MASARYK, + +Prime Minister and Minister of Finance. + +GENERAL DR. MILAN STEFANIK, + +Minister of National Defence. + +DR. EDWARD BENES, + +Minister for Foreign Affairs and of the Interior." + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +PAN-GERMANISM + +CHERADAME, A.: _The Pan-German Plot Unmasked_. John Murray, London, 1916. + +NAUMANN, F.: _Central Europe_. King & Son, London, 1916. + +For complete survey of Pan-Germanism and Pan-German literature, see Prof. +Masaryk's articles in the first volume of the _New Europe_, as well as +various articles in _La Nation Tcheque_. + +THE SLAVS + +BAILEY, V.F.: _The Slavs of the War Zone_. Chapman & Hall, London, 1917. + +LEGER, Louis: _Etudes slaves_. Leroux, Paris, 1875, 1880 and 1886. + +----_Le monde slave_. Hachette, Paris, 1910. + +MASARYK, T.G.: _The Slavs amongst Nations_. London, 1915. + +NIEDERLE, L.: _La race slave_. Hachette, Paris, 1910. + +TUCIC, S.: _The Slav Nations. Daily Telegraph_ War Books, London, 1914. + +See also _Le Monde Slave_, a monthly review published in Paris by Prof. +Ernest Denis at 19-21 rue Cassette. + +THE AUSTRIAN PROBLEM + +BENES, EDWARD: _Le probleme autrichien et la question tcheque_. +Girard-Briere, Paris, 1908. + +----_Detruisez l'Autriche-Hongrie._ Delagrave, Paris, 1915. + +COLQUHOUN, A.R.: _The Whirlpool of Europe_. Harpers, London, 1907. + +CHERADAME, A.: _L'Europe et la question d'Autriche-Hongrie_. Paris, 1900. + +DRAGE, GEOFFREY: _Austria-Hungary._ John Murray, London, 1909. + +EISENMANN, L.: _Le compromis austro-hongrois._ Paris, 1904. + +FOURNOL, E.: _Sur la succession de l'Autriche-Hongrie._ Paris, 1917. + +GAYDA, V.: _Modern Austria_. Fisher Unwin, London, 1914. + +GRIBBLE, F.J.: _The Emperor Francis Joseph_. Eveleigh Nash, London, 1914. + +LEGER, Louis: _Histoire de l'Autriche-Hongrie._ Hachette, Paris, 1888. + +----_La liquidation de l'Autriche-Hongrie._ + +MITTON, G.E.: _Austria-Hungary._ A. & C. Black, London, 1915. + +McCURDY, C.A., M.P.: _The Terms of the Coming Peace_. W.H. Smith & Son, +1918. + +STEED, HENRY WICKHAM: _The Habsburg Monarchy_. Constable, 1914 and 1916. + +SETON-WATSON, R.W.: _The Future of Austria-Hungary._ Constable, London, +1907. + +SETON-WATSON, R.W., and others: _War and Democracy._ Macmillan & Co., 1914. + +TOYNBEE, A.: _Nationality and the War._ Dent & Sons, London, 1915. + +----_The New Europe._ Dent & Sons. + +HUNGARY AND THE SLOVAKS + +CAPEK, THOMAS: _The Slovaks of Hungary._ Knickerbocker Press, New York, +1906. + +DENIS, ERNEST: _Les Slovaques._ Delagrave, Paris, 1917. + +SCOTUS-VIATOR: _Racial Problems in Hungary._ Constable, 1908. + +SETON-WATSON, R.W.: _German, Slav and Magyar._ Williams & Norgate, London, +1916. + +BOHEMIAN HISTORY + +DENIS, ERNEST: _Huss et la Guerre des Hussites._ Leroux, Paris, 1878. + +----_Les origines de l'unite des freres bohemes._ Angers, Burdin, 1881. + +----_Fin de l'independance boheme._ Colin, Paris, 1890. + +----_La Boheme depuis la Montagne Blanche._ Leroux, Paris, 1903. + +FRICZ: _Table de l'histoire de la Boheme._ + +GINDELY, A.: _History of the Thirty Years' War._ Translation from Czech. +Putnam's Sons, New York, 1884. + +GREGOR, F.: _Story of Bohemia._ Hunt & Eaton, New York, 1895. + +HANTICH, H.: _La revolution de_ 1848 _en Boheme._ Schneider, Lyon, 1910. + +----_Le droit historique de la Boheme._ Chevalier, Paris, 1910. + +LEGER, LOUIS: _La renaissance tcheque en_ XIXe _siecle._ Paris, 1911. + +LUeTZOW, COUNT FRANCIS: _Bohemia._ A historical sketch. Everyman's Library. +Dent & Sons, London, 1907. + +----_The Story of Prague._ Dent & Sons, London, 1902. + +----_Life and Times of John Hus._ Dent & Sons, 1909. + +MAURICE, C.E.: _The Story of Bohemia._ Fisher Unwin, 1896. + +SCHWARZE, REV. J.: _John Hus._ The Revel Co., New York, 1915. + +SCHAFF, DAVID: _John Huss._ George Allen & Unwin, London, 1915. + +WRATISLAW, A.H.: _John Hus._ Young & Co., London, 1882. + +BOHEMIAN LITERATURE + +BOWRING, SIR JOHN: _Cheskian Anthology._ Rowland Hunter, London, 1832. + +BAUDIS, PROF. JOSEPH: _Czech Folk Tales._ George Allen & Unwin, London, +1917. + +FRICZ: _L'idee nationale dans la poesie et la tradition_ boheme. + +GAMBERT, E.: _Poesie tcheque contemporaine._ Paris, 1903. + +JELINEK, H.: _La litterature tcheque contemporaine_. Paris, 1912. + +KOMENSKY, J.A.: _Labyrinth of the World_. Translated from Czech by Count +Luetzow. Dent & Sons, London, 1900. + +LUeTZOW, COUNT FRANCIS: _Bohemian Literature_. Heinemann, London, 1907. + +MARCHANT, F.P.: _Outline of Bohemian Literature_. London, 1911. + +MORFILL, W.R.: _A Grammar of the Bohemian (Cech) Language._ With +translations from Bohemian literature. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1899. + +----_Slavonic Literature_. London, 1883. + +NEMCOVA, B.: _The Grandmother_. A novel translated from Czech. McClurg, +Chicago, 1892. + +SELVER, PAUL: _Anthology of Modern Bohemian Poetry._ Drane, London, 1912. + +BOHEMIAN CIVILISATION + +BAKER, JAMES: _Pictures from Bohemia_. Chapman & Hall, London, 1904. + +HANTICH, H.: _La musique tcheque_. Nilsson, Paris, 1910. + +MONROE, W.S.: _Bohemia and the Cechs_. Bell & Sons, London, 1910. + +PROCHAZKA, J.: _Bohemia's Claim for Freedom_. Chatto & Windus, London, +1915. + +TYRSOVA, R., and HANTICH, H.: _Le paysan tcheque_. Nilsson, Paris. + +ZMRHAL, J.J., and BENES, V.: _Bohemia_. Bohemian National Alliance, +Chicago, 1917. + +----_Les pays tcheques_, published by the Ligue Franco-Tcheque, Paris, +1917. + +BOHEMIAN POLITICS + +BENES, EDWARD: _Bohemia's Case for Independence_. George Allen & Unwin, +London, 1917. + +BOURLIER, JEAN: _Les Tcheques et la Boheme_. F. Alcan, Paris, 1897. + +CAPEK, THOMAS: _Bohemia under Habsburg Misrule_. Chicago, 1915. + +For reference _re_ the Czecho-Slovak movement, see its official organ _La +Nation Tcheque_, published at 18, rue Bonaparte, Paris. First two volumes +edited by E. Denis, the following by Dr. E. Benes. + +Numerous useful articles on Bohemia and the Austrian problem from the pen +of H.W. Steed, R.W. Seton-Watson, L.B. Namier, Professor Masaryk, Dr. +Benes, V. Nosek and others will be found in the weekly review of foreign +politics, the _New Europe_, published by Messrs. Constable & Co., 10, +Orange Street, London, W.C.2. + +The following list of some recent articles in the English (not American) +monthly and quarterly reviews is also recommended: + +BARRY, The Very Rev. Canon WILLIAM: _Break Austria. Nineteenth Century_, +September, 1917. + +----_How to Break Austria. Nineteenth Century_, November, 1917. + +----_Shall England save Austria? Nineteenth Century_, June, 1918. + +CHERADAME, A.: _How to Destroy Pan-Germany. National Review_, January, +1918. + +----_The Western Front and Political Strategy_. _National Review_, July, +1918. + +FORMAN, JOSEPH: _The Liberation of the Czecho-Slovaks. Nineteenth Century_, +March, 1917. + +GRIBBLE, FRANCIS: _Czech Claims and Magyar Intrigues. Nineteenth Century_, +March, 1918. + +----_The Passing of a Legend. Nineteenth Century_, October, 1917. + +LANDA, M.J.: _Bohemia and the War. Contemporary_, July, 1915. + +AN OLD MAZZINIAN: _Italy and the Nationalities of Austria-Hungary. +Contemporary_, June, 1918. + +NOSEK, VLADIMIR: _The New Spirit in Austria_. A Reply to Mr. Brailsford. +_Contemporary_, October, 1917. + +----_Bohemia as a Bulwark against Pan-Germanism. National Review_, July, +1918. + +POLITICUS: _Austria's Hour of Destiny. Fortnightly_, August, 1917. + +_Round Table_, Quarterly Review of the Politics of the Empire: No. 16 +(September, 1914): _Origins of the War._ + +----No. 17 (December, 1914): _Racial Problems in Austria-Hungary._ + +----No. 26 (March, 1917): _Methods of Ascendancy: Bohemia_. + +SELVER, PAUL: _Brezina's Poetry. The Quest_, January, 1916. + +----_Modern Czech Poetry. Poetry Review_, May, 1918. + +SETON-WATSON, R.W.: _Pan-Slavism. Contemporary_, October, 1916. + +----_Austria-Hungary and the Federal System. Contemporary_, March, 1918. + +STEED, HENRY WICKHAM: _The Quintessence of Austria. Edinburgh Review_, +October, 1915. + +----_The Programme for Peace. Edinburgh Review_, April, 1916. + +----_What is Austria? Edinburgh Review_, October, 1917. + +TAYLOR, A.H.E.: _The Entente and Austria. Fortnightly_, May, 1918. + +For a detailed and exhaustive list of all writings in the English language +on Bohemia and the Czecho-Slovaks, see _Bohemian Bibliography_, by Thomas +Capek and Anna Vostrovsky Capek, published by the Fleming H. Revell Co., +Chicago, New York, Edinburgh and London, 1918. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Independent Bohemia, by Vladimir Nosek + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEPENDENT BOHEMIA *** + +This file should be named 7iboh10.txt or 7iboh10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7iboh11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7iboh10a.txt + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Kline and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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