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diff --git a/old/7bot110.txt b/old/7bot110.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0124de5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7bot110.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13607 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Botanic Garden, by Erasmus Darwin + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Botanic Garden + A Poem in Two Parts. Part 1: The Economy of Vegetation + +Author: Erasmus Darwin + +Release Date: January, 2006 [EBook #9612] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 10, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIC GARDEN *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Robert Shimmin +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Illustration: FLORA attired by the ELEMENTS] + + + + + THE + + BOTANIC GARDEN; + + + _A Poem, in Two Parts._ + + + PART I. + + CONTAINING + + THE ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + PART II. + + THE LOVES OF THE PLANTS. + + + WITH + + + Philosophical Notes. + + + + ADVERTISEMENT. + + +The general design of the following sheets is to inlist Imagination +under the banner of Science; and to lead her votaries from the looser +analogies, which dress out the imagery of poetry, to the stricter, ones +which form the ratiocination of philosophy. While their particular +design is to induce the ingenious to cultivate the knowledge of Botany, +by introducing them to the vestibule of that delightful science, and +recommending to their attention the immortal works of the celebrated +Swedish Naturalist, LINNEUS. + +In the first Poem, or Economy of Vegetation, the physiology of Plants is +delivered; and the operation of the Elements, as far as they may be +supposed to affect the growth of Vegetables. In the second Poem, or +Loves of the Plants, the Sexual System of Linneus is explained, with the +remarkable properties of many particular plants. + + + + + APOLOGY. + + +It may be proper here to apologize for many of the subsequent +conjectures on some articles of natural philosophy, as not being +supported by accurate investigation or conclusive experiments. +Extravagant theories however in those parts of philosophy, where our +knowledge is yet imperfect, are not without their use; as they encourage +the execution of laborious experiments, or the investigation of +ingenious deductions, to confirm or refute them. And since natural +objects are allied to each other by many affinities, every kind of +theoretic distribution of them adds to our knowledge by developing some +of their analogies. + +The Rosicrucian doctrine of Gnomes, Sylphs, Nymphs, and Salamanders, was +thought to afford a proper machinery for a Botanic poem; as it is +probable, that they were originally the names of hieroglyphic figures +representing the elements. + +Many of the important operations of Nature were shadowed or allegorized +in the heathen mythology, as the first Cupid springing from the Egg of +Night, the marriage of Cupid and Psyche, the Rape of Proserpine, the +Congress of Jupiter and Juno, Death and Resuscitation of Adonis, &c. +many of which are ingeniously explained in the works of Bacon, Vol. V. +p. 47. 4th Edit. London, 1778. The Egyptians were possessed of many +discoveries in philosophy and chemistry before the invention of letters; +these were then expressed in hieroglyphic paintings of men and animals; +which after the discovery of the alphabet were described and animated by +the poets, and became first the deities of Egypt, and afterwards of +Greece and Rome. Allusions to those fables were therefore thought proper +ornaments to a philosophical poem, and are occasionally introduced +either as represented by the poets, or preserved on the numerous gems +and medallions of antiquity. + + + + + TO + + THE AUTHOR + + OF THE + + POEM ON THE LOVES OF THE PLANTS. + + + BY THE REV. W.B. STEPHENS. + + + Oft tho' thy genius, D----! amply fraught +With native wealth, explore new worlds of mind; +Whence the bright ores of drossless wisdom brought, +Stampt by the Muse's hand, enrich mankind; + + Tho' willing Nature to thy curious eye, +Involved in night, her mazy depths betray; +Till at their source thy piercing search descry +The streams, that bathe with Life our mortal clay; + + Tho', boldly soaring in sublimer mood +Through trackless skies on metaphysic wings, +Thou darest to scan the approachless Cause of Good, +And weigh with steadfast hand the Sum of Things; + + Yet wilt thou, charm'd amid his whispering bowers +Oft with lone step by glittering Derwent stray, +Mark his green foliage, count his musky flowers, +That blush or tremble to the rising ray; + + While FANCY, seated in her rock-roof'd dell, +Listening the secrets of the vernal grove, +Breathes sweetest strains to thy symphonious shell, +And gives new echoes to the throne of Love. + +_Repton, Nov. 28, 1788._ + + + + + _Argument of the First Canto._ + + +The Genius of the place invites the Goddess of Botany. 1. She descends, +is received by Spring, and the Elements, 59. Addresses the Nymphs of +Fire. Star-light Night seen in the Camera Obscura, 81. I. Love created +the Universe. Chaos explodes. All the Stars revolve. God. 97. II. +Shooting Stars. Lightning. Rainbow. Colours of the Morning and Evening +Skies. Exterior Atmosphere of inflammable Air. Twilight. Fire-balls. +Aurora Borealis. Planets. Comets. Fixed Stars. Sun's Orb, 115. III. 1. +Fires at the Earth's Centre. Animal Incubation, 137. 2. Volcanic +Mountains. Venus visits the Cyclops, 149. IV. Heat confined on the Earth +by the Air. Phosphoric lights in the Evening. Bolognian Stone. Calcined +Shells. Memnon's Harp, 173. Ignis fatuus. Luminous Flowers. Glow-worm. +Fire-fly. Luminous Sea-insects. Electric Eel. Eagle armed with +Lightning, 189. V. 1. Discovery of Fire. Medusa, 209. 2. The chemical +Properties of Fire. Phosphorus. Lady in Love, 223. 3. Gunpowder, 237. +VI. Steam-engine applied to Pumps, Bellows, Water-engines, Corn-mills, +Coining, Barges, Waggons, Flying-chariots, 253. Labours of Hercules. +Abyla and Calpe, 297. VII. 1. Electric Machine. Hesperian Dragon. +Electric kiss. Halo round the heads of Saints. Electric Shock. Fairy- +rings, 335. 2. Death of Professor Richman, 371. 3. Franklin draws +Lightning from the Clouds. Cupid snatches the Thunder-bolt from Jupiter, +383. VIII. Phosphoric Acid and Vital Heat produced in the Blood. The +great Egg of Night, 399. IX. Western Wind unfettered. Naiad released. +Frost assailed. Whale attacked, 421. X. Buds and Flowers expanded by +Warmth, Electricity, and Light. Drawings with colourless sympathetic +Inks; which appear when warmed by the Fire, 457. XI. Sirius. Jupiter and +Semele. Northern Constellations. Ice-islands navigated into the Tropic +Seas. Rainy Monsoons, 497. XII. Points erected to procure Rain. Elijah +on Mount-Carmel, 549. Departure of the Nymphs of Fire like sparks from +artificial Fireworks, 587. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO I. + + + STAY YOUR RUDE STEPS! whose throbbing breasts infold + The legion-fiends of Glory, or of Gold! + Stay! whose false lips seductive simpers part, + While Cunning nestles in the harlot-heart!-- + 5 For you no Dryads dress the roseate bower, + For you no Nymphs their sparkling vases pour; + Unmark'd by you, light Graces swim the green, + And hovering Cupids aim their shafts, unseen. + + "But THOU! whose mind the well-attemper'd ray + 10 Of Taste and Virtue lights with purer day; + Whose finer sense each soft vibration owns + With sweet responsive sympathy of tones; + So the fair flower expands it's lucid form + To meet the sun, and shuts it to the storm;-- + 15 For thee my borders nurse the fragrant wreath, + My fountains murmur, and my zephyrs breathe; + Slow slides the painted snail, the gilded fly + Smooths his fine down, to charm thy curious eye; + On twinkling fins my pearly nations play, + 20 Or win with sinuous train their trackless way; + My plumy pairs in gay embroidery dress'd + Form with ingenious bill the pensile nest, + To Love's sweet notes attune the listening dell, + And Echo sounds her soft symphonious shell. + + +[ _So the fair flower_. l. 13. It seems to have been the original design +of the philosophy of Epicurus to render the mind exquisitely sensible to +agreeable sensations, and equally insensible to disagreeable ones.] + + + 25 "And, if with Thee some hapless Maid should stray, + Disasterous Love companion of her way, + Oh, lead her timid steps to yonder glade, + Whose arching cliffs depending alders shade; + There, as meek Evening wakes her temperate breeze, + 30 And moon-beams glimmer through the trembling trees, + The rills, that gurgle round, shall soothe her ear, + The weeping rocks shall number tear for tear; + There as sad Philomel, alike forlorn, + Sings to the Night from her accustomed thorn; + 35 While at sweet intervals each falling note + Sighs in the gale, and whispers round the grot; + The sister-woe shall calm her aching breast, + And softer slumbers steal her cares to rest.-- + + +[_Disasterous Love_. l. 26. The scenery is taken from a botanic garden +about a mile from Lichfield, where a cold bath was erected by Sir John +Floyer. There is a grotto surrounded by projecting rocks, from the edges +of which trickles a perpetual shower of water; and it is here +represented as adapted to love-scenes, as being thence a proper +residence for the modern goddess of Botany, and the easier to introduce +the next poem on the Loves of the Plants according to the system of +Linneus.] + + + "Winds of the North! restrain your icy gales, + 40 Nor chill the bosom of these happy vales! + Hence in dark heaps, ye gathering Clouds, revolve! + Disperse, ye Lightnings! and, ye Mists, dissolve! + --Hither, emerging from yon orient skies, + BOTANIC GODDESS! bend thy radiant eyes; + 45 O'er these soft scenes assume thy gentle reign, + Pomona, Ceres, Flora in thy train; + O'er the still dawn thy placid smile effuse, + And with thy silver sandals print the dews; + In noon's bright blaze thy vermil vest unfold, + 50 And wave thy emerald banner star'd with gold." + + Thus spoke the GENIUS, as He stept along, + And bade these lawns to Peace and Truth belong; + Down the steep slopes He led with modest skill + The willing pathway, and the truant rill, + 55 Stretch'd o'er the marshy vale yon willowy mound, + Where shines the lake amid the tufted ground, + Raised the young woodland, smooth'd the wavy green, + And gave to Beauty all the quiet scene.-- + + She comes!--the GODDESS!--through the whispering air, + 60 Bright as the morn, descends her blushing car; + Each circling wheel a wreath of flowers intwines, + And gem'd with flowers the silken harness shines; + The golden bits with flowery studs are deck'd, + And knots of flowers the crimson reins connect.-- + 65 And now on earth the silver axle rings, + And the shell sinks upon its slender springs; + Light from her airy seat the Goddess bounds, + And steps celestial press the pansied grounds. + + Fair Spring advancing calls her feather'd quire, + 70 And tunes to softer notes her laughing lyre; + Bids her gay hours on purple pinions move, + And arms her Zephyrs with the shafts of Love, + Pleased GNOMES, ascending from their earthy beds, + Play round her graceful footsteps, as she treads; + 75 Gay SYLPHS attendant beat the fragrant air + On winnowing wings, and waft her golden hair; + Blue NYMPHS emerging leave their sparkling streams, + And FIERY FORMS alight from orient beams; + Musk'd in the rose's lap fresh dews they shed, + 80 Or breathe celestial lustres round her head. + + +[_Pleased Gnomes_. l. 73. The Rosicrucian doctrine of Gnomes, Sylphs, +Nymphs, and Salamanders affords proper machinery for a philosophic poem; +as it is probable that they were originally the names of hieroglyphic +figures of the Elements, or of Genii presiding over their operations. +The Fairies of more modern days seem to have been derived from them, and +to have inherited their powers. The Gnomes and Sylphs, as being more +nearly allied to modern Fairies are represented as either male or +female, which distinguishes the latter from the Aurae of the Latin +Poets, which were only female; except the winds, as Zephyrus and Auster, +may be supposed to have been their husbands.] + + + First the fine Forms her dulcet voice requires, + Which bathe or bask in elemental fires; + From each bright gem of Day's refulgent car, + From the pale sphere of every twinkling star, + 85 From each nice pore of ocean, earth, and air, + With eye of flame the sparkling hosts repair, + Mix their gay hues, in changeful circles play, + Like motes, that tenant the meridian ray.-- + So the clear Lens collects with magic power + 90 The countless glories of the midnight hour; + Stars after stars with quivering lustre fall, + And twinkling glide along the whiten'd wall.-- + Pleased, as they pass, she counts the glittering bands, + And stills their murmur with her waving hands; + 95 Each listening tribe with fond expectance burns, + And now to these, and now to those, she turns. + + I. "NYMPHS OF PRIMEVAL FIRE! YOUR vestal train + Hung with gold-tresses o'er the vast inane, + Pierced with your silver shafts the throne of Night, +100 And charm'd young Nature's opening eyes with light; + When LOVE DIVINE, with brooding wings unfurl'd, + Call'd from the rude abyss the living world. + "--LET THERE BE LIGHT!" proclaim'd the ALMIGHTY LORD, + Astonish'd Chaos heard the potent word;-- +105 Through all his realms the kindling Ether runs, + And the mass starts into a million suns; + Earths round each sun with quick explosions burst, + And second planets issue from the first; + Bend, as they journey with projectile force, +110 In bright ellipses their reluctant course; + Orbs wheel in orbs, round centres centres roll, + And form, self-balanced, one revolving Whole. + --Onward they move amid their bright abode, + Space without bound, THE BOSOM OF THEIR GOD! + + +[_Nymphs of primeval fire_. l. 97. The fluid matter of heat is perhaps +the most extensive element in nature; all other bodies are immersed in +it, and are preserved in their present state of solidity or fluidity by +the attraction of their particles to the matter of heat. Since all known +bodies are contractible into less space by depriving them of some +portion of their heat, and as there is no part of nature totally +deprived of heat, there is reason to believe that the particles of +bodies do not touch, but are held towards each other by their self- +attraction, and recede from each other by their attraction to the mass +of heat which surrounds them; and thus exist in an equilibrium between +these two powers. If more of the matter of heat be applied to them, they +recede further from each other, and become fluid; if still more be +applied, they take an aerial form, and are termed Gasses by the modern +chemists. Thus when water is heated to a certain degree, it would +instantly assume the form of steam, but for the pressure of the +atmosphere, which prevents this change from taking place so easily; the +same is true of quicksilver, diamonds, and of perhaps all other bodies +in Nature; they would first become fluid, and then aeriform by +appropriated degrees of heat. On the contrary, this elastic matter of +heat, termed Calorique in the new nomenclature of the French +Academicians, is liable to become consolidated itself in its +combinations with some bodies, as perhaps in nitre, and probably in +combustible bodies as sulphur and charcoal. See note on l. 232, of this +Canto. Modern philosophers have not yet been able to decide whether +light and heat be different fluids, or modifications of the same fluid, +as they have many properties in common. See note on l. 462 of this +Canto.] + +[_When Love Divine_. l. 101. From having observed the gradual evolution +of the young animal or plant from its egg or seed; and afterwards its +successive advances to its more perfect state, or maturity; philosophers +of all ages seem to have imagined, that the great world itself had +likewise its infancy and its gradual progress to maturity; this seems to +have given origin to the very antient and sublime allegory of Eros, or +Divine Love, producing the world from the egg of Night, as it floated in +Chaos. See l. 419. of this Canto. + +The external crust of the earth, as far as it has been exposed to our +view in mines or mountains, countenances this opinion; since these have +evidently for the most part had their origin from the shells of fishes, +the decomposition of vegetables, and the recrements of other animal +materials, and must therefore have been formed progressively from small +beginnings. There are likewise some apparently useless or incomplete +appendages to plants and animals, which seem to shew they have gradually +undergone changes from their original state; such as the stamens without +anthers, and styles without stigmas of several plants, as mentioned in +the note on Curcuma, Vol. II. of this work. Such is the halteres, or +rudiments of wings of some two-winged insects; and the paps of male +animals; thus swine have four toes, but two of them are imperfectly +formed, and not long enough for use. The allantoide in some animals +seems to have become extinct; in others is above tenfold the size, which +would seem necessary for its purpose. Buffon du Cochon. T. 6. p. 257. +Perhaps all the supposed monstrous births of Nature are remains of their +habits of production in their former less perfect state, or attempts +towards greater perfection.] + +[_Through all his realms_. l. 105. Mr. Herschel has given a very sublime +and curious account of the construction of the heavens with his +discovery of some thousand nebulae, or clouds of stars; many of which +are much larger collections of stars, than all those put together, which +are visible to our naked eyes, added to those which form the galaxy, or +milky zone, which surrounds us. He observes that in the vicinity of +these clusters of stars there are proportionally fewer stars than in +other parts of the heavens; and hence he concludes, that they have +attracted each other, on the supposition that infinite space was at +first equally sprinkled with them; as if it had at the beginning been +filled with a fluid mass, which had coagulated. Mr. Herschel has further +shewn, that the whole sidereal system is gradually moving round some +centre, which may be an opake mass of matter, Philos. Trans. V. LXXIV. +If all these Suns are moving round some great central body; they must +have had a projectile force, as well as a centripetal one; and may +thence be supposed to have emerged or been projected from the material, +where they were produced. We can have no idea of a natural power, which +could project a Sun out of Chaos, except by comparing it to the +explosions or earthquakes owing to the sudden evolution of aqueous or of +other more elastic vapours; of the power of which under immeasurable +degrees of heat, and compression, we are yet ignorant. + +It may be objected, that if the stars had been projected from a Chaos by +explosions, that they must have returned again into it from the known +laws of gravitation; this however would not happen, if the whole of +Chaos, like grains of gunpowder, was exploded at the same time, and +dispersed through infinite space at once, or in quick succession, in +every possible direction. The same objection may be stated against the +possibility of the planets having been thrown from the sun by +explosions; and the secondary planets from the primary ones; which will +be spoken of more at large in the second Canto, but if the planets are +supposed to have been projected from their suns, and the secondary from +the primary ones, at the beginning of their course; they might be so +influenced or diverted by the attractions of the suns, or sun, in their +vicinity, as to prevent their tendency to return into the body, from +which they were projected. + +If these innumerable and immense suns thus rising out of Chaos are +supposed to have thrown out their attendant planets by new explosions, +as they ascended; and those their respective satellites, filling in a +moment the immensity of space with light and motion, a grander idea +cannot be conceived by the mind of man.] + + +115 II. "ETHEREAL POWERS! YOU chase the shooting stars, + Or yoke the vollied lightenings to your cars, + Cling round the aerial bow with prisms bright, + And pleased untwist the sevenfold threads of light; + Eve's silken couch with gorgeous tints adorn, +120 And fire the arrowy throne of rising Morn. + --OR, plum'd with flame, in gay battalion's spring + To brighter regions borne on broader wing; + Where lighter gases, circumfused on high, + Form the vast concave of exterior sky; +125 With airy lens the scatter'd rays assault, + And bend the twilight round the dusky vault; + Ride, with broad eye and scintillating hair, + The rapid Fire-ball through the midnight air; + Dart from the North on pale electric streams, +130 Fringing Night's sable robe with transient beams. + --OR rein the Planets in their swift careers, + Gilding with borrow'd light their twinkling spheres; + Alarm with comet-blaze the sapphire plain, + The wan stars glimmering through its silver train; +135 Gem the bright Zodiac, stud the glowing pole, + Or give the Sun's phlogistic orb to roll. + + +[_Chase the shooting stars_. l. 115. The meteors called shooting stars, +the lightening, the rainbow, and the clouds, are phenomena of the lower +regions of the atmosphere. The twilight, the meteors call'd fire-balls, +or flying dragons, and the northern lights, inhabit the higher regions +of the atmosphere. See additional notes, No. I.] + +[_Cling round the aerial bow_. l. 117. See additional notes, No. II] + +[_Eve's silken couch_. l. 119. See additional notes, No. III.] + +[_Where lighter gases_. l. 123. Mr. Cavendish has shewn that the gas +called inflammable air, is at least ten times lighter than common air; +Mr. Lavoisier contends, that it is one of the component parts of water, +and is by him called hydrogene. It is supposed to afford their principal +nourishment to vegetables and thence to animals, and is perpetually +rising from their decomposition; this source of it in hot climates, and +in summer months, is so great as to exceed estimation. Now if this light +gas passes through the atmosphere, without combining with it, it must +compose another atmosphere over the aerial one; which must expand, when +the pressure above it is thus taken away, to inconceivable tenuity. + +If this supernatural gasseous atmosphere floats upon the aerial one, +like ether upon water, what must happen? 1. it will flow from the line, +where it will be produced in the greatest quantities, and become much +accumulated over the poles of the earth; 2. the common air, or lower +stratum of the atmosphere, will be much thinner over the poles than at +the line; because if a glass globe be filled with oil and water, and +whirled upon its axis, the centrifugal power will carry the heavier +fluid to the circumference, and the lighter will in consequence be found +round the axis. 3. There may be a place at some certain latitude between +the poles and the line on each side the equator, where the inflammable +supernatant atmosphere may end, owing to the greater centrifugal force +of the heavier aerial atmosphere. 4. Between the termination of the +aerial and the beginning of the gasseous atmosphere, the airs will +occasionally be intermixed, and thus become inflammable by the electric +spark; these circumstances will assist in explaining the phenomena of +fire-balls, northern lights, and of some variable winds, and long +continued rains. + +Since the above note was first written, Mr. Volta I am informed has +applied the supposition of a supernatant atmosphere of inflammable air, +to explain some phenomena in meteorology. And Mr. Lavoisier has +announced his design to write on this subject. Traite de Chimie, Tom. I. +I am happy to find these opinions supported by such respectable +authority.] + +[_And bend the twilight_. l. 126. The crepuscular atmosphere, or the +region where the light of the sun ceases to be refracted to us, is +estimated by philosophers to be between 40 and 50 miles high, at which +time the sun is about 18 degrees below the horizon; and the rarity of +the air is supposed to be from 4,000 to 10,000 times greater than at the +surface of the earth. Cotes's Hydrost. p. 123. The duration of twilight +differs in different seasons and in different latitudes; in England the +shortest twilight is about the beginning of October and of March; in +more northern latitudes, where the sun never sinks more than 18 degrees, +below the horizon, the twilight continues the whole night. The time of +its duration may also be occasionally affected by the varying height of +the atmosphere. A number of observations on the duration of twilight in +different latitudes might afford considerable information concerning the +aerial strata in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and might assist +in determining whether an exterior atmosphere of inflammable gas, or +Hydrogene, exists over the aerial one.] + +[_Alarm with Comet-blaze_. l. 133. See additional notes, No. IV.] + +[_The Sun's phlogistic orb_. l. 136. See additional notes, No. V.] + + + III. NYMPHS! YOUR fine forms with steps impassive mock + Earth's vaulted roofs of adamantine rock; + Round her still centre tread the burning soil, +140 And watch the billowy Lavas, as they boil; + Where, in basaltic caves imprison'd deep, + Reluctant fires in dread suspension sleep; + Or sphere on sphere in widening waves expand, + And glad with genial warmth the incumbent land. +145 So when the Mother-bird selects their food + With curious bill, and feeds her callow brood; + Warmth from her tender heart eternal springs, + And pleased she clasps them with extended wings. + + +[_Round the still centre_. l. 139. Many philosophers have believed that +the central parts of the earth consist of a fluid mass of burning lava, +which they have called a subterraneous sun; and have supposed, that it +contributes to the production of metals, and to the growth of +vegetables. See additional notes, No. VI.] + +[_Or sphere on sphere_. l. 143. See additional notes, No. VII.] + + + "YOU from deep cauldrons and unmeasured caves +150 Blow flaming airs, or pour vitrescent waves; + O'er shining oceans ray volcanic light, + Or hurl innocuous embers to the night.-- + While with loud shouts to Etna Heccla calls, + And Andes answers from his beacon'd walls; +155 Sea-wilder'd crews the mountain-stars admire, + And Beauty beams amid tremendous fire. + + +[_Hurl innocuous embers_. l. 152. The immediate cause of volcanic +eruptions is believed to be owing to the water of the sea, or from +lakes, or inundations, finding itself a passage into the subterraneous +fires, which may lie at great depths. This must first produce by its +coldness a condensation of the vapour there existing, or a vacuum, and +thus occasion parts of the earth's crust or shell to be forced down by +the pressure of the incumbent atmosphere. Afterwards the water being +suddenly raised into steam produces all the explosive effects of +earthquakes. And by new accessions of water during the intervals of the +explosions the repetition of the shocks is caused. These circumstances +were hourly illustrated by the fountains of boiling water in Iceland, in +which the surface of the water in the boiling wells sunk down low before +every new ebullition. + +Besides these eruptions occasioned by the steam of water, there seems to +be a perpetual effusion of other vapours, more noxious and (as far as it +is yet known) perhaps greatly more expansile than water from the +Volcanos in various parts of the world. As these Volcanos are supposed +to be spiracula or breathing holes to the great subterraneous fires, it +is probable that the escape of elastic vapours from them is the cause, +that the earthquakes of modern days are of such small extent compared to +those of antient times, of which vestiges remain in every part of the +world, and on this account may be said not only to be innocuous, but +useful.] + + + "Thus when of old, as mystic bards presume, + Huge CYCLOPS dwelt in Etna's rocky womb, + On thundering anvils rung their loud alarms, +160 And leagued with VULCAN forged immortal arms; + Descending VENUS sought the dark abode, + And sooth'd the labours of the grisly God.-- + While frowning Loves the threatening falchion wield, + And tittering Graces peep behind the shield, +165 With jointed mail their fairy limbs o'erwhelm, + Or nod with pausing step the plumed helm; + With radiant eye She view'd the boiling ore, + Heard undismay'd the breathing bellows roar, + Admired their sinewy arms, and shoulders bare, +170 And ponderous hammers lifted high in air, + With smiles celestial bless'd their dazzled sight, + And Beauty blazed amid infernal night. + + IV. "EFFULGENT MAIDS! YOU round deciduous day, + Tressed with soft beams, your glittering bands array; +175 On Earth's cold bosom, as the Sun retires, + Confine with folds of air the lingering fires; + O'er Eve's pale forms diffuse phosphoric light, + And deck with lambent flames the shrine of Night. + So, warm'd and kindled by meridian skies, +180 And view'd in darkness with dilated eyes, + BOLOGNA'S chalks with faint ignition blaze, + BECCARI'S shells emit prismatic rays. + So to the sacred Sun in MEMNON's fane, + Spontaneous concords quired the matin strain; +185 --Touch'd by his orient beam, responsive rings + The living lyre, and vibrates all it's strings; + Accordant ailes the tender tones prolong, + And holy echoes swell the adoring song. + + +[_Confine with folds of air_. l. 176. The air, like all other bad +conductors of electricity, is known to be a bad conductor of heat; and +thence prevents the heat acquired from the sun's rays by the earth's +surface from being so soon dissipated, in the same manner as a blanket, +which may be considered as a sponge filled with air, prevents the escape +of heat from the person wrapped in it. This seems to be one cause of the +great degree of cold on the tops of mountains, where the rarity of the +air is greater, and it therefore becomes a better conductor both of heat +and electricity. See note on Barometz, Vol. II. of this work. + +There is however another cause to which the great coldness of mountains +and of the higher regions of the atmosphere is more immediately to be +ascribed, explained by Dr. Darwin in the Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. +who has there proved by experiments with the air-gun and air-pump, that +when any portion of the atmosphere becomes mechanically expanded, it +absorbs heat from the bodies in its vicinity. And as the air which +creeps along the plains, expands itself by a part of the pressure being +taken off when it ascends the sides of mountains; it at the same time +attracts heat from the summits of those mountains, or other bodies which +happen to be immersed in it, and thus produces cold. Hence he concludes +that the hot air at the bottom of the Andes becomes temperate by its own +rarefaction when it ascends to the city of Quito; and by its further +rarefaction becomes cooled to the freezing point when it ascends to the +snowy regions on the summits of those mountains. To this also he +attributes the great degree of cold experienced by the aeronauts in +their balloons; and which produces hail in summer at the height of only +two or three miles in the atmosphere.] + +[_Diffuse phosphoric light_. l. 177. I have often been induced to +believe from observation, that the twilight of the evenings is lighter +than that of the mornings at the same distance from noon. Some may +ascribe this to the greater height of the atmosphere in the evenings +having been rarefied by the sun during the day; but as its density must +at the same time be diminished, its power of refraction would continue +the same. I should rather suppose that it may be owing to the +phosphorescent quality (as it is called) of almost all bodies; that is, +when they have been exposed to the sun they continue to emit light for a +considerable time afterwards. This is generally believed to arise either +from such bodies giving out the light which they had previously +absorbed; or to the continuance of a slow combustion which the light +they had been previously exposed to had excited. See the next note.] + +[_Beccari's shells_. l. 182. Beccari made many curious experiments on +the phosphoric light, as it is called, which becomes visible on bodies +brought into a dark room, after having been previously exposed to the +sunshine. It appears from these experiments, that almost all inflammable +bodies possess this quality in a greater or less degree; white paper or +linen thus examined after having been exposed to the sunshine, is +luminous to an extraordinary degree; and if a person shut up in a dark +room, puts one of his hands out into the sun's light for a short time +and then retracts it, he will be able to see that hand distinctly and +not the other. These experiments seem to countenance the idea of light +being absorbed and again emitted from bodies when they are removed into +darkness. But Beccari further pretended, that some calcareous +compositions when exposed to red, yellow, or blue light, through +coloured glasses, would on their being brought into a dark room emit +coloured lights. This mistaken fact of Beccari's, Mr. Wilson decidedly +refutes; and among many other curious experiments discovered, that if +oyster-shells were thrown into a common fire and calcined for about half +an hour, and then brought to a person who had previously been some +minutes in a dark room, that many of them would exhibit beautiful irises +of prismatic colours, from whence probably arose Beccari's mistake. Mr. +Wilson from hence contends, that these kinds of phosphori do not emit +the light they had previously received, but that they are set on fire by +the sun's rays, and continue for some time a slow combustion after they +are withdrawn from the light. Wilson's Experiments on Phosphori. +Dodsley, 1775. + +The Bolognian stone is a selenite, or gypsum, and has been long +celebrated for its phosphorescent quality after having been burnt in a +sulphurous fire; and exposed when cold to the sun's light. It may be +thus well imitated: Calcine oyster-shells half an hour, pulverize them +when cold, and add one third part of flowers of sulphur, press them +close into a small crucible, and calcine them for an hour or longer, and +keep the powder in a phial close stopped. A part of this powder is to be +exposed for a minute or two to the sunbeams, and then brought into a +dark room. The calcined Bolognian stone becomes a calcareous hepar of +sulphur; but the calcined shells, as they contain the animal acid, may +also contain some of the phosphorus of Kunkel.] + +[_In Memnon's fane_. l. 183. See additional notes. No. VIII.] + + + "YOU with light Gas the lamps nocturnal feed, +190 Which dance and glimmer o'er the marshy mead; + Shine round Calendula at twilight hours, + And tip with silver all her saffron flowers; + Warm on her mossy couch the radiant Worm, + Guard from cold dews her love-illumin'd form, +195 From leaf to leaf conduct the virgin light, + Star of the earth, and diamond of the night. + You bid in air the tropic Beetle burn, + And fill with golden flame his winged urn; + Or gild the surge with insect-sparks, that swarm +200 Round the bright oar, the kindling prow alarm; + Or arm in waves, electric in his ire, + The dread Gymnotus with ethereal fire.-- + Onward his course with waving tail he helms, + And mimic lightenings scare the watery realms, +205 So, when with bristling plumes the Bird of JOVE + Vindictive leaves the argent fields above, + Borne on broad wings the guilty world he awes, + And grasps the lightening in his shining claws. + + +[_The lamps nocturnal_. l. 189. The ignis fatuus or Jack a lantern, +frequently alluded to by poets, is supposed to originate from the +inflammable air, or Hydrogene, given up from morasses; which being of a +heavier kind from its impurity than that obtained from iron and water, +hovers near the surface of the earth, and uniting with common air gives +out light by its slow ignition. Perhaps such lights have no existence, +and the reflection of a star on watery ground may have deceived the +travellers, who have been said to be bewildered by them? if the fact was +established it would much contribute to explain the phenomena of +northern lights. I have travelled much in the night, in all seasons of +the year, and over all kinds of soil, but never saw one of these Will +o'wisps.] + +[_Shine round Calendula_. l. 191. See note on Tropaeolum in Vol. II.] + +[_The radiant Worm_. l. 193. See additional notes, No. IX.] + +[_The dread Gymnotus_. l. 202. The Gymnotus electricus is a native of +the river of Surinam in South America; those which were brought over to +England about eight years ago were about three or four feet long, and +gave an electric shock (as I experienced) by putting one finger on the +back near its head, and another of the opposite hand into the water near +its tail. In their native country they are said to exceed twenty feet in +length, and kill any man who approaches them in an hostile manner. It is +not only to escape its enemies that this surprizing power of the fish is +used, but also to take its prey; which it does by benumbing them and +then devouring them before they have time to recover, or by perfectly +killing them; for the quantity of the power seemed to be determined by +the will or anger of the animal; as it sometimes struck a fish twice +before it was sufficiently benumbed to be easily swallowed. + +The organs productive of this wonderful accumulation of electric matter +have been accurately dissected and described by Mr. J. Hunter. Philos. +Trans. Vol. LXV. And are so divided by membranes as to compose a very +extensive surface, and are supplied with many pairs of nerves larger +than any other nerves of the body; but how so large a quantity is so +quickly accumulated as to produce such amazing effects in a fluid ill +adapted for the purpose is not yet satisfactorily explained. The Torpedo +possesses a similar power in a less degree, as was shewn by Mr. Walch, +and another fish lately described by Mr. Paterson. Philo. Trans. Vol. +LXXVI. + +In the construction of the Leyden-Phial, (as it is called) which is +coated on both sides, it is known, that above one hundred times the +quantity of positive electricity can be condensed on every square inch +of the coating on one side, than could have been accumulated on the same +surface if there had been no opposite coating communicating with the +earth; because the negative electricity, or that part of it which caused +its expansion, is now drawn off through the glass. It is also well +known, that the thinner the glass is (which is thus coated on both sides +so as to make a Leyden-phial, or plate) the more electricity can be +condensed on one of its surfaces, till it becomes so thin as to break, +and thence discharge itself. + +Now it is possible, that the quantity of electricity condensible on one +side of a coated phial may increase in some high ratio in respect to the +thinness of the glass, since the power of attraction is known to +decrease as the squares of the distances, to which this circumstance of +electricity seems to bear some analogy. Hence if an animal membrane, as +thin as the silk-worm spins its silk, could be so situated as to be +charged like the Leyden bottle, without bursting, (as such thin glass +would be liable to do,) it would be difficult to calculate the immense +quantity of electric fluid, which might be accumulated on its surface. +No land animals are yet discovered which possess this power, though the +air would have been a much better medium for producing its effects; +perhaps the size of the necessary apparatus would have been inconvenient +to land animals.] + +[_In his shining claws_. l. 208. Alluding to an antique gem in the +collection of the Grand Duke of Florence. Spence.] + + + V. 1. "NYMPHS! Your soft smiles uncultur'd man subdued, +210 And charm'd the Savage from his native wood; + You, while amazed his hurrying Hords retire + From the fell havoc of devouring FIRE, + Taught, the first Art! with piny rods to raise + By quick attrition the domestic blaze, +215 Fan with soft breath, with kindling leaves provide, + And lift the dread Destroyer on his side. + So, with bright wreath of serpent-tresses crown'd, + Severe in beauty, young MEDUSA frown'd; + Erewhile subdued, round WISDOM'S Aegis roll'd +220 Hiss'd the dread snakes, and flam'd in burnish'd gold; + Flash'd on her brandish'd arm the immortal shield, + And Terror lighten'd o'er the dazzled field. + + +[_Of devouring fire_. l. 212. The first and most important discovery of +mankind seems to have been that of fire. For many ages it is probable +fire was esteemed a dangerous enemy, known only by its dreadful +devastations; and that many lives must have been lost, and many +dangerous burns and wounds must have afflicted those who first dared to +subject it to the uses of life. It is said that the tall monkies of +Borneo and Sumatra lie down with pleasure round any accidental fire in +their woods; and are arrived to that degree of reason, that knowledge of +causation, that they thrust into the remaining fire the half-burnt ends +of the branches to prevent its going out. One of the nobles of the +cultivated people of Otaheita, when Captain Cook treated them with tea, +catched the boiling water in his hand from the cock of the tea-urn, and +bellowed with pain, not conceiving that water could become hot, like red +fire. + +Tools of steel constitute another important discovery in consequence of +fire; and contributed perhaps principally to give the European nations +so great superiority over the American world. By these two agents, fire +and tools of steel, mankind became able to cope with the vegetable +kingdom, and conquer provinces of forests, which in uncultivated +countries almost exclude the growth of other vegetables, and of those +animals which are necessary to our existence. Add to this, that the +quantity of our food is also increased by the use of fire, for some +vegetables become salutary food by means of the heat used in cookery, +which are naturally either noxious or difficult of digestion; as +potatoes, kidney-beans, onions, cabbages. The cassava when made into +bread, is perhaps rendered mild by the heat it undergoes, more than by +expressing its superfluous juice. The roots of white bryony and of arum, +I am informed lose much of their acrimony by boiling.] + +[_Young Medusa frowned_. l. 218. The Egyptian Medusa is represented on +antient gems with wings on her head, snaky hair, and a beautiful +countenance, which appears intensely thinking; and was supposed to +represent divine wisdom. The Grecian Medusa, on Minerva's shield, as +appears on other gems, has a countenance distorted with rage or pain, +and is supposed to represent divine vengeance. This Medusa was one of +the Gorgons, at first very beautiful and terrible to her enemies; +Minerva turned her hair into snakes, and Perseus having cut off her head +fixed it on the shield of that goddess; the sight of which then +petrified the beholders. Dannet Dict.] + + + 2. NYMPHS! YOU disjoin, unite, condense, expand, + And give new wonders to the Chemist's hand; +225 On tepid clouds of rising steam aspire, + Or fix in sulphur all it's solid fire; + With boundless spring elastic airs unfold, + Or fill the fine vacuities of gold; + With sudden flash vitrescent sparks reveal, +230 By fierce collision from the flint and steel; + Or mark with shining letter KUNKEL's name + In the pale Phosphor's self-consuming flame. + So the chaste heart of some enchanted Maid + Shines with insidious light, by Love betray'd; +235 Round her pale bosom plays the young Desire, + And slow she wastes by self-consuming fire. + + +[_Or fix in sulphur_. l. 226. The phenomena of chemical explosions +cannot be accounted for without the supposition, that some of the bodies +employed contain concentrated or solid heat combined with them, to which +the French Chemists have given the name of Calorique. When air is +expanded in the air-pump, or water evaporated into steam, they drink up +or absorb a great quantity of heat; from this analogy, when gunpowder is +exploded it ought to absorb much heat, that is, in popular language, it +ought to produce a great quantity of cold. When vital air is united with +phlogistic matter in respiration, which seems to be a slow combustion, +its volume is lessened; the carbonic acid, and perhaps phosphoric acid +are produced; and heat is given out; which according to the experiments +of Dr. Crawford would seem to be deposited from the vital air. But as +the vital air in nitrous acid is condensed from a light elastic gas to +that of a heavy fluid, it must possess less heat than before. And hence +a great part of the heat, which is given out in firing gunpowder, I +should suppose, must reside in the sulphur or charcoal. + +Mr. Lavoisier has shewn, that vital air, or Oxygene, looses less of its +heat when it becomes one of the component parts of nitrous acid, than in +any other of its combinations; and is hence capable of giving out a +great quantity of heat in the explosion of gunpowder; but as there seems +to be great analogy between the matter of heat, or Calorique, and the +electric matter; and as the worst conductors of electricity are believed +to contain the greatest quantity of that fluid; there is reason to +suspect that the worst conductors of heat may contain the most of that +fluid; as sulphur, wax, silk, air, glass. See note on l. 174 of this +Canto.] + +[_Vitrescent sparks_. l. 229. When flints are struck against other +flints they have the property of giving sparks of light; but it seems to +be an internal light, perhaps of electric origin, very different from +the ignited sparks which are struck from flint and steel. The sparks +produced by the collision of steel with flint appear to be globular +particles of iron, which have been fused, and imperfectly scorified or +vitrified. They are kindled by the heat produced by the collision; but +their vivid light, and their fusion and vitrification are the effects of +a combustion continued in these particles during their passage through +the air. This opinion is confirmed by an experiment of Mr. Hawksbee, who +found that these sparks could not be produced in the exhausted receiver. +See Keir's Chemical Dict. art. Iron, and art. Earth vitrifiable.] + +[_The pale Phosphor_. l. 232. See additionable notes, No. X.] + + + 3. "YOU taught mysterious BACON to explore + Metallic veins, and part the dross from ore; + With sylvan coal in whirling mills combine +240 The crystal'd nitre, and the sulphurous mine; + Through wiry nets the black diffusion strain, + And close an airy ocean in a grain.-- + Pent in dark chambers of cylindric brass + Slumbers in grim repose the sooty mass; +245 Lit by the brilliant spark, from grain to grain + Runs the quick fire along the kindling train; + On the pain'd ear-drum bursts the sudden crash, + Starts the red flame, and Death pursues the flash.-- + Fear's feeble hand directs the fiery darts, +250 And Strength and Courage yield to chemic arts; + Guilt with pale brow the mimic thunder owns, + And Tyrants tremble on their blood-stain'd thrones. + + +[_And close an airy ocean_. l. 242. Gunpowder is plainly described in +the works of Roger Bacon before the year 1267. He describes it in a +curious manner, mentioning the sulphur and nitre, but conceals the +charcoal in an anagram. The words are, sed tamen salis petrae _lure mope +can ubre_, et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitrum, et corruscationem, si +scias, artificium. The words lure mope can ubre are an anagram of +carbonum pulvere. Biograph. Britan. Vol. I. Bacon de Secretis Operibus, +Cap. XI. He adds, that he thinks by an artifice of this kind Gideon +defeated the Midianites with only three hundred men. Judges, Chap. VII. +Chamb. Dict. art. Gunpowder. As Bacon does not claim this as his own +invention, it is thought by many to have been of much more antient +discovery. + +The permanently elastic fluid generated in the firing of gunpowder is +calculated by Mr. Robins to be about 244 if the bulk of the powder be 1. +And that the heat generated at the time of the explosion occasions the +rarefied air thus produced to occupy about 1000 times the space of the +gunpowder. This pressure may therefore be called equal to 1000 +atmospheres or six tons upon a square inch. As the suddenness of this +explosion must contribute much to its power, it would seem that the +chamber of powder, to produce its greatest effect, should be lighted in +the centre of it; which I believe is not attended to in the manufacture +of muskets or pistols. + +From the cheapness with which a very powerful gunpowder is likely soon +to be manufactured from aerated marine acid, or from a new method of +forming nitrous acid by means of mangonese or other calciform ores, it +may probably in time be applied to move machinery, and supersede the use +of steam. + +There is a bitter invective in Don Quixot against the inventors of gun- +powder, as it levels the strong with the weak, the knight cased in steel +with the naked shepherd, those who have been trained to the sword, with +those who are totally unskilful in the use of it; and throws down all +the splendid distinctions of mankind. These very reasons ought to have +been urged to shew that the discovery of gunpowder has been of public +utility by weakening the tyranny of the few over the many.] + + + VI. NYMPHS! You erewhile on simmering cauldrons play'd, + And call'd delighted SAVERY to your aid; +255 Bade round the youth explosive STEAM aspire + In gathering clouds, and wing'd the wave with fire; + Bade with cold streams the quick expansion stop, + And sunk the immense of vapour to a drop.-- + Press'd by the ponderous air the Piston falls +260 Resistless, sliding through it's iron walls; + Quick moves the balanced beam, of giant-birth, + Wields his large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth. + + +[_Delighted Savery_. l. 254. The invention of the steam-engine for +raising water by the pressure of the air in consequence of the +condensation of steam, is properly ascribed to Capt. Savery; a plate and +description of this machine is given in Harris's Lexicon Technicum, art. +Engine. Though the Marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions +printed in the year 1663 had described an engine for raising water by +the explosive power of steam long before Savery's. Mr. Desegulier +affirms, that Savery bought up all he could procure of the books of the +Marquis of Worcester, and destroyed them, professing himself then to +have discovered the power of steam by accident, which seems to have been +an unfounded slander. Savery applied it to the raising of water to +supply houses and gardens, but could not accomplish the draining of +mines by it. Which was afterwards done by Mr. Newcomen and Mr. John +Cowley at Dartmouth, in the year 1712, who added the piston. + +A few years ago Mr. Watt of Glasgow much improved this machine, and with +Mr. Boulton of Birmingham has applied it to variety of purposes, such as +raising water from mines, blowing bellows to fuse the ore, supplying +towns with water, grinding corn and many other purposes. There is reason +to believe it may in time be applied to the rowing of barges, and the +moving of carriages along the road. As the specific levity of air is too +great for the support of great burthens by balloons, there seems no +probable method of flying conveniently but by the power of steam, or +some other explosive material; which another half century may probable +discover. See additional notes, No. XI.] + + + "The Giant-Power from earth's remotest caves + Lifts with strong arm her dark reluctant waves; +265 Each cavern'd rock, and hidden den explores, + Drags her dark coals, and digs her shining ores.-- + Next, in close cells of ribbed oak confined, + Gale after gale, He crowds the struggling wind; + The imprison'd storms through brazen nostrils roar, +270 Fan the white flame, and fuse the sparkling ore. + Here high in air the rising stream He pours + To clay-built cisterns, or to lead-lined towers; + Fresh through a thousand pipes the wave distils, + And thirsty cities drink the exuberant rills.-- +275 There the vast mill-stone with inebriate whirl + On trembling floors his forceful fingers twirl. + Whose flinty teeth the golden harvests grind, + Feast without blood! and nourish human-kind. + + +[_Feast without blood!_ l. 278. The benevolence of the great Author of +all things is greatly manifest in the sum of his works, as Dr. Balguy +has well evinced in his pamphlet on Divine Benevolence asserted, printed +for Davis, 1781. Yet if we may compare the parts of nature with each +other, there are some circumstances of her economy which seem to +contribute more to the general scale of happiness than others. Thus the +nourishment of animal bodies is derived from three sources: 1. the milk +given from the mother to the offspring; in this excellent contrivance +the mother has pleasure in affording the sustenance to the child, and +the child has pleasure in receiving it. 2. Another source of the food of +animals includes seeds or eggs; in these the embryon is in a torpid or +insensible state, and there is along with it laid up for its early +nourishment a store of provision, as the fruit belonging to some seeds, +and the oil and starch belonging to others; when these are consumed by +animals the unfeeling seed or egg receives no pain, but the animal +receives pleasure which consumes it. Under this article may be included +the bodies of animals which die naturally. 3. But the last method of +supporting animal bodies by the destruction of other living animals, as +lions preying upon lambs, these upon living vegetables, and mankind upon +them all, would appear to be a less perfect part of the economy of +nature than those before mentioned, as contributing less to the sum of +general happiness.] + + + "Now his hard hands on Mona's rifted crest, +280 Bosom'd in rock, her azure ores arrest; + With iron lips his rapid rollers seize + The lengthening bars, in thin expansion squeeze; + Descending screws with ponderous fly-wheels wound + The tawny plates, the new medallions round; +285 Hard dyes of steel the cupreous circles cramp, + And with quick fall his massy hammers stamp. + The Harp, the Lily and the Lion join, + And GEORGE and BRITAIN guard the sterling coin. + + +[_Mona's rifted crest_. l. 279. Alluding to the very valuable copper- +mines in the isle of Anglesey, the property of the Earl of Uxbridge.] + +[_With iron-lips_. l. 281. Mr. Boulton has lately constructed at Soho +near Birmingham, a most magnificent apparatus for Coining, which has +cost him some thousand pounds; the whole machinery is moved by an +improved steam-engine, which rolls the copper for half-pence finer than +copper has before been rolled for the purpose of making money; it works +the coupoirs or screw-presses for cutting out the circular pieces of +copper; and coins both the faces and edges of the money at the same +time, with such superior excellence and cheapness of workmanship, as +well as with marks of such powerful machinery as must totally prevent +clandestine imitation, and in consequence save many lives from the hand +of the executioner; a circumstance worthy the attention of a great +minister. If a civic crown was given in Rome for preserving the life of +one citizen, Mr. Boulton should be covered with garlands of oak! By this +machinery four boys of ten or twelve years old are capable of striking +thirty thousand guineas in an hour, and the machine itself keeps an +unerring account of the pieces struck.] + + + "Soon shall thy arm, UNCONQUER'D STEAM! afar +290 Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car; + Or on wide-waving wings expanded bear + The flying-chariot through the fields of air. + --Fair crews triumphant, leaning from above, + Shall wave their fluttering kerchiefs as they move; +295 Or warrior-bands alarm the gaping crowd, + And armies shrink beneath the shadowy cloud. + + "So mighty HERCULES o'er many a clime + Waved his vast mace in Virtue's cause sublime, + Unmeasured strength with early art combined, +300 Awed, served, protected, and amazed mankind.-- + First two dread Snakes at JUNO'S vengeful nod + Climb'd round the cradle of the sleeping God; + Waked by the shrilling hiss, and rustling sound, + And shrieks of fair attendants trembling round, +305 Their gasping throats with clenching hands he holds; + And Death untwists their convoluted folds. + Next in red torrents from her sevenfold heads + Fell HYDRA'S blood on Lerna's lake he sheds; + Grasps ACHELOUS with resistless force, +310 And drags the roaring River to his course; + Binds with loud bellowing and with hideous yell + The monster Bull, and threefold Dog of Hell. + + +[_So mighty Hercules_. l. 297. The story of Hercules seems of great +antiquity, as appears from the simplicity of his dress and armour, a +lion's skin and a club; and from the nature of many of his exploits, the +destruction of wild beasts and robbers. This part of the history of +Hercules seems to have related to times before the invention of the bow +and arrow, or of spinning flax. Other stories of Hercules are perhaps of +later date, and appear to be allegorical, as his conquering the river- +god Achilous, and bringing Cerberus up to day light; the former might +refer to his turning the course of a river, and draining a morass, and +the latter to his exposing a part of the superstition of the times. The +strangling the lion and tearing his jaws asunder, are described from a +statue in the Museum Florentinum, and from an antique gem; and the +grasping Anteus to death in his arms as he lifts him from the earth, is +described from another antient cameo. The famous pillars of Hercules +have been variously explained. Pliny asserts that the natives of Spain +and of Africa believed that the mountains of Abyla and Calpe on each +side of the straits of Gibraltar were the pillars of Hercules; and that +they were reared by the hands of that god, and the sea admitted between +them. Plin. Hist. Nat. p. 46. Edit. Manut. Venet. 1609. + +If the passage between the two continents was opened by an earthquake in +antient times, as this allegorical story would seem to countenance, +there must have been an immense current of water at first run into the +Mediterranean from the Atlantic; since there is at present a strong +stream sets always from thence into the Mediterranean. Whatever may be +the cause, which now constantly operates, so as to make the surface of +the Mediterranean lower than that of the Atlantic, it must have kept it +very much lower before a passage for the water through the streights was +opened. It is probable before such an event took place, the coasts and +islands of the Mediterranean extended much further into that sea, and +were then for a great extent of country, destroyed by the floods +occasioned by the new rise of water, and have since remained beneath the +sea. Might not this give rise to the flood of Deucalion? See note +Cassia, V. II. of this work.] + + + "Then, where Nemea's howling forests wave, + He drives the Lion to his dusky cave; +315 Seized by the throat the growling fiend disarms, + And tears his gaping jaws with sinewy arms; + Lifts proud ANTEUS from his mother-plains, + And with strong grasp the struggling Giant strains; + Back falls his fainting head, and clammy hair, +320 Writhe his weak limbs, and flits his life in air;-- + By steps reverted o'er the blood-dropp'd fen + He tracks huge CACUS to his murderous den; + Where breathing flames through brazen lips he fled, + And shakes the rock-roof'd cavern o'er his head. + +325 "Last with wide arms the solid earth He tears, + Piles rock on rock, on mountain mountain rears; + Heaves up huge ABYLA on Afric's sand, + Crowns with high CALPE Europe's saliant strand, + Crests with opposing towers the splendid scene, +330 And pours from urns immense the sea between.-- + --Loud o'er her whirling flood Charybdis roars, + Affrighted Scylla bellows round his shores, + Vesuvio groans through all his echoing caves, + And Etna thunders o'er the insurgent waves. + +335 VII. 1. NYMPHS! YOUR fine hands ethereal floods amass + From the warm cushion, and the whirling glass; + Beard the bright cylinder with golden wire, + And circumfuse the gravitating fire. + Cold from each point cerulean lustres gleam, +340 Or shoot in air the scintillating stream. + So, borne on brazen talons, watch'd of old + The sleepless dragon o'er his fruits of gold; + Bright beam'd his scales, his eye-balls blazed with ire, + And his wide nostrils breath'd inchanted fire. + + +[_Ethereal floods amass_. l. 335. The theory of the accumulation of the +electric fluid by means of the glass-globe and cushion is difficult to +comprehend. Dr. Franklin's idea of the pores of the glass being opened +by the friction, and thence rendered capable of attracting more electric +fluid, which it again parts with, as the pores contract again, seems +analogous in some measure to the heat produced by the vibration, or +condensation of bodies, as when a nail is hammered or filed till it +becomes hot, as mentioned in additional Notes, No. VII. Some +philosophers have endeavoured to account for this phenomenon by +supposing the existence of two electric fluids which may be called the +vitreous and resinous ones, instead of the plus and minus of the same +ether. But its accumulation on the rubbed glass bears great analogy to +its accumulation on the surface of the Leyden bottle, and can not +perhaps be explained from any known mechanical or chemical principle. +See note on Gymnotus. l. 202, of this Canto.] + +[_Cold from each point_. l. 339. See additional note, No. XIII.] + + +345 "YOU bid gold-leaves, in crystal lantherns held, + Approach attracted, and recede repel'd; + While paper-nymphs instinct with motion rife, + And dancing fauns the admiring Sage surprize. + OR, if on wax some fearless Beauty stand, +350 And touch the sparkling rod with graceful hand; + Through her fine limbs the mimic lightnings dart, + And flames innocuous eddy round her heart; + O'er her fair brow the kindling lustres glare, + Blue rays diverging from her bristling hair; +355 While some fond Youth the kiss ethereal sips. + And soft fires issue from their meeting lips. + So round the virgin Saint in silver streams + The holy Halo shoots it's arrowy beams. + + +[_You bid gold leaves_. l. 345. Alluding to the very sensible +electrometer improved by Mr. Bennett, it consists of two slips of gold- +leaf suspended from a tin cap in a glass cylinder, which has a partial +coating without, communicating with the wooden pedestal. If a stick of +sealing wax be rubbed for a moment on a dry cloth, and then held in the +air _at the distance of two or three feet_ from the cap of this +instrument, the gold leaves seperate, such is its astonishing +sensibility to electric influence! (See Bennet on electricity, Johnson, +Lond.) The nerves of sense of animal bodies do not seem to be affected +by less quantities of light or heat!] + +[_The holy Halo_. l. 358. I believe it is not known with certainty at +what time the painters first introduced the luminous circle round the +head to import a Saint or holy person. It is now become a part of the +symbolic language of painting, and it is much to be wished that this +kind of hieroglyphic character was more frequent in that art; as it is +much wanted to render historic pictures both more intelligible, and more +sublime; and why should not painting as well as poetry express itself in +metaphor, or in indistinct allegory? A truly great modern painter lately +endeavoured to enlarge the sphere of pictorial language, by putting a +demon behind the pillow of a wicked man on his death bed. Which +unfortunately for the scientific part of painting, the cold criticism of +the present day has depreciated; and thus barred perhaps the only road +to the further improvement in this science.] + + + "YOU crowd in coated jars the denser fire, +360 Pierce the thin glass, and fuse the blazing wire; + Or dart the red flash through the circling band + Of youths and timorous damsels, hand in hand. + --Starts the quick Ether through the fibre-trains + Of dancing arteries, and of tingling veins, +365 Goads each fine nerve, with new sensation thrill'd, + Bends the reluctant limbs with power unwill'd; + Palsy's cold hands the fierce concussion own, + And Life clings trembling on her tottering throne.-- + So from dark clouds the playful lightning springs, +370 Rives the firm oak, or prints the Fairy-rings. + + +[_With new sensation thrill'd_. l. 365. There is probably a system of +nerves in animal bodies for the purpose of perceiving heat; since the +degree of this fluid is so necessary to health that we become presently +injured either by its access or defect; and because almost every part of +our bodies is supplied with branches from different pairs of nerves, +which would not seem necessary for their motion alone: It is therefore +probable, that our sensation of electricity is only of its violence in +passing through our system by its suddenly distending the muscles, like +any other mechanical violence; and that it is general pain alone that we +feel, and not any sensation analogous to the specific quality of the +object. Nature may seem to have been niggardly to mankind in bestowing +upon them so few senses; since a sense to have perceived electricity, +and another to have perceived magnetism might have been of great service +to them, many ages before these fluids were discovered by accidental +experiment, but it is possible an increased number of senses might have +incommoded us by adding to the size of our bodies.] + +[_Palsy's cold hands_. l. 367. Paralytic limbs are in general only +incapable of being stimulated into action by the power of the will; +since the pulse continues to beat and the fluids to be absorbed in them; +and it commonly happens, when paralytic people yawn and stretch +themselves, (which is not a voluntary motion,) that the affected limb +moves at the same time. The temporary motion of a paralytic limb is +likewise caused by passing the electric shock through it; which would +seem to indicate some analogy between the electric fluid, and the +nervous fluid, which is seperated from the blood by the brain, and +thence diffused along the nerves for the purposes of motion and +sensation. It probably destroys life by its sudden expansion of the +nerves or fibres of the brain; in the same manner as it fuses metals and +splinters wood or stone, and removes the atmosphere, when it passes from +one object to another in a dense state.] + +[_Prints the Fairy rings_. l. 370. See additional note No. XIII.] + + + 2. NYMPHS! on that day YE shed from lucid eyes. + Celestial tears, and breathed ethereal sighs! + When RICHMAN rear'd, by fearless haste betrayed, + The wiry rod in Nieva's fatal shade;-- +375 Clouds o'er the Sage, with fringed skirts succeed, + Flash follows flash, the warning corks recede; + Near and more near He ey'd with fond amaze + The silver streams, and watch'd the saphire blaze; + Then burst the steel, the dart electric sped, +380 And the bold Sage lay number'd with the dead!-- + NYMPHS! on that day YE shed from lucid eyes + Celestial tears, and breathed ethereal sighs! + + +[_When Richman reared_. l. 373. Dr. Richman Professor of natural +philosophy at Petersburgh about the year 1763, elevated an insulated +metallic rod to collect the aerial electricity, as Dr. Franklin had +previously done at Philadelphia; and as he was observing the repulsion +of the balls of his electrometer approached too near the conductor, and +receiving the lightening in his head with a loud explosion, was struck +dead amidst his family.] + + + 3. "YOU led your FRANKLIN to your glazed retreats, + Your air-built castles, and your silken seats; +385 Bade his bold arm invade the lowering sky, + And seize the tiptoe lightnings, ere they fly; + O'er the young Sage your mystic mantle spread, + And wreath'd the crown electric round his head.-- + Thus when on wanton wing intrepid LOVE +390 Snatch'd the raised lightning from the arm of JOVE; + Quick o'er his knee the triple bolt He bent, + The cluster'd darts and forky arrows rent, + Snapp'd with illumin'd hands each flaming shaft, + His tingling fingers shook, and stamp'd, and laugh'd; +395 Bright o'er the floor the scatter'd fragments blaz'd, + And Gods retreating trembled as they gaz'd; + The immortal Sire, indulgent to his child, + Bow'd his ambrosial locks, and Heaven relenting smiled. + + +[_You led your Franklin_. l. 383. Dr. Franklin was the first that +discovered that lightening consisted of electric matter, he elevated a +tall rod with a wire wrapped round it, and fixing the bottom of a rod +into a glass bottle, and preserving it from falling by means of silk- +strings, he found it electrified whenever a cloud parted over it, +receiving sparks by his finger from it, and charging coated phials. This +great discovery taught us to defend houses and ships and temples from +lightning, and also to understand, _that people are always perfectly +safe in a room during a thunder storm if they keep themselves at three +or four feet distance from the walls_; for the matter of lightning in +passing from the clouds to the earth, or from the earth to the clouds, +runs through the walls of a house, the trunk of a tree, or other +elevated object; except there be some moister body, as an animal in +contact with them, or nearly so; and in that case the lightning leaves +the wall or tree, and passes through the animal; but as it can pass +through metals with still greater facility, it will leave animal bodies +to pass through metallic ones. + +If a person in the open air be surprized by a thunderstorm, he will know +his danger by observing on a second watch the time which passes between +the flash and the crack, and reckoning a mile for every four seconds and +a half, and a little more. For sound travels at the rate of 1142 feet in +a second of time, and the velocity of light through such small distances +is not to be estimated. In these circumstances a person will be safer by +lying down on the ground, than erect, and still safer if within a few +feet of his horse; which being then a more elevated animal will receive +the shock, in preference as the cloud passes over. See additional notes, +No. XIII.] + +[_Intrepid Love_. l. 389. This allegory is uncommonly beautiful, +representing Divine Justice as disarmed by Divine Love, and relenting of +his purpose. It is expressed on an agate in the Great Duke's collection +at Florence. Spence.] + + + VIII. "When Air's pure essence joins the vital flood, +400 And with phosphoric Acid dyes the blood, + YOUR VIRGIN TRAINS the transient HEAT dispart, + And lead the soft combustion round the heart; + Life's holy lamp with fires successive feed, + From the crown'd forehead to the prostrate weed, +405 From Earth's proud realms to all that swim or sweep + The yielding ether or tumultuous deep. + You swell the bulb beneath the heaving lawn, + Brood the live seed, unfold the bursting spawn; + Nurse with soft lap, and warm with fragrant breath +410 The embryon panting in the arms of Death; + Youth's vivid eye with living light adorn, + And fire the rising blush of Beauty's golden morn. + + +[_Transient heat dispart_. l. 401. Dr. Crawford in his ingenious work on +animal heat has endeavoured to prove, that during the combination of the +pure part of the atmosphere with the phlogistic part of the blood, that +much of the matter of the heat is given out from the air; and that this +is the great and perpetual source of the heat of animals; to which we +may add that the phosphoric acid is probably produced by this +combination; by which acid the colour of the blood is changed in the +lungs from a deep crimson to a bright scarlet. There seems to be however +another source of animal heat, though of a similar nature; and that is +from the chemical combinations produced in all the glands; since by +whatever cause any glandular secretion is increased, as by friction or +topical imflammation, the heat of that part becomes increased at the +same time; thus after the hands have been for a time immersed in snow, +on coming into a warm room, they become red and hot, without any +increased pulmonary action. BESIDES THIS there would seem to be another +material received from the air by respiration; which is so necessary to +life, that the embryon must learn to breathe almost within a minute +after +its birth, or it dies. The perpetual necessity of breathing shews, that +the material thus acquired is perpetually consuming or escaping, and on +that account requires perpetual renovation. Perhaps the spirit of +animation itself is thus acquired from the atmosphere, which if it be +supposed to be finer or more subtle than the electric matter, could not +long be retained in our bodies, and must therefore require perpetual +renovation.] + + + "Thus when the Egg of Night, on Chaos hurl'd, + Burst, and disclosed the cradle of the world; +415 First from the gaping shell refulgent sprung + IMMORTAL LOVE, his bow celestial strung;-- + O'er the wide waste his gaudy wings unfold, + Beam his soft smiles, and wave his curls of gold;-- + With silver darts He pierced the kindling frame, +420 And lit with torch divine the ever-living flame." + + +[_Thus when the egg of Night_. l. 413. There were two Cupids belonging +to the antient mythology, one much elder than the other. The elder +cupid, or Eros, or divine Love, was the first that came out of the great +egg of night, which floated in Chaos, and was broken by the horns of the +celestial bull, that is, was hatched by the warmth of the spring. He was +winged and armed, and by his arrows and torch pierced and vivified all +things, producing life and joy. Bacon, Vol. V. p. 197. Quarto edit. +Lond. 1778. "At this time, (says Aristophanes,) sable-winged night +produced an egg, from whence sprung up like a blossom Eros, the lovely, +the desirable, with his glossy golden wings." Avibus. Bryant's +Mythology, Vol. II. p. 350. second edition. This interesting moment of +this sublime allegory Mrs. Cosway has chosen for her very beautiful +painting. She has represented Eros or divine Love with large wings +having the strength of the eagle's wings, and the splendor of the +peacocks, with his hair floating in the form of flame, and with a halo +of light vapour round his head; which illuminates the painting; while he +is in the act of springing forwards, and with his hands separating the +elements.] + + + IX. The GODDESS paused, admired with conscious pride + The effulgent legions marshal'd by her side, + Forms sphered in fire with trembling light array'd, + Ens without weight, and substance without shade; +425 And, while tumultuous joy her bosom warms, + Waves her white hand, and calls her hosts to arms, + + "Unite, ILLUSTRIOUS NYMPHS! your radiant powers, + Call from their long repose the VERNAL HOURS. + Wake with soft touch, with rosy hands unbind +430 The struggling pinions of the WESTERN WIND; + Chafe his wan cheeks, his ruffled plumes repair, + And wring the rain-drops from his tangled hair. + Blaze round each frosted rill, or stagnant wave, + And charm the NAIAD from her silent cave; +435 Where, shrined in ice, like NIOBE she mourns, + And clasps with hoary arms her empty urns. + Call your bright myriads, trooping from afar, + With beamy helms, and glittering shafts of war; + In phalanx firm the FIEND OF FROST assail, +440 Break his white towers, and pierce his crystal mail; + To Zembla's moon-bright coasts the Tyrant bear, + And chain him howling to the Northern Bear. + + +[_Of the Western Wind_. l. 430. The principal frosts of this country are +accompanied or produced by a N.E. wind, and the thaws by a S.W. wind; +the reason of which is that the N.E. winds consist of regions of air +brought from the north, which appear to acquire an easterly direction as +they advance; and the S.W. winds consist of regions of air brought from +the south, which appear to acquire a westerly direction as they advance. +The surface of the earth nearer the pole moves slower than it does in +our latitude; whence the regions of air brought from thence, move +slower, when they arrive hither, than the earth's surface with which +they now become in contact; that is they acquire an apparent easterly +direction, as the earth moves from west to east faster than this new +part of its atmosphere. The S.W. winds on the contrary consist of +regions of air brought from the south, where the surface of the earth +moves faster than in our latitude; and have therefore a westerly +direction when they arrive hither by their moving faster than the +surface of the earth, with which they are in contact; and in general the +nearer to the west and the greater the velocity of these winds the +warmer they should be in respect to the season of the year, since they +have been brought more expeditiously from the south, than those winds +which have less westerly direction, and have thence been less cooled in +their passage. + +Sometimes I have observed the thaw to commence immediately on the change +of the wind, even within an hour, if I am not mistaken, or sooner. At +other times the S.W. wind has continued a day, or even two, before the +thaw has commenced; during which time some of the frosty air, which had +gone southwards, is driven back over us; and in consequence has taken a +westerly direction, as well as a southern one. At other times I have +observed a frost with a N.E. wind every morning, and a thaw with a S.W. +wind every noon for several days together. See additional note, XXXIII.] + +[_The Fiend of Frost_. l. 439. The principal injury done to vegetation +by frost is from the expansion of the water contained in the vessels of +plants. Water converted into ice occupies a greater space than it did +before, as appears by the bursting of bottles filled with water at the +time of their freezing. Hence frost destroys those plants of our island +first, which are most succulent; and the most succulent parts first of +other plants; as their leaves and last year's shoots; the vessels of +which are distended and burst by the expansion of their freezing fluids, +while the drier or more resinous plants, as pines, yews, laurels, and +other ever-greens, are less liable to injury from cold. The trees in +vallies are on this account more injured by the vernal frosts than those +on eminencies, because their early succulent shoots come out sooner. +Hence fruit trees covered by a six-inch coping of a wall are less +injured by the vernal frosts because their being shielded from showers +and the descending night-dews has prevented them from being moist at the +time of their being frozen: which circumstance has given occasion to a +vulgar error amongst gardeners, who suppose frost to descend. + +As the common heat of the earth in this climate is 48 degrees, those +tender trees which will bear bending down, are easily secured from the +frost by spreading them upon the ground, and covering them with straw or +fern. This particularly suits fig-trees, as they easily bear bending to +the ground, and are furnished with an acrid juice, which secures them +from the depredations of insects; but are nevertheless liable to be +eaten by mice. See additional notes, No. XII.] + + + "So when enormous GRAMPUS, issuing forth + From the pale regions of the icy North; +445 Waves his broad tail, and opes his ribbed mouth, + And seeks on winnowing fin the breezy South; + From towns deserted rush the breathless hosts, + Swarm round the hills, and darken all the coasts; + Boats follow boats along the shouting tides, +450 And spears and javelins pierce his blubbery sides; + Now the bold Sailor, raised on pointed toe, + Whirls the wing'd harpoon on the slimy foe; + Quick sinks the monster in his oozy bed, + The blood-stain'd surges circling o'er his head, +455 Steers to the frozen pole his wonted track, + And bears the iron tempest on his back. + + X. "On wings of flame, ETHEREAL VIRGINS! sweep + O'er Earth's fair bosom, and complacent deep; + Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd, +460 In buds imprison'd, or in bulbs intomb'd, + Pervade, PELLUCID FORMS! their cold retreat, + Ray from bright urns your viewless floods of _heat_; + From earth's deep wastes _electric_ torrents pour, + Or shed from heaven the scintillating shower; +465 Pierce the dull root, relax its fibre-trains, + Thaw the thick blood, which lingers in its veins; + Melt with warm breath the fragrant gums, that bind + The expanding foliage in its scaly rind; + And as in air the laughing leaflets play, +470 And turn their shining bosoms to the ray, + NYMPHS! with sweet smile each opening glower invite, + And on its damask eyelids pour the _light_. + + +[_In buds imprison'd_. l. 460. The buds and bulbs of plants constitute +what is termed by Linneus the Hybernaculum, or winter cradle of the +embryon vegetable. The buds arise from the bark on the branches of +trees, and the bulbs from the caudex of bulbous-rooted plants, or the +part from which the fibres of the root are produced, they are defended +from too much moisture, and from frosts, and from the depredations of +insects by various contrivances, as by scales, hairs, resinous +varnishes, and by acrid rinds. + +The buds of trees are of two kinds, either flower-buds or leaf buds; the +former of these produce their seeds and die; the latter produce other +leaf buds or flower buds and die. So that all the buds of trees may be +considered as annual plants, having their embryon produced during the +preceeding summer. The same seems to happen with respect to bulbs; thus +a tulip produces annually one flower-bearing bulb, sometimes two, and +several leaf-bearing bulbs; and then the old root perishes. Next year +the flower-bearing bulb produces seeds and other bulbs and perishes; +while the leaf-bearing bulb, producing other bulbs only, perishes +likewise; these circumstances establish a strict analogy between bulbs +and buds. See additional notes, No. XIV.] + +[_Viewless floods of heat_. l. 462. The fluid matter of heat, or +Calorique, in which all bodies are immersed, is as necessary to +vegetable as to animal existence. It is not yet determinable whether +heat and light be different materials, or modifications of the same +materials, as they have some properties in common. They appear to be +both of them equally necessary to vegetable health, since without light +green vegetables become first yellow, that is, they lose the blue +colour, which contributed to produce the green; and afterwards they also +lose the yellow and become white; as is seen in cellery blanched or +etiolated for the table by excluding the light from it. + +The upper surface of leaves, which I suppose to be their organ of +respiration, seems to require light as well as air; since plants which +grow in windows on the inside of houses are equally sollicitous to turn +the upper side of their leaves to the light. Vegetables at the same time +exsude or perspire a great quantity from their leaves, as animals do +from their lungs; this perspirable matter as it rises from their fine +vessels, (perhaps much finer than the pores of animal skins,) is divided +into inconcievable tenuity; and when acted upon by the Sun's light +appears to be decomposed; the hydrogene becomes a part of the vegetable, +composing oils or resins; and the Oxygene combined with light or +calorique ascends, producing the pure part of the atmosphere or vital +air. Hence during the light of the day vegetables give up more pure air +than their respiration injures; but not so in the night, even though +equally exposed to warmth. This single fact would seem to shew, that +light is essentially different from heat; and it is perhaps by its +combination with bodies, that their combined or latent heat is set at +liberty, and becomes sensible. See additional note, XXXIV.] + +[_Electric torrents pour_. l. 463. The influence of electricity in +forwarding the germination of plants and their growth seems to be pretty +well established; though Mr. Ingenhouz did not succeed in his +experiments, and thence doubts the success of those of others. And +though M. Rouland from his new experiments believes, that neither +positive nor negative electricity increases vegetation; both which +philosophers had previously been supporters of the contrary doctrine; +for many other naturalists have since repeated their experiments +relative to this object, and their new results have confirmed their +former ones. Mr. D'Ormoy and the two Roziers have found the same success +in numerous experiments which they have made in the last two years; and +Mr. Carmoy has shewn in a convincing manner that electricity accelerates +germination. + +Mr. D'Ormoy not only found various seeds to vegetate sooner, and to grow +taller which were put upon his insulated table and supplied with +electricity, but also that silk-worms began to spin much sooner which +were kept electrified than those of the same hatch which were kept in +the same place and manner, except that they were not electrified. These +experiments of M. D'Ormoy are detailed at length in the Journal de +Physique of Rozier, Tom. XXXV. p. 270. + +M. Bartholon, who had before written a tract on this subject, and +proposed ingenious methods for applying electricity to agriculture and +gardening, has also repeated a numerous set of experiments; and shews +both that natural electricity, as well as the artificial, increases the +growth of plants, and the germination of seeds; and opposes Mr. +Ingenhouz by very numerous and conclusive facts. Ib. Tom. XXXV. p. 401. + +Since by the late discoveries or opinions of the Chemists there is +reason to believe that water is decomposed in the vessels of vegetables; +and that the Hydrogene or inflammable air, of which it in part consists, +contributes to the nourishment of the plant, and to the production of +its oils, rosins, gums, sugar, &c. and lastly as electricity decomposes +water into these two airs termed Oxygene and Hydrogene, there is a +powerful analogy to induce us to believe that it accelerates or +contributes to the growth of vegetation, and like heat may possibly +enter into combination with many bodies, or form the basis of some yet +unanalised acid.] + + + "So shall my pines, Canadian wilds that shade, + Where no bold step has pierc'd the tangled glade, +475 High-towering palms, that part the Southern flood + With shadowy isles and continents of wood, + Oaks, whose broad antlers crest Britannia's plain, + Or bear her thunders o'er the conquer'd main, + Shout, as you pass, inhale the genial skies, +480 And bask and brighten in your beamy eyes; + Bow their white heads, admire the changing clime, + Shake from their candied trunks the tinkling rime; + With bursting buds their wrinkled barks adorn, + And wed the timorous floret to her thorn; +485 Deep strike their roots, their lengthening tops revive, + And all my world of foliage wave, alive. + + "Thus with Hermetic art the ADEPT combines + The royal acid with cobaltic mines; + Marks with quick pen, in lines unseen portrayed, +490 The blushing mead, green dell, and dusky glade; + Shades with pellucid clouds the tintless field, + And all the future Group exists conceal'd; + Till waked by fire the dawning tablet glows, + Green springs the herb, the purple floret blows, +495 Hills vales and woods in bright succession rise, + And all the living landscape charms his eyes. + + +[_Thus with Hermetic art_. l. 487. The sympathetic inks made by Zaffre +dissolved in the marine and nitrous acids have this curious property, +that being brought to the fire one of them becomes green, and the other +red; but what is more wonderful, they again lose these colours, (unless +the heat has been too great,) on their being again withdrawn from the +fire. Fire-screens have been thus painted, which in the cold have shewn +only the trunk and branches of a dead tree, and sandy hills, which on +their approach to the fire have put forth green leaves and red flowers, +and grass upon the mountains. The process of making these inks is very +easy, take Zaffre, as sold by the druggists, and digest it in aqua +regia, and the calx of Cobalt will be dissolved; which solution must be +diluted with a little common water to prevent it from making too strong +an impression on the paper; the colour when the paper is heated becomes +of a fine green-blue. If Zaffre or Regulus of Cobalt be dissolved in the +same manner in spirit of nitre, or aqua fortis, a reddish colour is +produced on exposing the paper to heat. Chemical Dictionary by Mr. Keir, +Art. Ink Sympathetic.] + + + XI. "With crest of gold should sultry SIRIUS glare, + And with his kindling tresses scorch the air; + With points of flame the shafts of Summer arm, +500 And burn the beauties he designs to warm;-- + --So erst when JOVE his oath extorted mourn'd, + And clad in glory to the Fair return'd; + While Loves at forky bolts their torches light, + And resting lightnings gild the car of Night; +505 His blazing form the dazzled Maid admir'd, + Met with fond lips, and in his arms expir'd;-- + NYMPHS! on light pinion lead your banner'd hosts + High o'er the cliffs of ORKNEY'S gulphy coasts; + Leave on your left the red volcanic light, +510 Which HECCLA lifts amid the dusky night; + Mark on the right the DOFRINE'S snow-capt brow, + Where whirling MAELSTROME roars and foams below; + Watch with unmoving eye, where CEPHEUS bends + His triple crown, his scepter'd hand extends; +515 Where studs CASSIOPE with stars unknown + Her golden chair, and gems her sapphire zone; + Where with vast convolution DRACO holds + The ecliptic axis in his scaly folds, + O'er half the skies his neck enormous rears, +520 And with immense meanders parts the BEARS; + Onward, the kindred BEARS with footstep rude + Dance round the Pole, pursuing and pursued. + + +[_With stars unknown_. l. 515. Alluding to the star which appeared in +the chair of Cassiopea in the year 1572, which at first surpassed +Jupiter in magnitude and brightness, diminished by degrees and +disappeared in 18 months; it alarmed all the astronomers of the age, and +was esteemed a comet by some.--Could this have been the Georgium sidus?] + + + "There in her azure coif and starry stole, + Grey TWILIGHT sits, and rules the slumbering Pole; +525 Bends the pale moon-beams round the sparkling coast, + And strews with livid hands eternal frost. + There, NYMPHS! alight, array your dazzling powers, + With sudden march alarm the torpid Hours; + On ice-built isles expand a thousand sails, +530 Hinge the strong helms, and catch the frozen gales; + The winged rocks to feverish climates guide, + Where fainting Zephyrs pant upon the tide; + Pass, where to CEUTA CALPE'S thunder roars, + And answering echoes shake the kindred shores; +535 Pass, where with palmy plumes CANARY smiles, + And in her silver girdle binds her isles; + Onward, where NIGER'S dusky Naiad laves + A thousand kingdoms with prolific waves, + Or leads o'er golden sands her threefold train +540 In steamy channels to the fervid main, + While swarthy nations croud the sultry coast, + Drink the fresh breeze, and hail the floating Frost, + NYMPHS! veil'd in mist, the melting treasures steer, + And cool with arctic snows the tropic year. +545 So from the burning Line by Monsoons driven + Clouds sail in squadrons o'er the darken'd heaven; + Wide wastes of sand the gelid gales pervade, + And ocean cools beneath the moving shade. + + +[_On ice-built isles_. l. 529. There are many reasons to believe from +the accounts of travellers and navigators, that the islands of ice in +the higher northern latitudes as well as the Glaciers on the Alps +continue perpetually to increase in bulk. At certain times in the ice- +mountains of Switzerland there happen cracks which have shewn the great +thickness of the ice, as some of these cracks have measured three or +four hundred ells deep. The great islands of ice in the northern seas +near Hudson's bay have been observed to have been immersed above one +hundred fathoms beneath the surface of the sea, and to have risen a +fifth or sixth part above the surface, and to have measured between +three and four miles in circumference. Phil. Trans. No. 465. Sect. 2. + +Dr. Lister endeavoured to shew that the ice of sea-water contains some +salt and perhaps less air than common ice, and that it is therefore much +more difficult of solution; whence he accounts for the perpetual and +great increase of these floating islands of ice. Philos. Trans. No. 169. + +As by a famous experiment of Mr. Boyles it appears that ice evaporates +very fast in severe frosty weather when the wind blows upon it; and as +ice in a thawing state is known to contain six times more cold than +water at the same degree of sensible coldness, it is easy to understand +that winds blowing over islands and continents of ice perhaps much below +nothing on Farenheit's scale, and coming from thence into our latitude +must bring great degrees of cold along with them. If we add to this the +quantity of cold produced by the evaporation of the water as well as by +the solution of the ice, we cannot doubt but that the northern ice is +the principle source of the coldness of our winters, and that it is +brought hither by the regions of air blowing from the north, and which +take an apparent easterly direction by their coming to a part of the +surface of the earth which moves faster than the latitude they come +from. Hence the increase of the ice in the polar regions by increasing +the cold of our climate adds at the same time to the bulk of the +Glaciers of Italy and Switzerland. + +If the nations who inhabit this hemisphere of the globe, instead of +destroying their sea-men and exhausting their wealth in unnecessary +wars, could be induced to unite their labours to navigate these immense +masses of ice into the more southern oceans, two great advantages would +result to mankind, the tropic countries would be much cooled by their +solution, and our winters in this latitude would be rendered much milder +for perhaps a century or two, till the masses of ice became again +enormous. + +Mr. Bradley describes the cold winds and wet weather which sometimes +happen in May and June to the solution of ice-islands accidentally +floating from the north. Treatise on Husbandry and Gardening, Vol. II. +p. 437. And adds, that Mr. Barham about the year 1718, in his voyage +from Jamaica to England in the beginning of June, met with ice-islands +coming from the north, which were surrounded with so great a fog that +the ship was in danger of striking upon them, and that one of them +measured fifty miles in length. + +We have lately experienced an instance of ice-islands brought from the +Southern polar regions, on which the Guardian struck at the beginning of +her passage from the Cape of Good Hope towards Botany Bay, on December +22, 1789. These islands were involved in mist, were about one hundred +and fifty fathoms long, and about fifty fathoms above the surface of the +water. A part from the top of one of them broke off and fell into the +sea, causing an extraordinary commotion in the water and a thick smoke +all round it.] + +[_Threefold train_. l. 539. The river Niger after traversing an immense +tract of populous country is supposed to divide itself into three other +great rivers. The Rio Grande, the Gambia, and the Senegal. Gold-dust is +obtained from the sands of these rivers.] + +[_Wide wastes of sand_. l. 547. When the sun is in the Southern tropic +36 deg. distant from the zenith, the thermometer is seldom lower than 72 +deg. at Gondar in Abyssinia, but it falls to 60 or 53 deg. when the sun +is immediately vertical; so much does the approach of rain counteract +the heat of the sun. Bruce's Travels, Vol. 3. p. 670.] + + + XII. Should SOLSTICE, stalking through the sickening bowers, +550 Suck the warm dew-drops, lap the falling showers; + Kneel with parch'd lip, and bending from it's brink + From dripping palm the scanty river drink; + NYMPHS! o'er the soil ten thousand points erect, + And high in air the electric flame collect. +555 Soon shall dark mists with self-attraction shroud + The blazing day, and sail in wilds of cloud; + Each silvery Flower the streams aerial quaff, + Bow her sweet head, and infant Harvest laugh. + + +[_Ten thousand points erect_. l. 553. The solution of water in air or in +calorique, seems to acquire electric matter at the same time, as appears +from an experiment of Mr. Bennet. He put some live coals into an +insulated funnel of metal, and throwing on them a little water observed +that the ascending steam was electrised plus, and the water which +descended through the funnel was electrised minus. Hence it appears that +though clouds by their change of form may sometimes become electrised +minus yet they have in general an accumulation of electricity. This +accumulation of electric matter also evidently contributes to support +the atmospheric vapour when it is condensed into the form of clouds, +because it is seen to descend rapidly after the flashes of lightning +have diminished its quantity; whence there is reason to conclude that +very numerous metallic rods with fine points erected high in the air +might induce it at any time to part with some of its water. + +If we may trust the theory of Mr. Lavoisier concerning the composition +and decomposition of water, there would seem another source of thunder- +showers; and that is, that the two gasses termed oxygene gas or vital +air, and hydrogene gas or inflammable air, may exist in the summer +atmosphere in a state of mixture but not of combination, and that the +electric spark or flash of lightning may combine them and produce water +instantaneously.] + + + "Thus when ELIJA mark'd from Carmel's brow +560 In bright expanse the briny flood below; + Roll'd his red eyes amid the scorching air, + Smote his firm breast, and breathed his ardent prayer; + High in the midst a massy altar stood, + And slaughter'd offerings press'd the piles of wood; +565 While ISRAEL'S chiefs the sacred hill surround, + And famish'd armies crowd the dusty ground; + While proud Idolatry was leagued with dearth, + And wither'd famine swept the desert earth.-- + "OH, MIGHTY LORD! thy woe-worn servant hear, +570 "Who calls thy name in agony of prayer; + "Thy fanes dishonour'd, and thy prophets slain, + "Lo! I alone survive of all thy train!-- + "Oh send from heaven thy sacred fire,--and pour + "O'er the parch'd land the salutary shower,-- +575 "So shall thy Priest thy erring flock recal,-- + "And speak in thunder, "THOU ART LORD OF ALL."-- + He cried, and kneeling on the mountain-sands, + Stretch'd high in air his supplicating hands. + --Descending flames the dusky shrine illume; +580 Fire the wet wood, the sacred bull consume; + Wing'd from the sea the gathering mists arise, + And floating waters darken all the skies; + The King with shifted reins his chariot bends, + And wide o'er earth the airy flood descends; +585 With mingling cries dispersing hosts applaud, + And shouting nations own THE LIVING GOD." + + The GODDESS ceased,--the exulting tribes obey, + Start from the soil, and win their airy way; + The vaulted skies with streams of transient rays +590 Shine, as they pass, and earth and ocean blaze. + So from fierce wars when lawless Monarch's cease, + Or Liberty returns with laurel'd Peace; + Bright fly the sparks, the colour'd lustres burn, + Flash follows f +595 Blue serpents sweep along the dusky air, + Imp'd by long trains of scintillating hair; + Red rockets rise, loud cracks are heard on high, + And showers of stars rush headlong from the sky, + Burst, as in silver lines they hiss along, +600 And the quick flash unfolds the gazing throng. + + + + + _Argument of the Second Canto._ + + +Address to the Gnomes. I. The Earth thrown from a volcano of the Sun; +it's atmosphere and ocean; it's journey through the zodiac; vicissitude +of day-light, and of seasons, 11. II. Primeval islands. Paradise, or the +golden Age. Venus rising from the sea, 33. III. The first great +earthquakes; continents raised from the sea; the Moon thrown from a +volcano, has no atmosphere, and is frozen; the earth's diurnal motion +retarded; it's axis more inclined; whirls with the moon round a new +centre. 67. IV. Formation of lime-stone by aqueous solution; calcareous +spar; white marble; antient statue of Hercules resting from his labours. +Antinous. Apollo of Belvidere. Venus de Medici. Lady Elizabeth Foster, +and Lady Melbourn by Mrs. Damer. 93. V. 1. Of morasses. Whence the +production of Salt by elutriation. Salt-mines at Cracow, 115. 2. +Production of nitre. Mars and Venus caught by Vulcan, 143. 3. Production +of iron. Mr. Michel's improvement of artificial magnets. Uses of Steel +in agriculture, navigation, war, 183. 4. Production of acids, whence +Flint. Sea-sand. Selenite. Asbestus. Fluor. Onyx, Agate, Mocho, Opal, +Sapphire, Ruby, Diamond. Jupiter and Europa, 215. VI. 1. New +subterraneous fires from fermentation. Production of Clays; manufacture +of Porcelain in China; in Italy; in England. Mr. Wedgwood's works at +Etruria in Staffordshire. Cameo of a Slave in Chains; of Hope. Figures +on the Portland or Barberini vase explained, 271. 2. Coal; Pyrite; +Naphtha; Jet; Amber. Dr. Franklin's discovery of disarming the Tempest +of it's lightning. Liberty of America; of Ireland; of France, 349. VII. +Antient central subterraneous fires. Production of Tin, Copper, Zink, +Lead, Mercury, Platina, Gold and Silver. Destruction of Mexico. Slavery +of Africa, 395. VIII. Destruction of the armies of Cambyses, 431. IX. +Gnomes like stars of an Orrery. Inroads of the Sea stopped. Rocks +cultivated. Hannibal passes the Alps, 499. X. Matter circulates. Manures +to Vegetables like Chyle to Animals. Plants rising from the Earth. St. +Peter delivered from Prison, 537. XI. Transmigration of matter, 565. +Death and resuscitation of Adonis, 575. Departure of the Gnomes, 601. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO II. + + + AND NOW THE GODDESS with attention sweet + Turns to the GNOMES, that circle round her feet; + Orb within orb approach the marshal'd trains, + And pigmy legions darken all the plains; + 5 Thrice shout with silver tones the applauding bands, + Bow, ere She speaks, and clap their fairy hands. + So the tall grass, when noon-tide zephyr blows, + Bends it's green blades in undulating rows; + Wide o'er the fields the billowy tumult spreads, + 10 And rustling harvests bow their golden heads. + + I. "GNOMES! YOUR bright forms, presiding at her birth, + Clung in fond squadrons round the new-born EARTH; + When high in ether, with explosion dire, + From the deep craters of his realms of fire, + 15 The whirling Sun this ponderous planet hurl'd, + And gave the astonish'd void another world. + When from it's vaporous air, condensed by cold, + Descending torrents into oceans roll'd; + And fierce attraction with relentless force + 20 Bent the reluctant wanderer to it's course. + + +[_From the deep craters_. l. 14. The existence of solar volcanos is +countenanced by their analogy to terrestrial, and lunar volcanos; and by +the spots on the sun's disk, which have been shewn by Dr. Wilson to be +excavations through its luminous surface, and may be supposed to be the +cavities from whence the planets and comets were ejected by explosions. +See additional notes, No. XV. on solar volcanos.] + +[_When from its vaporous air_. l. 17. If the nucleus of the earth was +thrown out from the sun by an explosion along with as large a quantity +of surrounding hot vapour as its attraction would occasion to accompany +it, the ponderous semi-fluid nucleus would take a spherical form from +the attraction of its own parts, which would become an oblate spheroid +from its diurnal revolution. As the vapour cooled the water would be +precipitated, and an ocean would surround the spherical nucleus with a +superincumbent atmosphere. The nucleus of solar lava would likewise +become harder as it became cooler. To understand how the strata of the +earth were afterwards formed from the sediments of this circumfluent +ocean the reader is referred to an ingenious Treatise on the Theory of +the Earth by Mr. Whitehurst, who was many years a watch-maker and +engineer at Derby, but whose ingenuity, integrity, and humanity, were +rarely equalled in any station of life.] + + + "Where yet the Bull with diamond-eye adorns + The Spring's fair forehead, and with golden horns; + Where yet the Lion climbs the ethereal plain, + And shakes the Summer from his radiant mane; + 25 Where Libra lifts her airy arm, and weighs, + Poised in her silver ballance, nights and days; + With paler lustres where Aquarius burns, + And showers the still snow from his hoary urns; + YOUR ardent troops pursued the flying sphere, + 30 Circling the starry girdle of the year; + While sweet vicissitudes of day and clime + Mark'd the new annals of enascent Time. + + II. "You trod with printless step Earth's tender globe, + While Ocean wrap'd it in his azure robe; + 35 Beneath his waves her hardening strata spread, + Raised her PRIMEVAL ISLANDS from his bed, + Stretch'd her wide lawns, and sunk her winding dells, + And deck'd her shores with corals, pearls, and shells. + + +[_While ocean wrap'd_. l. 34. See additional notes, No. XVI. on the +production of calcareous earth.] + +[_Her hardening srata spread_. l. 35. The granite, or moor-stone, or +porphory, constitute the oldest part of the globe, since the limestone, +shells, coralloids, and other sea-productions rest upon them; and upon +these sea-productions are found clay, iron, coal, salt, and siliceous +sand or grit-stone. Thus there seem to be three divisions of the globe +distinctly marked; the first I suppose to have been the original nucleus +of the earth, or lava projected from the sun; 2. over this lie the +recrements of animal and vegetable matter produced in the ocean; and, 3. +over these the recrements of animal and vegetable matter produced upon +the land. Besides these there are bodies which owe their origin to a +combination of those already mentioned, as siliceous sand, fluor, +alabaster; which seem to have derived their acids originally from the +vegetable kingdom, and their earthy bases from sea-productions. See +additional notes, No. XVI. on calcareous earth.] + +[_Raised her primeval islands_. l. 36. The nucleus of the earth, still +covered with water, received perpetual increase by the immense +quantities of shells and coralloids either annually produced and +relinquishied, or left after the death of the animals. These would +gradually by their different degrees of cohesion be some of them more +and others less removable by the influence of solar tides, and gentle +tropical breezes, which then must have probably extended from one pole +to the other; for it is supposed the moon was not yet produced, and that +no storms or unequal winds had yet existence. + +Hence then the primeval islands had their gradual origin, were raised +but a few feet above the level of the sea, and were not exposed to the +great or sudden variations of heat and cold, as is so well explained in +Mr. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, chap. xvi. Whence the paradise of +the sacred writers, and the golden age of the profane ones, seems to +have had a real existence. As there can be no rainbow, when the heavens +are covered with clouds, because the sun-beams are then precluded from +falling upon the rain-drops opposite to the eye of the spectator, the +rainbow is a mark of gentle or partial showers. Mr. Whitehurst has +endeavoured to show that the primitive islands were only moistened by +nocturnal dews and not by showers, as occurs at this day to the Delta of +Egypt; and is thence of opinion, that the rainbow had no existence till +after the production of mountains and continents. As the salt of the sea +has been gradually accumulating, being washed down into it from the +recrements of animal and vegetable bodies, the sea must originally have +been as fresh as river water; and as it is not yet saturated with salt, +must become annually more saline. See note on l. 119 of this Canto.] + + + "O'er those blest isles no ice-crown'd mountains tower'd, + 40 No lightnings darted, and no tempests lower'd; + Soft fell the vesper-drops, condensed below, + Or bent in air the rain-refracted bow; + Sweet breathed the zephyrs, just perceiv'd and lost; + And brineless billows only kiss'd the coast; + 45 Round the bright zodiac danced the vernal hours, + And Peace, the Cherub, dwelt in mortal bowers! + + "So young DIONE, nursed beneath the waves, + And rock'd by Nereids in their coral caves, + Charm'd the blue sisterhood with playful wiles, + 50 Lisp'd her sweet tones, and tried her tender smiles. + Then, on her beryl throne by Triton's borne, + Bright rose the Goddess like the Star of morn; + When with soft fires the milky dawn He leads, + And wakes to life and love the laughing meads;-- + 55 With rosy fingers, as uncurl'd they hung + Round her fair brow, her golden locks she wrung; + O'er the smooth surge on silver sandals flood, + And look'd enchantment on the dazzled flood.-- + The bright drops, rolling from her lifted arms, + 60 In slow meanders wander o'er her charms, + Seek round her snowy neck their lucid track, + Pearl her white shoulders, gem her ivory back, + Round her fine waist and swelling bosom swim, + And star with glittering brine each crystal limb.-- + 65 --The immortal form enamour'd Nature hail'd, + And Beauty blazed to heaven and earth, unvail'd. + + +[_So young Dione_. l. 47. There is an antient gem representing Venus +rising out of the ocean supported by two Tritons. From the formality of +the design it would appear to be of great antiquity before the +introduction of fine taste into the world. It is probable that this +beautiful allegory was originally an hieroglyphic picture (before the +invention of letters) descriptive of the formation of the earth from the +ocean, which seems to have been an opinion of many of the most antient +philosophers.] + + + III. "You! who then, kindling after many an age, + Saw with new fires the first VOLCANO rage, + O'er smouldering heaps of livid sulphur swell + 70 At Earth's firm centre, and distend her shell, + Saw at each opening cleft the furnace glow, + And seas rush headlong on the gulphs below.-- + GNOMES! how you shriek'd! when through the troubled air + Roar'd the fierce din of elemental war; + 75 When rose the continents, and sunk the main, + And Earth's huge sphere exploding burst in twain.-- + GNOMES! how you gazed! when from her wounded side + Where now the South-Sea heaves its waste of tide, + Rose on swift wheels the MOON'S refulgent car, + 80 Circling the solar orb; a sister-star, + Dimpled with vales, with shining hills emboss'd, + And roll'd round Earth her airless realms of frost. + + +[_The first volcano_. l. 68. As the earth before the existence of +earthquakes was nearly level, and the greatest part of it covered with +sea; when the first great fires began deep in the internal parts of it, +those parts would become much expanded; this expansion would be +gradually extended, as the heat increased, through the whole terraqueous +globe of 7000 miles diameter; the crust would thence in many places open +into fissures, which by admitting the sea to flow in upon the fire, +would produce not only a quantity of steam beyond calculation by its +expansion, but would also by its decomposition produce inflammable air +and vital air in quantities beyond conception, sufficient to effect +those violent explosions, the vestiges of which all over the world +excite our admiration and our study; the difficulty of understanding how +subterraneous fires could exist without the presence of air has +disappeared since Dr. Priestley's discoveries of such great quantities +of pure air which constitute all the acids, and consequently exist in +all saline bodies, as sea-salt, nitre, lime-stone, and in all calciform +ores, as manganese, calamy, ochre, and other mineral substances. See an +ingenious treatise by Mr. Michel on earthquakes in the Philos. Trans. + +In these first tremendous ignitions of the globe, as the continents were +heaved up, the vallies, which now hold the sea, were formed by the earth +subsiding into the cavities made by the rising mountains; as the steam, +which raised them condensed; which would thence not have any caverns of +great extent remain beneath them, as some philosophers have imagined. +The earthquakes of modern days are of very small extent indeed compared +to those of antient times, and are ingeniously compared by M. De Luc to +the operations of a mole-hill, where from a small cavity are raised from +time to time small quantities of lava or pumice stone. Monthly Review, +June, 1790.] + +[_The moon's refulgent car_. l. 79. See additional notes, No. XV. on +solar volcanos.] + +[_Her airless realms of frost_. l. 82. If the moon had no atmosphere at +the time of its elevation from the earth; or if its atmosphere was +afterwards stolen from it by the earth's attraction; the water on the +moon would rise quickly into vapour; and the cold produced by a certain +quantity of this evaporation would congeal the remainder of it. Hence it +is not probable that the moon is at present inhabited, but as it seems +to have suffered and to continue to suffer much by volcanos, a +sufficient quantity of air may in process of time be generated to +produce an atmosphere; which may prevent its heat from so easily +escaping, and its water from so easily evaporating, and thence become +fit for the production of vegetables and animals. + +That the moon possesses little or no atmosphere is deduced from the +undiminished lustre of the stars, at the instant when they emerge from +behind her disk. That the ocean of the moon is frozen, is confirmed from +there being no appearance of lunar tides; which, if they existed, would +cover the part of her disk nearest the earth. See note on Canto III. l. +61.] + + + "GNOMES! how you trembled! with the dreadful force + When Earth recoiling stagger'd from her course; + 85 When, as her Line in slower circles spun, + And her shock'd axis nodded from the sun, + With dreadful march the accumulated main + Swept her vast wrecks of mountain, vale, and plain; + And, while new tides their shouting floods unite, + 90 And hail their Queen, fair Regent of the night; + Chain'd to one centre whirl'd the kindred spheres, + And mark'd with lunar cycles solar years. + + +[_When earth recoiling_. l. 84. On supposition that the moon was thrown +from the earth by the explosion of water or the generation of other +vapours of greater power, the remaining part of the globe would recede +from its orbit in one direction as the moon receded in another, and that +in proportion to the respective momentum of each, and would afterwards +revolve round their common centre of gravity. + +If the moon rose from any part of the earth except exactly at the line +or poles, the shock would tend to turn the axis of the earth out of its +previous direction. And as a mass of matter rising from deep parts of +the globe would have previously acquired less diurnal velocity than the +earth's surface from whence it rose, it would receive during the time of +its rising additional velocity from the earth's surface, and would +consequently so much retard the motion of the earth round its axis. + +When the earth thus receded the shock would overturn all its buildings +and forests, and the water would rush with inconceivable violence over +its surface towards the new satellite, from two causes, both by its not +at first acquiring the velocity with which the earth receded, and by the +attraction of the new moon, as it leaves the earth; on these accounts at +first there would be but one tide till the moon receded to a greater +distance, and the earth moving round a common centre of gravity between +them, the water on the side furthest from the moon would acquire a +centrifugal force in respect to this common centre between itself and +the moon.] + + + IV. "GNOMES! you then bade dissolving SHELLS distil + From the loose summits of each shatter'd hill, + 95 To each fine pore and dark interstice flow, + And fill with liquid chalk the mass below. + Whence sparry forms in dusky caverns gleam + With borrow'd light, and twice refract the beam; + While in white beds congealing rocks beneath +100 Court the nice chissel, and desire to breathe.-- + + +[Footnote: _Dissolving shells distil_. l. 93. The lime-stone rocks have +had their origin from shells formed beneath the sea, the softer strata +gradually dissolving and filling up the interstices of the harder ones, +afterwards when these accumulations of shells were elevated above the +waters the upper strata became dissolved by the actions of the air and +dews, and filled up the interstices beneath, producing solid rocks of +different kinds from the coarse lime-stones to the finest marbles. When +those lime-stones have been in such a situation that they could form +perfect crystals they are called spars, some of which possess a double +refraction, as observed by Sir Isaac Newton. When these crystals are +jumbled together or mixed with some colouring impurities it is termed +marble, if its texture be equable and firm; if its texture be coarse and +porous yet hard, it is called lime-stone; if its texture be very loose +and porous it is termed chalk. In some rocks the shells remain almost +unchanged and only covered, or bedded with lime-stone, which seems to +have been dissolved and sunk down amongst them. In others the softer +shells and bones are dissolved, and only sharks teeth or harder echini +have preserved their form inveloped in the chalk or lime-stone; in some +marbles the solution has been compleat and no vestiges of shell appear, +as in the white kind called statuary by the workmen. See addit. notes, +No. XVI.] + + + "Hence wearied HERCULES in marble rears + His languid limbs, and rests a thousand years; + Still, as he leans, shall young ANTINOUS please + With careless grace, and unaffected ease; +105 Onward with loftier step APOLLO spring, + And launch the unerring arrow from the string; + In Beauty's bashful form, the veil unfurl'd, + Ideal VENUS win the gazing world. + Hence on ROUBILIAC'S tomb shall Fame sublime +110 Wave her triumphant wings, and conquer Time; + Long with soft touch shall DAMER'S chissel charm, + With grace delight us, and with beauty warm; + FOSTER'S fine form shall hearts unborn engage, + And MELBOURN's smile enchant another age. + + +[_Hence wearied Hercules_. l. 101. Alluding to the celebrated Hercules +of Glyco resting after his labours; and to the easy attitude of +Antinous; the lofty step of the Apollo of Belvidere; and the retreating +modesty of the Venus de Medici. Many of the designs by Roubiliac in +Westminster Abbey are uncommonly poetical; the allegory of Time and Fame +contending for the trophy of General Wade, which is here alluded to, is +beautifully told; the wings of Fame are still expanded, and her hair +still floating in the air; which not only shews that she has that moment +arrived, but also that her force is not yet expended; at the same time, +that the old figure of Time with his disordered wings is rather leaning +backwards and yielding to her impulse, and must apparently in another +instant be driven from his attack upon the trophy.] + +[_Foster's fine form_. l. 113. Alluding to the beautiful statues of Lady +Elizabeth Foster and of Lady Melbourn executed by the ingenious Mrs. +Damer.] + + +115 V. GNOMES! you then taught transuding dews to pass + Through time-fall'n woods, and root-inwove morass + Age after age; and with filtration fine + Dispart, from earths and sulphurs, the saline. + + +[_Root-inwove morass_. l. 116. The great mass of matter which rests upon +the lime-stone strata of the earth, or upon the granite where the lime- +stone stratum has been removed by earthquakes or covered by lava, has +had its origin from the recrements of vegetables and of air-breathing +animals, as the lime-stone had its origin from sea animals. The whole +habitable world was originally covered with woods, till mankind formed +themselves into societies, and subdued them by fire and by steel. Hence +woods in uncultivated countries have grown and fallen through many ages, +whence morasses of immense extent; and from these as the more soluble +parts were washed away first, were produced sea-salt, nitre, iron, and +variety of acids, which combining with calcareous matter were productive +of many fossil bodies, as flint, sea-sand, selenite, with the precious +stones, and perhaps the diamond. See additional notes, No. XVII.] + + + 1. "HENCE with diffusive SALT old Ocean steeps +120 His emerald shallows, and his sapphire deeps. + Oft in wide lakes, around their warmer brim + In hollow pyramids the crystals swim; + Or, fused by earth-born fires, in cubic blocks + Shoot their white forms, and harden into rocks. + + +[_Hence with diffusive salt_. l. 119. Salts of various kinds are +produced from the recrements of animal and vegetable bodies, such as +phosphoric, ammoniacal, marine salt, and others; these are washed from +the earth by rains, and carried down our rivers into the sea; they seem +all here to decompose each other except the marine salt, which has +therefore from the beginning of the habitable world been perpetually +accumulating. + +There is a town in the immense salt-mines of Cracow in Poland, with a +market-place, a river, a church, and a famous statue, (here supposed to +be of Lot's wife) by the moist or dry appearance of which the +subterranean inhabitants are said to know when the weather is fair above +ground. The galleries in these mines are so numerous and so intricate, +that workmen have frequently lost their way, their lights having been +burnt out, and have perished before they could be found. Essais, &c. par +M. Macquart. And though the arches of these different stories of +galleries are boldly executed, yet they are not dangerous; as they are +held together or supported by large masses of timber of a foot square; +and these vast timbers remain perfectly sound for many centuries, while +all other pillars whether of brick, cement, or salt soon dissolve or +moulder away. Ibid. Could the timbers over water-mill wheels or cellars, +be thus preserved by occasionally soaking them with brine? These immense +masses of rock-salt seem to have been produced by the evaporation of +sea-water in the early periods of the world by subterranean fires. Dr. +Hutton's Theory of the Earth. See also Theorie des Sources Salees, par +Mr. Struve. Histoire de Sciences de Lausanne. Tom. II. This idea of Dr. +Hutton's is confirmed by a fact mentioned in M. Macquart's Essais sur +Minerologie, who found a great quantity of fossil shells, principally +bi-valves and madre-pores, in the salt-mines of Wialiczka near Cracow. +During the evaporation of the lakes of salt-water, as in artificial +salt-works, the salt begins to crystallize near the edges where the +water is shallowest, forming hollow inverted pyramids; which, when they +become of a certain size, subside by their gravity; if urged by a +stronger fire the salt fuses or forms large cubes; whence the salt +shaped in hollow pyramids, called flake-salt, is better tasted and +preserves flesh better, than the basket or powder salt; because it is +made by less heat and thence contains more of the marine acid. The sea- +water about our island contains from about one twenty-eighth to one +thirtieth part of sea-salt, and about one eightieth of magnesian salt. +See Brownrigg on Salt. See note on Ocymum, Vol. II. of this work.] + + +125 "Thus, cavern'd round in CRACOW'S mighty mines, + With crystal walls a gorgeous city shines; + Scoop'd in the briny rock long streets extend + Their hoary course, and glittering domes ascend; + Down the bright steeps, emerging into day, +130 Impetuous fountains burst their headlong way, + O'er milk-white vales in ivory channels spread, + And wondering seek their subterraneous bed. + Form'd in pellucid salt with chissel nice, + The pale lamp glimmering through the sculptured ice, +135 With wild reverted eyes fair LOTTA stands, + And spreads to Heaven, in vain, her glassy hands; + Cold dews condense upon her pearly breast, + And the big tear rolls lucid down her vest. + Far gleaming o'er the town transparent fanes +140 Rear their white towers, and wave their golden vanes; + Long lines of lustres pour their trembling rays, + And the bright vault returns the mingled blaze. + + 2. "HENCE orient NITRE owes it's sparkling birth, + And with prismatic crystals gems the earth, +145 O'er tottering domes in filmy foliage crawls, + Or frosts with branching plumes the mouldering walls. + As woos Azotic Gas the virgin Air, + And veils in crimson clouds the yielding Fair, + Indignant Fire the treacherous courtship flies, +150 Waves his light wing, and mingles with the skies. + + +[_Hence orient Nitre_. l. 143. Nitre is found in Bengal naturally +crystallized, and is swept by brooms from earths and stones, and thence +called sweepings of nitre. It has lately been found in large quantities +in a natural bason of calcareous earth at Molfetta in Italy, both in +thin strata between the calcareous beds, and in efflorescences of +various beautiful leafy and hairy forms. An account of this nitre-bed is +given by Mr. Zimmerman and abridged in Rozier's Journal de Physique +Fevrier. 1790. This acid appears to be produced in all situations where +animal and vegetable matters are compleatly decomposed, and which are +exposed to the action of the air as on the walls of stables, and +slaughter-houses; the crystals are prisms furrowed by longitudinal +groves. + +Dr. Priestley discovered that nitrous air or gas which he obtained by +dissolving metals in nitrous acid, would combine rapidly with vital air, +and produce with it a true nitrous acid; forming red clouds during the +combination; the two airs occupy only the space before occupied by one +of them, and at the same time heat is given out from the new +combination. This dimunition of the bulk of a mixture of nitrous gas and +vital air, Dr. Priestley ingeniously used as a test of the purity of the +latter; a discovery of the greatest importance in the analysis of airs. + +Mr. Cavendish has since demonstrated that two parts of vital air or +oxygene, and one part of phlogistic air or azote, being long exposed to +electric shocks, unite, and produce nitrous acid. Philos. Trans. Vols. +LXXV. and LXXVIII. + +Azote is one of the most abundant elements in nature, and combined with +calorique or heat, it forms azotic gas or phlogistic air, and composes +two thirds of the atmosphere; and is one of the principal component +parts of animal bodies, and when united to vital air or oxygene produces +the nitrous acid. Mr. Lavoisier found that 211/2 parts by weight of +azote, and 431/2 parts of oxygene produced 64 parts of nitrous gas, and +by the further addition of 36 parts of oxygene nitrous acid was +produced. Traite de Chimie. When two airs become united so as to produce +an unelastic liquid much calorique or heat is of necessity expelled from +the new combination, though perhaps nitrous acid and oxygenated marine +acid admit more heat into their combinations than other acids.] + + + "So Beauty's GODDESS, warm with new desire, + Left, on her silver wheels, the GOD of Fire; + Her faithless charms to fiercer MARS resign'd, + Met with fond lips, with wanton arms intwin'd. +155 --Indignant VULCAN eyed the parting Fair, + And watch'd with jealous step the guilty pair; + O'er his broad neck a wiry net he flung, + Quick as he strode, the tinkling meshes rung; + Fine as the spider's flimsy thread He wove +160 The immortal toil to lime illicit love; + Steel were the knots, and steel the twisted thong, + Ring link'd in ring, indissolubly strong; + On viewless hooks along the fretted roof + He hung, unseen, the inextricable woof.-- +165 --Quick start the springs, the webs pellucid spread, + And lock the embracing Lovers on their bed; + Fierce with loud taunts vindictive VULCAN springs, + Tries all the bolts, and tightens all the strings, + Shakes with incessant shouts the bright abodes, +170 Claps his rude hands, and calls the festive Gods.-- + --With spreading palms the alarmed Goddess tries + To veil her beauties from celestial eyes, + Writhes her fair limbs, the slender ringlets strains, + And bids her Loves untie the obdurate chains; +175 Soft swells her panting bosom, as she turns, + And her flush'd cheek with brighter blushes burns. + Majestic grief the Queen of Heaven avows, + And chaste Minerva hides her helmed brows; + Attendant Nymphs with bashful eyes askance +180 Steal of intangled MARS a transient glance; + Surrounding Gods the circling nectar quaff, + Gaze on the Fair, and envy as they laugh. + + 3. "HENCE dusky IRON sleeps in dark abodes, + And ferny foliage nestles in the nodes; +185 Till with wide lungs the panting bellows blow, + And waked by fire the glittering torrents flow; + --Quick whirls the wheel, the ponderous hammer falls, + Loud anvils ring amid the trembling walls, + Strokes follow strokes, the sparkling ingot shines, +190 Flows the red slag, the lengthening bar refines; + Cold waves, immersed, the glowing mass congeal, + And turn to adamant the hissing Steel. + + +[_Hence dusky Iron_. l. 183. The production of iron from the +decomposition of vegetable bodies is perpetually presented to our view; +the waters oozing from all morasses are chalybeate, and deposit their +ochre on being exposed to the air, the iron acquiring a calciform state +from its union with oxygene or vital air. Where thin morasses lie on +beds of gravel the latter are generally stained by the filtration of +some of the chalybeate water through them. This formation of iron from +vegetable recrements is further evinced by the fern leaves and other +parts of vegetables, so frequently found in the centre of the knobs or +nodules of some iron-ores. + +In some of these nodules there is a nucleus of whiter iron-earth +surrounded by many concentric strata of darker and lighter iron-earth +alternately. In one, which now lies before me, the nucleus is a prism of +a triangular form with blunted angles, and about half an inch high, and +an inch and half broad; on every side of this are concentric strata of +similar iron-earth alternately browner and less brown; each stratum is +about a tenth of an inch in thickness and there are ten of them in +number. To what known cause can this exactly regular distribution of so +many earthy strata of different colours surrounding the nucleus be +ascribed? I don't know that any mineralogists have attempted an +explanation of this wonderful phenomenon. I suspect it is owing to the +polarity of the central nucleus. If iron-filings be regularly laid on +paper by means of a small sieve, and a magnet be placed underneath, the +filings will dispose themselves in concentric curves with vacant +intervals between them. Now if these iron-filings are conceived to be +suspended in a fluid, whose specific gravity is similar to their own, +and a magnetic bar was introduced as an axis into this fluid, it is easy +to foresee that the iron filings would dispose themselves into +concentric spheres, with intervals of the circumnatant fluid between +them, exactly as is seen in these nodules of iron-earth. As all the +lavas consist of one fourth of iron, (Kirvan's Mineral) and almost all +other known bodies, whether of animal or vegetable origin, possess more +or less of this property, may not the distribution of a great portion of +the globe of the earth into strata of greater or less regularity be +owing to the polarity of the whole?] + +[_And turn to adamant_. l. 192. The circumstances which render iron more +valuable to mankind than any other metal are, 1. its property of being +rendered hard to so great a degree and thus constituting such excellent +tools. It was the discovery of this property of iron, Mr. Locke thinks, +that gave such pre-eminence to the European world over the American one. +2. Its power of being welded; that is, when two pieces are made very hot +and applied together by hammering, they unite compleatly, unless any +scale of iron intervenes; and to prevent this it is usual for smiths to +dip the very hot bar in sand, a little of which fuses into fluid glass +with the scale and is squeezed out from between the uniting parts by the +force of hammering. 3. Its power of acquiring magnetism. + +It is however to be wished that gold or silver were discovered in as +great quantity as iron, since these metals being indestructible by +exposure to air, water, fire or any common acids would supply wholesome +vessels for cookery, so much to be desired, and so difficult to obtain, +and would form the most light and durable coverings for houses, as well +as indestructible fire-grates, ovens, and boiling vessels. See +additional notes, No. XVIII. on Steel.] + + + "Last MICHELL'S hands with touch of potent charm + The polish'd rods with powers magnetic arm; +195 With points directed to the polar stars + In one long line extend the temper'd bars; + Then thrice and thrice with steady eye he guides, + And o'er the adhesive train the magnet slides; + The obedient Steel with living instinct moves, +200 And veers for ever to the pole it loves. + + +[_Last Michell's hands_. l. 193. The discovery of the magnet seems to +have been in very early times; it is mentioned by Plato, Lucretius, +Pliny, and Galen, and is said to have taken its name of magnes from +Magnesia, a sea-port of antient Lybia. + +As every piece of iron which was made magnetical by the touch of a +magnet became itself a magnet, many attempts were made to improve these +artificial magnets, but without much success till Servingdon Savary, +Esq. made them of hardened steel bars, which were so powerful that one +of them weighing three pounds averdupois would lift another of the same +weight. Philos. Trans. + +After this Dr. Knight made very successful experiments on this subject, +which, though he kept his method secret, seems to have excited others to +turn their attention to magnetism. At this time the Rev. Mr. Michell +invented an equally efficacious and more expeditious way of making +strong artificial magnets, which he published in the end of the year +1750, in which he explained his method of what he called "the double +touch", and which, since Mr. Knight's method has been known, appears to +be somewhat different from it. + +This method of rendering bars of hardened steel magnetical consists in +holding vertically two or more magnetic bars nearly parallel to each +other with their opposite poles very near each other (but nevertheless +separated to a small distance), these are to be slided over a line of +bars laid horizontally a few times backward and forward. See Michell on +Magnetism, also a detailed account in Chamber's Dictionary. + +What Mr. Michell proposed by this method was to include a very small +portion of the horizontal bars, intended to be made magnetical, between +the joint forces of two or more bars already magnetical, and by sliding +them from end to end every part of the line of bars became successively +included, and thus bars possessed of a very small degree of magnetism to +begin with, would in a few times sliding backwards and forwards make the +other ones much more magnetical than themselves, which are then to be +taken up and used to touch the former, which are in succession to be +laid down horizontally in a line. + +There is still a great field remains for future discoveries in magnetism +both in respect to experiment and theory; the latter consists of vague +conjectures the more probable of which are perhaps those of Elpinus, as +they assimulate it to electricity. + +One conjecture I shall add, viz. that the polarity of magnetism may be +owing to the earth's rotatory motion. If heat, electricity, and +magnetism are supposed to be fluids of different gravities, heat being +the heaviest of them, electricity the next heavy, and magnetism the +lightest, it is evident that by the quick revolution of the earth the +heat will be accumulated most over the line, electricity next beneath +this, and that the magnetism will be detruded to the poles and axis of +the earth, like the atmospheres of common air and of inflammable gas, as +explained in the note on Canto I. l. 123. + +Electricity and heat will both of them displace magnetism, and this +shows that they may gravitate on each other; and hence when too great a +quantity of the electric fluid becomes accumulated at the poles by +descending snows, or other unknown causes, it may have a tendency to +rise towards the tropics by its centrifugal force, and produce the +northern lights. See additional notes, No. I.] + + + "Hail, adamantine STEEL! magnetic Lord! + King of the prow, the plowshare, and the sword! + True to the pole, by thee the pilot guides + His steady helm amid the struggling tides, +205 Braves with broad sail the immeasurable sea, + Cleaves the dark air, and asks no star but Thee.-- + By thee the plowshare rends the matted plain, + Inhumes in level rows the living grain; + Intrusive forests quit the cultured ground, +210 And Ceres laughs with golden fillets crown'd.-- + O'er restless realms when scowling Discord flings + Her snakes, and loud the din of battle rings; + Expiring Strength, and vanquish'd Courage feel + Thy arm resistless, adamantine STEEL! + +215 4. "HENCE in fine streams diffusive ACIDS flow, + Or wing'd with fire o'er Earth's fair bosom blow; + Transmute to glittering Flints her chalky lands, + Or sink on Ocean's bed in countless Sands. + Hence silvery Selenite her chrystal moulds, +220 And soft Asbestus smooths his silky folds; + His cubic forms phosphoric Fluor prints, + Or rays in spheres his amethystine tints. + Soft cobweb clouds transparent Onyx spreads, + And playful Agates weave their colour'd threads; +225 Gay pictured Mochoes glow with landscape-dyes, + And changeful Opals roll their lucid eyes; + Blue lambent light around the Sapphire plays, + Bright Rubies blush, and living Diamonds blaze. + + +[_Diffusive Acids flow_. l. 215. The production of marine acid from +decomposing vegetable and animal matters with vital air, and of nitrous +acid from azote and vital air, the former of which is united to its +basis by means of the exhalations from vegetable and animal matters, +constitute an analogy which induces us to believe that many other acids +have either their bases or are united to vital air by means of some part +of decomposing vegetable and animal matters. + +The great quantities of flint sand whether formed in mountains or in the +sea would appear to derive its acid from the new world, as it is found +above the strata of lime-stone and granite which constitute the old +world, and as the earthy basis of flint is probably calcareous, a great +part of it seems to be produced by a conjunction of the new and old +world; the recrements of air-breathing animals and vegetables probably +afford the acid, and the shells of marine animals the earthy basis, +while another part may have derived its calcareous part also from the +decomposition of vegetable and animal bodies. + +The same mode of reasoning seems applicable to the siliceous stones +under various names, as amethyst, onyx, agate, mochoe, opal, &c. which +do not seem to have undergone any process from volcanic fires, and as +these stones only differ from flint by a greater or less admixture of +argillaceous and calcareous earths. The different proportions of which +in each kind of stone may be seen in Mr. Kirwan's valuable Elements of +Mineralogy. See additional notes, No. XIX.] + +[_Living diamonds blaze_. l. 228. Sir Isaac Newton having observed the +great power of refracting light, which the diamond possesses above all +other crystallized or vitreous matter, conjectured that it was an +inflammable body in some manner congealed. Insomuch that all the light +is reflected which falls on any of its interior surfaces at a greater +angle of incidence than 241/2 degrees; whereas an artificial gem of +glass does not reflect any light from its hinder surface, unless that +surface is inclined in an angle of 41 degrees. Hence the diamond +reflects half as much more light as a factitious gem in similar +circumstances; to which must be added its great transparency, and the +excellent polish it is capable of. The diamond had nevertheless been +placed at the head of crystals or precious stones by the mineralogists, +till Bergman ranged it of late in the combustible class of bodies, +because by the focus of Villette's burning mirror it was evaporated by a +heat not much greater than will melt silver, and gave out light. Mr. +Hoepfner however thinks the dispersion of the diamond by this great heat +should be called a phosphorescent evaporation of it, rather than a +combustion; and from its other analogies of crystallization, hardness, +transparency, and place of its nativity, wishes again to replace it +amongst the precious stones. Observ. sur la Physique, par Rozier, Tom. +XXXV. p. 448. See new edition of the Translation of Cronsted, by De +Costa.] + + + "Thus, for attractive earth, inconstant JOVE +230 Mask'd in new shapes forsook his realms above.-- + First her sweet eyes his Eagle-form beguiles, + And HEBE feeds him with ambrosial smiles; + Next the chang'd God a Cygnet's down assumes, + And playful LEDA smooths his glossy plumes; +235 Then glides a silver Serpent, treacherous guest! + And fair OLYMPIA folds him in her breast; + Now lows a milk-white Bull on Afric's strand, + And crops with dancing head the daisy'd land.-- + With rosy wreathes EUROPA'S hand adorns +240 His fringed forehead, and his pearly horns; + Light on his back the sportive Damsel bounds, + And pleased he moves along the flowery grounds; + Bears with slow step his beauteous prize aloof, + Dips in the lucid flood his ivory hoof; +245 Then wets his velvet knees, and wading laves + His silky sides amid the dimpling waves. + While her fond train with beckoning hands deplore, + Strain their blue eyes, and shriek along the shore; + Beneath her robe she draws her snowy feet, +250 And, half-reclining on her ermine seat, + Round his raised neck her radiant arms she throws, + And rests her fair cheek on his curled brows; + Her yellow tresses wave on wanton gales, + And high in air her azure mantle sails. +255 --Onward He moves, applauding Cupids guide, + And skim on shooting wing the shining tide; + Emerging Triton's leave their coral caves, + Sound their loud conchs, and smooth the circling waves, + Surround the timorous Beauty, as she swims, +260 And gaze enamour'd on her silver limbs. + --Now Europe's shadowy shores with loud acclaim + Hail the fair fugitive, and shout her name; + Soft echoes warble, whispering forests nod, + And conscious Nature owns the present God. +265 --Changed from the Bull, the rapturous God assumes + Immortal youth, with glow celestial blooms, + With lenient words her virgin fears disarms, + And clasps the yielding Beauty in his arms; + Whence Kings and Heroes own illustrious birth, +270 Guards of mankind, and demigods on earth. + + +[_Inconstant Jove_. l. 229. The purer air or ether in the antient +mythology was represented by Jupiter, and the inferior air by Juno; and +the conjunction of these deities was said to produce the vernal showers, +and procreate all things, as is further spoken of in Canto III. l. 204. +It is now discovered that pure air, or oxygene, uniting with variety of +bases forms the various kinds of acids; as the vitriolic acid from pure +air and sulphur; the nitrous acid from pure air and phlogistic air, or +azote; and carbonic acid, (or fixed air,) from pure air and charcoal. +Some of these affinities were perhaps portrayed by the Magi of Egypt, +who were probably learned in chemistry, in their hieroglyphic pictures +before the invention of letters, by the loves of Jupiter with +terrestrial ladies. And thus physically as well as metaphysically might +be said "Jovis omnia plena."] + + + VI. "GNOMES! as you pass'd beneath the labouring soil, + The guards and guides of Nature's chemic toil, + YOU saw, deep-sepulchred in dusky realms, + Which Earth's rock-ribbed ponderous vault o'erwhelms, +275 With self-born fires the mass fermenting glow, + And flame-wing'd sulphurs quit the earths below. + + +[_With self-born fires_. l. 275. After the accumulation of plains and +mountains on the calcareous rocks or granite which had been previously +raised by volcanic fires, a second set of volcanic fires were produced +by the fermentation of this new mass, by which after the salts or acids +and iron had been washed away in part by elutriation, dissipated the +sulphurous parts which were insoluble in water; whence argillaceous and +siliceous earths were left in some places; in others, bitumen became +sublimed to the upper part of the stratum, producing coals of various +degrees of purity.] + + + 1. "HENCE ductile CLAYS in wide expansion spread, + Soft as the Cygnet's down, their snow-white bed; + With yielding flakes successive forms reveal, +280 And change obedient to the whirling wheel. + --First CHINA'S sons, with early art elate, + Form'd the gay tea-pot, and the pictured plate; + Saw with illumin'd brow and dazzled eyes + In the red stove vitrescent colours rise; +285 Speck'd her tall beakers with enamel'd stars, + Her monster-josses, and gigantic jars; + Smear'd her huge dragons with metallic hues, + With golden purples, and cobaltic blues; + Bade on wide hills her porcelain castles glare, +290 And glazed Pagodas tremble in the air. + + +[_Hence ductile clays_ l. 277. See additional notes, No. XX.] + +[_Saw with illumin'd brow_. l. 283. No colour is distinguishable in the +red-hot kiln but the red itself, till the workman introduces a small +piece of dry wood, which by producing a white flame renders all the +other colours visible in a moment.] + +[_With golden purples_. l. 288. See additional notes, No. XXI.] + + + "ETRURIA! next beneath thy magic hands + Glides the quick wheel, the plaistic clay expands, + Nerved with fine touch, thy fingers (as it turns) + Mark the nice bounds of vases, ewers, and urns; +295 Round each fair form in lines immortal trace + Uncopied Beauty, and ideal Grace. + + +[_Etruria! next_. l. 291. Etruria may perhaps vie with China itself in +the antiquity of its arts. The times of its greatest splendour were +prior to the foundations of Rome, and the reign of one of its best +princes, Janus, was the oldest epoch the Romans knew. The earliest +historians speak of the Etruscans as being then of high antiquity, most +probably a colony from Phoenicia, to which a Pelasgian colony acceded, +and was united soon after Deucalion's flood. The peculiar character of +their earthern vases consists in the admirable beauty, simplicity, and +diversity of forms, which continue the best models of taste to the +artists of the present times; and in a species of non-vitreous encaustic +painting, which was reckoned, even in the time of Pliny, among the lost +arts of antiquity, but which has lately been recovered by the ingenuity +and industry of Mr. Wedgwood. It is supposed that the principal +manufactories were about Nola, at the foot of Vesuvius; for it is in +that neighbourhood that the greatest quantities of antique vases have +been found; and it is said that the general taste of the inhabitants is +apparently influenced by them; insomuch that strangers coming to Naples, +are commonly struck with the diversity and elegance even of the most +ordinary vases for common uses. See D'Hancarville's preliminary +discourses to the magnificent collection of Etruscan vases, published by +Sir William Hamilton.] + + + "GNOMES! as you now dissect with hammers fine + The granite-rock, the nodul'd flint calcine; + Grind with strong arm, the circling chertz betwixt, +300 Your pure Ka-o-lins and Pe-tun-tses mixt; + O'er each red saggars burning cave preside, + The keen-eyed Fire-Nymphs blazing by your side; + And pleased on WEDGWOOD ray your partial smile, + A new Etruria decks Britannia's isle.-- +305 Charm'd by your touch, the flint liquescent pours + Through finer sieves, and falls in whiter showers; + Charm'd by your touch, the kneaded clay refines, + The biscuit hardens, the enamel shines; + Each nicer mould a softer feature drinks, +310 The bold Cameo speaks, the soft Intaglio thinks. + + +[Illustration: _H. Webber init J. Holloway sculpt Copied from Capt. +Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, by permission of the Proprietor_] + +[Transcriber's note: names of painter and engraver are only guesswork.] + +[Illustration: AM I NOT A MAN AND A BROTHER] + + + "To call the pearly drops from Pity's eye, + Or stay Despair's disanimating sigh, + Whether, O Friend of art! the gem you mould + Rich with new taste, with antient virtue bold; +315 Form the poor fetter'd SLAVE on bended knee + From Britain's sons imploring to be free; + Or with fair HOPE the brightening scenes improve, + And cheer the dreary wastes at Sydney-cove; + Or bid Mortality rejoice and mourn +320 O'er the fine forms on PORTLAND'S mystic urn.-- + + +[_Form the poor fetter'd Slave_. l. 315. Alluding to two cameos of Mr. +Wedgwood's manufacture; one of a Slave in chains, of which he +distributed many hundreds, to excite the humane to attend to and to +assist in the abolition of the detestable traffic in human creatures; +and the other a cameo of Hope attended by Peace, and Art, and Labour; +which was made of clay from Botany Bay; to which place he sent many of +them to shew the inhabitants what their materials would do, and to +encourage their industry. A print of this latter medallion is prefixed +to Mr. Stockdale's edition of Philip's Expedition to Botany Bay.] + +[_Portland's mystic urn_. l. 320. See additional notes, No. XXII.] + + + "_Here_ by fall'n columns and disjoin'd arcades, + On mouldering stones, beneath deciduous shades, + Sits HUMANKIND in hieroglyphic state, + Serious, and pondering on their changeful state; +325 While with inverted torch, and swimming eyes, + Sinks the fair shade of MORTAL LIFE, and dies. + _There_ the pale GHOST through Death's wide portal bends + His timid feet, the dusky steep descends; + With smiles assuasive LOVE DIVINE invites, +330 Guides on broad wing, with torch uplifted lights; + IMMORTAL LIFE, her hand extending, courts + The lingering form, his tottering step supports; + Leads on to Pluto's realms the dreary way, + And gives him trembling to Elysian day. +335 _Beneath_ in sacred robes the PRIESTESS dress'd, + The coif close-hooded, and the fluttering vest, + With pointing finger guides the initiate youth, + Unweaves the many-colour'd veil of Truth, + Drives the profane from Mystery's bolted door, +340 And Silence guards the Eleusinian lore.-- + + +[Illustration: _The Portland Vase_] + +[Illustration: _The first Compartment_, London Published Dec'r 1st 1791 +by J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard.] + +[Transcriber's note: 2nd line with date very small and nearly illegible] + +[Illustration: _The second Compartment_] + +[Illustration: _The Handles & Bottom of the Vase._ London Published +Dec'r 1st 1791 by J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard.] + + + "Whether, O Friend of Art! your gems derive + Fine forms from Greece, and fabled Gods revive; + Or bid from modern life the Portrait breathe, + And bind round Honour's brow the laurel wreath; +345 Buoyant shall sail, with Fame's historic page, + Each fair medallion o'er the wrecks of age; + Nor Time shall mar; nor steel, nor fire, nor rust + Touch the hard polish of the immortal bust. + + +[_Fine forms from Greece_. l. 342. In real stones, or in paste or soft +coloured glass, many pieces of exquisite workmanship were produced by +the antients. Basso-relievos of various sizes were made in coarse brown +earth of one colour; but of the improved kind of two or more colours, +and of a true porcelain texture, none were made by the antients, nor +attempted I believe by the moderns, before those of Mr. Wedgwood's +manufactory.] + + + 2. "HENCE sable COAL his massy couch extends, +350 And stars of gold the sparkling Pyrite blends; + Hence dull-eyed Naphtha pours his pitchy streams, + And Jet uncolour'd drinks the solar beams, + Bright Amber shines on his electric throne, + And adds ethereal lustres to his own. +355 --Led by the phosphor-light, with daring tread + Immortal FRANKLIN sought the fiery bed; + Where, nursed in night, incumbent Tempest shrouds + The seeds of Thunder in circumfluent clouds, + Besieged with iron points his airy cell, +360 And pierced the monster slumbering in the shell. + + +[_Hence sable Coal_. l. 349. See additional notes, No. XXIII. on coal.] + +[_Bright Amber shines_. l. 353. Coal has probably all been sublimed more +or less from the clay, with which it was at first formed in decomposing +morasses; the petroleum seems to have been separated and condensed again +in superior strata, and a still finer kind of oil, as naphtha, has +probably had the same origin. Some of these liquid oils have again lost +their more volatile parts, and become cannel-coal, asphaltum, jet, and +amber, according to the purity of the original fossil oil. Dr. Priestley +has shewn, that essential oils long exposed to the atmosphere absorb +both the vital and phlogistic part of it; whence it is probable their +becoming solid may in great measure depend, as well as by the exhalation +of their more volatile parts. On distillation with volatile alcaly all +these fossil oils are shewn to contain the acid of amber, which evinces +the identity of their origin. If a piece of amber be rubbed it attracts +straws and hairs, whence the discovery of electricity, and whence its +name, from electron the Greek word for amber.] + +[_Immortal Franklin_. l. 356. See note on Canto I. l. 383.] + + + "So, born on sounding pinions to the WEST, + When Tyrant-Power had built his eagle nest; + While from his eyry shriek'd the famish'd brood, + Clenched their sharp claws, and champ'd their beaks for blood, +365 Immortal FRANKLIN watch'd the callow crew, + And stabb'd the struggling Vampires, ere they flew. + --The patriot-flame with quick contagion ran, + Hill lighted hill, and man electrised man; + Her heroes slain awhile COLUMBIA mourn'd, +370 And crown'd with laurels LIBERTY return'd. + + "The Warrior, LIBERTY, with bending sails + Helm'd his bold course to fair HIBERNIA'S vales;-- + Firm as he steps, along the shouting lands, + Lo! Truth and Virtue range their radiant bands; +375 Sad Superstition wails her empire torn, + Art plies his oar, and Commerce pours her horn. + + "Long had the Giant-form on GALLIA'S plains + Inglorious slept, unconscious of his chains; + Round his large limbs were wound a thousand strings +380 By the weak hands of Confessors and Kings; + O'er his closed eyes a triple veil was bound, + And steely rivets lock'd him to the ground; + While stern Bastile with iron cage inthralls + His folded limbs, and hems in marble walls. +385 --Touch'd by the patriot-flame, he rent amazed + The flimsy bonds, and round and round him gazed; + Starts up from earth, above the admiring throng + Lifts his Colossal form, and towers along; + High o'er his foes his hundred arms He rears, +390 Plowshares his swords, and pruning hooks his spears; + Calls to the Good and Brave with voice, that rolls + Like Heaven's own thunder round the echoing poles; + Gives to the winds his banner broad unfurl'd, + And gathers in its shade the living world! + + +[_While stern Bastile_. l. 383. "We descended with great difficulty into +the dungeons, which were made too low for our standing upright; and were +so dark, that we were obliged at noon-day to visit them by the light of +a candle. We saw the hooks of those chains, by which the prisoners were +fastened by their necks to the walls of their cells; many of which being +below the level of the water were in a constant state of humidity; from +which issued a noxious vapour, which more than once extinguished the +candles. Since the destruction of the building many subterraneous cells +have been discovered under a piece of ground, which seemed only a bank +of solid earth before the horrid secrets of this prison-house were +disclosed. Some skeletons were found in these recesses with irons still +fastened to their decayed bones." Letters from France, by H.M. Williams, +p. 24.] + + +395 VII. "GNOMES! YOU then taught volcanic airs to force + Through bubbling Lavas their resistless course, + O'er the broad walls of rifted Granite climb, + And pierce the rent roof of incumbent Lime, + Round sparry caves metallic lustres fling, +400 And bear phlogiston on their tepid wing. + + +[_And pierce the rent roof_. l. 398. The granite rocks and the limestone +rocks have been cracked to very great depths at the time they were +raised up by subterranean fires; in these cracks are found most of the +metallic ores, except iron and perhaps manganese, the former of which is +generally found in horizontal strata, and the latter generally near the +surface of the earth. + +Philosophers possessing so convenient a test for the discovery of iron +by the magnet, have long since found it in all vegetable and animal +matters; and of late Mr. Scheele has discovered the existence of +manganese in vegetable ashes. Scheele, 56 mem. Stock. 1774. Kirwan. Min. +353. Which accounts for the production of it near the surface of earth, +and thence for its calciform appearance, or union with vital air. +Bergman has likewise shewn, that the limestones which become bluish or +dark coloured when calcined, possess a mixture of manganese, and are +thence preferable as a cement to other kinds of lime. 2. Bergman, 229. +Which impregnation with manganese has probably been received from the +decomposition of superincumbent vegetable matters. + +These cracks or perpendicular caverns in the granite or limestone pass +to unknown depths; and it is up these channels that I have endeavoured +to shew that the steam rises which becomes afterwards condensed and +produces the warm springs of this island, and other parts of the world. +(See note on Fucus, Vol. II.) And up these cracks I suppose certain +vapours arise, which either alone, or by meeting with something +descending into them from above, have produced most of the metals; and +several of the materials in which they are bedded. Thus the ponderous +earth, Barytes, of Derbyshire, is found in these cracks, and is +stratified frequently with lead-ore, and frequently surrounds it. This +ponderous earth has been found by Dr. Hoepfner in a granite in +Switzerland, and may have thus been sublimed from immense depths by +great heat, and have obtained its carbonic or vitriolic acid from above. +Annales de Chimie. There is also reason to conclude that something from +above is necessary to the formation of many of the metals: at Hawkstone +in Shropshire, the seat of Sir Richard Hill, there is an elevated rock +of siliceous sand which is coloured green with copper in many places +high in the air; and I have in my possession a specimen of lead formed +in the cavity of an iron nodule, and another of lead amid spar from a +crack of a coal-stratum; all which countenance the modern production of +those metals from descending materials. To which should be added, that +the highest mountains of granite, which have therefore probably never +been covered with marine productions on account of their early +elevation, nor with vegetable or animal matters on account of their +great coldness, contain no metallic ores, whilst the lower ones contain +copper and tin in their cracks or veins, both in Saxony, Silesia, and +Cornwall. Kirwan's Mineral. p. 374. + +The transmutation of one metal into another, though hitherto +undiscovered by the alchymists, does not appear impossible; such +transmutations have been supposed to exist in nature, thus lapis +calaminaris may have been produced from the destruction of lead-ore, as +it is generally found on the top of the veins of lead, where it has been +calcined or united with air, and because masses of lead-ore are often +found intirely inclosed in it. So silver is found mixed in almost all +lead-ores, and sometimes in seperate filaments within the cavities of +lead-ore, as I am informed by Mr. Michell, and is thence probably a +partial transmutation of the lead to silver, the rapid progress of +modern chemistry having shewn the analogy between metallic calces and +acids, may lead to the power of transmuting their bases: a discovery +much to be wished.] + + + "HENCE glows, refulgent Tin! thy chrystal grains, + And tawny Copper shoots her azure veins; + Zinc lines his fretted vault with sable ore, + And dull Galena tessellates the floor; +405 On vermil beds in Idria's mighty caves + The living Silver rolls its ponderous waves; + With gay refractions bright Platina shines, + And studs with squander'd stars his dusky mines; + Long threads of netted gold, and silvery darts, +410 Inlay the Lazuli, and pierce the Quartz;-- + --Whence roof'd with silver beam'd PERU, of old, + And hapless MEXICO was paved with gold. + + "Heavens! on my sight what sanguine colours blaze! + Spain's deathless shame! the crimes of modern days! +415 When Avarice, shrouded in Religion's robe, + Sail'd to the West, and slaughter'd half the globe; + While Superstition, stalking by his side, + Mock'd the loud groans, and lap'd the bloody tide; + For sacred truths announced her frenzied dreams, +420 And turn'd to night the sun's meridian beams.-- + Hear, oh, BRITANNIA! potent Queen of isles, + On whom fair Art, and meek Religion smiles, + Now AFRIC'S coasts thy craftier sons invade + With murder, rapine, theft,--and call it Trade! +425 --The SLAVE, in chains, on supplicating knee, + Spreads his wide arms, and lifts his eyes to Thee; + With hunger pale, with wounds and toil oppress'd, + "ARE WE NOT BRETHREN?" sorrow choaks the rest;-- + --AIR! bear to heaven upon thy azure flood +430 Their innocent cries!--EARTH! cover not their blood! + + VIII. "When Heaven's dread justice smites in crimes o'ergrown + The blood-nursed Tyrant on his purple throne, + GNOMES! YOUR bold forms unnumber'd arms outstretch, + And urge the vengeance o'er the guilty wretch.-- +435 Thus when CAMBYSES led his barbarous hosts + From Persia's rocks to Egypt's trembling coasts, + Defiled each hallowed fane, and sacred wood, + And, drunk with fury, swell'd the Nile with blood; + Waved his proud banner o'er the Theban states, +440 And pour'd destruction through her hundred gates; + In dread divisions march'd the marshal'd bands, + And swarming armies blacken'd all the lands, + By Memphis these to ETHIOP'S sultry plains, + And those to HAMMON'S sand-incircled fanes.-- +445 Slow as they pass'd, the indignant temples frown'd, + Low curses muttering from the vaulted ground; + Long ailes of Cypress waved their deepen'd glooms, + And quivering spectres grinn'd amid the tombs; + Prophetic whispers breathed from S +450 And MEMNON'S lyre with hollow murmurs rung; + Burst from each pyramid expiring groans, + And darker shadows stretch'd their lengthen'd cones.-- + Day after day their deathful rout They steer, + Lust in the van, and rapine in the rear. + + +[_Thus when Cambyses_. l. 435. Cambyses marched one army from Thebes, +after having overturned the temples, ravaged the country, and deluged it +with blood, to subdue Ethiopia; this army almost perished by famine, +insomuch, that they repeatedly slew every tenth man to supply the +remainder with food. He sent another army to plunder the temple of +Jupiter Ammon, which perished overwhelm'd with sand.] + +[_Expiring groans_. l. 451. Mr. Savery or Mr. Volney in their Travels +through Egypt has given a curious description of one of the pyramids, +with the operose method of closing them, and immuring the body, (as they +supposed) for six thousand years. And has endeavoured from thence to +shew, that, when a monarch died, several of his favourite courtiers were +inclosed alive with the mummy in these great masses of stone-work; and +had food and water conveyed to them, as long as they lived, proper +apertures being left for this purpose, and for the admission of air, and +for the exclusion of any thing offensive.] + + +455 "GNOMES! as they march'd, You hid the gathered fruits, + The bladed grass, sweet grains, and mealy roots; + Scared the tired quails, that journey'd o'er their heads, + Retain'd the locusts in their earthy beds; + Bade on your sands no night-born dews distil, +460 Stay'd with vindictive hands the scanty rill.-- + Loud o'er the camp the Fiend of Famine shrieks, + Calls all her brood, and champs her hundred beaks; + O'er ten square leagues her pennons broad expand, + And twilight swims upon the shuddering sand; +465 Perch'd on her crest the Griffin Discord clings, + And Giant Murder rides between her wings; + Blood from each clotted hair, and horny quill, + And showers of tears in blended streams distil; + High-poised in air her spiry neck she bends, +470 Rolls her keen eye, her Dragon-claws extends, + Darts from above, and tears at each fell swoop + With iron fangs the decimated troop. + + "Now o'er their head the whizzing whirlwinds breathe, + And the live desert pants, and heaves beneath; +475 Tinged by the crimson sun, vast columns rise + Of eddying sands, and war amid the skies, + In red arcades the billowy plain surround, + And stalking turrets dance upon the ground. + --Long ranks in vain their shining blades extend, +480 To Demon-Gods their knees unhallow'd bend, + Wheel in wide circle, form in hollow square, + And now they front, and now they fly the war, + Pierce the deaf tempest with lamenting cries, + Press their parch'd lips, and close their blood-shot eyes. +485 --GNOMES! o'er the waste YOU led your myriad powers, + Climb'd on the whirls, and aim'd the flinty showers!-- + Onward resistless rolls the infuriate surge, + Clouds follow clouds, and mountains mountains urge; + Wave over wave the driving desert swims, +490 Bursts o'er their heads, inhumes their struggling limbs; + Man mounts on man, on camels camels rush, + Hosts march o'er hosts, and nations nations crush,-- + Wheeling in air the winged islands fall, + And one great earthy Ocean covers all!-- +495 Then ceased the storm,--NIGHT bow'd his Ethiop brow + To earth, and listen'd to the groans below,-- + Grim HORROR shook,--awhile the living hill + Heaved with convulsive throes,--and all was still! + + +[_And stalking turrets_. l. 478. "At one o'clock we alighted among some +acacia trees at Waadi el Halboub, having gone twenty-one miles. We were +here at once surprised and terrified by a sight surely one of the most +magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert, from W. to +N.W. of us, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different +distances, at times moving with great celerity, at others stalking on +with a majestic slowness; at intervals we thought they were coming in a +very few minutes to overwhelm us; and small quantities of sand did +actually more than once reach us. Again they would retreat so as to be +almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds. There the +tops often separated from the bodies; and these, once disjoined, +dispersed in the air, and did not appear more. Sometimes they were +broken in the middle, as if struck with large cannon-shot. About noon +they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind +being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged along side of us about +the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest +appeared to me at that distance as if it would measure ten feet. They +retired from us with a wind at S.E. leaving an impression upon my mind +to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was +fear, with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment. It was in +vain to think of flying; the swiftest horse, or fastest sailing ship, +could be of no use to carry us out of this danger; and the full +persuasion of this rivetted me as if to the spot where I stood. + +"The same appearance of moving pillars of sand presented themselves to +us this day in form and disposition like those we had seen at Waadi +Halboub, only they seemed to be more in number and less in size. They +came several times in a direction close upon us, that is, I believe, +within less than two miles. They began immediately after sun rise like a +thick wood and almost darkened the sun. His rays shining through them +for near an hour, gave them an appearance of pillars of fire. Our people +now became desperate, the Greeks shrieked out and said it was the day of +judgment; Ismael pronounced it to be hell; and the Turcorories, that the +world was on fire." Bruce's Travels, Vol. IV. p. 553,-555. + +From this account it would appear, that the eddies of wind were owing to +the long range of broken rocks, which bounded one side of the sandy +desert, and bent the currents of air, which struck against their sides; +and were thus like the eddies in a stream of water, which falls against +oblique obstacles. This explanation is probably the true one, as these +whirl-winds were not attended with rain or lightening like the tornadoes +of the West-Indies.] + + + IX. "GNOMES! whose fine forms, impassive as the air, +500 Shrink with soft sympathy for human care; + Who glide unseen, on printless slippers borne, + Beneath the waving grass, and nodding corn; + Or lay your tiny limbs, when noon-tide warms, + Where shadowy cowslips stretch their golden arms,-- +505 So mark'd on orreries in lucid signs, + Star'd with bright points the mimic zodiac shines; + Borne on fine wires amid the pictured skies + With ivory orbs the planets set and rise; + Round the dwarf earth the pearly moon is roll'd, +510 And the sun twinkling whirls his rays of gold.-- + Call your bright myriads, march your mailed hosts, + With spears and helmets glittering round the coasts; + Thick as the hairs, which rear the Lion's mane, + Or fringe the Boar, that bays the hunter-train; +515 Watch, where proud Surges break their treacherous mounds, + And sweep resistless o'er the cultured grounds; + Such as erewhile, impell'd o'er Belgia's plain, + Roll'd her rich ruins to the insatiate main; + With piles and piers the ruffian waves engage, +520 And bid indignant Ocean stay his rage. + + +[_So mark'd on orreries_. l. 505. The first orrery was constructed by a +Mr. Rowley, a mathematician born at Lichfield; and so named from his +patron the Earl of Orrery. Johnson's Dictionary.] + + + "Where, girt with clouds, the rifted mountain yawns, + And chills with length of shade the gelid lawns, + Climb the rude steeps, the granite-cliffs surround, + Pierce with steel points, with wooden wedges wound; +525 Break into clays the soft volcanic slaggs, + Or melt with acid airs the marble craggs; + Crown the green summits with adventurous flocks, + And charm with novel flowers the wondering rocks. + --So when proud Rome the Afric Warrior braved, +530 And high on Alps his crimson banner waved; + While rocks on rocks their beetling brows oppose + With piny forests, and unfathomed snows; + Onward he march'd, to Latium's velvet ground + With fires and acids burst the obdurate bound, +535 Wide o'er her weeping vales destruction hurl'd, + And shook the rising empire of the world. + + +[_The granite-cliffs._ l. 523. On long exposure to air the granites or +porphories of this country exhibit a ferrugenous crust, the iron being +calcined by the air first becomes visible, and is then washed away from +the external surface, which becomes white or grey, and thus in time +seems to decompose. The marbles seem to decompose by loosing their +carbonic acid, as the outside, which has been long exposed to the air, +does not seem to effervesce so hastily with acids as the parts more +recently broken. The immense quantity of carbonic acid, which exists in +the many provinces of lime-stone, if it was extricated and decomposed +would afford charcoal enough for fuel for ages, or for the production of +new vegetable or animal bodies. The volcanic slaggs on Mount Vesuvius +are said by M. Ferber to be changed into clay by means of the sulphur- +acid, and even pots made of clay and burnt or vitrified are said by him +to be again reducible to ductile clay by the volcanic steams. Ferber's +Travels through Italy, p. 166.] + +[_Wooden wedges wound_. l. 524. It is usual in seperating large mill- +stones from the siliceous sand-rocks in some parts of Derbyshire to bore +horizontal holes under them in a circle, and fill these with pegs made +of dry wood, which gradually swell by the moisture of the earth, and in +a day or two lift up the mill-stone without breaking it.] + +[_With fires and acids_. l. 534. Hannibal was said to erode his way over +the Alps by fire and vinegar. The latter is supposed to allude to the +vinegar and water which was the beverage of his army. In respect to the +former it is not improbable, but where wood was to be had in great +abundance, that fires made round limestone precipices would calcine them +to a considerable depth, the night-dews or mountain-mists would +penetrate these calcined parts and pulverize them by the force of the +steam which the generated heat would produce, the winds would disperse +this lime-powder, and thus by repeated fires a precipice of lime-stone +might be destroyed and a passage opened. It should be added, that +according to Ferber's observations, these Alps consist of lime-stone. +Letters from Italy.] + + + X. "Go, gentle GNOMES! resume your vernal toil, + Seek my chill tribes, which sleep beneath the soil; + On grey-moss banks, green meads, or furrow'd lands +540 Spread the dark mould, white lime, and crumbling sands; + Each bursting bud with healthier juices feed, + Emerging scion, or awaken'd seed. + So, in descending streams, the silver Chyle + Streaks with white clouds the golden floods of bile; +545 Through each nice valve the mingling currents glide, + Join their fine rills, and swell the sanguine tide; + Each countless cell, and viewless fibre seek, + Nerve the strong arm, and tinge the blushing cheek. + + "Oh, watch, where bosom'd in the teeming earth, +550 Green swells the germ, impatient for its birth; + Guard from rapacious worms its tender shoots, + And drive the mining beetle from its roots; + With ceaseless efforts rend the obdurate clay, + And give my vegetable babes to day! +555 --Thus when an Angel-form, in light array'd, + Like HOWARD pierced the prison's noisome shade; + Where chain'd to earth, with eyes to heaven upturn'd, + The kneeling Saint in holy anguish mourn'd;-- + Ray'd from his lucid vest, and halo'd brow +560 O'er the dark roof celestial lustres glow, + "PETER, arise!" with cheering voice He calls, + And sounds seraphic echo round the walls; + Locks, bolts, and chains his potent touch obey, + And pleased he leads the dazzled Sage to day. + +565 XI. "YOU! whose fine fingers fill the organic cells, + With virgin earth, of woods and bones and shells; + Mould with retractile glue their spongy beds, + And stretch and strengthen all their fibre-threads.-- + Late when the mass obeys its changeful doom, +570 And sinks to earth, its cradle and its tomb, + GNOMES! with nice eye the slow solution watch, + With fostering hand the parting atoms catch, + Join in new forms, combine with life and sense, + And guide and guard the transmigrating Ens. + + +[_Mould with retractile glue_. l. 567. The constituent parts of animal +fibres are believed to be earth and gluten. These do not seperate except +by long putrefaction or by fire. The earth then effervesces with acids, +and can only be converted into glass by the greatest force of fire. The +gluten has continued united with the earth of the bones above 2000 years +in Egyptian mummies; but by long exposure to air or moisture it +diffolves and leaves only the earth. Hence bones long buried, when +exposed to the air, absorb moisture and crumble into powder. Phil. +Trans. No. 475. The retractibility or elasticity of the animal fibre +depends on the gluten; and of these fibres are composed the membranes +muscles and bones. Haller. Physiol. Tom. I, p. 2. + +For the chemical decomposition of animal and vegetable bodies see the +ingenious work of Lavoisier, Traite de Chimie, Tom. I. p. 132. who +resolves all their component parts into oxygene, hydrogene, carbone, and +azote, the three former of which belong principally to vegetable and the +last to animal matter.] + +[_The transmigrating Ens_. l. 574, The perpetual circulation of matter +in the growth and dissolution of vegetable and animal bodies seems to +have given Pythagoras his idea of the metempsycosis or transmigration of +spirit; which was afterwards dressed out or ridiculed in variety of +amusing fables. Other philosophers have supposed, that there are two +different materials or essences, which fill the universe. One of these, +which has the power of commencing or producing motion, is called spirit; +the other, which has the power of receiving and of communicating motion, +but not of beginning it, is called matter. The former of these is +supposed to be diffused through all space, filling up the interstices of +the suns and planets, and constituting the gravitations of the sidereal +bodies, the attractions of chemistry, with the spirit of vegetation, and +of animation. The latter occupies comparatively but small space, +constituting the solid parts of the suns and planets, and their +atmospheres. Hence these philosophers have supposed, that both matter +and spirit are equally immortal and unperishable; and that on the +dissolution of vegetable or animal organization, the matter returns to +the general mass of matter; and the spirit to the general mass of +spirit, to enter again into new combinations, according to the original +idea of Pythagoras. + +The small apparent quantity of matter that exists in the universe +compared to that of spirit, and the short time in which the recrements +of animal or vegetable bodies become again vivified in the forms of +vegetable mucor or microscopic insects, seems to have given rise to +another curious fable of antiquity. That Jupiter threw down a large +handful of souls upon the earth, and left them to scramble for the few +bodies which were to be had.] + + +575 "So when on Lebanon's sequester'd hight + The fair ADONIS left the realms of light, + Bow'd his bright locks, and, fated from his birth + To change eternal, mingled with the earth;-- + With darker horror shook the conscious wood, +580 Groan'd the sad gales, and rivers blush'd with blood; + On cypress-boughs the Loves their quivers hung, + Their arrows scatter'd, and their bows unstrung; + And BEAUTY'S GODDESS, bending o'er his bier, + Breathed the soft sigh, and pour'd the tender tear.-- +585 Admiring PROSERPINE through dusky glades + Led the fair phantom to Elysian shades, + Clad with new form, with finer sense combined, + And lit with purer flame the ethereal mind. + --Erewhile, emerging from infernal night, +590 The bright Assurgent rises into light, + Leaves the drear chambers of the insatiate tomb, + And shines and charms with renovated bloom.-- + While wondering Loves the bursting grave surround, + And edge with meeting wings the yawning ground, +595 Stretch their fair necks, and leaning o'er the brink + View the pale regions of the dead, and shrink; + Long with broad eyes ecstatic BEAUTY stands, + Heaves her white bosom, spreads her waxen hands; + Then with loud shriek the panting Youth alarms, +600 "My Life! my Love!" and springs into his arms." + + +[_Adonis_. l. 576. The very antient story of the beautiful Adonis +passing one half of the year with Venus, and the other with Proserpine +alternately, has had variety of interpretations. Some have supposed that +it allegorized the summer and winter solstice; but this seems too +obvious a fact to have needed an hieroglyphic emblem. Others have +believed it to represent the corn, which was supposed to sleep in the +earth during the winter months, and to rise out of it in summer. This +does not accord with the climate of Egypt, where the harvest soon +follows the seed-time. + +It seems more probably to have been a story explaining some hieroglyphic +figures representing the decomposition and resuscitation of animal +matter; a sublime and interesting subject, and which seems to have given +origin to the doctrine of the transmigration, which had probably its +birth also from the hieroglyphic treasures of Egypt. It is remarkable +that the cypress groves in the ancient greek writers, as in Theocritus, +were dedicated to Venus; and afterwards became funereal emblems. Which +was probably occasioned by the Cypress being an accompaniment of Venus +in the annual processions, in which she was supposed to lament over the +funeral of Adonis; a ceremony which obtained over all the eastern world +from great antiquity, and is supposed to be referred to by Ezekiel, who +accuses the idolatrous woman of weeping for Thammus.] + + + The GODDESS ceased,--the delegated throng + O'er the wide plains delighted rush along; + In dusky squadrons, and in shining groups, + Hosts follow hosts, and troops succeed to troops; +605 Scarce bears the bending grass the moving freight, + And nodding florets bow beneath their weight. + So when light clouds on airy pinions sail, + Flit the soft shadows o'er the waving vale; + Shade follows shade, as laughing Zephyrs drive, +610 And all the chequer'd landscape seems alive. + + +[_Zephyrs drive_. l. 609. These lines were originally written thus, + + Shade follows shade by laughing Zephyrs drove, + And all the chequer'd landscape seems to move. + +but were altered on account of the supposed false grammar in using the +word drove for driven, according to the opinion of Dr. Lowth: at the +same time it may be observed, 1. that this is in many cases only an +ellipsis of the letter _n_ at the end of the word; as froze, for frozen; +wove, for woven; spoke, for spoken; and that then the participle +accidentally becomes similar to the past tense: 2. that the language +seems gradually tending to omit the letter _n_ in other kind of words +for the sake of euphony; as housen is become houses; eyne, eyes; thine, +thy, &c. and in common conversation, the words forgot, spoke, froze, +rode, are frequently used for forgotten, spoken, frozen, ridden. 3. It +does not appear that any confusion would follow the indiscriminate use +of the same word for the past tense and the participle passive, since +the auxiliary verb _have_, or the preceding noun or pronoun always +clearly distinguishes them: and lastly, rhime-poetry must lose the use +of many elegant words without this license.] + + + + + _Argument of the Third Canto._ + + +Address to the Nymphs. I. Steam rises from the ocean, floats in clouds, +descends in rain and dew, or is condensed on hills, produces springs, +and rivers, and returns to the sea. So the blood circulates through the +body and returns to the heart. 11. II. 1. Tides, 57. 2. Echinus, +nautilus, pinna, cancer. Grotto of a mermaid. 65. 3. Oil stills the +waves. Coral rocks. Ship-worm, or Teredo. Maelstrome, a whirlpool on the +coast of Norway. 85. III. Rivers from beneath the snows on the Alps. The +Tiber. 103. IV. Overflowing of the Nile from African Monsoons, 129. V. +1. Giesar, a boiling fountain in Iceland, destroyed by inundation, and +consequent earthquake, 145. 2. Warm medicinal springs. Buxton. Duke and +Dutchess of Devonshire. 157. VI. Combination of vital air and +inflammable gas produces water. Which is another source of springs and +rivers. Allegorical loves of Jupiter and Juno productive of vernal +showers. 201. VII. Aquatic Taste. Distant murmur of the sea by night. +Sea-horse. Nereid singing. 261. VIII. The Nymphs of the river Derwent +lament the death of Mrs. French, 297. IX. Inland navigation. Monument +for Mr. Brindley, 341. X. Pumps explained. Child sucking. Mothers +exhorted to nurse their children. Cherub sleeping. 365. XI. Engines for +extinguishing fire. Story of two lovers perishing in the flames. 397. +XII. Charities of Miss Jones, 447. XIII. Marshes drained. Hercules +conquers Achilous. The horn of Plenty. 483. XIV. Showers. Dews. Floating +lands with water. Lacteal system in animals. Caravan drinking. 529. +Departure of the Nymphs like water spiders; like northern nations +skaiting on the ice. 569. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO III. + + + AGAIN the GODDESS speaks!--glad Echo swells + The tuneful tones along her shadowy dells, + Her wrinkling founts with soft vibration shakes, + Curls her deep wells, and rimples all her lakes, + 5 Thrills each wide stream, Britannia's isle that laves, + Her headlong cataracts, and circumfluent waves. + --Thick as the dews, which deck the morning flowers, + Or rain-drops twinkling in the sun-bright showers, + Fair Nymphs, emerging in pellucid bands, + 10 Rise, as she turns, and whiten all the lands. + + I. "YOUR buoyant troops on dimpling ocean tread, + Wafting the moist air from his oozy bed, + AQUATIC NYMPHS!--YOU lead with viewless march + The winged vapours up the aerial arch, + 15 On each broad cloud a thousand sails expand, + And steer the shadowy treasure o'er the land, + Through vernal skies the gathering drops diffuse, + Plunge in soft rains, or sink in silver dews.-- + YOUR lucid bands condense with fingers chill + 20 The blue mist hovering round the gelid hill; + In clay-form'd beds the trickling streams collect, + Strain through white sands, through pebbly veins direct; + Or point in rifted rocks their dubious way, + And in each bubbling fountain rise to day. + +[_The winged vapours_. l. 14. See additional note No. XXV. on +evaporation.] + +[_On each broad cloud_. l. 15. The clouds consist of condensed vapour, +the particles of which are too small separately to overcome the tenacity +of the air, and which therefore do not descend. They are in such small +spheres as to repel each other, that is, they are applied to each other +by such very small surfaces, that the attraction of the particles of +each drop to its own centre is greater than its attraction to the +surface of the drop in its vicinity; every one has observed with what +difficulty small spherules of quicksilver can be made to unite, owing to +the same cause; and it is common to see on riding through shallow water +on a clear day, numbers of very small spheres of water as they are +thrown from the horses feet run along the surface for many yards before +they again unite with it. In many cases these spherules of water, which +compose clouds, are kept from uniting by a surplus of electric fluid; +and fall in violent showers as soon as that is withdrawn from them, as +in thunder storms. See note on Canto I. l. 553. + +If in this state a cloud becomes frozen, it is torn to pieces in its +descent by the friction of the air, and falls in white flakes of snow. +Or these flakes are rounded by being rubbed together by the winds, and +by having their angles thawed off by the warmer air beneath as they +descend; and part of the water produced by these angles thus dissolved +is absorbed into the body of the hailstone, as may be seen by holding a +lump of snow over a candle, and there becomes frozen into ice by the +quantity of cold which the hailstone possesses beneath the freezing +point, or which is produced by its quick evaporation in falling; and +thus hailstones are often found of greater or less density according as +they consist of a greater portion of snow or ice. If hailstones +consisted of the large drops of showers frozen in their descent, they +would consist of pure transparent ice. + +As hail is only produced in summer, and is always attended with storms, +some philosophers have believed that the sudden departure of electricity +from a cloud may effect something yet unknown in this phenomenon; but it +may happen in summer independent of electricity, because the aqueous +vapour is then raised higher in the atmosphere, whence it has further to +fall, and there is warmer air below for it to fall through.] + +[_Or sink in silver dews_. l. 18. During the coldness of the night the +moisture before dissolved in the air is gradually precipitated, and as +it subsides adheres to the bodies it falls upon. Where the attraction of +the body to the particles of water is greater than the attractions of +those particles to each other, it becomes spread upon their surface, or +slides down them in actual contact; as on the broad parts of the blades +of moist grass: where the attraction of the surface to the water is less +than the attraction of the particles of water to each other, the dew +stands in drops; as on the points and edges of grass or gorse, where the +surface presented to the drop being small it attracts it so little as +but just to support it without much changing its globular form: where +there is no attraction between the vegetable surface and the dew drops, +as on cabbage leaves, the drop does not come into contact with the leaf, +but hangs over it repelled, and retains it natural form, composed of the +attraction and pressure of its own parts, and thence looks like +quicksilver, reflecting light from both its surfaces. Nor is this owing +to any oiliness of the leaf, but simply to the polish of its surface, as +a light needle may be laid on water in the same manner without touching +it; for as the attractive powers of polished surfaces are greater when +in actual contact, so the repulsive power is greater before contact.] + +[_The blue mist_. l. 20. Mists are clouds resting on the ground, they +generally come on at the beginning of night, and either fill the moist +vallies, or hang on the summits of hills, according to the degree of +moisture previously dissolved, and the eduction of heat from them. The +air over rivers during the warmth of the day suspends much moisture, and +as the changeful surface of rivers occasions them to cool sooner than +the land at the approach of evening, mists are most frequently seen to +begin over rivers, and to spread themselves over moist grounds, and fill +the vallies, while the mists on the tops of mountains are more properly +clouds, condensed by the coldness of their situation. + +On ascending up the side of a hill from a misty valley, I have observed +a beautiful coloured halo round the moon when a certain thickness of +mist was over me, which ceased to be visible as soon as I emerged out of +it; and well remember admiring with other spectators the shadow of the +three spires of the cathedral church at Lichfield, the moon rising +behind it, apparently broken off, and lying distinctly over our heads as +if horizontally on the surface of the mist, which arose about as high as +the roof of the church. There are some curious remarks on shadows or +reflexions seen on the surface of mists from high mountains in Ulloa's +Voyages. The dry mist of summer 1783, was probably occasioned by +volcanic eruption, as mentioned in note on Chunda, Vol. II. and +therefore more like the atmosphere of smoke which hangs on still days +over great cities. + +There is a dry mist, or rather a diminished transparence of the air, +which according to Mr. Saussure accompanies fair weather, while great +transparence of air indicates rain. Thus when large rivers two miles +broad, such as at Liverpool, appear narrow, it is said to prognosticate +rain; and when wide, fair weather. This want of transparence of the air +in dry weather, may be owing to new combinations or decompositions of +the vapours dissolved in it, but wants further investigation. Essais sur +L'Hygromet, p. 357.] + +[_Round the gelid hill_. l. 20. See additional notes, No. XXVI. on the +origin of springs.] + + + 25 "NYMPHS! YOU then guide, attendant from their source, + The associate rills along their sinuous course; + Float in bright squadrons by the willowy brink, + Or circling slow in limpid eddies sink; + Call from her crystal cave the Naiad-Nymph, + 30 Who hides her fine form in the passing lymph, + And, as below she braids her hyaline hair, + Eyes her soft smiles reflected in the air; + Or sport in groups with River-Boys, that lave + Their silken limbs amid the dashing wave; + 35 Pluck the pale primrose bending from its edge, + Or tittering dance amid the whispering sedge.-- + + "Onward YOU pass, the pine-capt hills divide, + Or feed the golden harvests on their side; + The wide-ribb'd arch with hurrying torrents fill, + 40 Shove the slow barge, or whirl the foaming mill. + OR lead with beckoning hand the sparkling train + Of refluent water to its parent main, + And pleased revisit in their sea-moss vales + Blue Nereid-forms array'd in shining scales, + 45 Shapes, whose broad oar the torpid wave impels, + And Tritons bellowing through their twisted shells. + + "So from the heart the sanguine stream distils, + O'er Beauty's radiant shrine in vermil rills, + Feeds each fine nerve, each slender hair pervades, + 50 The skins bright snow with living purple shades, + Each dimpling cheek with warmer blushes dyes, + Laughs on the lips, and lightens in the eyes. + --Erewhile absorb'd, the vagrant globules swim + From each fair feature, and proportion'd limb, + 55 Join'd in one trunk with deeper tint return + To the warm concave of the vital urn. + + II. 1."AQUATIC MAIDS! YOU sway the mighty realms + Of scale and shell, which Ocean overwhelms; + As Night's pale Queen her rising orb reveals, + 60 And climbs the zenith with refulgent wheels, + Car'd on the foam your glimmering legion rides, + Your little tridents heave the dashing tides, + Urge on the sounding shores their crystal course, + Restrain their fury, or direct their force. + + +[_Car'd on the foam_. l. 61. The phenomena of the tides have been well +investigated and satisfactorily explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Dr. +Halley from the reciprocal gravitations of the earth, moon, and sun. As +the earth and moon move round a centre of motion near the earth's +surface, at the same time that they are proceeding in their annual orbit +round the sun, it follows that the water on the side of the earth +nearest this centre of motion between the earth and moon will be more +attracted by the moon, and the waters on the opposite side of the earth +will be less attracted by the moon, than the central parts of the earth. +Add to this that the centrifugal force of the water on the side of the +earth furthest from the centre of the motion, round which the earth and +moon move, (which, as was said before, is near the surface of the earth) +is greater than that on the opposite side of the earth. From both these +causes it is easy to comprehend that the water will rise on two sides of +the earth, viz. on that nearest to the moon, and its opposite side, and +that it will be flattened in consequence at the quadratures, and thus +produce two tides in every lunar day, which consists of about twenty- +four hours and forty-eight minutes. + +These tides will be also affected by the solar attraction when it +coincides with the lunar one, or opposes it, as at new and full moon, +and will also be much influenced by the opposing shores in every part of +the earth. + +Now as the moon in moving round the centre of gravity between itself and +the earth describes a much larger orbit than the earth describes round +the same centre, it follows that the centrifugal motion on the side of +the moon opposite to the earth must be much greater than the centrifugal +motion of the side of the earth opposite to the moon round the same +centre. And secondly, as the attraction of the earth exerted on the +moon's surface next to the earth is much greater than the attraction of +the moon exerted on the earth's surface, the tides on the lunar sea, (if +such there be,) should be much greater than those of our ocean. Add to +this that as the same face of the moon always is turned to the earth, +the lunar tides must be permanent, and if the solid parts of the moon be +spherical, must always cover the phasis next to us. But as there are +evidently hills and vales and volcanos on this side of the moon, the +consequence is that the moon has no ocean, or that it is frozen.] + + + 65 2."NYMPHS! YOU adorn, in glossy volumes roll'd, + The gaudy conch with azure, green, and gold. + You round Echinus ray his arrowy mail, + Give the keel'd Nautilus his oar and sail; + Firm to his rock with silver cords suspend + 70 The anchor'd Pinna, and his Cancer-friend; + With worm-like beard his toothless lips array, + And teach the unwieldy Sturgeon to betray.-- + Ambush'd in weeds, or sepulcher'd in sands, + In dread repose He waits the scaly bands, + 75 Waves in red spires the living lures, and draws + The unwary plunderers to his circling jaws, + Eyes with grim joy the twinkling shoals beset, + And clasps the quick inextricable net. + You chase the warrior Shark, and cumberous Whale, + 80 And guard the Mermaid in her briny vale; + Feed the live petals of her insect-flowers, + Her shell-wrack gardens, and her sea-fan bowers; + With ores and gems adorn her coral cell, + And drop a pearl in every gaping shell. + + +[_The gaudy conch_. l. 66. The spiral form of many shells seem to have +afforded a more frugal manner of covering the long tail of the fish with +calcareous armour; since a single thin partition between the adjoining +circles of the fish was sufficient to defend both surfaces, and thus +much cretaceous matter is saved; and it is probable that from this +spiral form they are better enabled to feel the vibrations of the +element in which they exist. See note on Canto IV. l. 162. This +cretaceous matter is formed by a mucous secretion from the skin of the +fish, as is seen in crab-fish, and others which annually cast their +shells, and is at first a soft mucous covering, (like that of a hen's +egg, when it is laid a day or two too soon,) and which gradually +hardens. This may also be seen in common shell snails, if a part of +their shell be broken it becomes repaired in a similar manner with +mucus, which by degrees hardens into shell. + +It is probable the calculi or stones found in other animals may have a +similar origin, as they are formed on mucous membranes, as those of the +kidney and bladder, chalk-stones in the gout, and gall-stones; and are +probably owing to the inflammation of the membrane where they are +produced, and vary according to the degree of inflammation of the +membrane which forms them, and the kind of mucous which it naturally +produces. Thus the shelly matter of different shell-fish differs, from +the courser kinds which form the shells of crabs, to the finer kinds +which produces the mother-pearl. + +The beautiful colours of some shells originate from the thinness of the +laminae of which they consist, rather than to any colouring matter, as +is seen in mother-pearl, which reflects different colours according to +the obliquity of the light which falls on it. The beautiful prismatic +colours seen on the Labrodore stone are owing to a similar cause, viz. +the thinness of the laminae of which it consists, and has probably been +formed from mother-pearl shells. + +It is curious that some of the most common fossil shells are not now +known in their recent state, as the cornua ammonis; and on the contrary, +many shells which are very plentiful in their recent state, as limpets, +sea-ears, volutes, cowries, are very rarely found fossil. Da Costa's +Conchology, p. 163. Were all the ammoniae destroyed when the continents +were raised? Or do some genera of animals perish by the increasing power +of their enemies? Or do they still reside at inaccessible depths in the +sea? Or do some animals change their forms gradually and become new +genera?] + +[_Echinus. Nautilus_. l. 67, 68. See additional notes, No. XXVII.] + +[_Pinna. Cancer_. l. 70. See additional notes, No. XXVII.] + +[_With worm-like beard_. l. 71. See additional notes, No. XXVIII.] + +[_Feed the live petals_. l. 82. There is a sea-insect described by Mr. +Huges whose claws or tentacles being disposed in regular circles and +tinged with variety of bright lively colours represent the petals of +some most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers as the carnation, +marigold, and anemone. Philos. Trans. Abridg. Vol. IX. p. 110. The Abbe +Dicquemarre has further elucidated the history of the actinia; and +observed their manner of taking their prey by inclosing it in these +beautiful rays like a net. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXIII. and LXV. and LXVII.] + +[_And drop a pearl_. l. 84. Many are the opinions both of antient and +modern concerning the production of pearls. Mr. Reaumur thinks they are +formed like the hard concretions in many land animals as stones of the +bladder, gallstones, and bezoar, and hence concludes them to be a +disease of the fish, but there seems to be a stricter analogy between +these and the calcareous productions found in crab-fish called crab's +eyes, which are formed near the stomach of the animal, and constitute a +reservoir of calcareous matter against the renovation of the shell, at +which time they are re-dissolved and deposited for that purpose. As the +internal part of the shell of the pearl oyster or muscle consists of +mother-pearl which is a similar material to the pearl and as the animal +has annually occasion to enlarge his shell there is reason to suspect the +loose pearls are similar reservoirs of the pearly matter for that +purpose.] + + + 85 3. "YOUR myriad trains o'er stagnant ocean's tow, + Harness'd with gossamer, the loitering prow; + Or with fine films, suspended o'er the deep, + Of oil effusive lull the waves to sleep. + You stay the flying bark, conceal'd beneath, + 90 Where living rocks of worm-built coral breathe; + Meet fell TEREDO, as he mines the keel + With beaked head, and break his lips of steel; + Turn the broad helm, the fluttering canvas urge + From MAELSTROME'S fierce innavigable surge. + 95 --'Mid the lorn isles of Norway's stormy main, + As sweeps o'er many a league his eddying train, + Vast watery walls in rapid circles spin, + And deep-ingulph'd the Demon dwells within; + Springs o'er the fear-froze crew with Harpy-claws, +100 Down his deep den the whirling vessel draws; + Churns with his bloody mouth the dread repast, + The booming waters murmuring o'er the mast. + + +[_Or with fine films_. l. 87. See additional notes, No. XXIX.] + +[_Where living rocks_. l. 90. The immense and dangerous rocks built by +the swarms of coral infects which rise almost perpendicularly in the +southern ocean like walls are described in Cook's voyages, a point of +one of these rocks broke off and stuck in the hole which it had made in +the bottom of one of his ships, which would otherwise have perished by +the admission of water. The numerous lime-stone rocks which consist of a +congeries of the cells of these animals and which constitute a great +part of the solid earth shew their prodigious multiplication in all ages +of the world. Specimens of these rocks are to be seen in the Lime-works +at Linsel near Newport in Shropshire, in Coal-brook Dale, and in many +parts of the Peak of Derbyshire. The insect has been well described by +M. Peyssonnel, Ellis, and others. Phil. Trans. Vol. XLVII. L. LII. and +LVII.] + +[_Meet fell Teredo_. l. 91. See additional notes, No. XXX.] + +[_Turn the broad helm_. l 93. See additional notes, No. XXXI.] + + + III. "Where with chill frown enormous ALPS alarms + A thousand realms, horizon'd in his arms; +105 While cloudless suns meridian glories shed + From skies of silver round his hoary head, + Tall rocks of ice refract the coloured rays, + And Frost sits throned amid the lambent blaze; + NYMPHS! YOUR thin forms pervade his glittering piles, +110 His roofs of chrystal, and his glasy ailes; + Where in cold caves imprisoned Naiads sleep, + Or chain'd on mossy couches wake and weep; + Where round dark crags indignant waters bend + Through rifted ice, in ivory veins descend, +115 Seek through unfathom'd snows their devious track, + Heave the vast spars, the ribbed granites crack, + Rush into day, in foamy torrents shine, + And swell the imperial Danube or the Rhine.-- + Or feed the murmuring TIBER, as he laves +120 His realms inglorious with diminish'd waves, + Hears his lorn Forum sound with Eunuch-strains, + Sees dancing slaves insult his martial plains; + Parts with chill stream the dim religious bower, + Time-mouldered bastion, and dismantled tower; +125 By alter'd fanes and nameless villas glides, + And classic domes, that tremble on his sides; + Sighs o'er each broken urn, and yawning tomb, + And mourns the fall of LIBERTY and ROME. + + +[_Where round dark craggs_. l. 113. See additional notes, No. XXXII.] + +[_Heave the vast spars_. l. 116. Water in descending down elevated +situations if the outlet for it below is not sufficient for its emission +acts with a force equal to the height of the column, as is seen in an +experimental machine called the philosophical bellows, in which a few +pints of water are made to raise many hundred pounds. To this cause is +to be ascribed many large promontories of ice being occasionally thrown +down from the glaciers; rocks have likewise been thrown from the sides +of mountains by the same cause, and large portions of earth have been +removed many hundred yards from their situations at the foot of +mountains. On inspecting the locomotion of about thirty acres of earth +with a small house near Bilder's Bridge in Shropshire, about twenty +years ago, from the foot of a mountain towards the river, I well +remember it bore all the marks of having been thus lifted up, pushed +away, and as it were crumpled into ridges, by a column of water +contained in the mountain. + +From water being thus confined in high columns between the strata of +mountainous countries it has often happened that when wells or +perforations have been made into the earth, that springs have arisen +much above the surface of the new well. When the new bridge was building +at Dublin Mr. G. Semple found a spring in the bed of the river where he +meant to lay the foundation of a pierre, which, by fixing iron pipes +into it, he raised many feet. Treatise on Building in Water, by G. +Semple. From having observed a valley north-west of St. Alkmond's well +near Derby, at the head of which that spring of water once probably +existed, and by its current formed the valley, (but which in after times +found its way out in its present situation,) I suspect that St. +Alkmond's well might by building round it be raised high enough to +supply many streets in Derby with spring-water which are now only +supplied with river-water. See an account of an artificial spring of +water, Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXV. p. 1. + +In making a well at Sheerness the water rose 300 feet above its source +in the well. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXIV. And at Hartford in Connecticut +there is a well which was dug seventy feet deep before water was found, +then in boring an augur-hole through a rock the water rose so fast as to +make it difficult to keep it dry by pumps till they could blow the hole +larger by gunpowder, which was no sooner accomplished than it filled and +run over, and has been a brook for near a century. Travels through +America. Lond. 1789. Lane.] + + + IV. "Sailing in air, when dark MONSOON inshrouds +130 His tropic mountains in a night of clouds; + Or drawn by whirlwinds from the Line returns, + And showers o'er Afric all his thousand urns; + High o'er his head the beams of SIRIUS glow, + And, Dog of Nile, ANUBIS barks below. +135 NYMPHS! YOU from cliff to cliff attendant guide + In headlong cataracts the impetuous tide; + Or lead o'er wastes of Abyssinian sands + The bright expanse to EGYPT'S shower-less lands. + --Her long canals the sacred waters fill, +140 And edge with silver every peopled hill; + Gigantic SPHINX in circling waves admire; + And MEMNON bending o'er his broken lyre; + O'er furrow'd glebes and green savannas sweep, + And towns and temples laugh amid the deep. + + +[_Dark monsoon inshrouds_. l. 129. When from any peculiar situations of +land in respect to sea the tropic becomes more heated, when the sun is +vertical over it, than the line, the periodical winds called monsoons +are produced, and these are attended by rainy seasons; for as the air at +the tropic is now more heated than at the line it ascends by decrease of +its specific gravity, and floods of air rush in both from the South West +and North East, and these being one warmer than the other the rain is +precipitated by their mixture as observed by Dr. Hutton. See additional +notes, No. XXV. All late travellers have ascribed the rise of the Nile +to the monsoons which deluge Nubia and Abyssinia with rain. The whirling +of the ascending air was even seen by Mr. Bruce in Abyssinia; he says, +"every morning a small cloud began to whirl round, and presently after +the whole heavens became covered with clouds," by this vortex of +ascending air the N.E. winds and the S.W. winds, which flow in to supply +the place of the ascending column, became mixed more rapidly and +deposited their rain in greater abundance. + +Mr. Volney observes that the time of the rising of the Nile commences +about the 19th of June, and that Abyssinia and the adjacent parts of +Africa are deluged with rain in May, June, and July, and produce a mass +of water which is three months in draining off. The Abbe Le Pluche +observes that as Sirius, or the dog-star, rose at the time of the +commencement of the flood its rising was watched by the astronomers, and +notice given of the approach of inundation by hanging the figure of +Anubis, which was that of a man with a dog's head, upon all their +temples. Histoire de Ciel.] + +[Illustration: Fertilization of Egypt.] + +[_Egypt's shower-less lands_. l. 138. There seem to be two situations +which may be conceived to be exempted from rain falling upon them, one +where the constant trade-winds meet beneath the line, for here two +regions of warm air are mixed together, and thence do not seem to have +any cause to precipitate their vapour; and the other is, where the winds +are brought from colder climates and become warmer by their contact with +the earth of a warmer one. Thus Lower Egypt is a flat country warmed by +the sun more than the higher lands of one side of it, and than the +Mediterranean on the other; and hence the winds which blow over it +acquire greater warmth, which ever way they come, than they possessed +before, and in consequence have a tendency to acquire and not to part +with their vapour like the north-east winds of this country. There is +said to be a narrow spot upon the coast of Peru where rain seldom +occurs, at the same time according to Ulloa on the mountainous regions +of the Andes beyond there is almost perpetual rain. For the wind blows +uniformly upon this hot part of the coast of Peru, but no cause of +devaporation occurs till it begins to ascend the mountainous Andes, and +then its own expansion produces cold sufficient to condense its vapour.] + + +145 V. 1. "High in the frozen North where HECCLA glows, + And melts in torrents his coeval snows; + O'er isles and oceans sheds a sanguine light, + Or shoots red stars amid the ebon night; + When, at his base intomb'd, with bellowing sound +150 Fell GIESAR roar'd, and struggling shook the ground; + Pour'd from red nostrils, with her scalding breath, + A boiling deluge o'er the blasted heath; + And, wide in air, in misty volumes hurl'd + Contagious atoms o'er the alarmed world; +155 NYMPHS! YOUR bold myriads broke the infernal spell, + And crush'd the Sorceress in her flinty cell. + +[_Fell Giesar roar'd_. l. 150. The boiling column of water at Giesar in +Iceland was nineteen feet in diameter, and sometimes rose to the height +of ninety-two feet. On cooling it deposited a siliceous matter or +chalcedony forming a bason round its base. The heat of this water before +it rose out of the earth could not be ascertained, as water looses all +its heat above 212 (as soon as it is at liberty to expand) by the +exhalation of a part, but the flinty bason which is deposited from it +shews that water with great degrees of heat will dissolve siliceous +matter. Van Troil's Letters on Iceland. Since the above account in the +year 1780 this part of Iceland has been destroyed by an earthquake or +covered with lava, which was probably effected by the force of aqueous +steam, a greater quantity of water falling on the subterraneous fires +than could escape by the antient outlets and generating an increased +quantity of vapour. For the dispersion of contagious vapours from +volcanos see an account of the Harmattan in the notes on Chunda, Vol. II.] + + + 2. "Where with soft fires in unextinguish'd urns, + Cauldron'd in rock, innocuous Lava burns; + On the bright lake YOUR gelid hands distil +160 In pearly mowers the parsimonious rill; + And, as aloft the curling vapours rise + Through the cleft roof, ambitious for the skies, + In vaulted hills condense the tepid steams, + And pour to HEALTH the medicated streams. +165 --So in green vales amid her mountains bleak + BUXTONIA smiles, the Goddess-Nymyh of Peak; + Deep in warm waves, and pebbly baths she dwells, + And calls HYGEIA to her sainted wells. + + +[_Buxtonia smiles_. l. 166. Some arguments are mentioned in the note on +Fucus Vol. II. to shew that the warm springs of this country do not +arise from the decomposition of pyrites near the surface of the earth, +but that they are produced by steam rising up the fissures of the +mountains from great depths, owing to water falling on subterraneous +fires, and that this steam is condensed between the strata of the +incumbent mountains and collected into springs. For further proofs on +this subject the reader is referred to a Letter from Dr. Darwin in Mr. +Pilkington's View of Derbyshire, Vol I. p. 256.] + + + "Hither in sportive bands bright DEVON leads +170 Graces and Loves from Chatsworth's flowery meads.-- + Charm'd round the NYMPH, they climb the rifted rocks; + And steep in mountain-mist their golden locks; + On venturous step her sparry caves explore, + And light with radiant eyes her realms of ore; +175 --Oft by her bubbling founts, and shadowy domes, + In gay undress the fairy legion roams, + Their dripping palms in playful malice fill, + Or taste with ruby lip the sparkling rill; + Croud round her baths, and, bending o'er the side, +180 Unclasp'd their sandals, and their zones untied, + Dip with gay fear the shuddering foot undress'd, + And quick retract it to the fringed vest; + Or cleave with brandish'd arms the lucid stream, + And sob, their blue eyes twinkling in the steam. +185 --High o'er the chequer'd vault with transient glow + Bright lustres dart, as dash the waves below; + And Echo's sweet responsive voice prolongs + The dulcet tumult of their silver tongues.-- + O'er their flush'd cheeks uncurling tresses flow, +190 And dew-drops glitter on their necks of snow; + Round each fair Nymph her dropping mantle clings, + And Loves emerging shake their showery wings. + + +[_And sob, their blue eyes_. l. 184. The bath at Buxton being of 82 +degrees of heat is called a warm bath, and is so compared with common +spring-water which possesses but 48 degrees of heat, but is nevertheless +a cold bath compared to the heat of the body which is 98. On going into +this bath there is therefore always a chill perceived at the first +immersion, but after having been in it a minute the chill ceases and a +sensation of warmth succeeds though the body continues to be immersed in +the water. The cause of this curious phenomenon is to be looked for in +the laws of animal sensation and not from any properties of heat. When a +person goes from clear day-light into an obscure room for a while it +appears gloomy, which gloom however in a little time ceases, and the +deficiency of light becomes no longer perceived. This is not solely +owing to the enlargement of the iris of the eye, since that is performed +in an instant, but to this law of sensation, that when a less stimulus +is applied (within certain bounds) the sensibility increases. Thus at +going into a bath as much colder than the body as that of Buxton, the +diminution of heat on the skin is at first perceived, but in about a +minute the sensibility to heat increases and the nerves of the skin are +equally excited by the lessened stimulus. The sensation of warmth at +emerging from a cold-bath, and the pain called the hot-ach, after the +hands have been immersed in snow, depend on the same principle, viz. the +increased sensibility of the skin after having been previously exposed +to a stimulus less than usual.] + + + "Here oft her LORD surveys the rude domain, + Fair arts of Greece triumphant in his train; +195 LO! as he steps, the column'd pile ascends, + The blue roof closes, or the crescent bends; + New woods aspiring clothe their hills with green, + Smooth slope the lawns, the grey rock peeps between; + Relenting Nature gives her hand to Taste, +200 And Health and Beauty crown the laughing waste. + + +[_Here oft her Lord_. l. 193. Alluding to the magnificent and beautiful +crescent, and superb stables lately erected at Buxton for the +accomodation of the company by the Duke of Devonshire; and to the +plantations with which he has decorated the surrounding mountains.] + + VI. "NYMPHS! YOUR bright squadrons watch with chemic eyes + The cold-elastic vapours, as they rise; + With playful force arrest them as they pass, + And to _pure_ AIR betroth the _flaming_ GAS. +205 Round their translucent forms at once they fling + Their rapturous arms, with silver bosoms cling; + In fleecy clouds their fluttering wings extend, + Or from the skies in lucid showers descend; + Whence rills and rivers owe their secret birth, +210 And Ocean's hundred arms infold the earth. + + +[_And to pure air_. l. 204. Until very lately water was esteemed a +simple element, nor are all the most celebrated chemists of Europe yet +converts to the new opinion of its decomposition. Mr. Lavoisier and +others of the French school have most ingeniously endeavoured to shew +that water consists of pure air, called by them oxygene, and of +inflammable air, called hydrogene, with as much of the matter of heat, +or calorique, as is necessary to preserve them in the form of gas. Gas +is distinguished from steam by its preserving its elasticity under the +pressure of the atmosphere, and in the greatest degrees of cold yet +known. The history of the progress of this great discovery is detailed +in the Memoires of the Royal Academy for 1781, and the experimental +proofs of it are delivered in Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry. The +results of which are that water consists of eighty-five parts by weight +of oxygene, and fifteen parts by weight of hydrogene, with a sufficient +quantity of Calorique. Not only numerous chemical phenomena, but many +atmospherical and vegetable facts receive clear and beautiful +elucidation from this important analysis. In the atmosphere inflammable +air is probably perpetually uniting with vital air and producing +moisture which descends in dews and showers, while the growth of +vegetables by the assistance of light is perpetually again decomposing +the water they imbibe from the earth, and while they retain the +inflammable air for the formation of oils, wax, honey, resin, &c. they +give up the vital air to replenish the atmosphere.] + + + "So, robed by Beauty's Queen, with softer charms + SATURNIA woo'd the Thunderer to her arms; + O'er her fair limbs a veil of light she spread, + And bound a starry diadem on her head; +215 Long braids of pearl her golden tresses grac'd, + And the charm'd CESTUS sparkled round her waist. + --Raised o'er the woof, by Beauty's hand inwrought, + Breathes the soft Sigh, and glows the enamour'd Thought; + Vows on light wings succeed, and quiver'd Wiles, +220 Assuasive Accents, and seductive Smiles. + --Slow rolls the Cyprian car in purple pride, + And, steer'd by LOVE, ascends admiring Ide; + Climbs the green slopes, the nodding woods pervades, + Burns round the rocks, or gleams amid the shades. +225 --Glad ZEPHYR leads the train, and waves above + The barbed darts, and blazing torch of Love; + Reverts his smiling face, and pausing flings + Soft showers of roses from aurelian wings. + Delighted Fawns, in wreathes of flowers array'd, +230 With tiptoe Wood-Boys beat the chequer'd glade; + Alarmed Naiads, rising into air, + Lift o'er their silver urns their leafy hair; + Each to her oak the bashful Dryads shrink, + And azure eyes are seen through every chink. +235 --LOVE culls a flaming shaft of broadest wing, + And rests the fork upon the quivering string; + Points his arch eye aloft, with fingers strong + Draws to his curled ear the silken thong; + Loud twangs the steel, the golden arrow flies, +240 Trails a long line of lustre through the skies; + "'Tis done!" he shouts, "the mighty Monarch feels!" + And with loud laughter shakes the silver wheels; + Bends o'er the car, and whirling, as it moves, + His loosen'd bowstring, drives the rising doves. +245 --Pierced on his throne the slarting Thunderer turns, + Melts with soft sighs, with kindling rapture burns; + Clasps her fair hand, and eyes in fond amaze + The bright Intruder with enamour'd gaze. + "And leaves my Goddess, like a blooming bride, +250 "The fanes of Argos for the rocks of Ide? + "Her gorgeous palaces, and amaranth bowers, + "For cliff-top'd mountains, and aerial towers?" + He said; and, leading from her ivory seat + The blushing Beauty to his lone retreat, +255 Curtain'd with night the couch imperial shrouds, + And rests the crimson cushions upon clouds.-- + Earth feels the grateful influence from above, + Sighs the soft Air, and Ocean murmurs love; + Etherial Warmth expands his brooding wing, +260 And in still showers descends the genial Spring. + + +[_And steer'd by love_. l. 222. The younger love, or Cupid, the son of +Venus, owes his existence and his attributes to much later times than +the Eros, or divine love, mentioned in Canto I. since the former is no +where mentioned by Homer, though so many apt opportunities of +introducing him occur in the works of that immortal bard. Bacon.] + +[_And in still showers._ l. 260. The allegorical interpretation of the +very antient mythology which supposes Jupiter to represent the superior +part of the atmosphere or ether, and Juno the inferior air, and that the +conjunction of these two produces vernal showers, as alluded to in +Virgil's Georgics, is so analogous to the present important discovery of +the production of water from pure air, or oxygene, and inflammable air, +or hydrogene, (which from its greater levity probably resides over the +former,) that one should be tempted to believe that the very antient +chemists of Egypt had discovered the composition of water, and thus +represented it in their hieroglyphic figures before the invention of +letters. + +In the passage of Virgil Jupiter is called ether, and descends in +prolific showers on the bosom of Juno, whence the spring succeeds and +all nature rejoices. + + Tum pater omnipotens foecundis imbribus Aether + Conjugis in gremium laetae descendit, et omnes + Magnus alit, magno commixtus corpore, faetus. + + Virg. Georg. Lib. II. l. 325.] + + + VII. "NYMPHS OF AQUATIC TASTE! whose placid smile + Breathes sweet enchantment o'er BRITANNIA'S isle; + Whose sportive touch in showers resplendent flings + Her lucid cataracts, and her bubbling springs; +265 Through peopled vales the liquid silver guides, + And swells in bright expanse her freighted tides. + YOU with nice ear, in tiptoe trains, pervade + Dim walks of morn or evening's silent shade; + Join the lone Nightingale, her woods among, +270 And roll your rills symphonious to her song; + Through fount-full dells, and wave-worn valleys move, + And tune their echoing waterfalls to love; + Or catch, attentive to the distant roar, + The pausing murmurs of the dashing shore; +275 Or, as aloud she pours her liquid strain, + Pursue the NEREID on the twilight main. + --Her playful Sea-horse woos her soft commands, + Turns his quick ears, his webbed claws expands, + His watery way with waving volutes wins, +280 Or listening librates on unmoving fins. + The Nymph emerging mounts her scaly seat, + Hangs o'er his glossy sides her silver feet, + With snow-white hands her arching veil detains, + Gives to his slimy lips the slacken'd reins, +285 Lifts to the star of Eve her eye serene, + And chaunts the birth of Beauty's radiant Queen.-- + O'er her fair brow her pearly comb unfurls + Her beryl locks, and parts the waving curls, + Each tangled braid with glistening teeth unbinds +290 And with the floating treasure musks the winds.-- + Thrill'd by the dulcet accents, as she sings, + The rippling wave in widening circles rings; + Night's shadowy forms along the margin gleam + With pointed ears, or dance upon the stream; +295 The Moon transported stays her bright career, + And maddening Stars shoot headlong from the sphere. + + +[_Her playful seahorse._ l. 277. Described form an antique gem.] + + + VIII. "NYMPHS! whose fair eyes with vivid lustres glow + For human weal, and melt at human woe; + Late as YOU floated on your silver shells, +300 Sorrowing and slow by DERWENT'S willowy dells; + Where by tall groves his foamy flood he steers + Through ponderous arches o'er impetuous wears, + By DERBY'S shadowy towers reflective sweeps, + And gothic grandeur chills his dusky deeps; +305 You pearl'd with Pity's drops his velvet sides, + Sigh'd in his gales, and murmur'd in his tides, + Waved o'er his fringed brink a deeper gloom, + And bow'd his alders o'er MILCENA'S tomb. + + +[_O'er Milcena's tomb_. l. 308. In memory of Mrs. French, a lady who to +many other elegant accomplishments added a proficiency in botany and +natural history.] + + + "Oft with sweet voice She led her infant-train, +310 Printing with graceful step his spangled plain, + Explored his twinkling swarms, that swim or fly, + And mark'd his florets with botanic eye.-- + "Sweet bud of Spring! how frail thy transient bloom, + "Fine film," she cried, "of Nature's fairest loom! +315 "Soon Beauty fades upon its damask throne!"-- + --Unconscious of the worm, that mined her own!-- + --Pale are those lips, where soft caresses hung, + Wan the warm cheek, and mute the tender tongue, + Cold rests that feeling heart on Derwent's shore, +320 And those love-lighted eye-balls roll no more! + + --HERE her sad Consort, stealing through the gloom + Of + Hangs in mute anguish o'er the scutcheon'd hearse, + Or graves with trembling style the votive verse. + +325 "Sexton! oh, lay beneath this sacred shrine, + When Time's cold hand shall close my aching eyes, + Oh, gently lay this wearied earth of mine, + Where wrap'd in night my loved MILCENA lies. + + "So shall with purer joy my spirit move, +330 When the last trumpet thrills the caves of Death, + Catch the first whispers of my waking love, + And drink with holy kiss her kindling breath. + + "The spotless Fair, with blush ethereal warm, + Shall hail with sweeter smile returning day, +335 Rise from her marble bed a brighter form, + And win on buoyant step her airy way. + + "Shall bend approved, where beckoning hosts invite, + On clouds of silver her adoring knee, + Approach with Seraphim the throne of light, +340 --And BEAUTY plead with angel-tongue for Me!" + + IX. "YOUR virgin trains on BRINDLEY'S cradle smiled, + And nursed with fairy-love the unletter'd child, + Spread round his pillow all your secret spells, + Pierced all your springs, and open'd all your wells.-- +345 As now on grass, with glossy folds reveal'd, + Glides the bright serpent, now in flowers conceal'd; + Far shine the scales, that gild his sinuous back, + And lucid undulations mark his track; + So with strong arm immortal BRINDLEY leads +350 His long canals, and parts the velvet meads; + Winding in lucid lines, the watery mass + Mines the firm rock, or loads the deep morass, + With rising locks a thousand hills alarms, + Flings o'er a thousand streams its silver arms, +355 Feeds the long vale, the nodding woodland laves, + And Plenty, Arts, and Commerce freight the waves. + --NYMPHS! who erewhile round BRINDLEY'S early bier + On show-white bosoms shower'd the incessant tear, + Adorn his tomb!--oh, raise the marble bust, +360 Proclaim his honours, and protect his dust! + With urns inverted, round the sacred shrine + Their ozier wreaths let weeping Naiads twine; + While on the top MECHANIC GENIUS stands, + Counts the fleet waves, and balances the lands. + + +[_On Brindley's cradle smiled_. l. 341. The life of Mr. Brindley, whose +great abilities in the construction of canal navigation were called +forth by the patronage of the Duke of Bridgwater, may be read in Dr. +Kippis's Biographia Britannica, the excellence of his genius is visible +in every part of this island. He died at Turnhurst in Staffordshire in +1772, and ought to have a monument in the cathedral church at +Lichfield.] + + +365 X. "NYMPHS! YOU first taught to pierce the secret caves + Of humid earth, and lift her ponderous waves; + Bade with quick stroke the sliding piston bear + The viewless columns of incumbent air;-- + Press'd by the incumbent air the floods below, +370 Through opening valves in foaming torrents flow, + Foot after foot with lessen'd impulse move, + And rising seek the vacancy above.-- + So when the Mother, bending o'er his charms, + Clasps her fair nurseling in delighted arms; +375 Throws the thin kerchief from her neck of snow, + And half unveils the pearly orbs below; + With sparkling eye the blameless Plunderer owns + Her soft embraces, and endearing tones, + Seeks the salubrious fount with opening lips, +380 Spreads his inquiring hands, and smiles, and sips. + + +[_Lift her ponderous waves_. l. 366. The invention of the pump is of +very antient date, being ascribed to one Ctesebes an Athenian, whence it +was called by the Latins machina Ctesebiana; but it was long before it +was known that the ascent of the piston lifted the superincumbent column +of the atmosphere, and that then the pressure of the surrounding air on +the surface of the well below forced the water up into the vacuum, and +that on that account in the common lifting pump the water would rise +only about thirty-five feet, as the weight of such a column of water was +in general an equipoise to the surrounding atmosphere. The foamy +appearance of water, when the pressure of the air over it is diminished, +is owing to the expansion and escape of the air previously dissolved by +it, or existing in its pores. When a child first sucks it only presses +or champs the teat, as observed by the great Harvey, but afterwards it +learns to make an incipient vacuum in its mouth, and acts by removing +the pressure of the atmosphere from the nipple, like a pump.] + + + "CONNUBIAL FAIR! whom no fond transport warms + To lull your infant in maternal arms; + Who, bless'd in vain with tumid bosoms, hear + His tender wailings with unfeeling ear; +385 The soothing kiss and milky rill deny + To the sweet pouting lip, and glistening eye!-- + Ah! what avails the cradle's damask roof, + The eider bolster, and embroider'd woof!-- + Oft hears the gilded couch unpity'd plains, +390 And many a tear the tassel'd cushion stains! + No voice so sweet attunes his cares to rest, + So soft no pillow, as his Mother's breast!-- + --Thus charm'd to sweet repose, when twilight hours + Shed their soft influence on celestial bowers, +395 The Cherub, Innocence, with smile divine + Shuts his white wings, and sleeps on Beauty's shrine. + + +[_Ah! what avails_. l. 387. From an elegant little poem of Mr. +Jerningham's intitled Il Latte, exhorting ladies to nurse their own +children.] + + + XI. "From dome to dome when flames infuriate climb, + Sweep the long street, invest the tower sublime; + Gild the tall vanes amid the astonish'd night, +400 And reddening heaven returns the sanguine light; + While with vast strides and bristling hair aloof + Pale Danger glides along the falling roof; + And Giant Terror howling in amaze + Moves his dark limbs across the lurid blaze. +405 NYMPHS! you first taught the gelid wave to rise + Hurl'd in resplendent arches to the skies; + In iron cells condensed the airy spring, + And imp'd the torrent with unfailing wing; + --On the fierce flames the shower impetuous falls, +410 And sudden darkness shrouds the shatter'd walls; + Steam, smoak, and dust in blended volumes roll, + And Night and Silence repossess the Pole.-- + + +[_Hurl'd in resplendent arches_. l. 406. The addition of an air-cell to +machines for raising water to extinguish fire was first introduced by +Mr. Newsham of London, and is now applied to similar engines for washing +wall-trees in gardens, and to all kinds of forcing pumps, and might be +applied with advantage to lifting pumps where the water is brought from +a great distance horizontally. Another kind of machine was invented by +one Greyl, in which a vessel of water was every way dispersed by the +explosion of gun-powder lodging in the centre of it, and lighted by an +adapted match; from this idea Mr. Godfrey proposed a water-bomb of +similar construction. Dr. Hales to prevent the spreading of fire +proposed to cover the floors and stairs of the adjoining houses with +earth; Mr. Hartley proposed to prevent houses from taking fire by +covering the cieling with thin iron-plates, and Lord Mahon by a bed of +coarse mortar or plaister between the cieling and floor above it. May +not this age of chemical science discover some method of injecting or +soaking timber with lime-water and afterwards with vitriolic acid, and +thus fill its pores with alabaster? or of penetrating it with siliceous +matter, by processes similar to those of Bergman and Achard? See +Cronstadt's Mineral. 2d. edit. Vol. I. p. 222.] + + + "Where were ye, NYMPHS! in those disasterous hours, + Which wrap'd in flames AUGUSTA'S sinking towers? +415 Why did ye linger in your wells and groves, + When sad WOODMASON mourn'd her infant loves? + When thy fair Daughters with unheeded screams, + Ill-fated MOLESWORTH! call'd the loitering streams?-- + The trembling Nymph on bloodless fingers hung +420 Eyes from the tottering wall the distant throng, + With ceaseless shrieks her sleeping friends alarms, + Drops with singed hair into her lover's arms.-- + The illumin'd Mother seeks with footsteps fleet, + Where hangs the safe balcony o'er the street, +425 Wrap'd in her sheet her youngest hope suspends, + And panting lowers it to her tiptoe friends; + Again she hurries on affection's wings, + And now a third, and now a fourth, she brings; + Safe all her babes, she smooths her horrent brow, +430 And bursts through bickering flames, unscorch'd, below. + So, by her Son arraign'd, with feet unshod + O'er burning bars indignant Emma trod. + + +[Footnote: _Woodmason, Molesworth_. l. 416. The histories of these +unfortunate families may be seen in the Annual Register, or in the +Gentleman's Magazine.] + + + "E'en on the day when Youth with Beauty wed, + The flames surprized them in their nuptial bed;-- +435 Seen at the opening sash with bosom bare, + With wringing hands, and dark dishevel'd hair, + The blushing Beauty with disorder'd charms + Round her fond lover winds her ivory arms; + Beat, as they clasp, their throbbing hearts with fear, +440 And many a kiss is mix'd with many a tear;-- + Ah me! in vain the labouring engines pour + Round their pale limbs the ineffectual shower!-- + --Then crash'd the floor, while shrinking crouds retire, + And Love and Virtue sunk amid the fire!-- +445 With piercing screams afflicted strangers mourn, + And their white ashes mingle in their urn. + + XII. "PELLUCID FORMS! whose crystal bosoms show + The shine of welfare, or the shade of woe; + Who with soft lips salute returning Spring, +450 And hail the Zephyr quivering on his wing; + Or watch, untired, the wintery clouds, and share + With streaming eyes my vegetable care; + Go, shove the dim mist from the mountain's brow, + Chase the white fog, which floods the vale below; +455 Melt the thick snows, that linger on the lands, + And catch the hailstones in your little hands; + Guard the coy blossom from the pelting shower, + And dash the rimy spangles from the bower; + From each chill leaf the silvery drops repel, +460 And close the timorous floret's golden bell. + + +[_Shove the dim mist_. l. 453. See note on l. 20 of this Canto.] + +[_Catch the hail-stones_. l. 456. See note on l. 15 of this Canto.] + +[_From each chill leaf_. l. 459. The upper side of the leaf is the organ +of vegetable respiration, as explained in the additional notes, No. +XXXVII, hence the leaf is liable to injury from much moisture on this +surface, and is destroyed by being smeared with oil, in these respects +resembling the lungs of animals or the spiracula of insects. To prevent +these injuries some leaves repel the dew-drops from their upper surfaces +as those of cabbages; other vegetables close the upper surfaces of their +leaves together in the night or in wet weather, as the sensitive plant; +others only hang their leaves downwards so as to shoot the wet from +them, as kidney-beans, and many trees. See note on l. 18 of this Canto.] + +[_Golden bell_. l. 460. There are muscles placed about the footstalks of +the leaves or leaflets of many plants, for the purpose of closing their +upper surfaces together, or of bending them down so as to shoot off the +showers or dew-drops, as mentioned in the preceeding note. The claws of +the petals or of the divisions of the calyx of many flowers are +furnished in a similar manner with muscles, which are exerted to open or +close the corol and calyx of the flower as in tragopogon, anemone. This +action of opening and closing the leaves or flowers does not appear to +be produced simply by _irritation_ on the muscles themselves, but by the +connection of those muscles with a _sensitive_ sensorium or brain +existing in each individual bud or flower. 1st. Because many flowers +close from the defect of stimulus, not by the excess of it, as by +darkness, which is the absence of the stimulus of light; or by cold, +which is the absence of the stimulus of heat. Now the defect of heat, or +the absence of food, or of drink, affects our _sensations_, which had +been previously accustomed to a greater quantity of them; but a muscle +cannot be said to be stimulated into action by a defect of stimulus. 2. +Because the muscles around the footstalks of the subdivisions of the +leaves of the sensitive plant are exerted when any injury is offered to +the other extremity of the leaf, and some of the stamens of the flowers +of the class Syngenesia contract themselves when others are irritated. +See note on Chondrilla, Vol. II. of this work. + +From this circumstance the contraction of the muscles of vegetables +seems to depend on a disagreeable _sensation_ in some distant part, and +not on the _irritation_ of the muscles themselves. Thus when a particle +of dust stimulates the ball of the eye, the eye-lids are instantly +closed, and when too much light pains the retina, the muscles of the +iris contract its aperture, and this not by any connection or consent of +the nerves of those parts, but as an effort to prevent or to remove a +disagreeable sensation, which evinces that vegetables are endued with +sensation, or that each bud has a common sensorium, and is furnished +with a brain or a central place where its nerves were connected.] + + + "So should young SYMPATHY, in female form, + Climb the tall rock, spectatress of the storm; + Life's sinking wrecks with secret sighs deplore, + And bleed for others' woes, Herself on shore; +465 To friendless Virtue, gasping on the strand, + Bare her warm heart, her virgin arms expand, + Charm with kind looks, with tender accents cheer, + And pour the sweet consolatory tear; + Grief's cureless wounds with lenient balms asswage, +470 Or prop with firmer staff the steps of Age; + The lifted arm of mute Despair arrest, + And snatch the dagger pointed to his breast; + Or lull to slumber Envy's haggard mien, + And rob her quiver'd shafts with hand unseen. +475 --Sound, NYMPHS OF HELICON! the trump of Fame, + And teach Hibernian echoes JONES'S name; + Bind round her polish'd brow the civic bay, + And drag the fair Philanthropist to day.-- + So from secluded springs, and secret caves, +480 Her Liffy pours his bright meandering waves, + Cools the parch'd vale, the sultry mead divides, + And towns and temples star his shadowy sides. + + +[_Jones's name_. l. 476. A young lady who devotes a great part of an +ample fortune to well chosen acts of secret charity.] + + + XIII. "CALL YOUR light legions, tread the swampy heath, + Pierce with sharp spades the tremulous peat beneath; +485 With colters bright the rushy sward bisect, + And in new veins the gushing rills direct;-- + So flowers shall rise in purple light array'd, + And blossom'd orchards stretch their silver shade; + Admiring glebes their amber ears unfold, +490 And Labour sleep amid the waving gold. + + "Thus when young HERCULES with firm disdain + Braved the soft smiles of Pleasure's harlot train; + To valiant toils his forceful limbs assign'd, + And gave to Virtue all his mighty mind, +495 Fierce ACHELOUS rush'd from mountain-caves, + O'er sad Etolia pour'd his wasteful waves, + O'er lowing vales and bleating pastures roll'd, + Swept her red vineyards, and her glebes of gold, + Mined all her towns, uptore her rooted woods, +500 And Famine danced upon the shining floods. + The youthful Hero seized his curled crest, + And dash'd with lifted club the watery Pest; + With waving arm the billowy tumult quell'd, + And to his course the bellowing Fiend repell'd. + + +[_Fierce Achelous_. l. 495. The river Achelous deluged Etolia, by one of +its branches or arms, which in the antient languages are called horns, +and produced famine throughout a great tract of country, this was +represented in hieroglyphic emblems by the winding course of a serpent +and the roaring of a bull with large horns. Hercules, or the emblem of +strength, strangled the serpent, and tore off one horn from the bull; +that is, he stopped and turned the course of one arm of the river, and +restored plenty to the country. Whence the antient emblem of the horn of +plenty. Dict. par M. Danet.] + + +505 "Then to a Snake the finny Demon turn'd + His lengthen'd form, with scales of silver burn'd; + Lash'd with restless sweep his dragon-train, + And shot meandering o'er the affrighted plain. + The Hero-God, with giant fingers clasp'd +510 Firm round his neck, the hissing monster grasp'd; + With starting eyes, wide throat, and gaping teeth, + Curl his redundant folds, and writhe in death. + + "And now a Bull, amid the flying throng + The grisly Demon foam'd, and roar'd along; +515 With silver hoofs the flowery meadows spurn'd, + Roll'd his red eye, his threatening antlers turn'd. + Dragg'd down to earth, the Warrior's victor-hands + Press'd his deep dewlap on the imprinted sands; + Then with quick bound his bended knee he fix'd +520 High on his neck, the branching horns betwixt, + Strain'd his strong arms, his sinewy shoulders bent, + And from his curled brow the twisted terror rent. + --Pleased Fawns and Nymphs with dancing step applaud, + And hang their chaplets round the resting God; +525 Link their soft hands, and rear with pausing toil + The golden trophy on the furrow'd soil; + Fill with ripe fruits, with wreathed flowers adorn, + And give to PLENTY her prolific horn. + + +[_Dragg'd down to earth_. l. 517. Described from an antique gem.] + + + XIV. "On Spring's fair lap, CERULEAN SISTERS! pour +530 From airy urns the sun-illumined shower, + Feed with the dulcet drops my tender broods, + Mellifluous flowers, and aromatic buds; + Hang from each bending grass and horrent thorn + The tremulous pearl, that glitters to the morn; +535 Or where cold dews their secret channels lave, + And Earth's dark chambers hide the stagnant wave, + O, pierce, YE NYMPHS! her marble veins, and lead + Her gushing fountains to the thirsty mead; + Wide o'er the shining vales, and trickling hills +540 Spread the bright treasure in a thousand rills. + So shall my peopled realms of Leaf and Flower + Exult, inebriate with the genial shower; + Dip their long tresses from the mossy brink, + With tufted roots the glassy currents drink; +545 Shade your cool mansions from meridian beams, + And view their waving honours in your streams. + + +[_Spread the bright treasure_. l. 540. The practice of flooding lands +long in use in China has been but lately introduced into this country. +Besides the supplying water to the herbage in dryer seasons, it seems to +defend it from frost in the early part of the year, and thus doubly +advances the vegetation. The waters which rise from springs passing +through marl or limestone are replete with calcareous earth, and when +thrown over morasses they deposit this earth and incrust or consolidate +the morass. This kind of earth is deposited in great quantity from the +springs at Matlock bath, and supplies the soft porous limestone of which +the houses and walls are there constructed; and has formed the whole +bank for near a mile on that side of the Derwent on which they stand. + +The water of many springs contains much azotic gas, or phlogistic air, +besides carbonic gas, or fixed air, as that of Buxton and Bath; this +being set at liberty may more readily contribute to the production of +nitre by means of the putrescent matters which it is exposed to by being +spread upon the surface of the land; in the same manner as frequently +turning over heaps of manure facilitates the nitrous process by +imprisoning atmospheric air in the interstices of the putrescent +materials. Water arising by land-floods brings along with it much of the +most soluble parts of the manure from the higher lands to the lower +ones. River-water in its clear state and those springs which are called +soft are less beneficial for the purpose of watering lands, as they +contain less earthy or saline matter; and water from dissolving snow +from its slow solution brings but little earth along with it, as may be +seen by the comparative clearness of the water of snow-floods.] + + + "Thus where the veins their confluent branches bend, + And milky eddies with the purple blend; + The Chyle's white trunk, diverging from its source, +550 Seeks through the vital mass its shining course; + O'er each red cell, and tissued membrane spreads + In living net-work all its branching threads; + Maze within maze its tortuous path pursues, + Winds into glands, inextricable clues; +555 Steals through the stomach's velvet sides, and sips + The silver surges with a thousand lips; + Fills each fine pore, pervades each slender hair, + And drinks salubrious dew-drops from the air. + + "Thus when to kneel in Mecca's awful gloom, +560 Or press with pious kiss Medina's tomb, + League after league, through many a lingering day, + Steer the swart Caravans their sultry way; + O'er sandy wastes on gasping camels toil, + Or print with pilgrim-steps the burning soil; +565 If from lone rocks a sparkling rill descend, + O'er the green brink the kneeling nations bend, + Bathe the parch'd lip, and cool the feverish tongue, + And the clear lake reflects the mingled throng." + + The Goddess paused,--the listening bands awhile +570 Still seem to hear, and dwell upon her smile; + Then with soft murmur sweep in lucid trains + Down the green slopes, and o'er the pebbly plains, + To each bright stream on silver sandals glide, + Reflective fountain, and tumultuous tide. + +575 So shoot the Spider-broods at breezy dawn + Their glittering net-work o'er the autumnal lawn; + From blade to blade connect with cordage fine + The unbending grass, and live along the line; + Or bathe unwet their oily forms, and dwell +580 With feet repulsive on the dimpling well. + + So when the North congeals his watery mass, + Piles high his snows, and floors his seas with glass; + While many a Month, unknown to warmer rays, + Marks its slow chronicle by lunar days; +585 Stout youths and ruddy damsels, sportive train, + Leave the white soil, and rush upon the main; + From isle to isle the moon-bright squadrons stray, + And win in easy curves their graceful way; + On step alternate borne, with balance nice +590 Hang o'er the gliding steel, and hiss along the ice. + + + + + _Argument of the Fourth Canto._ + + +Address to the Sylphs. I. Trade-winds. Monsoons. N.E. and S.W. winds. +Land and sea breezes. Irregular winds. 9. II. Production of vital air +from oxygene and light. The marriage of Cupid and Psyche. 25. III. 1. +Syroc. Simoom. Tornado. 63. 2. Fog. Contagion. Story of Thyrsis and +Aegle. Love and Death. 79. IV. 1. Barometer. Air-pump. 127. 2. Air- +balloon of Mongulfier. Death of Rozier. Icarus. 143. V. Discoveries of +Dr. Priestley. Evolutions and combinations of pure air. Rape of +Proserpine. 165. VI. Sea-balloons, or houses constructed to move under +the sea. Death of Mr. Day. Of Mr. Spalding. Of Captain Pierce and his +Daughters. 195. VII. Sylphs of music. Cecelia singing. Cupid with a lyre +riding upon a lion. 233. VIII. Destruction of Senacherib's army by a +pestilential wind. Shadow of Death. 263. IX. 1. Wish to possess the +secret of changing the course of the winds. 305. 2. Monster devouring +air subdued by Mr. Kirwan. 321. X. 1. Seeds suspended in their pods. +Stars discovered by Mr. Herschel. Destruction and resuscitation of all +things. 351. 2. Seeds within seeds, and bulbs within bulbs. Picture on +the retina of the eye. Concentric strata of the earth. The great seed. +381. 3. The root, pith, lobes, plume, calyx, coral, sap, blood, leaves +respire and absorb light. The crocodile in its egg. 409. XI. Opening of +the flower. The petals, style, anthers, prolific dust. Transmutation of +the silkworm. 441. XII. 1. Leaf-buds changed into flower-buds by +wounding the bark, or strangulating a part of the branch. 461. 2. +Ingrafting. Aaron's rod pullulates. 477. XIII. 1. Insects on trees. +Humming-bird alarmed by the spider-like apearance of Cyprepedia. 491. 2. +Diseases of vegetables. Scratch on unnealed glass. 511. XIV. 1. Tender +flowers. Amaryllis, fritillary, erythrina, mimosa, cerea. 523. 2. Vines. +Oranges. Diana's trees. Kew garden. The royal family. 541. XV. Offering +to Hygeia. 587. Departure of the Goddess. 629. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO IV. + + + As when at noon in Hybla's fragrant bowers + CACALIA opens all her honey'd flowers; + Contending swarms on bending branches cling, + And nations hover on aurelian wing; + 5 So round the GODDESS, ere she speaks, on high + Impatient SYLPHS in gawdy circlets fly; + Quivering in air their painted plumes expand, + And coloured shadows dance upon the land. + + +[_Cacalia opens_. l. 2. The importance of the nectarium or honey-gland +in the vegetable economy is seen from the very complicated apparatus, +which nature has formed in some flowers for the preservation of their +honey from insects, as in the aconites or monkshoods; in other plants +instead of a great apparatus for its protection a greater secretion of +it is produced that thence a part may be spared to the depredation of +insects. The cacalia suaveolens produces so much honey that on some days +it may be smelt at a great distance from the plant. I remember once +counting on one of these plants besides bees of various kinds without +number, above two hundred painted butterflies, which gave it the +beautiful appearance of being covered with additional flowers.] + + + I. "SYLPHS! YOUR light troops the tropic Winds confine, + 10 And guide their streaming arrows to the Line; + While in warm floods ecliptic breezes rise, + And sink with wings benumb'd in colder skies. + You bid Monsoons on Indian seas reside, + And veer, as moves the sun, their airy tide; + 15 While southern gales o'er western oceans roll, + And Eurus steals his ice-winds from the Pole. + Your playful trains, on sultry islands born, + Turn on fantastic toe at eve and morn; + With soft susurrant voice alternate sweep + 20 Earth's green pavilions and encircling deep. + OR in itinerant cohorts, borne sublime + On tides of ether, float from clime to clime; + O'er waving Autumn bend your airy ring, + Or waft the fragrant bosom of the Spring. + + +[_The tropic winds_. l. 9. See additional notes, No. XXXIII.] + + + 25 II. "When Morn, escorted by the dancing Hours, + O'er the bright plains her dewy lustre showers; + Till from her sable chariot Eve serene + Drops the dark curtain o'er the brilliant scene; + You form with chemic hands the airy surge, + 30 Mix with broad vans, with shadowy tridents urge. + SYLPHS! from each sun-bright leaf, that twinkling shakes + O'er Earth's green lap, or shoots amid her lakes, + Your playful bands with simpering lips invite, + And wed the enamour'd OXYGENE to LIGHT.-- + 35 Round their white necks with fingers interwove, + Cling the fond Pair with unabating love; + Hand link'd in hand on buoyant step they rise, + And soar and glisten in unclouded skies. + Whence in bright floods the VITAL AIR expands, + 40 And with concentric spheres involves the lands; + Pervades the swarming seas, and heaving earths, + Where teeming Nature broods her myriad births; + Fills the fine lungs of all that _breathe_ or _bud_, + Warms the new heart, and dyes the gushing blood; + 45 With Life's first spark inspires the organic frame, + And, as it wastes, renews the subtile flame. + + +[_The enamour'd oxygene_. l. 34. The common air of the atmosphere +appears by the analysis of Dr. Priestley and other philosophers to +consist of about three parts of an elastic fluid unfit for respiration +or combustion, called azote by the French school, and about one fourth +of pure vital air fit for the support of animal life and of combustion, +called oxygene. The principal source of the azote is probably from the +decomposition of all vegetable and animal matters by putrefaction and +combustion; the principal source of vital air or oxygene is perhaps from +the decomposition of water in the organs of vegetables by means of the +sun's light. The difficulty of injecting vegetable vessels seems to shew +that their perspirative pores are much less than those of animals, and +that the water which constitutes their perspiration is so divided at the +time of its exclusion that by means of the sun's light it becomes +decomposed, the inflammable air or hydrogene, which is one of its +constituent parts, being retained to form the oil, resin, wax, honey, +&c. of the vegetable economy; and the other part, which united with +light or heat becomes vital air or oxygene gas, rises into the +atmosphere and replenishes it with the food of life. + +Dr. Priestley has evinced by very ingenious experiments that the blood +gives out phlogiston, and receives vital air, or oxygene-gas by the +lungs. And Dr. Crawford has shewn that the blood acquires heat from this +vital air in respiration. There is however still a something more subtil +than heat, which must be obtained in respiration from the vital air, a +something which life can not exist a few minutes without, which seems +necessary to the vegetable as well as to the animal world, and which as +no organized vessels can confine it, requires perpetually to be renewed. +See note on Canto I. l. 401.] + + + "So pure, so soft, with sweet attraction shone + Fair PSYCHE, kneeling at the ethereal throne; + Won with coy smiles the admiring court of Jove, + 50 And warm'd the bosom of unconquer'd LOVE.-- + Beneath a moving shade of fruits and flowers + Onward they march to HYMEN'S sacred bowers; + With lifted torch he lights the festive train, + Sublime, and leads them in his golden chain; + 55 Joins the fond pair, indulgent to their vows, + And hides with mystic veil their blushing brows. + Round their fair forms their mingling arms they fling, + Meet with warm lip, and clasp with rustling wing.-- + --Hence plastic Nature, as Oblivion whelms + 60 Her fading forms, repeoples all her realms; + Soft Joys disport on purple plumes unfurl'd, + And Love and Beauty rule the willing world. + + +[_Fair Psyche_. l. 48. Described from an antient gem on a fine onyx in +possession of the Duke of Marlborough, of which there is a beautiful +print in Bryant's Mythol. Vol II. p. 392. And from another antient gem +of Cupid and Psyche embracing, of which there is a print in Spence's +Polymetis. p. 82.] + +[_Repeoples all her realms_. l. 60. + + Quae mare navigerum et terras frugiferentes + Concelebras; per te quoniam genus omne animantum + Concipitur, visitque exortum lumina folis. Lucret.] + + + III. 1. "SYLPHS! Your bold myriads on the withering heath + Stay the fell SYROC'S suffocative breath; + 65 Arrest SIMOOM in his realms of sand, + The poisoned javelin balanced in his hand;-- + Fierce on blue streams he rides the tainted air, + Points his keen eye, and waves his whistling hair; + While, as he turns, the undulating soil + 70 Rolls in red waves, and billowy deserts boil. + + +[_Arrest Simoom_. l. 65. "At eleven o'clock while we were with great +pleasure contemplating the rugged tops of Chiggre, where we expected to +solace ourselves with plenty of good water, Idris cried out with a loud +voice, "fall upon your faces, for here is the simoom!" I saw from the +S.E. a haze come in colour like the purple part of a rainbow, but not so +compressed or thick; it did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was +about twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of a blush upon +the air, and it moved very rapidly, for I scarce could turn to fall upon +the ground with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its +current plainly upon my face. We all lay flat upon the ground, as if +dead, till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor, or purple haze, +which I saw was indeed passed; but the light air that still blew was of +heat to threaten suffocation. For my part I found distinctly in my +breast, that I had imbibed a part of it; nor was I free of an asthmatic +sensation till I had been some months in Italy." Bruce's Travels. Vol. +IV. p. 557. + +It is difficult to account for the narrow track of this pestilential +wind, which is said not to exceed twenty yards, and for its small +elevation of twelve feet. A whirlwind will pass forwards, and throw down +an avenue of trees by its quick revolution as it passes, but nothing +like a whirling is described as happening in these narrow streams of +air, and whirlwinds ascend to greater heights. There seems but one known +manner in which this channel of air could be effected, and that is by +electricity. + +The volcanic origin of these winds is mentioned in the note on Chunda in +Vol. II. of this work; it must here be added, that Professor Vairo at +Naples found, that during the eruption of Vesuvius perpendicular iron +bars were electric; and others have observed suffocating damps to attend +these eruptions. Ferber's Travels in Italy, p. 133. And lastly, that a +current of air attends the passage of electric matter, as is seen in +presenting an electrized point to the flame of a candle. In Mr. Bruce's +account of this simoom, it was in its course over a quite dry desert of +sand, (and which was in consequence unable to conduct an electric stream +into the earth beneath it,) to some moist rocks at but a few miles +distance; and thence would appear to be a stream of electricity from a +volcano attended with noxious air; and as the bodies of Mr. Bruce and +his attendants were insulated on the sand, they would not be sensible of +their increased electricity, as it passed over them; to which it may be +added, that a sulphurous or suffocating sensation is said to accompany +flames of lightning, and even strong sparks of artificial electricity. +In the above account of the simoom, a great redness in the air is said +to be a certain sign of its approach, which may be occasioned by the +eruption of flame from a distant volcano in these extensive and +impenetrable deserts of sand. See Note on l. 294 of this Canto.] + + + You seize TORNADO by his locks of mist, + Burst his dense clouds, his wheeling spires untwist; + Wide o'er the West when borne on headlong gales, + Dark as meridian night, the Monster sails, + 75 Howls high in air, and shakes his curled brow, + Lashing with serpent-train the waves below, + Whirls his black arm, the forked lightning flings, + And showers a deluge from his demon-wings. + + +[_Tornado's_. l. 71. See additional notes, No. XXXIII.] + + + 2. "SYLPHS! with light shafts YOU pierce the drowsy FOG, + 80 That lingering slumbers on the sedge-wove bog, + With webbed feet o'er midnight meadows creeps, + Or flings his hairy limbs on stagnant deeps. + YOU meet CONTAGION issuing from afar, + And dash the baleful conqueror from his car; + 85 When, Guest of DEATH! from charnel vaults he steals, + And bathes in human gore his armed wheels. + + +[_On stagnant deeps_. l. 82. All contagious miasmata originate either +from animal bodies, as those of the small pox, or from putrid morasses; +these latter produce agues in the colder climates, and malignant fevers +in the warmer ones. The volcanic vapours which cause epidemic coughs, +are to be ranked amongst poisons, rather than amongst the miasmata, +which produce contagious diseases.] + + + "Thus when the PLAGUE, upborne on Belgian air, + Look'd through the mist and shook his clotted hair, + O'er shrinking nations steer'd malignant clouds, + 90 And rain'd destruction on the gasping crouds. + The beauteous AEGLE felt the venom'd dart, + Slow roll'd her eye, and feebly throbb'd her heart; + Each fervid sigh seem'd shorter than the last, + And starting Friendship shunn'd her, as she pass'd. + 95 --With weak unsteady step the fainting Maid + Seeks the cold garden's solitary shade, + Sinks on the pillowy moss her drooping head, + And prints with lifeless limbs her leafy bed. + --On wings of Love her plighted Swain pursues, +100 Shades her from winds, and shelters her from dews, + Extends on tapering poles the canvas roof, + Spreads o'er the straw-wove matt the flaxen woof, + Sweet buds and blossoms on her bolster strows, + And binds his kerchief round her aching brows; +105 Sooths with soft kiss, with tender accents charms, + And clasps the bright Infection in his arms.-- + With pale and languid smiles the grateful Fair + Applauds his virtues, and rewards his care; + Mourns with wet cheek her fair companions fled +110 On timorous step, or number'd with the dead; + Calls to its bosom all its scatter'd rays, + And pours on THYRSIS the collected blaze; + Braves the chill night, caressing and caress'd, + And folds her Hero-lover to her breast.-- +115 Less bold, LEANDER at the dusky hour + Eyed, as he swam, the far love-lighted tower; + Breasted with struggling arms the tossing wave, + And sunk benighted in the watery grave. + Less bold, TOBIAS claim'd the nuptial bed, +120 Where seven fond Lovers by a Fiend had bled; + And drove, instructed by his Angel-Guide, + The enamour'd Demon from the fatal bride.-- + --SYLPHS! while your winnowing pinions fan'd the air, + And shed gay visions o'er the sleeping pair; +125 LOVE round their couch effused his rosy breath, + And with his keener arrows conquer'd DEATH. + + +[_The beauteous Aegle_. l. 91. When the plague raged in Holland in 1636, +a young girl was seized with it, had three carbuncles, and was removed +to a garden, where her lover, who was betrothed to her, attended her as +a nurse, and slept with her as his wife. He remained uninfected, and she +recovered, and was married to him. The story is related by Vinc. +Fabricius in the Misc. Cur. Ann. II. Obs. 188.] + + + IV. 1. "You charm'd, indulgent SYLPHS! their learned toil, + And crown'd with fame your TORRICELL, and BOYLE; + Taught with sweet smiles, responsive to their prayer, +130 The spring and pressure of the viewless air. + --How up exhausted tubes bright currents flow + Of liquid silver from the lake below, + Weigh the long column of the incumbent skies, + And with the changeful moment fall and rise. +135 --How, as in brazen pumps the pistons move, + The membrane-valve sustains the weight above; + Stroke follows stroke, the gelid vapour falls, + And misty dew-drops dim the crystal walls; + Rare and more rare expands the fluid thin, +140 And Silence dwells with Vacancy within.-- + So in the mighty Void with grim delight + Primeval Silence reign'd with ancient Night. + + +[_Torricell and Boyle_. l. 128. The pressure of the atmosphere was +discovered by Torricelli, a disciple of Galileo, who had previously +found that the air had weight. Dr. Hook and M. Du Hamel ascribe the +invention of the air-pump to Mr. Boyle, who however confesses he had +some hints concerning its construction from De Guerick. The vacancy at +the summit of the barometer is termed the Torricellian vacuum, and the +exhausted receiver of an air pump the Boylean vacuum, in honour of these +two philosophers. + +The mist and descending dew which appear at first exhausting the +receiver of an air-pump, are explained in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. +from the cold produced by the expansion of air. For a thermometer placed +in the receiver sinks some degrees, and in a very little time, as soon +as a sufficient quantity of heat can be acquired from the surrounding +bodies, the dew becomes again taken up. See additional notes, No. VII. +Mr. Saussure observed on placing his hygrometer in a receiver of an air- +pump, that though on beginning to exhaust it the air became misty, and +parted with its moisture, yet the hair of his hygrometer contracted, and +the instrument pointed to greater dryness. This unexpected occurrence is +explained by M. Monge (Annales de Chymie, Tom. V.) to depend on the want +of the usual pressure of the atmosphere to force the aqueous particles +into the pores of the hair; and M. Saussure supposes, that his vesicular +vapour requires more time to be redissolved, than is necessary to dry +the hair of his thermometer. Essais sur l'Hygrom. p. 226. but I suspect +there is a less hypothetical way of understanding it; when a colder body +is brought into warm and moist air, (as a bottle of spring-water for +instance,) a steam is quickly collected on its surface; the contrary +occurs when a warmer body is brought into cold and damp air, it +continues free from dew so long as it continues warm; for it warms the +atmosphere around it, and renders it capable of receiving instead of +parting with moisture. The moment the air becomes rarefied in the +receiver of the air-pump it becomes colder, as appears by the +thermometer, and deposits its vapour; but the hair of Mr. Saussure's +hygrometer is now warmer than the air in which it is immersed, and in +consequence becomes dryer than before, by warming the air which +immediately surrounds it, a part of its moisture evaporating along with +its heat.] + + + 2. "SYLPHS! your soft voices, whispering from the skies, + Bade from low earth the bold MONGULFIER rise; +145 Outstretch'd his buoyant ball with airy spring, + And bore the Sage on levity of wing;-- + Where were ye, SYLPHS! when on the ethereal main + Young ROSIERE launch'd, and call'd your aid in vain? + Fair mounts the light balloon, by Zephyr driven, +150 Parts the thin clouds, and sails along the heaven; + Higher and yet higher the expanding bubble flies, + Lights with quick flash, and bursts amid the skies.-- + Headlong He rushes through the affrighted air + With limbs distorted, and dishevel'd hair, +155 Whirls round and round, the flying croud alarms, + And DEATH receives him in his sable arms!-- + So erst with melting wax and loosen'd strings + Sunk hapless ICARUS on unfaithful wings; + His scatter'd plumage danced upon the wave, +160 And sorrowing Mermaids deck'd his watery grave; + O'er his pale corse their pearly sea-flowers shed, + And strew'd with crimson moss his marble bed; + Struck in their coral towers the pausing bell, + And wide in ocean toll'd his echoing knell. + + +[_Young Rosiere launch'd_. l. 148. M. Pilatre du Rosiere with a M. +Romain rose in a balloon from Boulogne in June 1785, and after having +been about a mile high for about half an hour the balloon took fire, and +the two adventurers were dashed to pieces on their fall to the ground. +Mr. Rosiere was a philosopher of great talents and activity, joined with +such urbanity and elegance of manners, as conciliated the affections of +his acquaintance and rendered his misfortune universally lamented. +Annual Register for 1784 and 1785, p. 329.] + +[_And wide in ocean_. l. 164. Denser bodies propagate vibration or sound +better than rarer ones; if two stones be struck together under the +water, they may be heard a mile or two by any one whose head is immersed +at that distance, according to an experiment of Dr. Franklin. If the ear +be applied to one end of a long beam of timber, the stroke of a pin at +the other end becomes sensible; if a poker be suspended in the middle of +a garter, each end of which is pressed against the ear, the least +percussions on the poker give great sounds. And I am informed by laying +the ear on the ground the tread of a horse may be discerned at a great +distance in the night. The organs of hearing belonging to fish are for +this reason much less complicated than of quadrupeds, as the fluid they +are immersed in so much better conveys its vibrations. And it is +probable that some shell-fish which have twisted shells like the cochlea +and semicircular canals of the ears of men and quadrupeds may have no +appropriated organ for perceiving the vibrations of the element they +live in, but may by their spiral form be in a manner all ear.] + + +165 V. "SYLPHS! YOU, retiring to sequester'd bowers, + Where oft your PRIESTLEY woos your airy powers, + On noiseless step or quivering pinion glide, + As sits the Sage with Science by his side; + To his charm'd eye in gay undress appear, +170 Or pour your secrets on his raptured ear. + How nitrous Gas from iron ingots driven + Drinks with red lips the purest breath of heaven; + How, while Conferva from its tender hair + Gives in bright bubbles empyrean air; +175 The crystal floods phlogistic ores calcine, + And the pure ETHER marries with the MINE. + + +[_Where oft your Priestley_. l. 166. The fame of Dr. Priestley is known +in every part of the earth where science has penetrated. His various +discoveries respecting the analysis of the atmosphere, and the +production of variety of new airs or gasses, can only be clearly +understood by reading his Experiments on Airs, (3 vols. octavo, Johnson, +London.) the following are amongst his many discoveries. 1. The +discovery of nitrous and dephlogisticated airs. 2. The exhibition of the +acids and alkalies in the form of air. 3. Ascertaining the purity of +respirable air by nitrous air. 4. The restoration of vitiated air by +vegetation. 5. The influence of light to enable vegetables to yield pure +air. 6. The conversion by means of light of animal and vegetable +substances, that would otherwise become putrid and offensive, into +nourishment of vegetables. 7. The use of respiration by the blood +parting with phlogiston, and imbibing dephlogisticated air. + +The experiments here alluded to are, 1. Concerning the production of +nitrous gas from dissolving iron and many other metals in nitrous acid, +which though first discovered by Dr. Hales (Static. Ess. Vol. I. p. 224) +was fully investigated, and applied to the important purpose of +distinguishing the purity of atmospheric air by Dr. Priestley. When +about two measures of common air and one of nitrous gas are mixed +together a red effervescence takes place, and the two airs occupy about +one fourth less space than was previously occupied by the common air +alone. + +2. Concerning the green substance which grows at the bottom of +reservoirs of water, which Dr. Priestley discovered to yield much pure +air when the sun shone on it. His method of collecting this air is by +placing over the green substance, which he believes to be a vegetable of +the genus conferva, an inverted bell-glass previously filled with water, +which subsides as the air arises; it has since been found that all +vegetables give up pure air from their leaves, when the sun shines upon +them, but not in the night, which may be owing to the sleep of the +plant. + +3. The third refers to the great quantity of pure air contained in the +calces of metals. The calces were long known to weigh much more than the +metallic bodies before calcination, insomuch that 100 pounds of lead +will produce 112 pounds of minium; the ore of manganese, which is always +found near the surface of the earth, is replete with pure air, which is +now used for the purpose of bleaching. Other metals when exposed to the +atmosphere attract the pure air from it, and become calces by its +combination, as zinc, lead, iron; and increase in weight in proportion +to the air, which they imbibe.] + + + "So in Sicilia's ever-blooming shade + When playful PROSERPINE from CERES stray'd, + Led with unwary step her virgin trains +180 O'er Etna's steeps, and Enna's golden plains; + Pluck'd with fair hand the silver-blossom'd bower, + And purpled mead,--herself a fairer flower; + Sudden, unseen amid the twilight glade, + Rush'd gloomy DIS, and seized the trembling maid.-- +185 Her starting damsels sprung from mossy seats, + Dropp'd from their gauzy laps the gather'd sweets, + Clung round the struggling Nymph, with piercing cries, + Pursued the chariot, and invoked the skies;-- + Pleased as he grasps her in his iron arms, +190 Frights with soft sighs, with tender words alarms, + The wheels descending roll'd in smoky rings, + Infernal Cupids flapp'd their demon wings; + Earth with deep yawn received the Fair, amaz'd, + And far in Night celestial Beauty blaz'd. + + +[_When playful Proserpine_. l. 178. The fable of Proserpine's being +seized by Pluto as she was gathering flowers, is explained by Lord Bacon +to signify the combination or marriage of etherial spirit with earthly +materials. Bacon's Works, Vol. V. p. 470. edit. 4to. Lond. 1778. This +allusion is still more curiously exact, from the late discovery of pure +air being given up from vegetables, and that then in its unmixed state +it more readily combines with metallic or inflammable bodies. From these +fables which were probably taken from antient hieroglyphics there is +frequently reason to believe that the Egyptians possessed much chemical +knowledge, which for want of alphabetical writing perished with their +philosophers.] + + +195 VI. "Led by the Sage, Lo! Britain's sons shall guide + Huge SEA-BALLOONS beneath the tossing tide; + The diving castles, roof'd with spheric glass, + Ribb'd with strong oak, and barr'd with bolts of brass, + Buoy'd with pure air shall endless tracks pursue, +200 And PRIESTLEY'S hand the vital flood renew.-- + Then shall BRITANNIA rule the wealthy realms, + Which Ocean's wide insatiate wave o'erwhelms; + Confine in netted bowers his scaly flocks, + Part his blue plains, and people all his rocks. +205 Deep, in warm waves beneath the Line that roll, + Beneath the shadowy ice-isles of the Pole, + Onward, through bright meandering vales, afar, + Obedient Sharks shall trail her sceptred car, + With harness'd necks the pearly flood disturb, +210 Stretch the silk rein, and champ the silver curb; + Pleased round her triumph wondering Tritons play, + And Seamaids hail her on the watery way. + --Oft shall she weep beneath the crystal waves + O'er shipwreck'd lovers weltering in their graves; +215 Mingling in death the Brave and Good behold + With slaves to glory, and with slaves to gold; + Shrin'd in the deep shall DAY and SPALDING mourn, + Each in his treacherous bell, sepulchral urn!-- + Oft o'er thy lovely daughters, hapless PIERCE! +220 Her sighs shall breathe, her sorrows dew their hearse.-- + With brow upturn'd to Heaven, "WE WILL NOT PART!" + He cried, and clasp'd them to his aching heart,-- + --Dash'd in dread conflict on the rocky grounds, + Crash the mock'd masts, the staggering wreck rebounds; +225 Through gaping seams the rushing deluge swims, + Chills their pale bosoms, bathes their shuddering limbs, + Climbs their white shoulders, buoys their streaming hair, + And the last sea-shriek bellows in the air.-- + Each with loud sobs her tender sire caress'd, +230 And gasping strain'd him closer to her breast!-- + --Stretch'd on one bier they sleep beneath the brine, + And their white bones with ivory arms intwine! + + +[_Led by the Sage_. l. 195. Dr. Priestley's discovery of the production +of pure air from such variety of substances will probably soon be +applied to the improvement of the diving bell, as the substances which +contain vital air in immense quantities are of little value as manganese +and minium. See additional notes, No. XXXIII. In every hundred weight of +minium there is combined about twelve pounds of pure air, now as sixty +pounds of water are about a cubic foot, and as air is eight hundred +times lighter than water, five hundred weight of minium will produce +eight hundred cubic feet of air or about six thousand gallons. Now, as +this is at least thrice as pure as atmospheric air, a gallon of it may +be supposed to serve for three minutes respiration for one man. At +present the air can not be set at liberty from minium by vitriolic acid +without the application of some heat, this is however very likely soon +to be discovered, and will then enable adventurers to journey beneath +the ocean in large inverted ships or diving balloons. + +Mr. Boyle relates, that Cornelius Drebelle contrived not only a vessel +to be rowed under water, but also a liquor to be caried in that vessel, +which would supply the want of fresh air. The vessel was made by order +of James I. and carried twelve rowers besides passengers. It was tried +in the river Thames, and one of the persons who was in that submarine +voyage told the particulars of the experiments to a person who related +them to Mr. Boyle. Annual Register for 1774, p. 248.] + +[_Day and Spalding mourn_. l. 217. Mr. Day perished in a diving bell, or +diving boat, of his own construction at Plymouth in June 1774, in which +he was to have continued for a wager twelve hours one hundred feet deep +in water, and probably perished from his not possessing all the +hydrostatic knowledge that was necessary. See note on Ulva, Vol. II. of +this work. See Annual Register for 1774. p. 245. + +Mr. Spalding was professionally ingenious in the art of constructing and +managing the diving bell, and had practised the business many years with +success. He went down accompanied by one of his young men twice to view +the wreck of the Imperial East-Indiaman at the Kish bank in Ireland. On +descending the third time in June, 1783, they remained about an hour +under water, and had two barrels of air sent down to them, but on the +signals from below not being again repeated, after a certain time, they +were drawn up by their assistants and both found dead in the bell. +Annual Register for 1783, p. 206. These two unhappy events may for a +time check the ardor of adventurers in traversing the bottom of the +ocean, but it is probable in another half century it may be safer to +travel under the ocean than over it, since Dr. Priestley's discovery of +procuring pure air in such great abundance from the calces of metals.] + +[_Hapless Pierce!_ l, 219. The Haslewell East-Indiaman, outward bound, +was wrecked off Seacomb in the isle of Purbec on the 6th of January, +1786; when Capt. Pierce, the commander, with two young ladies, his +daughters, and the greatest part of the crew and passengers perished in +the sea. Some of the officers and about seventy seamen escaped with +great difficulty on the rocks, but Capt. Pierce finding it was +impossible to save the lives of the young ladies refused to quit the +ship, and perished with them.] + + + "VII. SYLPHS OF NICE EAR! with beating wings you guide + The fine vibrations of the aerial tide; +235 Join in sweet cadences the measured words, + Or stretch and modulate the trembling cords. + You strung to melody the Grecian lyre, + Breathed the rapt song, and fan'd the thought of fire, + Or brought in combinations, deep and clear, +240 Immortal harmony to HANDEL'S ear.-- + YOU with soft breath attune the vernal gale, + When breezy evening broods the listening vale; + Or wake the loud tumultuous sounds, that dwell + In Echo's many-toned diurnal shell. +245 YOU melt in dulcet chords, when Zephyr rings + The Eolian Harp, and mingle all its strings; + Or trill in air the soft symphonious chime, + When rapt CECILIA lifts her eye sublime, + Swell, as she breathes, her bosoms rising snow, +250 O'er her white teeth in tuneful accents slow, + Through her fair lips on whispering pinions move, + And form the tender sighs, that kindle love! + + "So playful LOVE on Ida's flowery sides + With ribbon-rein the indignant Lion guides; +255 Pleased on his brinded back the lyre he rings, + And shakes delirious rapture from the strings; + Slow as the pausing Monarch stalks along, + Sheaths his retractile claws, and drinks the song; + Soft Nymphs on timid step the triumph view, +260 And listening Fawns with beating hoofs pursue; + With pointed ears the alarmed forest starts, + And Love and Music soften savage hearts. + + +[_Indignant lion guides_. l. 254. Described from an antient gem, +expressive of the combined power of love and music, in the Museum +Florent.] + + + VIII. "SYLPHS! YOUR bold hosts, when Heaven with justice dread + Calls the red tempest round the guilty head, +265 Fierce at his nod assume vindictive forms, + And launch from airy cars the vollied storms.-- + From Ashur's vales when proud SENACHERIB trod, + Pour'd his swoln heart, defied the living GOD, + Urged with incessant shouts his glittering powers; +270 And JUDAH shook through all her massy towers; + Round her sad altars press'd the prostrate crowd, + Hosts beat their breasts, and suppliant chieftains bow'd; + Loud shrieks of matrons thrill'd the troubled air, + And trembling virgins rent their scatter'd hair; +275 High in the midst the kneeling King adored, + Spread the blaspheming scroll before the Lord, + Raised his pale hands, and breathed his pausing sighs, + And fixed on Heaven his dim imploring eyes,-- + "Oh! MIGHTY GOD! amidst thy Seraph-throng +280 "Who sit'st sublime, the Judge of Right and Wrong; + "Thine the wide earth, bright sun, and starry zone, + "That twinkling journey round thy golden throne; + "Thine is the crystal source of life and light, + "And thine the realms of Death's eternal night. +285 "Oh, bend thine ear, thy gracious eye incline, + "Lo! Ashur's King blasphemes thy holy shrine, + "Insults our offerings, and derides our vows,--- + "Oh! strike the diadem from his impious brows, + "Tear from his murderous hand the bloody rod, +290 "And teach the trembling nations, "THOU ART GOD!"-- + --SYLPHS! in what dread array with pennons broad + Onward ye floated o'er the ethereal road, + Call'd each dank steam the reeking marsh exhales, + Contagious vapours, and volcanic gales, +295 Gave the soft South with poisonous breath to blow, + And rolled the dreadful whirlwind on the foe!-- + Hark! o'er the camp the venom'd tempest sings, + Man falls on Man, on buckler buckler rings; + Groan answers groan, to anguish anguish yields, +300 And DEATH'S loud accents shake the tented fields! + --High rears the Fiend his grinning jaws, and wide + Spans the pale nations with colossal stride, + Waves his broad falchion with uplifted hand, + And his vast shadow darkens all the land. + + +[_Volcanic gales_. l. 294. The pestilential winds of the east are +described by various authors under various denominations; as harmattan, +samiel, samium, syrocca, kamsin, seravansum. M. de Beauchamp describes a +remarkable south wind in the deserts about Bagdad, called seravansum, or +poison-wind; it burns the face, impedes respiration, strips the trees of +their leaves, and is said to pass on in a streight line, and often kills +people in six hours. P. Cotte sur la Meteorol. Analytical Review for +February, 1790. M. Volney says, the hot wind or ramsin seems to blow at +the season when the sands of the deserts are the hottest; the air is +then filled with an extreamly subtle dust. Vol. I. p. 61. These winds +blow in all directions from the deserts; in Egypt the most violent +proceed from the S.S.W. at Mecca from the E. at Surat from the N. at +Bassora from the N.W. at Bagdad from the W. and in Syria from the S.E. + +On the south of Syria, he adds, where the Jordan flows is a country of +volcanos; and it is observed that the earthquakes in Syria happen after +their rainy season, which is also conformable to a similar observation +made by Dr. Shaw in Barbary. Travels in Egypt, Vol. I. p. 303. + +These winds seem all to be of volcanic origin, as before mentioned, with +this difference, that the Simoom is attended with a stream of electric +matter; they seem to be in consequence of earthquakes caused by the +monsoon floods, which fall on volcanic fires in Syria, at the same time +that they inundate the Nile.] + + +305 IX. 1. "Ethereal cohorts! Essences of Air! + Make the green children of the Spring your care! + Oh, SYLPHS! disclose in this inquiring age + One GOLDEN SECRET to some favour'd sage; + Grant the charm'd talisman, the chain, that binds, +310 Or guides the changeful pinions of the winds! + --No more shall hoary Boreas, issuing forth + With Eurus, lead the tempests of the North; + Rime the pale Dawn, or veil'd in flaky showers + Chill the sweet bosoms of the smiling Hours. +315 By whispering Auster waked shall Zephyr rise, + Meet with soft kiss, and mingle in the skies, + Fan the gay floret, bend the yellow ear, + And rock the uncurtain'd cradle of the year; + Autumn and Spring in lively union blend, +320 And from the skies the Golden Age descend. + + +[_One golden secret_. l. 308. The suddenness of the change of the wind +from N.E. to S.W. seems to shew that it depends on some minute chemical +cause; which if it was discovered might probably, like other chemical +causes, be governed by human agency; such as blowing up rocks by +gunpowder, or extracting the lightening from the clouds. If this could +be accomplished, it would be the most happy discovery that ever has +happened to these northern latitudes, since in this country the N.E. +winds bring frost, and the S.W. ones are attended with warmth and +moisture; if the inferior currents of air could be kept perpetually from +the S.W. supplied by new productions of air at the line, or by superior +currents flowing in a contrary direction, the vegetation of this country +would be doubled; as in the moist vallies of Africa, which know no +frost; the number of its inhabitants would be increased, and their lives +prolonged; as great abundance of the aged and infirm of mankind, as well +as many birds and animals, are destroyed by severe continued frosts in +this climate.] + + + 2. "Castled on ice, beneath the circling Bear, + A vast CAMELION spits and swallows air; + O'er twelve degrees his ribs gigantic bend, + And many a league his leathern jaws extend; +325 Half-fish, beneath, his scaly volutes spread, + And vegetable plumage crests his head; + Huge fields of air his wrinkled skin receives, + From panting gills, wide lungs, and waving leaves; + Then with dread throes subsides his bloated form, +330 His shriek the thunder, and his sigh the storm. + Oft high in heaven the hissing Demon wins + His towering course, upborne on winnowing fins; + Steers with expanded eye and gaping mouth, + His mass enormous to the affrighted South; +335 Spreads o'er the shuddering Line his shadowy limbs, + And Frost and Famine follow as he swims.-- + SYLPHS! round his cloud-built couch your bands array, + And mould the Monster to your gentle sway; + Charm with soft tones, with tender touches check, +340 Bend to your golden yoke his willing neck, + With silver curb his yielding teeth restrain, + And give to KIRWAN'S hand the silken rein. + --Pleased shall the Sage, the dragon-wings between, + Bend o'er discordant climes his eye serene, +345 With Lapland breezes cool Arabian vales, + And call to Hindostan antarctic gales, + Adorn with wreathed ears Kampschatca's brows, + And scatter roses on Zealandic snows, + Earth's wondering Zones the genial seasons share, +350 And nations hail him "MONARCH OF THE AIR." + + +[_A vast Camelion_. l. 322. See additional notes, No. XXXIII. on the +destruction and reproduction of the atmosphere.] + +[_To Kirwan's hand_. l. 342. Mr. Kirwan has published a valuable +treatise on the temperature of climates, as a step towards investigating +the theory of the winds; and has since written some ingenious papers on +this subject in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Society.] + + + X. 1. "SYLPHS! as you hover on ethereal wing, + Brood the green children of parturient Spring!-- + Where in their bursting cells my Embryons rest, + I charge you guard the vegetable nest; +355 Count with nice eye the myriad SEEDS, that swell + Each vaulted womb of husk, or pod, or shell; + Feed with sweet juices, clothe with downy hair, + Or hang, inshrined, their little orbs in air. + + +[_The myriad seeds_. l. 355. Nature would seem to have been wonderfully +prodigal in the seeds of vegetables, and the spawn of fish; almost any +one plant, if all its seeds should grow to maturity, would in a few +years alone people the terrestrial globe. Mr. Ray asserts that 101 +seeds of tobacco weighed only one grain, and that from one tobacco plant +the seeds thus calculated amounted to 360,000! The seeds of the ferns +are by him supposed to exceed a million on a leaf. As the works of +nature are governed by general laws this exuberant reproduction prevents +the accidental extinction of the species, at the same time that they +serve for food for the higher orders of animation. + +Every seed possesses a reservoir of nutriment designed for the growth of +the future plant, this consists of starch, mucilage, or oil, within the +coat of the seed, or of sugar and subacid pulp in the fruits, which +belongs to it. + +For the preservation of the immature seed nature has used many ingenious +methods; some are wrapped in down, as the seeds of the rose, bean, and +cotton-plant; others are suspended in a large air-vessel, as those of +the bladder-sena, staphylaea, and pea.] + + + "So, late descry'd by HERSCHEL'S piercing sight, +360 Hang the bright squadrons of the twinkling Night; + Ten thousand marshall'd stars, a silver zone, + Effuse their blended lustres round her throne; + Suns call to suns, in lucid clouds conspire, + And light exterior skies with golden fire; +365 Resistless rolls the illimitable sphere, + And one great circle forms the unmeasured year. + --Roll on, YE STARS! exult in youthful prime, + Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time; + Near and more near your beamy cars approach, +370 And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach;-- + Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield, + Frail as your silken sisters of the field! + Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush, + Suns sink on suns, and systems systems crush, +375 Headlong, extinct, to one dark centre fall, + And Death and Night and Chaos mingle all! + --Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm, + Immortal NATURE lifts her changeful form, + Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame, +380 And soars and shines, another and the same. + + +[_And light exterior_. l. 364. I suspect this line is from Dwight's +Conquest of Canaan, a poem written by a very young man, and which +contains much fine versification.] + +[_Near and more near_. l. 369. From the vacant spaces in some parts of +the heavens, and the correspondent clusters of stars in their vicinity, +Mr. Herschel concludes that the nebulae or constellations of fixed stars +are approaching each other, and must finally coalesce in one mass. Phil. +Trans. Vol. LXXV.] + +[_Till o'er the wreck_. l. 377. The story of the phenix rising from its +own ashes with a twinkling star upon its head, seems to have been an +antient hieroglyphic emblem of the destruction and resuscitation of all +things. + +There is a figure of the great Platonic year with a phenix on his hand +on the reverse of a medal of Adrian. Spence's Polym. p. 189.] + + + 2. "Lo! on each SEED within its slender rind + Life's golden threads in endless circles wind; + Maze within maze the lucid webs are roll'd, + And, as they burst, the living flame unfold. +385 The pulpy acorn, ere it swells, contains + The Oak's vast branches in its milky veins; + Each ravel'd bud, fine film, and fibre-line + Traced with nice pencil on the small design. + The young Narcissus, in it's bulb compress'd, +390 Cradles a second nestling on its breast; + In whose fine arms a younger embryon lies, + Folds its thin leaves, and shuts its floret-eyes; + Grain within grain successive harvests dwell, + And boundless forests slumber in a shell. +395 --So yon grey precipice, and ivy'd towers, + Long winding meads, and intermingled bowers, + Green files of poplars, o'er the lake that bow, + And glimmering wheel, which rolls and foams below, + In one bright point with nice distinction lie +400 Plan'd on the moving tablet of the eye. + --So, fold on fold, Earth's wavy plains extend, + And, sphere in sphere, its hidden strata bend;-- + Incumbent Spring her beamy plumes expands + O'er restless oceans, and impatient lands, +405 With genial lustres warms the mighty ball, + And the GREAT SEED evolves, disclosing ALL; + LIFE _buds_ or _breathes_ from Indus to the Poles, + And the vast surface kindles, as it rolls! + + +[_Maze within maze_. l. 383. The elegant appearance on dissection of the +young tulip in the bulb was first observed by Mariotte and is mentioned +in the note on tulipa in Vol.II, and was afterwards noticed by Du Hamel. +Acad. Scien. Lewenhook assures us that in the bud of a currant tree he +could not only discover the ligneous part but even the berries +themselves, appearing like small grapes. Chamb. Dict. art. Bud. Mr. +Baker says he dissected a seed of trembling grass in which a perfect +plant appeared with its root, sending forth two branches, from each of +which several leaves or blades of grass proceeded. Microsc. Vol. I. p. +252. Mr. Bonnet saw four generations of successive plants in the bulb of +a hyacinth. Bonnet Corps Organ. Vol. I. p. 103. Haller's Physiol. Vol. +I. p. 91. In the terminal bud of a horse-chesnut the new flower may be +seen by the naked eye covered with a mucilaginous down, and the same in +the bulb of a narcissus, as I this morning observed in several of them +sent me by Miss ---- for that purpose. Sept. 16. + +Mr. Ferber speaks of the pleasure he received in observing in the buds +of Hepatica and pedicularis hirsuta yet lying hid in the earth, and in +the gems of the shrub daphne mezereon, and at the base of osmunda +lunaria a perfect plant of the future year, discernable in all its parts +a year before it comes forth, and in the seeds of nymphea nelumbo the +leaves of the plant were seen so distinctly that the author found out by +them what plant the seeds belonged to. The same of the seeds of the +tulip tree or liriodendum tulipiferum. Amaen. Aced. Vol. VI.] + +[_And the great seed_. l. 406. Alluding to the [Greek: proton oon], or +first great egg of the antient philosophy, it had a serpent wrapped +round it emblematical of divine wisdom, an image of it was afterwards +preserved and worshipped in the temple of Dioscuri, and supposed to +represent the egg of Leda. See a print of it in Bryant's Mythology. It +was said to have been broken by the horns of the celestial bull, that +is, it was hatched by the warmth of the Spring. See note on Canto I. l. +413.] + +[_And the vast surface_. l. 408. L'Organization, le sentiment, le +movement spontane, la vie, n'existent qu'a la surface de la terre, et +dans le lieux exposes a la lumiere. Traite de Chymie par M. Lavoisier, +Tom. I. p. 202.] + + + 3. "Come, YE SOFT SYLPHS! who sport on Latian land, +410 Come, sweet-lip'd Zephyr, and Favonius bland! + Teach the fine SEED, instinct with life, to shoot + On Earth's cold bosom its descending root; + With Pith elastic stretch its rising stem, + Part the twin Lobes, expand the throbbing Gem; +415 Clasp in your airy arms the aspiring Plume, + Fan with your balmy breath its kindling bloom, + Each widening scale and bursting film unfold, + Swell the green cup, and tint the flower with gold; + While in bright veins the silvery Sap ascends, +420 And refluent blood in milky eddies bends; + While, spread in air, the leaves respiring play, + Or drink the golden quintessence of day. + --So from his shell on Delta's shower-less isle + Bursts into life the Monster of the Nile; +425 First in translucent lymph with cobweb-threads + The Brain's fine floating tissue swells, and spreads; + Nerve after nerve the glistening spine descends, + The red Heart dances, the Aorta bends; + Through each new gland the purple current glides, +430 New veins meandering drink the refluent tides; + Edge over edge expands the hardening scale, + And sheaths his slimy skin in silver mail. + --Erewhile, emerging from the brooding sand, + With Tyger-paw He prints the brineless strand, +435 High on the flood with speckled bosom swims, + Helm'd with broad tail, and oar'd with giant limbs; + Rolls his fierce eye-balls, clasps his iron claws, + And champs with gnashing teeth his massy jaws; + Old Nilus sighs along his cane-crown'd shores, +440 And swarthy Memphis trembles and adores. + + +[_Teach the fine seed_. l. 411. The seeds in their natural state fall on +the surface of the earth, and having absorbed some moisture the root +shoots itself downwards into the earth and the plume rises in air. Thus +each endeavouring to seek its proper pabulum directed by a vegetable +irritability similar to that of the lacteal system and to the lungs in +animals. + +The pith seems to push up or elongate the bud by its elasticity, like +the pith in the callow quills of birds. This medulla Linneus believes to +consist of a bundle of fibres, which diverging breaks through the bark +yet gelatinous producing the buds. + +The lobes are reservoirs of prepared nutriment for the young seed, which +is absorbed by its placental vessels, and converted into sugar, till it +has penetrated with its roots far enough into the earth to extract +sufficient moisture, and has acquired leaves to convert it into +nourishment. In some plants these lobes rise from the earth and supply +the place of leaves, as in kidney-beans, cucumbers, and hence seem to +serve both as a placenta to the foetus, and lungs to the young plant. +During the process of germination the starch of the seed is converted +into sugar, as is seen in the process of malting barley for the purpose +of brewing. And is on this account very similar to the digestion of food +in the stomachs of animals, which converts all their aliment into a +chyle, which consists of mucilage, oil, and sugar; the placentation of +buds will be spoken of hereafter.] + +[_The silvery sap_. l. 419. See additional notes, No. XXXVI.] + +[_Or drink the golden_. l. 422. Linneus having observed the great +influence of light on vegetation, imagined that the leaves of plants +inhaled electric matter from the light with their upper surface. (System +of Vegetables translated, p. 8.) + +The effect of light on plants occasions the actions of the vegetable +muscles of their leaf-stalks, which turn the upper side of the leaf to +the light, and which open their calyxes and chorols, according to the +experiments of Abbe Tessier, who exposed variety of plants in a cavern +to different quantities of light. Hist. de L'Academie Royal. Ann. 1783. +The sleep or vigilance of plants seems owing to the presence or absence +of this stimulus. See note on Nimosa, Vol. II.] + + + XI. "Come, YE SOFT SYLPHS! who fan the Paphian groves, + And bear on sportive wings the callow Loves; + Call with sweet whisper, in each gale that blows, + The slumbering Snow-drop from her long repose; +445 Charm the pale Primrose from her clay-cold bed, + Unveil the bashful Violet's tremulous head; + While from her bud the playful Tulip breaks, + And young Carnations peep with blushing cheeks; + Bid the closed _Petals_ from nocturnal cold +450 The virgin _Style_ in silken curtains fold, + Shake into viewless air the morning dews, + And wave in light their iridescent hues; + While from on high the bursting _Anthers_ trust + To the mild breezes their prolific dust; +455 Or bend in rapture o'er the central Fair, + Love out their hour, and leave their lives in air. + So in his silken sepulchre the Worm, + Warm'd with new life, unfolds his larva-form; + Erewhile aloft in wanton circles moves, +460 And woos on Hymen-wings his velvet loves. + + +[_Love out their hour_. l. 456. The vegetable passion of love is +agreeably seen in the flower of the parnassia, in which the males +alternately approach and recede from the female, and in the flower of +nigella, or devil in the bush, in which the tall females bend down to +their dwarf husbands. But I was this morning surprised to observe, +amongst Sir Brooke Boothby's valuable collection of plants at Ashbourn, +the manifest adultery of several females of the plant Collinsonia, who +had bent themselves into contact with the males of other flowers of the +same plant in their vicinity, neglectful of their own. Sept. 16. See +additional notes, No. XXXVIII.] + +[_Unfolds his larva-form_. l. 458. The flower bursts forth from its +larva, the herb, naked and perfect like a butterfly from its chrysolis; +winged with its corol; wing-sheathed by its calyx; consisting alone of +the organs of reproduction. The males, or stamens, have their anthers +replete with a prolific powder containing the vivifying fovilla: in the +females, or pistils, exists the ovary, terminated by the tubular stigma. +When the anthers burst and shed their bags of dust, the male fovilla is +received by the prolific lymph of the stigma, and produces the seed or +egg, which is nourished in the ovary. System of Vegetables translated +from Linneus by the Lichfield Society, p. 10.] + + + XII. 1. "If prouder branches with exuberance rude + Point their green gems, their barren shoots protrude; + Wound them, ye SYLPHS! with little knives, or bind + A wiry ringlet round the swelling rind; +465 Bisect with chissel fine the root below, + Or bend to earth the inhospitable bough. + So shall each germ with new prolific power + Delay the leaf-bud, and expand the flower; + Closed in the _Style_ the tender pith shall end, +470 The lengthening Wood in circling _Stamens_ bend; + The smoother Rind its soft embroidery spread + In vaulted _Petals_ o'er their fertile bed; + While the rough Bark, in circling mazes roll'd, + Forms the green _Cup_ with many a wrinkled fold; +475 And each small bud-scale spreads its foliage hard, + Firm round the callow germ, a _Floral Guard_. + + +[_Wound them, ye Sylphs!_ l. 463. Mr. Whitmill advised to bind some of +the most vigorous shoots with strong wire, and even some of the large +roots; and Mr. Warner cuts, what he calls a wild worm about the body of +the tree, or scores the bark quite to the wood like a screw with a sharp +knife. Bradley on Gardening, Vol. II. p. 155. Mr. Fitzgerald produced +flowers and fruit on wall trees by cutting off a part of the bark. Phil. +Trans. Ann. 1761. M. Buffon produced the same effect by a straight +bandage put round a branch, Act. Paris, Ann. 1738, and concludes that an +ingrafted branch bears better from its vessels being compressed by the +callous. + +A compleat cylinder of the bark about an inch in height was cut off from +the branch of a pear tree against a wall in Mr. Howard's garden at +Lichfield about five years ago, the circumcised part is now not above +half the diameter of the branch above and below it, yet this branch has +been full of fruit every year since, when the other branches of the tree +bore only sparingly. I lately observed that the leaves of this wounded +branch were smaller and paler, and the fruit less in size, and ripened +sooner than on the other parts of the tree. Another branch has the bark +taken off not quite all round with much the same effect. + +The theory of this curious vegetable fact has been esteemed difficult, +but receives great light from the foregoing account of the individuality +of buds. A flower-bud dies, when it has perfected its seed, like an +annual plant, and hence requires no place on the bark for new roots to +pass downwards; but on the contrary leaf-buds, as they advance into +shoots, form new buds in the axilla of every leaf, which new buds +require new roots to pass down the bark, and thus thicken as well as +elongate the branch, now if a wire or string be tied round the bark, +many of these new roots cannot descend, and thence more of the buds will +be converted into flower-buds. + +It is customary to debark oak-trees in the spring, which are intended to +be felled in the ensuing autumn; because the bark comes off easier at +this season, and the sap-wood, or alburnum, is believed to become harder +and more durable, if the tree remains till the end of summer. The trees +thus stripped of their bark put forth shoots as usual with acorns on the +6th 7th and 8th joint, like vines; but in the branches I examined, the +joints of the debarked trees were much shorter than those of other oak- +trees; the acorns were more numerous; and no new buds were produced +above the joints which bore acorns. From hence it appears that the +branches of debarked oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower- +buds, which last circumstance I suppose must depend on their being +sooner or later debarked in the vernal months. And, secondly, that the +new buds of debarked oak-trees continue to obtain moisture from the +alburnum after the season of the ascent of sap in other vegetables +ceases; which in this unnatural state of the debarked tree may act as +capillary tubes, like the alburnum of the small debarked cylinder of a +pear-tree abovementioned; or may continue to act as placental vessels, +as happens to the animal embryon in cases of superfetation; when the +fetus continues a month or two in the womb beyond its usual time, of +which some instances have been recorded, the placenta continues to +supply perhaps the double office both of nutrition and of respiration.] + +[_And bend to earth_. l. 466. Mr. Hitt in his treatise on fruit trees +observes that if a vigorous branch of a wall tree be bent to the +horizon, or beneath it, it looses its vigour and becomes a bearing +branch. The theory of this I suppose to depend on the difficulty with +which the leaf-shoots can protrude the roots necessary for their new +progeny of buds upwards along the bended branch to the earth contrary to +their natural habits or powers, whence more flower-shoots are produced +which do not require new roots to pass along the bark of the bended +branch, but which let their offspring, the seeds, fall upon the earth +and seek roots for themselves.] + +[_With new prolific power_. l. 467. About Midsummer the new buds are +formed, but it is believed by some of the Linnean school, that these +buds may in their early state be either converted into flower-buds or +leaf-buds according to the vigour of the vegetating branch. Thus if the +upper part of a branch be cut away, the buds near the extremity of the +remaining stem, having a greater proportional supply of nutriment, or +possessing a greater facility of shooting their roots, or absorbent +vessels, down the bark, will become leaf-buds, which might otherwise +have been flower-buds. And the contrary as explained in note on l. 463. +of this Canto.] + +[_Closed in the style_. l. 469. "I conceive the medulla of a plant to +consist of a bundle of nervous fibres, and that the propelling vital +power separates their uppermost extremities. These, diverging, penetrate +the bark, which is now gelatinous, and become multiplied in the new gem, +or leaf-bud. The ascending vessels of the bark being thus divided by the +nervous fibres, which perforate it, and the ascent of its fluids being +thus impeded, the bark is extended into a leaf. But the flower is +produced, when the protrusion of the medulla is greater than the +retention of the including cortical part; whence the substance of the +bark is expanded in the calyx; that of the rind, (or interior bark,) in +the corol; that of the wood in the stamens, that of the medulla in the +pistil. Vegetation thus terminates in the production of new life, the +ultimate medullary and cortical fibres being collected in the seeds." +Linnei Systema Veget. p. 6. edit. 14.] + + + 2. "Where cruder juices swell the leafy vein, + Stint the young germ, the tender blossom stain; + On each lop'd shoot a softer scion bind, +480 Pith press'd to pith, and rind applied to rind, + So shall the trunk with loftier crest ascend, + And wide in air its happier arms extend; + Nurse the new buds, admire the leaves unknown, + And blushing bend with fruitage not its own. + + +[_Nurse the new buds_. l. 483. Mr. Fairchild budded a passion-tree, +whose leaves were spotted with yellow, into one which bears long fruit. +The buds did not take, nevertheless in a fortnight yellow spots began to +shew themselves about three feet above the inoculation, and in a short +time afterwards yellow spots appeared on a shoot which came out of the +ground from another part of the plant. Bradley, Vol. II. p. 129. These +facts are the more curious since from experiments of ingrafting red +currants on black (Ib. Vol. II.) the fruit does not acquire any change +of flavour, and by many other experiments neither colour nor any other +change is produced in the fruit ingrafted on other stocks. + +There is an apple described in Bradley's work which is said to have one +side of it a sweet fruit which boils soft, and the other side a sour +fruit which boils hard, which Mr. Bradley so long ago as the year 1721 +ingeniously ascribes to the farina of one of these apples impregnating +the other, which would seem the more probable if we consider that each +division of an apple is a separate womb, and may therefore have a +separate impregnation like puppies of different kinds in one litter. The +same is said to have occurred in oranges and lemons, and grapes of +different colours.] + + +485 "Thus when in holy triumph Aaron trod, + And offer'd on the shrine his mystic rod; + First a new bark its silken tissue weaves, + New buds emerging widen into leaves; + Fair fruits protrude, enascent flowers expand, +490 And blush and tremble round the living wand. + + XIII. 1. "SYLPHS! on each Oak-bud wound the wormy galls, + With pigmy spears, or crush the venom'd balls; + Fright the green Locust from his foamy bed, + Unweave the Caterpillar's gluey thread; +495 Chase the fierce Earwig, scare the bloated Toad, + Arrest the snail upon his slimy road; + Arm with sharp thorns the Sweet-brier's tender wood, + And dash the Cynips from her damask bud; + Steep in ambrosial dews the Woodbine's bells, +500 And drive the Night-moth from her honey'd cells. + So where the Humming-bird in Chili's bowers + On murmuring pinions robs the pendent flowers; + Seeks, where fine pores their dulcet balm distill, + And sucks the treasure with proboscis-bill; +505 Fair CYPREPEDIA with successful guile + Knits her smooth brow, extinguishes her smile; + A Spiders bloated paunch and jointed arms + Hide her fine form, and mask her blushing charms; + In ambush sly the mimic warrior lies, +510 And on quick wing the panting plunderer flies. + + +[_Fair Cyprepedia_. l. 505. The cyprepedium from South America is +supposed to be of larger size and brighter colours than that from North +America from which this print is taken; it has a large globular nectary +about the size of a pidgeon's egg of a fleshy colour, and an incision or +depression on its upper part, much resembling the body of the large +American spider; this globular nectary is attached to divergent slender +petals not unlike the legs of the same animal. This spider is called by +Linneus Arenea avicularia, with a convex orbicular thorax, the center +transversely excavated, he adds that it catches small birds as well as +insects, and has the venemous bite of a serpent. System Nature, Tom. I. +p. 1034. M. Lonvilliers de Poincy, (Histoire Nat. des Antilles, Cap. +xiv. art. III.) calls it Phalange, and describes the body to be the size +of a pidgeon's egg, with a hollow on its back like a navel, and mentions +its catching the humming-bird in its strong nets. + +The similitude of this flower to this great spider seems to be a +vegetable contrivance to prevent the humming-bird from plundering its +honey. About Matlock in Derbyshire the fly-ophris is produced, the +nectary of which so much resembles the small wall-bee, perhaps the apis +ichneumonea, that it may be easily mistaken for it at a small distance. +It is probable that by this means it may often escape being plundered. +See note on lonicera in the next poem. + +A bird of our own country called a willow-wren (Motacilla) runs up the +stem of the crown-imperial (Frittillaria coronalis) and sips the +pendulous drops within its petals. This species of Motacilla is called +by Ray Regulus non cristatus. White's Hist. of Selborne.] + +[Illustration: _Cypripedium. London, Published Dec'r 1st 1791 by J. +Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard._] + + + 2. "Shield the young Harvest from devouring blight, + The Smut's dark poison, and the Mildew white; + Deep-rooted Mould, and Ergot's horn uncouth, + And break the Canker's desolating tooth. +515 First in one point the festering wound confin'd + Mines unperceived beneath the shrivel'd rin'd; + Then climbs the branches with increasing strength, + Spreads as they spread, and lengthens with their length; + --Thus the slight wound ingraved on glass unneal'd +520 Runs in white lines along the lucid field; + Crack follows crack, to laws elastic just, + And the frail fabric shivers into dust. + + +[_Shield the young harvest_. l. 511. Linneus enumerates but four +diseases of plants; Erysyche, the white mucor or mould, with sessile +tawny heads, with which the leaves are sprinkled, as is frequent on the +hop, humulus, maple, acer, &c. Rubigo, the ferrugineous powder sprinkled +under the leaves frequent in lady's mantle, alchemilla, &c. + +Clavus, when the seeds grow out into larger horns black without, as in +rye. This is called Ergot by the french writers. + +Ustulago, when the fruit instead of seed produces a black powder, as in +barley, oats, &c. To which perhaps the honey-dew ought to have been +added, and the canker, in the former of which the nourishing fluid of +the plant seems to be exsuded by a retrograde motion of the cutaneous +lymphatics, as in the sweating sickness of the last century. The latter +is a phagedenic ulcer of the bark, very destructive to young apple- +trees, and which in cherry-trees is attended with a deposition of gum +arabic, which often terminates in the death of the tree.] + +[_Ergot's horn_. l. 513. There is a disease frequently affects the rye +in France, and sometimes in England in moist seasons, which is called +Ergot, or horn seed; the grain becomes considerably elongated and is +either straight or crooked, containing black meal along with the white, +and appears to be pierced by insects, which were probably the cause of +the disease. Mr. Duhamel ascribes it to this cause, and compares it to +galls on oak-leaves. By the use of this bad grain amongst the poor +diseases have been produced attended with great debility and +mortification of the extremities both in France and England. Dict. +Raison. art. Siegle. Philosop. Transact.] + +[_On glass unneal'd_. l. 519. The glass makers occasionally make what +they call _proofs_, which are cooled hastily, whereas the other glass +vessels are removed from warmer ovens to cooler ones, and suffered to +cool by slow degrees, which is called annealing, or nealing them. If an +unnealed glass be scratched by even a grain of sand falling into it, it +will seem to consider of it for some time, or even a day, and will then +crack into a thousand pieces. + +The same happens to a smooth surfaced lead-ore in Derbyshire, the +workmen having cleared a large face of it scratch it with picks, and in +a few hours many tons of it crack to pieces and fall, with a kind of +explosion. Whitehurst's Theory of Earth. + +Glass dropped into cold water, called Prince Rupert's drops, explode +when a small part of their tails are broken off, more suddenly indeed, +but probably from the same cause. Are the internal particles of these +elastic bodies kept so far from each other by the external crust that +they are nearly in a state of repulsion into which state they are thrown +by their vibrations from any violence applied? Or, like elastic balls in +certain proportions suspended in contact with each other, can motion +once began be increased by their elasticity, till the whole explodes? +And can this power be applied to any mechanical purposes?] + + + XIV. I. "SYLPHS! if with morn destructive Eurus springs, + O, clasp the Harebel with your velvet wings; +525 Screen with thick leaves the Jasmine as it blows, + And shake the white rime from the shuddering Rose; + Whilst Amaryllis turns with graceful ease + Her blushing beauties, and eludes the breeze.-- + SYLPHS! if at noon the Fritillary droops, +530 With drops nectareous hang her nodding cups; + Thin clouds of Gossamer in air display, + And hide the vale's chaste Lily from the ray; + Whilst Erythrina o'er her tender flower + Bends all her leaves, and braves the sultry hour;-- +535 Shield, when cold Hesper sheds his dewy light, + Mimosa's soft sensations from the night; + Fold her thin foilage, close her timid flowers, + And with ambrosial slumbers guard her bowers; + O'er each warm wall while Cerea flings her arms, +540 And wastes on night's dull eye a blaze of charms. + + +[Illustration: _Erythrina Corallodendron. London Published Dec'r 1st by +J. Johnson St. Paul's Church Yard._] + +[_With ambrosial slumbers_. l. 538. Many vegetables during the night do +not seem to respire, but to sleep like the dormant animals and insects +in winter. This appears from the mimosa and many other plants closing +the upper sides of their leaves together in their sleep, and thus +precluding that side of them from both light and air. And from many +flowers closing up the polished or interior side of their petals, which +we have also endeavoured to shew to be a respiratory organ. + +The irritability of plants is abundantly evinced by the absorption and +pulmonary circulation of their juices; their sensibility is shewn by the +approaches of the males to the females, and of the females to the males +in numerous instances; and, as the essential circumstance of sleep +consists in the temporary abolition of voluntary power alone, the sleep +of plants evinces that they possess voluntary power; which also +indisputably appears in many of them by closing their petals or their +leaves during cold, or rain, or darkness, or from mechanic violence.] + + + 2. Round her tall Elm with dewy fingers twine + The gadding tendrils of the adventurous Vine; + From arm to arm in gay festoons suspend + Her fragrant flowers, her graceful foliage bend; +545 Swell with sweet juice her vermil orbs, and feed + Shrined in transparent pulp her pearly seed; + Hang round the Orange all her silver bells, + And guard her fragrance with Hesperian spells; + Bud after bud her polish'd leaves unfold, +550 And load her branches with successive gold. + So the learn'd Alchemist exulting sees + Rise in his bright matrass DIANA'S trees; + Drop after drop, with just delay he pours + The red-fumed acid on Potosi's ores; +555 With sudden flash the fierce bullitions rise, + And wide in air the gas phlogistic flies; + Slow shoot, at length, in many a brilliant mass + Metallic roots across the netted glass; + Branch after branch extend their silver stems, +560 Bud into gold, and blossoms into gems. + + +[_Diana's trees_, l. 552. The chemists and astronomers from the earliest +antiquity have used the same characters to represent the metals and the +planets, which were most probably outlines or abstracts of the original +hieroglyphic figures of Egypt. These afterwards acquired niches in their +temples, and represented Gods as well as metals and planets; whence +silver is called Diana, or the moon, in the books of alchemy. + +The process for making Diana's silver tree is thus described by Lemeri. +Dissolve one ounce of pure silver in acid of nitre very pure and +moderately strong; mix this solution with about twenty ounces of +distilled water; add to this two ounces of mercury, and let it remain at +rest. In about four days there will form upon the mercury a tree of +silver with branches imitating vegetation. + +1. As the mercury has a greater affinity than silver with the nitrous +acid, the silver becomes precipitated; and, being deprived of the +nitrous oxygene by the mercury, sinks down in its metallic form and +lustre. 2. The attraction between silver and mercury, which causes them +readily to amalgamate together, occasions the precipitated silver to +adhere to the surface of the mercury in preference to any other part of +the vessel. 3. The attraction of the particles of the precipitated +silver to each other causes the beginning branches to thicken and +elongate into trees and shrubs rooted on the mercury. For other +circumstances concerning this beautiful experiment see Mr. Keir's +Chemical Dictionary, art. Arbor Dianae; a work perhaps of greater +utility to mankind than the lost Alexandrian Library; the continuation +of which is so eagerly expected by all, who are occupied in the arts, or +attached to the sciences.] + + + So sits enthron'd in vegetable pride + Imperial KEW by Thames's glittering side; + Obedient sails from realms unfurrow'd bring + For her the unnam'd progeny of spring; +565 Attendant Nymphs her dulcet mandates hear, + And nurse in fostering arms the tender year, + Plant the young bulb, inhume the living seed, + Prop the weak stem, the erring tendril lead; + Or fan in glass-built fanes the stranger flowers +570 With milder gales, and steep with warmer showers. + Delighted Thames through tropic umbrage glides, + And flowers antarctic, bending o'er his tides; + Drinks the new tints, the sweets unknown inhales, + And calls the sons of science to his vales. +575 In one bright point admiring Nature eyes + The fruits and foliage of discordant skies, + Twines the gay floret with the fragrant bough, + And bends the wreath round GEORGE'S royal brow. + --Sometimes retiring, from the public weal +580 One tranquil hour the ROYAL PARTNERS steal; + Through glades exotic pass with step sublime, + Or mark the growths of Britain's happier clime; + With beauty blossom'd, and with virtue blaz'd, + Mark the fair Scions, that themselves have rais'd; +585 Sweet blooms the Rose, the towering Oak expands, + The Grace and Guard of Britain's golden lands. + + XV. SYLPHS! who, round earth on purple pinions borne, + Attend the radiant chariot of the morn; + Lead the gay hours along the ethereal hight, +590 And on each dun meridian shower the light; + SYLPHS! who from realms of equatorial day + To climes, that shudder in the polar ray, + From zone to zone pursue on shifting wing, + The bright perennial journey of the spring; +595 Bring my rich Balms from Mecca's hallow'd glades, + Sweet flowers, that glitter in Arabia's shades; + Fruits, whose fair forms in bright succession glow + Gilding the Banks of Arno, or of Po; + Each leaf, whose fragrant steam with ruby lip +600 Gay China's nymphs from pictur'd vases sip; + Each spicy rind, which sultry India boasts, + Scenting the night-air round her breezy coasts; + Roots whose bold stems in bleak Siberia blow, + And gem with many a tint the eternal snow; +605 Barks, whose broad umbrage high in ether waves + O'er Ande's steeps, and hides his golden caves; + --And, where yon oak extends his dusky shoots + Wide o'er the rill, that bubbles from his roots; + Beneath whose arms, protected from the storm +610 A turf-built altar rears it's rustic form; + SYLPHS! with religious hands fresh garlands twine, + And deck with lavish pomp HYGEIA'S shrine. + + "Call with loud voice the Sisterhood, that dwell + On floating cloud, wide wave, or bubbling well; +615 Stamp with charm'd foot, convoke the alarmed Gnomes + From golden beds, and adamantine domes; + Each from her sphere with beckoning arm invite, + Curl'd with red flame, the Vestal Forms of light. + Close all your spotted wings, in lucid ranks +620 Press with your bending knees the crowded banks, + Cross your meek arms, incline your wreathed brows, + And win the Goddess with unwearied vows. + + "Oh, wave, HYGEIA! o'er BRITANNIA'S throne + Thy serpent-wand, and mark it for thy own; +625 Lead round her breezy coasts thy guardian trains, + Her nodding forests, and her waving plains; + Shed o'er her peopled realms thy beamy smile, + And with thy airy temple crown her isle!" + + The GODDESS ceased,--and calling from afar +630 The wandering Zephyrs, joins them to her car; + Mounts with light bound, and graceful, as she bends, + Whirls the long lash, the flexile rein extends; + On whispering wheels the silver axle slides, + Climbs into air, and cleaves the crystal tides; +635 Burst from its pearly chains, her amber hair + Streams o'er her ivory shoulders, buoy'd in air; + Swells her white veil, with ruby clasp confined + Round her fair brow, and undulates behind; + The lessening coursers rise in spiral rings, +640 Pierce the slow-sailing clouds, and stretch their shadowy wings. + + + + + CONTENTS + + OF + + THE NOTES. + + + CANTO I. + + +Rosicrucian machinery. 73 + +All bodies are immersed in the matter of heat. Particles of bodies do +not touch each other. 97 + +Gradual progress of the formation of the earth, and of plants and +animals. Monstrous births 101 + +Fixed stars approach towards each other, they were projected from chaos +by explosion, and the planets projected from them 105 + +An atmosphere of inflammable air above the common atmosphere principally +about the poles 123 + +Twilight fifty miles high. Wants further observations 126 + +Immediate cause of volcanos from steam and other vapours. They prevent +greater earthquakes 152 + +Conductors of heat. Cold on the tops of mountains 176 + +Phosphorescent light in the evening from all bodies 177 + +Phosphoric light from calcined shells. Bolognian stone. Experiments of +Beccari and Wilson 182 + +Ignis fatuus doubtful 189 + +Electric Eel. Its electric organs. Compared to the electric Leyden phial +202 + +Discovery of fire. Tools of steel. Forests subdued. Quantity of food +increased by cookery 212 + +Medusa originally an hieroglyphic of divine wisdom 218 + +Cause of explosions from combined heat. Heat given out from air in +respiration. Oxygene looses less heat when converted into nitrous acid +than in any other of its combinations 226 + +Sparks from the collision of flints are electric. From the collision of +flint and steel are from the combustion of the steel 229 + +Gunpowder described by Bacon. Its power. Should be lighted in the +centre. A new kind of it. Levels the weak and strong 242 + +Steam-engine invented by Savery. Improved by Newcomen. Perfected by Watt +and Boulton 254 + +Divine benevolence. The parts of nature not of equal excellence 278 + +Mr. Boulton's steam-engine for the purpose of coining would save many +lives from the executioner 281 + +Labours of Hercules of great antiquity. Pillars of Hercules. Surface of +the Mediteranean lower than the Atlantic. Abyla and Calpe. Flood of +Deucalion 297 + +Accumulation of electricity not from friction 335 + +Mr. Bennet's sensible electrometer 345 + +Halo of saints is pictorial language 358 + +We have a sense adapted to perceive heat but not electricity 365 + +Paralytic limbs move by electric influence 367 + +Death of Professor Richman by electricity 373 + +Lightning drawn from the clouds. How to be safe in thunder storms 383 + +Animal heat from air in respiration. Perpetual necessity of respiration. +Spirit of animation perpetually renewed 401 + +Cupid rises from the egg of night. Mrs. Cosway's painting of this +subject 413 + +Western-winds. Their origin. Warmer than south-winds. Produce a thaw +430 + +Water expands in freezing. Destroys succulent plants, not resinous ones. +Trees in valleys more liable to injury. Fig-trees bent to the ground in +winter 439 + +Buds and bulbs are the winter cradle of the plant. Defended from frost +and from insects. Tulip produces one flower-bulb and several leaf-bulbs, +and perishes. 460 + +Matter of heat is different from light. Vegetables blanched by exclusion +of light. Turn the upper surface of their leaves to the light. Water +decomposed as it escapes from their pores. Hence vegetables purify air +in the day time only. 462 + +Electricity forwards the growth of plants. Silk-worms electrised spin +sooner. Water decomposed in vegetables, and by electricity 463 + +Sympathetic inks which appear by heat, and disappear in the cold. Made +from cobalt 487 + +Star in Cassiope's chair 515 + +Ice-islands 100 fathoms deep. Sea-ice more difficult of solution. Ice +evaporates producing great cold. Ice-islands increase. Should be +navigated into southern climates. Some ice-islands have floated +southwards 60 miles long. Steam attending them in warm climates 529 + +Monsoon cools the sands of Abyssinia 547 + +Ascending vapours are electrised plus, as appears from an experiment of +Mr. Bennet. Electricity supports vapour in clouds. Thunder showers from +combination of inflammable and vital airs 553 + + + + + CANTO II. + + +Solar volcanos analogous to terrestrial and lunar ones. Spots of the sun +are excavations 14 + +Spherical form of the earth. Ocean from condensed vapour. Character of +Mr. Whitehurst 17 + +Granite the oldest part of the earth. Then limestone. And lastly, clay, +iron, coal, sandstone. Three great concentric divisions of the globe +35 + +Formation of primeval islands before the production of the moon. +Paradise. The Golden Age. Rain-bow. Water of the sea originally fresh +36 + +Venus rising from the sea an hieroglyphic emblem of the production of +the earth beneath the ocean 47 + +First great volcanos in the central parts of the earth. From steam, +inflammable gas, and vital air. Present volcanos like mole-hills 68 + +Moon has little or no atmosphere. Its ocean is frozen. Is not yet +inhabited, but may be in time 82 + +Earth's axis changed by the ascent of the moon. Its diurnal motion +retarded. One great tide 84 + +Limestone produced from shells. Spars with double refractions. Marble. +Chalk 93 + +Antient statues of Hercules. Antinous. Apollo. Venus. Designs of +Roubiliac. Monument of General Wade. Statues of Mrs. Damer 101 + +Morasses rest on limestone. Of immense extent 116 + +Salts from animal and vegetable bodies decompose each other, except +marine salt. Salt mines in Poland. Timber does not decay in them. Rock- +salt produced by evaporation from sea-water. Fossil shells in salt +mines. Salt in hollow pyramids. In cubes. Sea-water contains about one- +thirtieth of salt 119 + +Nitre, native in Bengal and Italy. Nitrous gas combined with vital air +produces red clouds, and the two airs occupy less space than one of them +before, and give out heat. Oxygene and azote produce nitrous acid 143 + +Iron from decomposed vegetables. Chalybeat springs. Fern-leaves in +nodules of iron. Concentric spheres of iron nodules owing to polarity, +like iron-filings arranged by a magnet. Great strata of the earth owing +to their polarity 183 + +Hardness of steel for tools. Gave superiority to the European nations. +Welding of steel. Its magnetism. Uses of gold 192 + +Artificial magnets improved by Savery and Dr. Knight, perfected by Mr. +Michel. How produced. Polarity owing to the earth's rotatory motion. The +electric fluid, and the matter of heat, and magnetism gravitate on each +other. Magnetism being the lightest is found nearest the axis of the +motion. Electricity produces northern lights by its centrifugal motion +193 + +Acids from vegetable recrements. Flint has its acid from the new world. +Its base in part from the old world, and in part from the new. Precious +stones 215 + +Diamond. Its great refraction of light. Its volatibility by heat. If an +inflammable body. 228 + +Fires of the new world from fermentation. Whence sulphur and bitumen by +sublimation, the clay, coal, and flint remaining 275 + +Colours not distinguishable in the enamel-kiln, till a bit of dry wood +is introduced 283 + +Etrurian pottery prior to the foundations of Rome. Excelled in fine +forms, and in a non-vitreous encaustic painting, which was lost till +restored by Mr. Wedgwood. Still influences the taste of the inhabitants +291 + +Mr. Wedgwood's cameo of a slave in chains, and of Hope 315 + +Basso-relievos of two or more colours not made by the antients. Invented +by Mr. Wedgwood 342 + +Petroleum and naptha have been sublimed. Whence jet and amber. They +absorb air. Attract straws when rubbed. Electricity from electron the +greek name for amber 353 + +Clefts in granite rocks in which metals are found. Iron and manganese +found in all vegetables. Manganese in limestone. Warm springs from steam +rising up the clefts of granite and limestone. Ponderous earth in +limestone clefts and in granite. Copper, lead, iron, from descending +materials. High mountains of granite contain no ores near their summits. +Transmutation of metals. Of lead into calamy. Into silver 398 + +Armies of Cambytes destroyed by famine, and by sand-storms 435 + +Whirling turrets of sand described and explained 478 + +Granite shews iron as it decomposes. Marble decomposes. Immense quantity +of charcoal exists in limestone. Volcanic slags decompose, and become +clay 523 + +Millstones raised by wooden pegs 524 + +Hannibal made a passage by fire over the Alps 534 + +Passed tense of many words twofold, as driven or drove, spoken or spoke. +A poetic licence 609 + + + + + CANTO III. + + +Clouds consist of aqueous spheres, which do not easily unite, like +globules of quicksilver, as may be seen in riding through water. Owing +to electricity. Snow. Hailstones rounded by attrition and dissolution of +their angles. Not from frozen drops of water 15 + +Dew on points and edges of grass, or hangs over cabbage-leaves, needle +floats on water 18 + +Mists over rivers and on mountains. Halo round the moon. Shadow of a +church-steeple upon a mist. Dry mist, or want of transparency of the +air, a sign of fair-weather 20 + +Tides on both sides of the earth. Moon's tides should be much greater +than the earth's tides. The ocean of the moon is frozen 61 + +Spiral form of shells saves calcareous matter. Serves them as an organ +of hearing. Calcareous matter produced from inflamed membranes. Colours +of shells, labradore-stone from mother-pearl. Fossil shells not now +found recent 66 + +Sea-insects like flowers. Actinia 82 + +Production of pearls, not a disease of the fish. Crab's eyes. Reservoirs +of pearly matter 84 + +Rocks of coral in the south-sea. Coralloid limestone at Linsel, and +Coalbrook Dale 90 + +Rocks thrown from mountains, ice from glaciers, and portions of earth, +or morasses, removed by columns of water. Earth-motion in Shropshire. +Water of wells rising above the level of the ground. St. Alkmond's well +near Derby might be raised many yards, so as to serve the town. Well at +Sheerness, and at Hartford in Connecticut 116 + +Moonsoons attended with rain Overflowing of the Nile. Vortex of +ascending air. Rising of the Dogstar announces the floods of the Nile. +Anubis hung out upon their temples 129 + +Situations exempt from rain. At the Line in Lower Egypt. On the coast of +Peru 138 + +Giesar, a boiling fountain in Iceland. Water with great degrees of heat +dissolves siliceous matter. Earthquake from steam 150 + +Warm springs not from decomposed pyrites. From steam rising up fissures +from great depths 166 + +Buxton bath possesses 82 degrees of heat. Is improperly called a warm +bath. A chill at immersion, and then a sensation of warmth, like the eye +in an obscure room owing to increased sensibility of the skin 184 + +Water compounded of pure air and inflammable air with as much matter of +heat as preserves it fluid. Perpetually decomposed by vegetables in the +sun's light, and recomposed in the atmosphere 204 + +Mythological interpretation of Jupiter and Juno designed as an emblem of +the composition of water from two airs 260 + +Death of Mrs. French 308 + +Tomb of Mr. Brindley 341 + +Invention of the pump. The piston lifts the atmosphere above it. The +surrounding atmosphere presses up the water into the vacuum. Manner in +which a child sucks 366 + +Air-cell in engines for extinguishing fire. Water dispersed by the +explosion of Gunpowder. Houses preserved from fire by earth on the +floors, by a second ceiling of iron-plates or coarse mortar. Wood +impregnated with alabaster or flint 406 + +Muscular actions and sensations of plants 460 + +River Achelous. Horn of Plenty 495 + +Flooding lands defends them from vernal frosts. Some springs deposit +calcareous earth. Some contain azotic gas, which contributes to produce +nitre. Snow water less serviceable 540 + + + + + CANTO IV. + + +Cacalia produces much honey, that a part may be taken by insects without +injury 2 + +Analysis of common air. Source of azote. Of Oxygene. Water decomposed by +vegetable pores and the sun's light. Blood gives out phlogiston and +receives vital air. Acquires heat and the vivifying principle 34 + +Cupid and Psyche 48 + +Simoom, a pestilential wind. Described. Owing to volcanic electricity. +Not a whirlwind 65 + +Contagion either animal or vegetable 82 + +Thyrsis escapes the Plague 91 + +Barometer and air-pump, Dew on exhausting the receiver though the +hygrometer points to dryness. Rare air will dissolve or acquire more +heat, and more moisture, and more electricity 128 + +Sound propagated best by dense bodies, as wood, and water, and earth. +Fish in spiral shells all ear 164 + +Discoveries of Dr. Priestley. Green vegetable matter. Pure air contained +in the calces of metals, as minium, manganese, calamy, ochre 166 + +Fable of Proserpine an antient chemical emblem 178 + +Diving balloons supplied with pure air from minium. Account of one by +Mr. Boyle 195 + +Mr. Day. Mr. Spalding 217 + +Captain Pierce and his daughters 219 + +Pestilential winds of volcanic origin. Jordan flows through a country of +volcanos 294 + +Change of wind owing to small causes. If the wind could be governed, the +products of the earth would be doubled, and its number of inhabitants +increased 308 + +Mr. Kirwan's treatise on temperature of climates 342 + +Seeds of plants. Spawn of fish. Nutriment lodged in seeds. Their +preservation in their seed-vessels 355 + +Fixed stars approach each other 369 + +Fable of the Phoenix 377 + +Plants visible within bulbs, and buds, and seeds 383 + +Great Egg of Night 406 + +Seeds shoot into the ground. Pith. Seed-lobes. Starch converted into +sugar. Like animal chyle 411 + +Light occasions the actions of vegetable muscles. Keeps them awake +422 + +Vegetable love in Parnassia, Nigella. Vegetable adultery in Collinsonia +456 + +Strong vegetable shoots and roots bound with wire, in part debarked, +whence leaf-buds converted into flower-buds. Theory of this curious fact +463 + +Branches bent to the horizon bear more fruit 466 + +Engrafting of a spotted passion-flower produced spots upon the stock. +Apple soft on one side and hard on the other 483 + +Cyprepedium assumes the form of a large spider to affright the humming- +bird. Fly-ophris. Willow-wren sucks the honey of the crown-imperial +505 + +Diseases of plants four kinds. Honey-dew 511 + +Ergot a disease of rye 513 + +Glass unannealed. Its cracks owing to elasticity. One kind of lead-ore +cracks into pieces. Prince Rupert's drops. Elastic balls 519 + +Sleep of plants. Their irritability, sensibility, and voluntary motions +538 + + + + + ADDITIONAL NOTES. + + + NOTE I.--METEORS. + + + _Etherial Forms! you chase the shooting stars, + Or yoke the vollied lightnings to your cars._ + + CANTO I. l. 115. + + +There seem to be three concentric strata of our incumbent atmosphere; in +which, or between them, are produced four kinds of meteors; lightning, +shooting stars, fire-balls, and northern lights. First, the lower region +of air, or that which is dense enough to resist by the adhesion of its +particles the descent of condensed vapour, or clouds, which may extend +from one to three or four miles high. In this region the common +lightning is produced from the accumulation or defect of electric matter +in those floating fields of vapour either in respect to each other, or +in respect to the earth beneath them, or the dissolved vapour above +them, which is constantly varying both with the change of the form of +the clouds, which thus evolve a greater or less surface; and also with +their ever-changing degree of condensation. As the lightning is thus +produced in dense air, it proceeds but a short course on account of the +greater resistance which it encounters, is attended with a loud +explosion, and appears with a red light. + +2. The second region of the atmosphere I suppose to be that which has +too little tenacity to support condensed vapour or clouds; but which yet +contains invisible vapour, or water in aerial solution. This aerial +solution of water differs from that dissolved in the matter of heat, as +it is supported by its adhesion to the particles of air, and is not +precipitated by cold. In this stratum it seems probable that the meteors +called shooting stars are produced; and that they consist of electric +sparks, or lightning, passing from one region to another of these +invisible fields of aero-aqueous solution. The height of these shooting +stars has not yet been ascertained by sufficient observation; Dr. +Blagden thinks their situation is lower down in the atmosphere than that +of fireballs, which he conjectures from their swift apparent motion, and +ascribes their smallness to the more minute division of the electric +matter of which they are supposed to consist, owing to the greater +resistance of the denser medium through which they pass, than that in +which the fire-balls exist. Mr. Brydone observed that the shooting stars +appeared to him to be as high in the atmosphere, when he was near the +summit of mount Etna, as they do when observed from the plain. Phil. +Tran. Vol. LXIII. + +As the stratum of air, in which shooting stars are supposed to exist is +much rarer than that in which lightning resides, and yet much denser +than that in which fire-balls are produced, they will be attracted at a +greater distance than the former, and at a less than the latter. From +this rarity of the air so small a sound will be produced by their +explosion, as not to reach the lower parts of the atmosphere; their +quantity of light from their greater distance being small, is never seen +through dense air at all, and thence does not appear red, like lightning +or fire balls. There are no apparent clouds to emit or to attract them, +because the constituent parts of these aero-aqueous regions may possess +an abundance or deficiency of electric matter and yet be in perfect +reciprocal solution. And lastly their apparent train of light is +probably owing only to a continuance of their impression on the eye; as +when a fire-stick is whirled in the dark it gives the appearance of a +compleat circle of fire: for these white trains of shooting stars +quickly vanish, and do not seem to set any thing on fire in their +passage, as seems to happen in the transit of fire-balls. + +3. The second region or stratum of air terminates I suppose where the +twilight ceases to be refracted, that is, where the air is 3000 times +rarer than at the surface of the earth; and where it seems probable that +the common air ends, and is surrounded by an atmosphere of inflammable +gas tenfold rarer than itself. In this region I believe fire-balls +sometimes to pass, and at other times the northern lights to exist. One +of these fire-balls or draco volans, was observed by Dr. Pringle and +many others on Nov. 26, 1758, which was afterwards estimated to have +been a mile and a half in circumference, to have been about one hundred +miles high, and to have moved towards the north with a velocity of near +thirty miles in a second of time. This meteor had a real tail many miles +long, which threw off sparks in its course, and the whole exploded with +a sound like distant thunder. Philos. Trans. Vol. LI. + +Dr. Blagden has related the history of another large meteor, or fire- +ball, which was seen the 18th of August, 1783, with many ingenious +observations and conjectures. This was estimated to be between 60 and 70 +miles high, and to travel 1000 miles at the rate of about twenty miles +in a second. This fire-ball had likewise a real train of light left +behind it in its passage, which varied in colour; and in some part of +its course gave off sparks or explosions where it had been brightest; +and a dusky red streak remained visible perhaps a minute. Philos. Trans. +Vol. LXXIV. + +These fire-balls differ from lightning, and from shooting stars in many +remarkable circumstances; as their very great bulk, being a mile and a +half in diameter; their travelling 1000 miles nearly horizontally; their +throwing off sparks in their passage; and changing colours from bright +blue to dusky red; and leaving a train of fire behind them, continuing +about a minute. They differ from the northern lights in not being +diffused, but passing from one point of the heavens to another in a +defined line; and this in a region above the crepuscular atmosphere, +where the air is 3000 tines rarer than at the surface of the earth. +There has not yet been even a conjecture which can account for these +appearances!--One I shall therefore hazard; which, if it does not +inform, may amuse the reader. + +In the note on l. 123, it was shewn that there is probably a supernatant +stratum of inflammable gas or hydrogene, over the common atmosphere; and +whose density at the surface where they meet, must be at least ten times +less than that upon which it swims; like chemical ether floating upon +water, and perhaps without any real contact. 1. In this region, where +the aerial atmosphere terminates and the inflammable one begins, the +quantity of tenacity or resistance must be almost inconceivable; in +which a ball of electricity might pass 1000 miles with greater ease than +through a thousandth part of an inch of glass. 2. Such a ball of +electricity passing between inflammable and common air would set fire to +them in a line as it patted along; which would differ in colour +according to the greater proportionate commixture of the two airs; and +from the same cause there might occur greater degrees of inflammation, +or branches of fire, in some parts of its course. + +As these fire-balls travel in a defined line, it is pretty evident from +the known laws of electricity, that they must be attracted; and as they +are a mile or more in diameter, they must be emitted from a large +surface of electric matter; because large nobs give larger sparks, less +diffused, and more brightly luminous, than less ones or points, and +resist more forceably the emission of the electric matter. What is there +in nature can attract them at so great a distance as 1000 miles, and so +forceably as to detach an electric spark of a mile diameter? Can +volcanos at the time of their eruptions have this effect, as they are +generally attended with lightning? Future observations must discover +these secret operations of nature! As a stream of common air is carried +along with the passage of electric aura from one body to another; it is +easy to conceive, that the common air and the inflammable air between +which the fire-ball is supposed to pass, will be partially intermixed by +being thus agitated, and so far as it becomes intermixed it will take +fire, and produce the linear flame and branching sparks above described. +In this circumstance of their being attracted, and thence passing in a +defined line, the fire-balls seem to differ from the coruscations of the +aurora borealis, or northern lights, which probably take place in the +same region of the atmosphere; where the common air exists in extreme +tenuity, and is covered by a still rarer sphere of inflammable gas, ten +times lighter than itself. + +As the electric streams, which constitute these northern lights, seem to +be repelled or radiated from an accumulation of that fluid in the north, +and not attracted like the fireballs; this accounts for the diffusion of +their light, as well as the silence of their passage; while their +variety of colours, and the permanency of them, and even the breadth of +them in different places, may depend on their setting on fire the +mixture of inflammable and common air through which they pass; as seems +to happen in the transit of the fire-balls. + +It was observed by Dr. Priestley that the electric shock taken through +inflammable air was red, in common air it is blueish; to these +circumstances perhaps some of the colours of the northern lights may +bear analogy; though the density of the medium through which light is +seen must principally vary its colour, as is well explained by Mr. +Morgan. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXV. Hence lightning is red when seen through +a dark cloud, or near the horizon; because the more refrangible rays +cannot permeate so dense a medium. But the shooting stars consist of +white light, as they are generally seen on clear nights, and nearly +vertical: in other situations their light is probably too faint to come +to us. But as in some remarkable appearances of the northern lights, as +in March, 1716, all the prismatic colours were seen quickly to succeed +each other, these appear to have been owing to real combustion; as the +density of the interposed medium could not be supposed to change so +frequently; and therefore these colours must have been owing to +different degrees of heat according to Mr. Morgan's theory of +combustion. In Smith's Optics, p. 69. the prismatic colours, and optical +deceptions of the northern lights are described by Mr. Cotes. + +The Torricellian vacuum, if perfectly free from air, is said by Mr. +Morgan and others to be a perfect non-conductor. This circumstance +therefore would preclude the electric streams from rising above the +atmosphere. But as Mr. Morgan did not try to pass an electric shock +through a vacuum, and as air, or something containing air, surrounding +the transit of electricity may be necessary to the production of light, +the conclusion may perhaps still be dubious. If however the streams of +the northern lights were supposed to rise above our atmosphere, they +would only be visible at each extremity of their course; where they +emerge from, or are again immerged into the atmosphere; but not in their +journey through the vacuum; for the absence of electric light in a +vacuum is sufficiently proved by the common experiment of shaking a +barometer in the dark; the electricity, produced by the friction of the +mercury in the glass at its top, is luminous if the barometer has a +little air in it; but there is no light if the vacuum be complete. + +The aurora borealis, or northern dawn, is very ingeniously accounted for +by Dr. Franklin on principles of electricity. He premises the following +electric phenomena: 1. that all new fallen snow has much positive +electricity standing on its surface. 2. That about twelve degrees of +latitude round the poles are covered with a crust of eternal ice, which +is impervious to the electric fluid. 3. That the dense part of the +atmosphere rises but a few miles high; and that in the rarer parts of it +the electric fluid will pass to almost any distance. + +Hence he supposes there must be a great accumulation of positive +electric matter on the fresh fallen snow in the polar regions; which, +not being able to pass through the crust of ice into the earth, must +rise into the rare air of the upper parts of our atmosphere, which will +the least resist its passage; and passing towards the equator descend +again into the denser atmosphere, and thence into the earth in silent +streams. And that many of the appearances attending these lights are +optical deceptions, owing to the situation of the eye that beholds them; +which makes all ascending parallel lines appear to converge to a point. + +The idea, above explained in note on l. 123, of the existence of a +sphere of inflammable gas over the aerial atmosphere would much favour +this theory of Dr. Franklin; because in that case the dense aerial +atmosphere would rise a much less height in the polar regions, +diminishing almost to nothing at the pole itself; and thus give an +easier passage to the ascent of the electric fluid. And from the great +difference in the specific gravity of the two airs, and the velocity of +the earth's rotation, there must be a place between the poles and the +equator, where the superior atmosphere of inflammable gas would +terminate; which would account for these streams of the aurora borealis +not appearing near the equator; add to this that it is probable the +electric fluid may be heavier than the magnetic one; and will thence by +the rotation of the earth's surface ascend over the magnetic one by its +centrifugal force; and may thus be induced to rise through the thin +stratum of aerial atmosphere over the poles. See note on Canto II. l. +193. I shall have occasion again to mention this great accumulation of +inflammable air over the poles; and to conjecture that these northern +lights may be produced by the union of inflammable with common air, +without the assistance of the electric spark to throw them into +combustion. + +The antiquity of the appearance of northern lights has been doubted; as +none were recorded in our annals since the remarkable one on Nov. 14, +1574, till another remarkable one on March 6, 1716, and the three +following nights, which were seen at the same time in Ireland, Russia, +and Poland, extending near 30 degrees of longitude and from about the +50th degree of latitude over almost all the north of Europe. There is +however reason to believe them of remote antiquity though inaccurately +described; thus the following curious passage from the Book of +Maccabees, (B. II. c. v.) is such a description of them, as might +probably be given by an ignorant and alarmed people. "Through all the +city, for the space of almost forty days, there were seen horsemen +running in the air, in cloth of gold, and armed with lances, like a band +of soldiers; and troops of horsemen in array encountering and running +one against another, with shaking of shields and multitude of pikes, and +drawing of swords, and casting of darts, and glittering of golden +ornaments and harness." + + + + + NOTE II.--PRIMARY COLOURS. + + + _Cling round the aerial bow with prisms bright, + And pleased untwist the sevenfold threads of light._ + + CANTO I. l. 117. + + +The manner in which the rainbow is produced was in some measure +understood before Sir Isaac Newton had discovered his theory of colours. +The first person who expressly shewed the rainbow to be formed by the +reflection of the sunbeams from drops of falling rain was Antonio de +Dominis. This was afterwards more fully and distinctly explained by Des +Cartes. But what caused the diversity of its colours was not then +understood; it was reserved for the immortal Newton to discover that the +rays of light consisted of seven combined colours of different +refrangibility, which could be seperated at pleasure by a wedge of +glass. Pemberton's View of Newton. + +Sir Isaac Newton discovered that the prismatic spectrum was composed of +seven colours in the following proportions, violet 80, indigo 40, blue +60, green 60, yellow 48, orange 27, red 45. If all these colours be +painted on a circular card in the proportions above mentioned, and the +card be rapidly whirled on its center, they produce in the eye the +sensation of white. And any one of these colours may be imitated by +painting a card with the two colours which are contiguous to it, in the +same proportions as in the spectrum, and whirling them in the same +manner. My ingenious friend, Mr. Galton of Birmingham, ascertained in +this manner by a set of experiments the following propositions; the +truth of which he had preconceived from the above data. + +1. Any colour in the prismatic spectrum may be imitated by a mixture of +the two colours contiguous to it. + +2. If any three successive colours in the prismatic spectrum are mixed, +they compose only the second or middlemost colour. + +3. If any four succesive colours in the prismatic spectrum be mixed, a +tint similar to a mixture of the second and third colours will be +produced, but not precisely the same, because they are not in the same +proportion. + +4. If beginning with any colour in the circular spectrum, you take of +the second colour a quantity equal to the first, second, and third; and +add to that the fifth colour, equal in quantity to the fourth, fifth, +and sixth; and with these combine the seventh colour in the proportion +it exists in the spectrum, white will be produced. Because the first, +second, and third, compose only the second; and the fourth, fifth, and +sixth, compose only the fifth; therefore if the seventh be added, the +same effect is produced, as if all the seven were employed. + +5. Beginning with any colour in the circular spectrum, if you take a +tint composed of a certain proportion of the second and third, (equal in +quantity to the first, second, third, and fourth,) and add to this the +sixth colour equal in quantity to the fifth, sixth, and seventh, white +will be produced. + +From these curious experiments of Mr. Galton many phenomena in the +chemical changes of colours may probably become better understood; +especially if, as I suppose, the same theory must apply to transmitted +colours, as to reflected ones. Thus it is well known, that if the glass +of mangonese, which is a tint probably composed of violet and indigo, be +mixed in a certain proportion with the glass of lead, which is yellow; +that the mixture becomes transparent. Now from Mr. Galton's experiments +it appears, that in reflected colours such a mixture would produce +white, that is, the same as if all the colours were reflected. And +therefore in transmitted colours the same circumstances must produce +transparency, that is, the same as if all the colours were transmitted. +For the particles, which constitute the glass of mangonese will transmit +red, violet, indigo, and blue; and those of the glass of lead will +transmit orange, yellow, and green; hence all the primary colours by a +mixture of these glasses become transmitted, that is, the glass becomes +transparent. + +Mr. Galton has further observed that five successive prismatic colours +may be combined in such proportions as to produce but one colour, a +circumstance which might be of consequence in the art of painting. For +if you begin at any part of the circular spectrum above described, and +take the first, second, and third colours in the proportions in which +they exist in the spectrum; these will compose only the second colour +equal in quantity to the first, second, and third; add to these the +third, fourth, and fifth in the proportion they exist in the spectrum, +and these will produce the fourth colour equal in quantity to the third, +fourth, and fifth. Consequently this is precisely the same thing, as +mixing the second and fourth colours only; which mixture would only +produce the third colour. Therefore if you combine the first, second, +fourth, and fifth in the proportions in which they exist in the +spectrum, with double the quantity of the third colour, this third +colour will be produced. It is probable that many of the unexpected +changes in mixing colours on a painter's easle, as well as in more fluid +chemical mixtures, may depend on these principles rather than on a new +arrangement or combination of their minute particles. + +Mr. Galton further observes, that white may universally be produced by +the combination of one prismatic colour, and a tint intermediate to two +others. Which tint may be distinguished by a name compounded of the two +colours, to which it is intermediate. Thus white is produced by a +mixture of red with blue-green. Of orange with indigo-blue. Of Yellow +with violet-indigo. Of green with red-violet. Of blue with Orange-red. +Of indigo with yellow-orange. Of violet with green-yellow. Which he +further remarks exactly coincides with the theory and facts mentioned by +Dr. Robert Darwin of Shrewsbury in his account of ocular spectra; who +has shewn that when one of these contrasted colours has been long +viewed, a spectrum or appearance of the other becomes visible in the +fatigued eye. Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVI. for the year 1786. + +These experiments of Mr. Galton might much assist the copper-plate +printers of callicoes and papers in colours; as three colours or more +might be produced by two copper-plates. Thus suppose some yellow figures +were put on by the first plate, and upon some parts of these yellow +figures and on other parts of the ground blue was laid on by another +copper-plate. The three colours of yellow, blue, and green might be +produced; as green leaves with yellow and blue flowers. + + + + + NOTE III.--COLOURED CLOUDS. + + + _Eve's silken couch with gorgeous tints adorn, + Or fire the arrowy throne of rising morn._ + + CANTO I. l. 119. + + +The rays from the rising and setting sun are refracted by our spherical +atmosphere, hence the most refrangible rays, as the violet, indigo, and +blue are reflected in greater quantities from the morning and evening +skies; and the least refrangible ones, as red and orange, are last seen +about the setting sun. Hence Mr. Beguelin observed that the shadow of +his finger on his pocket-book was much bluer in the morning and evening, +when the shadow was about eight times as long as the body from which it +was projected. Mr. Melville observes, that the blue rays being more +refrangible are bent down in the evenings by our atmosphere, while the +red and orange being less refrangible continue to pass on and tinge the +morning and evening clouds with their colours. See Priestley's History +of Light and Colours, p. 440. But as the particles of air, like those of +water, are themselves blue, a blue shadow may be seen at all times of +the day, though much more beautifully in the mornings and evenings, or +by means of a candle in the middle of the day. For if a shadow on a +piece of white paper is produced by placing your finger between the +paper and a candle in the day light, the shadow will appear very blue; +the yellow light of the candle upon the other parts of the paper +apparently deepens the blue by its contrast; these colours being +opposite to each other, as explained in note II. + +Colours are produced from clouds or mists by refraction, as well as by +reflection. In riding in the night over an unequal country I observed a +very beautiful coloured halo round the moon, whenever I was covered with +a few feet of mist, as I ascended from the vallies; which ceased to +appear when I rose above the mist. This I suppose was owing to the +thinness of the stratum of mist, in which I was immersed; had it been +thicker, the colours refracted by the small drops, of which a fog +consists, would not have passed through it down to my eye. + +There is a bright spot seen on the cornea of the eye, when we face a +window, which is much attended to by portrait painters; this is the +light reflected from the spherical surface of the polished cornea, and +brought to a focus; if the observer is placed in this focus, he sees the +image of the window; if he is placed before or behind the focus, he only +sees a luminous spot, which is more luminous and of less extent, the +nearer he approaches to the focus. The luminous appearance of the eyes +of animals in the dusky corners of a room, or in holes in the earth, may +arise in some instances from the same principle; viz. the reflection of +the light from the spherical cornea; which will be coloured red or blue +in some degree by the morning, evening, or meridian light; or by the +objects from which that light is previously reflected. In the cavern at +Colebrook Dale, where the mineral tar exsudes, the eyes of the horse, +which was drawing a cart from within towards the mouth of it, appeared +like two balls of phosphorus, when he was above 100 yards off, and for a +long time before any other part of the animal was visible. In this case +I suspect the luminous appearance to have been owing to the light, which +had entered the eye, being reflected from the back surface of the +vitreous humour, and thence emerging again in parallel rays from the +animals eye, as it does from the back surface of the drops of the +rainbow, and from the water-drops which lie, perhaps without contact, on +cabbage-leaves, and have the brilliancy of quicksilver. This accounts +for this luminous appearance being best seen in those animals which have +large apertures in their iris, as in cats and horses, and is the only +part visible in obscure places, because this is a better reflecting +surface than any other part of the animal. If any of these emergent rays +from the animals eye can be supposed to have been reflected from the +choroid coat through the semi-transparent retina, this would account for +the coloured glare of the eyes of dogs or cats and rabits in dark +corners. + + + + + NOTE IV.--COMETS. + + + _Alarm with comet-blaze the sapphire plain, + The wan stars glimmering through its silver train._ + + CANTO I. l. 133. + + +There have been many theories invented to account for the tails of +comets. Sir Isaac Newton thinks that they consist of rare vapours raised +from the nucleus of the comet, and so rarefied by the sun's heat as to +have their general gravitation diminished, and that they in consequence +ascend opposite to the sun, and from thence reflect the rays of light. +Dr. Halley compares the light of the tails of comets to the streams of +the aurora borealis, and other electric effluvia. Philos. Trans. No. +347. + +Dr. Hamilton observes that the light of small stars are seen +undiminished through both the light of the tails of comets, and of the +aurora borealis, and has further illustrated their electric analogy, and +adds that the tails of comets consist of a lucid self-shining substance +which has not the power of refracting or reflecting the rays of light. +Essays. + +The tail of the comet of 1744 at one time appeared to extend above 16 +degrees from its body, and must have thence been above twenty three +millions of miles long. And the comet of 1680, according to the +calculations of Dr. Halley on November the 11th, was not above one semi- +diameter of the earth, or less than 4000 miles to the northward of the +way of the earth; at which time had the earth been in that part of its +orbit, what might have been the consequence! no one would probably have +survived to have registered the tremendous effects. + +The comet of 1531, 1607, and 1682 having returned in the year 1759, +according to Dr. Halley's prediction in the Philos. Trans. for 1705, +there seems no reason to doubt that all the other comets will return +after their proper periods. Astronomers have in general acquiesced in +the conjecture of Dr. Halley, that the comets of 1532, and 1661 are one +and the same comet, from the similarity of the elements of their orbits, +and were therefore induced to expect its return to its perihelium 1789. +As this comet is liable to be disturbed in its ascent from the sun by +the planets Jupiter and Saturn, Dr. Maskelyne expected its return to its +perihelium in the beginning of the year 1789, or the latter end of the +year 1788, and certainly sometime before the 27th of April, 1789, which +prediction has not been fulfilled. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXVI. + + + + + NOTE V.--SUN'S RAYS. + + + _Or give the sun's phlogistic orb to roll._ + + CANTO I. l. 136. + + +The dispute among philosophers about phlogiston is not concerning the +existence of an inflammable principle, but rather whether there be one +or more inflammable principles. The disciples of Stahl, which till +lately included the whole chemical world, believed in the identity of +phlogiston in all bodies which would flame or calcine. The disciples of +Lavoisier pay homage to a plurality of phlogistons under the various +names of charcoal, sulphur, metals, &c. Whatever will unite with _pure_ +air, and thence compose an acid, is esteemed in this ingenious theory to +be a different kind of phlogistic or inflammable body. At the same time +there remains a doubt whether these inflammable bodies, as metals, +sulphur, charcoal, &c. may not be compounded of the same phlogiston +along with some other material yet undiscovered, and thus an unity of +phlogiston exist, as in the theory of Stahl, though very differently +applied in the explication of chemical phenomena. + +Some modern philosophers are of opinion that the sun is the great +fountain from which the earth and other planets derive all the +phlogiston which they possess; and that this is formed by the +combination of the solar rays with all opake bodies, but particularly +with the leaves of vegetables, which they suppose to be organs adapted +to absorb them. And that as animals receive their nourishment from +vegetables they also obtain in a secondary manner their phlogiston from +the sun. And lastly as great masses of the mineral kingdom, which have +been found in the thin crust of the earth which human labour has +penetrated, have evidently been formed from the recrements of animal and +vegetable bodies, these also are supposed thus to have derived their +phlogiston from the sun. + +Another opinion concerning the sun's rays is, that they are not luminous +till they arrive at our atmosphere; and that there uniting with some +part of the air they produce combustion, and light is emitted, and that +an etherial acid, yet undiscovered, is formed from this combustion. + +The more probable opinion is perhaps, that the sun is a phlogistic mass +of matter, whose surface is in a state of combustion, which like other +burning bodies emits light with immense velocity in all directions; that +these rays of light act upon all opake bodies, and combining with them +either displace or produce their elementary heat, and become chemically +combined with the phlogistic part of them; for light is given out when +phlogistic bodies unite with the oxygenous principle of the air, as in +combustion, or in the reduction of metallic calxes; thus in presenting +to the flame of a candle a letter-wafer, (if it be coloured with red- +lead,) at the time the red-lead becomes a metallic drop, a flash of +light is perceived. Dr. Alexander Wilson very ingeniously endeavours to +prove that the sun is only in a state of combustion on its surface, and +that the dark spots seen on the disk are excavations or caverns through +the luminous crust, some of which are 4000 miles in diameter. Phil. +Trans. 1774. Of this I shall have occasion to speak again. + + + + + NOTE VI.--CENTRAL FIRES. + + + _Round her still centre tread the burning soil, + And watch the billowy Lavas, as they boil._ + + CANTO I. l. 139. + + +M. de Mairan in a paper published in the Histoire de l'Academie de +Sciences, 1765, has endeavoured to shew that the earth receives but a +small part of the heat which it possesses, from the sun's rays, but is +principally heated by fires within itself. He thinks the sun is the +cause of the vicissitudes of our seasons of summer and winter by a very +small quantity of heat in addition to that already residing in the +earth, which by emanations from the centre to the circumference renders +the surface habitable, and without which, though the sun was constantly +to illuminate two thirds of the globe at once, with a heat equal to that +at the equator, it would soon become a mass of solid ice. His reasonings +and calculations on this subject are too long and too intricate to be +inserted here, but are equally curious and ingenious and carry much +conviction along with them. + +The opinion that the center of the earth consists of a large mass of +burning lava, has been espoused by Boyle, Boerhave, and many other +philosophers. Some of whom considering its supposed effects on +vegetation and the formation of minerals have called it a second sun. +There are many arguments in support of this opinion, 1. Because the +power of the sun does not extend much beyond ten feet deep into the +earth, all below being in winter and summer always of the same degree of +heat, viz. 48, which being much warmer than the mildest frost, is +supposed to be sustained by some internal distant fire. Add to this +however that from experiments made some years ago by Dr. Franklin the +spring-water at Philadelphia appeared to be of 52 deg. of heat, which seems +further to confirm this opinion, since the climates in North America are +supposed to be colder than those of Europe under similar degrees of +latitude. 2. Mr. De Luc in going 1359 feet perpendicular into the mines +of Hartz on July the 5th, 1778, on a very fine day found the air at the +bottom a little warmer than at the top of the shaft. Phil. Trans. Vol. +LXIX. p. 488. In the mines in Hungary, which are 500 cubits deep, the +heat becomes very troublesome when the miners get below 480 feet depth. +_Morinus de Locis subter_. p. 131. But as some other deep mines as +mentioned by Mr. Kirwan are said to possess but the common heat of the +earth; and as the crust of the globe thus penetrated by human labour is +so thin compared with the whole, no certain deduction can be made from +these facts on either side of the question. 3. The warm-springs in many +parts of the earth at great distance from any Volcanos seem to originate +from the condensation of vapours arising from water which is boiled by +subterraneous fires, and cooled again in their passage through a certain +length of the colder soil; for the theory of chemical solution will not +explain the equality of their heat at all seasons and through so many +centuries. See note on Fucus in Vol. II. See a letter on this subject in +Mr. Pilkinton's View of Derbyshire from Dr. Darwin. 4. From the +situations of volcanos which are always found upon the summit of the +highest mountains. For as these mountains have been lifted up and lose +several of their uppermost strata as they rise, the lowest strata of the +earth yet known appear at the tops of the highest hills; and the beds of +the Volcanos upon these hills must in consequence belong to the lowest +strata of the earth, consisting perhaps of granite or basaltes, which +were produced before the existance of animal or vegetable bodies, and +might constitute the original nucleus of the earth, which I have +supposed to have been projected from the sun, hence the volcanos +themselves appear to be spiracula or chimneys belonging to great central +fires. It is probably owing to the escape of the elastic vapours from +these spiracula that the modern earthquakes are of such small extent +compared with those of remote antiquity, of which the vestiges remain +all over the globe. 5. The great size and height of the continents, and +the great size and depth of the South-sea, Atlantic, and other oceans, +evince that the first earthquakes, which produced these immense changes +in the globe, must have been occasioned by central fires. 6. The very +distant and expeditious communication of the shocks of some great +earthquakes. The earthquake at Lisbon in 1755 was perceived in Scotland, +in the Peak of Derbyshire, and in many other distant parts of Europe. +The percussions of it travelled with about the velocity of sound, viz. +about thirteen miles in a minute. The earthquake in 1693 extended 2600 +leagues. (Goldsmith's History.) These phenomena are easily explained if +the central parts of the earth consist of a fluid lava, as a percussion +on one part of such a fluid mass would be felt on other parts of its +confining vault, like a stroke on a fluid contained in a bladder, which +however gentle on one side is perceptible to the hand placed on the +other; and the velocity with which such a concussion would travel would +be that of sound, or thirteen miles in a minute. For further information +on this part of the subject the reader is referred to Mr. Michell's +excellent Treatise on Earthquakes in the Philos. Trans. Vol. LI. 7. That +there is a cavity at the center of the earth is made probable by the +late experiments on the attraction of mountains by Mr. Maskerlyne, who +supposed from other considerations that the density of the earth near +the surface should be five times less than its mean density. Phil. +Trans. Vol. LXV. p. 498. But found from the attraction of the mountain +Schehallien, that it is probable, the mean density of the earth is but +double that of the hill. Ibid. p. 532. Hence if the first supposition be +well founded there would appear to be a cavity at the centre of +considerable magnitude, from whence the immense beds and mountains of +lava, toadstone, basaltes, granite, &c. have been protruded. 8. The +variation of the compass can only be accounted for by supposing the +central parts of the earth to consist of a fluid mass, and that part of +this fluid is iron, which requiring a greater degree of heat to bring it +into fusion than glass or other metals, remains a solid, and the vis +inertiae of this fluid mass with the iron in it, occasions it to perform +fewer revolutions than the crust of solid earth over it, and thus it is +gradually left behind, and the place where the floating iron resides is +pointed to by the direct or retrograde motions of the magnetic needle. +This seems to have been nearly the opinion of Dr. Halley and Mr. Euler. + + + + + NOTE VII.--ELEMENTARY HEAT. + + + _Or sphere on sphere in widening waves expand, + And glad with genial warmth the incumbent land._ + + CANTO I. l. 143. + + +A certain quantity of heat seems to be combined with all bodies besides +the sensible quantity which gravitates like the electric fluid amongst +them. This combined heat or latent heat of Dr. Black, when set at +liberty by fermentation, inflammation, crystallization, freezing, or +other chemical attractions producing new _combinations_, passes as a +fluid element into the surrounding bodies. And by thawing, diffusion of +neutral salts in water, melting, and other chemical _solutions_, a +portion of heat is attracted from the bodies in vicinity and enters into +or becomes combined with the new solutions. + +Hence a _combination_ of metals with acids, of essential oils and acids, +of alcohol and water, of acids and water, give out heat; whilst a +_solution_ of snow in water or in acids, and of neutral salts in water, +attract heat from the surrounding bodies. So the acid of nitre mixed +with oil of cloves unites with it and produces a most violent flame; the +same acid of nitre poured on snow instantly dissolves it and produces +the greatest degree of cold yet known, by which at Petersburgh +quicksilver was first frozen in 1760. + +Water may be cooled below 32 without being frozen, if it be placed on a +solid floor and secured from agitation, but when thus cooled below the +freezing point the least agitation turns part of it suddenly into ice, +and when this sudden freezing takes place a thermometer placed in it +instantly rises as some heat is given out in the act of congelation, and +the ice is thus left with the same _sensible_ degree of cold as the +water had possessed before it was agitated, but is nevertheless now +combined with less _latent_ heat. + +A cubic inch of water thus cooled down to 32 deg. mixed with an equal +quantity of boiling water at 212 deg. will cool it to the middle number +between these two, or to 122. But a cubic inch of ice whose sensible +cold also is but 32, mixed with an equal quantity of boiling water, will +cool it six times as much as the cubic inch of cold water +above-mentioned, as the ice not only gains its share of the sensible or +gravitating heat of the boiling water but attracts to itself also and +combines with the quantity of latent heat which it had lost at the time +of its congelation. + +So boiling water will acquire but 212 deg. of heat under the common pressure +of the atmosphere, but the steam raised from it by its expansion or by +its solution in the atmosphere combines with and carries away a +prodigious quantity of heat which it again parts with on its +condensation; as is seen in common distillation where the large quantity +of water in the worm-tub is so soon heated. Hence the evaporation of +ether on a thermometer soon sinks the mercury below freezing, and hence +a warmth of the air in winter frequently succeeds a shower. + +When the matter of heat or calorique is set at liberty from its +combinations, as by inflammation, it passes into the surrounding bodies, +which possess different capacities of acquiring their share of the loose +or sensible heat; thus a pint measure of cold water at 48 deg. mixed with a +pint of boiling water at 212 deg. will cool it to the degree between these +two numbers, or to 154 deg., but it requires two pint measures of +quicksilver at 48 deg. of heat to cool one pint of water as above. These and +other curious experiments are adduced by Dr. Black to evince the +existance of combined or latent heat in bodies, as has been explained by +some of his pupils, and well illustrated by Dr. Crawford. The world has +long been in expectation of an account of his discoveries on this +subject by the celebrated author himself. + +As this doctrine of elementary heat in its fluid and combined state is +not yet universally received, I shall here add two arguments in support +of it drawn from different sources, viz. from the heat given out or +absorbed by the mechanical condensation or expansion of the air, and +perhaps of other bodies, and from the analogy of the various phenomena +of heat with those of electricity. + +I. If a thermometer be placed in the receiver of an air-pump, and the +air hastily exhausted, the thermometer will sink some degrees, and the +glass become steamy; the same occurs in hastily admitting a part of the +air again. This I suppose to be produced by the expansion of part of the +air, both during the exhaustion and re-admission of it; and that the air +so expanded becomes capable of attracting from the bodies in its +vicinity a part of their heat, hence the vapours contained in it and the +glass receiver are for a time colder and the steam is precipitated. That +the air thus parts with its moisture from the cold occasioned by its +rarefaction and not simply by the rarefaction itself is evident, because +in a minute or two the same rarefied air will again take up the dew +deposited on the receiver; and because water will evaporate sooner in +rare than in dense air. + +There is a curious phenomenon similar to this observed in the fountain +of Hiero constructed on a large scale at the Chemnicensian mines in +Hungary. In this machine the air in a large vessel is compressed by a +column of water 260 feet high, a stop-cock is then opened, and as the +air issues out with great vehemence, and thus becomes immediately +greatly expanded, so much cold is produced that the moisture from this +stream of air is precipitated in the form of snow, and ice is formed +adhering to the nosel of the cock. This remarkable circumstance is +described at large with a plate of the machine in Philos. Trans. Vol. +LII. for 1761. + +The following experiment is related by Dr. Darwin in the Philos. Trans. +Vol. LXXVIII. Having charged an air-gun as forcibly as he well could the +air-cell and syringe became exceedingly hot, much more so than could be +ascribed to the friction in working it; it was then left about half an +hour to cool down to the temperature of the air, and a thermometer +having been previously fixed against a wall, the air was discharged in a +continual stream on its bulb, and it sunk many degrees. From these three +experiments of the steam in the exhausted receiver being deposited and +re-absorbed, when a part of the air is exhausted or re-admitted, and the +snow produced by the fountain of Hiero, and the extraordinary heat given +out in charging, and the cold produced in discharging an air-gun, there +is reason to conclude that when air is mechanically compressed the +elementary fluid heat is pressed out of it, and that when it is +mechanically expanded the same fluid heat is re-absorbed from the common +mass. + +It is probable all other bodies as well as air attract heat from their +neighbours when they are mechanically expanded, and give it out when +they are mechanically condensed. Thus when a vibration of the particles +of hard bodies is excited by friction or by percussion, these particles +mutually recede from and approach each other reciprocally; at the times +of their recession from each other, the body becomes enlarged in bulk, +and is then in a condition to attract heat from those in its vicinity +with great and sudden power; at the times of their approach to each +other this heat is again given out, but the bodies in contact having in +the mean while received the heat they had thus lost, from other bodies +behind them, do not so suddenly or so forcibly re-absorb the heat again +from the body in vibration; hence it remains on its surface like the +electric fluid on a rubbed glass globe, and for the same reason, because +there is no good conductor to take it up again. Hence at every vibration +more and more heat is acquired and stands loose upon the surface; as in +filing metals or rubbing glass tubes; and thus a smith with a few +strokes on a nail on his anvil can make it hot enough to light a +brimstone-match; and hence in striking flint and steel together heat +enough is produced to vitrify the parts thus strucken off, the quantity +of which heat is again probably increased by the new chemical +combination. + +II. The analogy between the phenomena of the electric fluid and of heat +furnishes another argument in support of the existence of heat as a +gravitating fluid. 1. They are both accumulated by friction on the +excited body. 2. They are propagated easily or with difficalty along the +same classes of bodies; with ease by metals, with less ease by water; +and with difficulty by resins, bees-wax, silk, air, and glass. Thus +glass canes or canes of sealing-wax may be melted by a blow-pipe or a +candle within a quarter of an inch of the fingers which hold them, +without any inconvenient heat, while a pin or other metallic substance +applyed to the flame of a candle so readily conducts the heat as +immediately to burn the fingers. Hence clothes of silk keep the body +warmer than clothes of linen of equal thickness, by confining the heat +upon the body. And hence plains are so much warmer than the summits of +mountains by the greater density of the air confining the acquired heat +upon them. 3. They both give out light in their passage through air, +perhaps not in their passage through a vacuum. 4. They both of them fuse +or vitrify metals. 5. Bodies after being electrized if they are +mechanically extended will receive a greater quantity of electricity, as +in Dr. Franklin's experiment of the chain in the tankard; the same seems +true in respect to heat as explained above. 6. Both heat and electricity +contribute to suspend steam in the atmosphere by producing or increasing +the repulsion of its particles. 7. They both gravitate, when they have +been accumulated, till they find their equilibrium. + +If we add to the above the many chemical experiments which receive an +easy and elegant explanation from the supposed matter of heat, as +employed in the works of Bergman and Lavoisier, I think we may +reasonably allow of its existence as an element, occasionally combined +with other bodies, and occasionally existing as a fluid, like the +electric fluid gravitating amongst them, and that hence it may be +propagated from the central fires of the earth to the whole mass, and +contribute to preserve the mean heat of the earth, which in this country +is about 48 degrees but variable from the greater or less effect of the +sun's heat in different climates, so well explained in Mr. Kirwan's +Treatise on the Temperature of different Latitudes. 1787, Elmsly. +London. + + + + + NOTE VIII.--MEMNON'S LYRE. + + + _So to the sacred Sun in Memnon's fane + Spontaneous concords quired the matin strain._ + + CANTO I. l. 183. + + +The gigantic statue of Memnon in his temple at Thebes had a lyre in his +hands, which many credible writers assure us, sounded when the rising +sun shone upon it. Some philosophers have supposed that the sun's light +possesses a mechanical impulse, and that the sounds abovementioned might +be thence produced. Mr. Michell constructed a very tender horizontal +balance, as related by Dr. Priestley in his history of light and +colours, for this purpose, but some experiments with this balance which +I saw made by the late Dr. Powel, who threw the focus of a large +reflector on one extremity of it, were not conclusive either way, as the +copper leaf of the balance approached in one experiment and receded in +another. + +There are however methods by which either a rotative or alternating +motion may be produced by very moderate degrees of heat. If a straight +glass tube, such as are used for barometers, be suspended horizontally +before a fire, like a roasting spit, it will revolve by intervals; for +as glass is a bad conductor of heat the side next the fire becomes +heated sooner than the opposite side, and the tube becomes bent into a +bow with the external part of the curve towards the fire, this curve +then falls down and produces a fourth part of a revolution of the glass +tube, which thus revolves with intermediate pauses. + +Another alternating motion I have seen produced by suspending a glass +tube about eight inches long with bulbs at each end on a centre like a +scale beam. This curious machine is filled about one third part with +purest spirit of wine, the other two thirds being a vacuum, and is +called a pulse-glass, if it be placed in a box before the fire, so that +either bulb, as it rises, may become shaded from the fire, and exposed +to it when it descends, an alternate libration of it is produced. For +spirit of wine in vacuo emits steam by a very small degree of heat, and +this steam forces the spirit beneath it up into the upper bulb, which +therefore descends. It is probable such a machine on a larger scale +might be of use to open the doors or windows of hot-houses or mellon- +frames, when the air within them should become too much heated, or might +be employed in more important mechanical purposes. + +On travelling through a hot summer's day in a chaise with a box covered +with leather on the fore-axle-tree, I observed, as the sun shone upon +the black leather, the box began to open its lid, which at noon rose +above a foot, and could not without great force be pressed down; and +which gradually closed again as the sun declined in the evening. This I +suppose might with still greater facility be applied to the purpose of +opening melon-frames or the sashes of hot-houses. + +The statue of Memnon was overthrown and sawed in two by Cambyses to +discover its internal structure, and is said still to exist. See +Savary's Letters on Egypt. The truncated statue is said for many +centuries to have saluted the rising sun with chearful tones, and the +setting sun with melancholy ones. + + + + + NOTE IX.--LUMINOUS INSECTS. + + + _Star of the earth, and diamond of the night._ + + CANTO I. l. 196. + + +There are eighteen species of Lampyris or glow-worm, according to +Linneus, some of which are found in almost every part of the world. In +many of the species the females have no wings, and are supposed to be +discovered by the winged males by their shining in the night. They +become much more lucid when they put themselves in motion, which would +seem to indicate that their light is owing to their respiration; in +which process it is probable phosphoric acid is produced by the +combination of vital air with some part of the blood, and that light is +given out through their transparent bodies by this slow internal +combustion. + +There is a fire-fly of the beetle-kind described in the Dict. Raisonne +under the name of Acudia, which is said to be two inches long, and +inhabits the West-Indies and South America; the natives use them instead +of candles, putting from one to three of them under a glass. Madam +Merian says, that at Surinam the light of this fly is so great, that she +saw sufficiently well by one of them to paint and finish one of the +figures of them in her work on insects. The largest and oldest of them +are said to become four inches long, and to shine like a shooting star +as they fly, and are thence called Lantern-bearers. The use of this +light to the insect itself seems to be that it may not fly against +objects in the night; by which contrivance these insects are enabled to +procure their sustenance either by night or day, as their wants may +require, or their numerous enemies permit them; whereas some of our +beetles have eyes adapted only to the night, and if they happen to come +abroad too soon in the evening are so dazzled that they fly against +every thing in their way. See note on Phosphorus, No. X. + +In some seas, as particularly about the coast of Malabar, as a ship +floats along, it seems during the night to be surrounded with fire, and +to leave a long tract of light behind it. Whenever the sea is gently +agitated it seems converted into little stars, every drop as it breaks +emits light, like bodies electrified in the dark. Mr. Bomare says, that +when he was at the port of Cettes in Languedoc, and bathing with a +companion in the sea after a very hot day, they both appeared covered +with fire after every immersion, and that laying his wet hand on the arm +of his companion, who had not then dipped himself, the exact mark of his +hand and fingers was seen in characters of fire. As numerous microscopic +insects are found in this shining water, its light has been generally +ascribed to them, though it seems probable that fish-slime in hot +countries may become in such a state of incipient putrefaction as to +give light, especially when by agitation it is more exposed to the air; +otherwise it is not easy to explain why agitation should be necessary to +produce this marine light. See note on Phosphorus No. X. + + + + + NOTE X.--PHOSPHORUS. + + + _Or mark in shining letters Kunckel's name + In the pale phosphor's self-consuming flame._ + + CANTO I. l. 231. + + +Kunckel, a native of Hamburgh, was the first who discovered to the world +the process for producing phosphorus; though Brandt and Boyle were +likewise said to have previously had the art of making it. It was +obtained from sal microcosmicum by evaporation in the form of an acid, +but has since been found in other animal substances, as in the ashes of +bones, and even in some vegetables, as in wheat flour. Keir's chemical +Dict. This phosphoric acid is like all other acids united with vital +air, and requires to be treated with charcoal or phlogiston to deprive +it of this air, it then becomes a kind of animal sulphur, but of so +inflammable a nature, that on the access of air it takes fire +spontaneously, and as it burns becomes again united with vital air, and +re-assumes its form of phosphoric acid. + +As animal respiration seems to be a kind of slow combustion, in which it +is probable that phosphoric acid is produced by the union of phosphorus +with the vital air, so it is also probable that phosphoric acid is +produced in the excretory or respiratory vessels of luminous insects, as +the glow-worm and fire-fly, and some marine insects. From the same +principle I suppose the light from putrid fish, as from the heads of +hadocks, and from putrid veal, and from rotten wood in a certain state +of their putrefaction, is produced, and phosphorus thus slowly combined +with air is changed into phosphoric acid. The light from the Bolognian +stone, and from calcined shells, and from white paper, and linen after +having been exposed for a time to the sun's light, seem to produce +either the phosphoric or some other kind of acid from the sulphurous or +phlogistic matter which they contain. See note on Beccari's shells. l. +180. + +There is another process seems similar to this slow combustion, and that +is _bleaching_. By the warmth and light of the sun the water sprinkled +upon linen or cotton cloth seems to be decomposed, (if we credit the +theory of M. Lavoisier,) and a part of the vital air thus set at liberty +and uncombined and not being in its elastic form, more easily dissolves +the colouring or phlogistic matter of the cloth, and produces a new +acid, which is itself colourless, or is washed out of the cloth by +water. The new process of bleaching confirms a part of this theory, for +by uniting much vital air to marine acid by distilling it from +manganese, on dipping the cloth to be bleached in water repleat with +this super-aerated marine acid, the colouring matter disappears +immediately, sooner indeed in cotton than in linen. See note XXXIV. + +There is another process which I suspect bears analogy to these above- +mentioned, and that is the rancidity of animal fat, as of bacon; if +bacon be hung up in a warm kitchen, with much salt adhering on the +outside of it, the fat part of it soon becomes yellow and rancid; if it +be washed with much cold water after it has imbibed the salt, and just +before it is hung up, I am well informed, that it will not become +rancid, or in very slight degrees. In the former case I imagine the salt +on the surface of the bacon attracts water during the cold of the night, +which is evaporated during the day, and that in this evaporation a part +of the water becomes decomposed, as in bleaching, and its vital air +uniting with greater facility in its unelastic state with the animal +fat, produces an acid, perhaps of the phosphoric kind, which being of a +fixed nature lies upon the bacon, giving it the yellow colour and rancid +taste. It is remarkable that the super-aerated marine acid does not +bleach living animal substances, at least it did not whiten a part of my +hand which I for some minutes exposed to it. + + + + + NOTE XI.--STEAM-ENGINE. + + + _Quick moves the balanced beam, of giant-birth, + Wields his large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth._ + + CANTO I. l. 261. + + +The expansive force of steam was known in some degree to the antients, +Hero of Alexandria describes an application of it to produce a rotative +motion by the re-action of steam issuing from a sphere mounted upon an +axis, through two small tubes bent into tangents, and issuing from the +opposite sides of the equatorial diameter of the sphere, the sphere was +supplied with steam by a pipe communicating with a pan of boiling water, +and entering the sphere at one of its poles. + +A french writer about the year 1630 describes a method of raising water +to the upper part of a house by filling a chamber with steam, and +suffering it to condense of itself, but it seems to have been mere +theory, as his method was scarcely practicable as he describes it. In +1655 the Marquis of Worcester mentions a method of raising water by fire +in his Century of Inventions, but he seems only to have availed himself +of the expansive force and not to have known the advantages arising from +condensing the steam by an injection of cold water. This latter and most +important improvement seems to have been made by Capt. Savery sometime +prior to 1698, for in that year his patent for the use of that invention +was confirmed by act of parliament. This gentleman appears to have been +the first who reduced the machine to practice and exhibited it in an +useful form. This method consisted only in expelling the air from a +vessel by steam and condensing the steam by an injection of cold water, +which making a vacuum, the pressure of the atmosphere forced the water +to ascend into the steam-vessel through a pipe of 24 to 26 feet high, +and by the admission of dense steam from the boiler, forcing the water +in the steam-vessel to ascend to the height desired. This construction +was defective because it required very strong vessels to resist the +force of the steam, and because an enormous quantity of steam was +condensed by coming in contact with the cold water in the steam-vessel. + +About or soon after that time M. Papin attempted a steam-engine on +similar principles but rather more defective in its construction. + +The next improvement was made very soon afterwards by Messrs. Newcomen +and Cawley of Dartmouth, it consisted in employing for the steam-vessel +a hollow cylinder, shut at bottom and open at top, furnished with a +piston sliding easily up and down in it, and made tight by oakum or +hemp, and covered with water. This piston is suspended by chains from +one end of a beam, moveable upon an axis in the middle of its length, to +the other end of this beam are suspended the pump-rods. + +The danger of bursting the vessels was avoided in this machine, as +however high the water was to be raised it was not necessary to increase +the density of the steam but only to enlarge the diameter of the +cylinder. + +Another advantage was, that the cylinder not being made so cold as in +Savary's method, much less steam was lost in filling it after each +condensation. + +The machine however still remained imperfect, for the cold water thrown +into the cylinder acquired heat from the steam it condensed, and being +in a vessel exhausted of air it produced steam itself, which in part +resisted the action of the atmosphere on the piston; were this remedied +by throwing in more cold water the destruction of steam in the next +filling of the cylinder would be proportionally increased. It has +therefore in practice been found adviseable not to load these engines +with columns of water weighing more than seven pounds for each square +inch of the area of the piston. The bulk of water when converted into +steam remained unknown until Mr. J. Watt, then of Glasgow, in 1764, +determined it to be about 1800 times more rare than water. It soon +occurred to Mr. Watt that a perfect engine would be that in which no +steam should be condensed in filling the cylinder, and in which the +steam should be so perfectly cooled as to produce nearly a perfect +vacuum. + +Mr. Watt having ascertained the degree of heat in which water boiled in +vacuo, and under progressive degrees of pressure, and instructed by Dr. +Black's discovery of latent heat, having calculated the quantity of cold +water necessary to condense certain quantities of steam so far as to +produce the exhaustion required, he made a communication from the +cylinder to a cold vessel previously exhausted of air and water, into +which the steam rushed by its elasticity, and became immediately +condensed. He then adapted a cover to the cylinder and admitted steam +above the piston to press it down instead of air, and instead of +applying water he used oil or grease to fill the pores of the oakum and +to lubricate the cylinder. + +He next applied a pump to extract the injection water, the condensed +steam, and the air, from the condensing vessel, every stroke of the +engine. + +To prevent the cooling of the cylinder by the contact of the external +air, he surrounded it with a case containing steam, which he again +protected by a covering of matters which conduct heat slowly. + +This construction presented an easy means of regulating the power of the +engine, for the steam being the acting power, as the pipe which admits +it from the boiler is more or less opened, a greater or smaller quantity +can enter during the time of a stroke, and consequently the engine can +act with exactly the necessary degree of energy. + +Mr. Watt gained a patent for his engine in 1768, but the further +persecution of his designs were delayed by other avocations till 1775, +when in conjunction with Mr. Boulton of Soho near Birmingham, numerous +experiments were made on a large scale by their united ingenuity, and +great improvements added to the machinery, and an act of parliament +obtained for the prolongation of their patent for twenty-five years, +they have since that time drained many of the deep mines in Cornwall, +which but for the happy union of such genius must immediately have +ceased to work. One of these engines works a pump of eighteen inches +diameter, and upwards of 100 fathom or 600 feet high, at the rate of ten +to twelve strokes of seven feet long each, in a minute, and that with +one fifth part of the coals which a common engine would have taken to do +the same work. The power of this engine may be easier comprehended by +saying that it raised a weight equal to 81000 pounds 80 feet high in a +minute, which is equal to the combined action of 200 good horses. In +Newcomen's engine this would have required a cylinder of the enormous +diameter of 120 inches or ten feet, but as in this engine of Mr. Watt +and Mr. Boulton the steam acts, and a vacuum is made, alternately above +and below the piston, the power exerted is double to what the same +cylinder would otherways produce, and is further augmented by an +inequality in the length of the two ends of the lever. + +These gentlemen have also by other contrivances applied their engines to +the turning of mills for almost every purpose, of which that great pile +of machinery the Albion Mill is a well known instance. Forges, slitting +mills, and other great works are erected where nature has furnished no +running water, and future times may boast that this grand and useful +engine was invented and perfected in our own country. + +Since the above article went to the press the Albion Mill is no more; it +is supposed to have been set on fire by interested or malicious +incendaries, and is burnt to the ground. Whence London has lost the +credit and the advantage of possessing the most powerful machine in the +world! + + + + + NOTE XII.--FROST. + + + _In phalanx firm the fiend of Frost assail._ + + CANTO I. l. 439. + + +The cause of the expansion of water during its conversion into ice is +not yet well ascertained, it was supposed to have been owing to the air +being set at liberty in the act of congelation which was before +dissolved in the water, and the many air bubbles in ice were thought to +countenance this opinion. But the great force with which ice expands +during its congelation, so as to burst iron bombs and coehorns, +according to the experiments of Major Williams at Quebec, invalidates +this idea of the cause of it, and may sometime be brought into use as a +means of breaking rocks in mining, or projecting cannon-balls, or for +other mechanical purposes, if the means of producing congelation should +ever be discovered to be as easy as the means of producing combustion. + +Mr. de Mairan attributes the increase of bulk of frozen water to the +different arrangement of the particles of it in crystallization, as they +are constantly joined at an angle of 60 degrees; and must by this +disposition he thinks occupy a greater volume than if they were +parallel. He found the augmentation of the water during freezing to +amount to one-fourteenth, one-eighteenth, one-nineteenth, and when the +water was previously purged of air to only one-twenty-second part. He +adds that a piece of ice, which was at first only one-fourteenth part +specifically lighter than water, on being exposed some days to the frost +became one-twelfth lighter than water. Hence he thinks ice by being +exposed to greater cold still increases in volume, and to this +attributes the bursting of ice in ponds and on the glaciers. See Lewis's +Commerce of Arts, p. 257. and the note on Muschus in the other volume of +this work. + +This expansion of ice well accounts for the greater mischief done by +vernal frosts attended with moisture, (as by hoar-frosts,) than by the +dry frosts called black frosts. Mr. Lawrence in a letter to Mr. Bradley +complains that the dale-mist attended with a frost on may-day had +destroyed all his tender fruits; though there was a sharper frost the +night before without a mist, that did him no injury; and adds, that a +garden not a stone's throw from his own on a higher situation, being +above the dale-mist, had received no damage. Bradley, Vol. II. p. 232. + +Mr. Hunter by very curious experiments discovered that the living +principle in fish, in vegetables, and even in eggs and seeds, possesses +a power of resisting congelation. Phil. Trans. There can be no doubt but +that the exertions of animals to avoid the pain of cold may produce in +them a greater quantity of heat, at least for a time, but that +vegetables, eggs, or seeds, should possess such a quality is truly +wonderful. Others have imagined that animals possess a power of +preventing themselves from becoming much warmer than 98 degrees of heat, +when immersed in an atmosphere above that degree of heat. It is true +that the increased exhalation from their bodies will in some measure +cool them, as much heat is carried off by the evaporation of fluids, but +this is a chemical not an animal process. The experiments made by those +who continued many minutes in the air of a room heated so much above any +natural atmospheric heat, do not seem conclusive, as they remained in it +a less time than would have been necessary to have heated a mass of beef +of the same magnitude, and the circulation of the blood in living +animals, by perpetually bringing new supplies of fluid to the skin, +would prevent the external surface from becoming hot much sooner than +the whole mass. And thirdly, there appears no power of animal bodies to +produce cold in diseases, as in scarlet fever, in which the increased +action of the vessels of the skin produces heat and contributes to +exhaust the animal power already too much weakened. + +It has been thought by many that frosts meliorate the ground, and that +they are in general salubrious to mankind. In respect to the former it +is now well known that ice or snow contain no nitrous particles, and +though frost by enlarging the bulk of moist clay leaves it softer for a +time after the thaw, yet as soon as the water exhales, the clay becomes +as hard as before, being pressed together by the incumbent atmosphere, +and by its self-attraction, called _setting_ by the potters. Add to this +that on the coasts of Africa, where frost is unknown, the fertility of +the soil is almost beyond our conceptions of it. In respect to the +general salubrity of frosty seasons the bills of mortality are an +evidence in the negative, as in long frosts many weakly and old people +perish from debility occasioned by the cold, and many classes of birds +and other wild animals are benumbed by the cold or destroyed by the +consequent scarcity of food, and many tender vegetables perish from the +degree of cold. + +I do not think it should be objected to this doctrine that there are +moist days attended with a brisk cold wind when no visible ice appears, +and which are yet more disagreeable and destructive than frosty weather. +For on these days the cold moisture, which is deposited on the skin is +there evaporated and thus produces a degree of cold perhaps greater than +the milder frosts. Whence even in such days both the disagreeable +sensations and insalubrious effects belong to the cause abovementioned, +viz. the intensity of the cold. Add to this that in these cold moist +days as we pass along or as the wind blows upon us, a new sheet of cold +water is as it were perpetually applied to us and hangs upon our bodies, +now as water is 800 times denser than air and is a much better conductor +of heat, we are starved with cold like those who go into a cold bath, +both by the great number of particles in contact with the skin and their +greater facility of receiving our heat. + +It may nevertheless be true that snows of long duration in our winters +may be less injurious to vegetation than great rains and shorter frosts, +for two reasons. 1. Because great rains carry down many thousand pounds +worth of the best part of the manure off the lands into the sea, whereas +snow dissolves more gradually and thence carries away less from the +land; any one may distinguish a snow-flood from a rain-flood by the +transparency of the water. Hence hills or fields with considerable +inclination of surface should be ploughed horizontally that the furrows +may stay the water from showers till it deposits its mud. 2. Snow +protects vegetables from the severity of the frost, since it is always +in a state of thaw where it is in contact with the earth; as the earth's +heat is about 48 deg. and the heat of thawing snow is 32 deg. the vegetables +between them are kept in a degree of heat about 40, by which many of +them are preserved. See note on Muschus, Vol. II. of this work. + + + + + NOTE XIII.--ELECTRICITY + + + _Cold from each point cerulean lustres gleam._ + + CANTO I. l. 339. + + + ELECTRIC POINTS. + +There was an idle dispute whether knobs or points were preferable on the +top of conductors for the defence of houses. The design of these +conductors is to permit the electric matter accumulated in the clouds to +pass through them into the earth in a smaller continued stream as the +cloud approaches, before it comes to what is termed striking distance; +now as it is well known that accumulated electricity will pass to points +at a much greater distance than it will to knobs there can be no doubt +of their preference; and it would seem that the finer the point and the +less liable to become rusty the better, as it would take off the +lightening while it was still at a greater distance, and by that means +preserve a greater extent of building; the very extremity of the point +should be of pure silver or gold, and might be branched into a kind of +brush, since one small point can not be supposed to receive so great a +quantity as a thicker bar might conduct into the earth. + +If an insulated metallic ball is armed with a point, like a needle, +projecting from one part of it, the electric fluid will be seen in the +dark to pass off from this point, so long as the ball is kept supplied +with electricity. The reason of this is not difficult to comprehend, +every part of the electric atmosphere which surrounds the insulated ball +is attracted to that ball by a large surface of it, whereas the electric +atmosphere which is near the extremity of the needle is attracted to it +by only a single point, in consequence the particles of electric matter +near the surface of the ball approach towards it and push off by their +greater gravitation the particles of electric matter over the point of +the needle in a continued stream. + +Something like this happens in respect to the diffusion of oil on water +from a pointed cork, an experiment which was many years ago shewn me by +Dr. Franklin; he cut a piece of cork about the size of a letter-wafer +and left on one edge of it a point about a sixth of an inch in length +projecting as a tangent to the circumference. This was dipped in oil and +thrown on a pond of water and continued to revolve as the oil left the +point for a great many minutes. The oil descends from the floating cork +upon the water being diffused upon it without friction and perhaps +without contact; but its going off at the point so forcibly as to make +the cork revolve in a contrary direction seems analogous to the +departure of the electric fluid from points. + +Can any thing similar to either of these happen in respect to the +earth's atmosphere and give occasion to the breezes on the tops of +mountains, which may be considered as points on the earths +circumference? + + + FAIRY-RINGS. + +There is a phenomenon supposed to be electric which is yet unaccounted +for, I mean the Fairy-rings, as they are called, so often seen on the +grass. The numerous flashes of lightning which occur every summer are, I +believe, generally discharged on the earth, and but seldom (if ever) +from one cloud to another. Moist trees are the most frequent conductors +of these flashes of lightning, and I am informed by purchasers of wood +that innumerable trees are thus cracked and injured. At other times +larger parts or prominences of clouds gradually sinking as they move +along, are discharged on the moisture parts of grassy plains. Now this +knob or corner of a cloud in being attracted by the earth will become +nearly cylindrical, as loose wool would do when drawn out into a thread, +and will strike the earth with a stream of electricity perhaps two or +ten yards in diameter. Now as a stream of electricity displaces the air +it passes through, it is plain no part of the grass can be burnt by it, +but just the external ring of this cylinder where the grass can have +access to the air, since without air nothing can be calcined. This earth +after having been so calcined becomes a richer soil, and either funguses +or a bluer grass for many years mark the place. That lightning displaces +the air in its passage is evinced by the loud crack that succeeds it, +which is owing to the sides of the aerial vacuum clapping together when +the lightning is withdrawn. That nothing will calcine without air is now +well understood from the acids produced in the burning of phlogistic +substances, and may be agreeably seen by suspending a paper on an iron +prong and putting it into the centre of the blaze of an iron-furnace; it +may be held there some seconds and may be again withdrawn without its +being burnt, if it be passed quickly into the flame and out again +through the external part of it which is in contact with the air. I know +some circles of many yards diameter of this kind near Foremark in +Derbyshire which annually produce large white funguses and stronger +grass, and have done so, I am informed, above thirty years. This +increased fertility of the ground by calcination or charring, and its +continuing to operate so many years is well worth the attention of the +farmer, and shews the use of paring and burning new turf in agriculture, +which produces its effect not so much by the ashes of the vegetable +fibres as by charring the soil which adheres to them. + +These situations, whether from eminence or from moisture, which were +proper once to attract and discharge a thunder-cloud, are more liable +again to experience the same. Hence many fairy-rings are often seen near +each other either without intersecting each other, as I saw this summer +in a garden in Nottinghamshire, or intersecting each other as described +on Arthur's seat near Edinburgh in the Edinb. Trans. Vol. II. p. 3. + + + + + NOTE XIV.--BUDS AND BULBS. + + + _Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd + In buds imprison'd, or in bulbs intomb'd._ + + CANTO I. l. 459. + + +A tree is properly speaking a family or swarm of buds, each bud being an +individual plant, for if one of these buds be torn or cut out and +planted in the earth with a glass cup inverted over it to prevent its +exhalation from being at first greater than its power of absorption, it +will produce a tree similar to its parent; each bud has a leaf, which is +its lungs, appropriated to it, and the bark of the tree is a congeries +of the roots of these individual buds, whence old hollow trees are often +seen to have some branches flourish with vigour after the internal wood +is almost intirely decayed and vanished. According to this idea Linneus +has observed that trees and shrubs are roots above ground, for if a tree +be inverted leaves will grow from the root-part and roots from the +trunk-part. Phil. Bot p. 39. Hence it appears that vegetables have two +methods of propagating themselves, the oviparous as by seeds, and the +viviparous as by their buds and bulbs, and that the individual plants, +whether from seeds or buds or bulbs, are all annual productions like +many kinds of insects as the silk-worm, the parent perishing in the +autumn after having produced an embryon, which lies in a torpid state +during the winter, and is matured in the succeeding summer. Hence +Linneus names buds and bulbs the winter-cradles of the plant or +hybernacula, and might have given the same term to seeds. In warm +climates few plants produce buds, as the vegetable life can be +compleated in one summer, and hence the hybernacle is not wanted; in +cold climates also some plants do not produce buds, as philadelphus, +frangula, viburnum, ivy, heath, wood-nightshade, rue, geranium. + +The bulbs of plants are another kind of winter-cradle, or hybernacle, +adhering to the descending trunk, and are found in the perennial +herbaceous plants which are too tender to bear the cold of the winter. +The production of these subterraneous winter lodges, is not yet perhaps +clearly understood, they have been distributed by Linneus according to +their forms into scaly, solid, coated, and jointed bulbs, which however +does not elucidate their manner of production. As the buds of trees may +be truly esteemed individual annual plants, their roots constituting the +bark of the tree, it follows that these roots (viz. of each individual +bud) spread themselves over the last years bark, making a new bark over +the old one, and thence descending cover with a new bark the old roots +also in the same manner. A similar circumstance I suppose to happen in +some herbaceous plants, that is, a new bark is annually produced over +the old root, and thus for some years at least the old root or caudex +increases in size and puts up new stems. As these roots increase in size +the central part I suppose changes like the internal wood of a tree and +does not possess any vegetable life, and therefore gives out no fibres +or rootlets, and hence appears bitten off, as in valerian, plantain, and +devil's-bit. And this decay of the central part of the root I suppose +has given occasion to the belief of the root-fibres drawing down the +bulb so much insisted on by Mr. Milne in his Botanical Dictionary, Art. +Bulb. + +From the observations and drawings of various kinds of bulbous roots at +different times of their growth, sent me by a young lady of nice +observation, it appears probable that all bulbous roots properly so +called perish annually in this climate: Bradley, Miller, and the Author +of Spectacle de la Nature, observe that the tulip annually renews its +bulb, for the stalk of the old flower is found under the old dry coat +but on the outside of the new bulb. This large new bulb is the flowering +bulb, but besides this there are other small new bulbs produced between +the coats of this large one but from the same caudex, (or circle from +which the root-fibres spring;) these small bulbs are leaf-bearing bulbs, +and renew themselves annually with increasing size till they bear +flowers. + +Miss ---- favoured me with the following curious experiment: She took a +small tulip-root out of the earth when the green leaves were +sufficiently high to show the flower, and placed it in a glass of water; +the leaves and flower soon withered and the bulb became wrinkled and +soft, but put out one small side bulb and three bulbs beneath descending +an inch into the water by long processes from the caudex, the old bulb +in some weeks intirely decayed; on dissecting this monster, the middle +descending bulb was found by its process to adhere to the caudex and to +the old flower-stem, and the side ones were separated from the flower- +stem by a few shrivelled coats but adhered to the caudex. Whence she +concludes that these last were off-sets or leaf-bulbs which should have +been seen between the coats of the new flower-bulb if it had been left +to grow in the earth, and that the middle one would have been the new +flower-bulb. In some years (perhaps in wet seasons) the florists are +said to lose many of their tulip-roots by a similar process, the new +leaf-bulbs being produced beneath the old ones by an elongation of the +caudex without any new flower-bulbs. + +By repeated dissections she observes that the leaf-bulbs or off-sets of +tulip, crocus, gladiolus, fritillary, are renewed in the same manner as +the flowering-bulbs, contrary to the opinion of many writers; this new +leaf-bulb is formed on the inside of the coats from whence the leaves +grow, and is more or less advanced in size as the outer coats and leaves +are more or less shrivelled. In examining tulip, iris, hyacinth, hare- +bell, the new bulb was invariably found _between_ the flower-stem and +the base of the innermost leaf of those roots which had flowered, and +_inclosed_ by the base of the innermost leaf in those roots which had +not flowered, in both cases adhering to the caudex or fleshy circle from +which the root-fibres spring. + +Hence it is probable that the bulbs of hyacinths are renewed annually, +but that this is performed from the caudex within the old bulb, the +outer coat of which does not so shrivel as in crocus and fritillary and +hence this change is not so apparent. But I believe as soon as the +flower is advanced the new bulbs may be seen on dissection, nor does the +annual increase of the size of the root of cyclamen and of aletris +capensis militate against this annual renewal of them, since the leaf- +bulbs or off-sets, as described above, are increased in size as they are +annually renewed. See note on orchis, and on anthoxanthum, in Vol. II. +of this work. + + + + + NOTE XV.--SOLAR VOLCANOS. + + + _From the deep craters of his realms of fire + The whirling sun this ponderous planet hurld_. + + CANTO II. l. 14. + + +Dr. Alexander Wilson, Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow, published a +paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1774, demonstrating that the +spots in the sun's disk are real cavities, excavations through the +luminous material, which covers the other parts of the sun's surface. +One of these cavities he found to be about 4000 miles deep and many +times as wide. Some objections were made to this doctrine by M. De la +Laude in the Memoirs of the French Academy for the year 1776, which +however have been ably answered by Professor Wilson in reply in the +Philos. Trans. for 1783. Keil observes, in his Astronomical Lectures, p. +44, "We frequently see spots in the sun which are larger and broader not +only than Europe or Africa, but which even equal, if they do not exceed, +the surface of the whole terraqueous globe." Now that these cavities are +made in the sun's body by a process of nature similar to our earthquakes +does not seem improbable on several accounts. 1. Because from this +discovery of Dr. Wilson it appears that the internal parts of the sun +are not in a state of inflammation or of ejecting light, like the +external part or luminous ocean which covers it; and hence that a +greater degree of heat or inflammation and consequent expansion or +explosion may occasionally be produced in its internal or dark nucleus. +2. Because the solar spots or cavities are frequently increased or +diminished in size. 3. New ones are often produced. 4. And old ones +vanish. 5. Because there are brighter or more luminous parts of the +sun's disk, called faculae by Scheiner and Hevelius, which would seem to +be volcanos in the sun, or, as Dr. Wilson calls them, "eructations of +matter more luminous than that which covers the sun's surface." 6. To +which may be added that all the planets added together with their +satellites do not amount to more than one six hundred and fiftieth part +of the mass of the sun according to Sir Isaac Newton. + +Now if it could be supposed that the planets were originally thrown out +of the sun by larger sun-quakes than those frequent ones which occasion +these spots or excavations above-mentioned, what would happen? 1. +According to the observations and opinion of Mr. Herschel the sun itself +and all its planets are moving forwards round some other centre with an +unknown velocity, which may be of opake matter corresponding with the +very antient and general idea of a chaos. Whence if a ponderous planet, +as Saturn, could be supposed to be projected from the sun by an +explosion, the motion of the sun itself might be at the same time +disturbed in such a manner as to prevent the planet from falling again +into it. 2. As the sun revolves round its own axis its form must be that +of an oblate spheroid like the earth, and therefore a body projected +from its surface perpendicularly upwards from that surface would not +rise perpendicularly from the sun's centre, unless it happened to be +projected exactly from either of its poles or from its equator. Whence +it may not be necessary that a planet if thus projected from the sun by +explosion should again fall into the sun. 3. They would part from the +sun's surface with the velocity with which that surface was moving, and +with the velocity acquired by the explosion, and would therefore move +round the sun in the same direction in which the sun rotates on its +axis, and perform eliptic orbits. 4. All the planets would move the same +way round the sun, from this first motion acquired at leaving its +surface, but their orbits would be inclined to each other according to +the distance of the part, where they were thrown out, from the sun's +equator. Hence those which were ejected near the sun's equator would +have orbits but little inclined to each other, as the primary planets; +the plain of all whose orbits are inclined but seven degrees and a half +from each other. Others which were ejected near the sun's poles would +have much more eccentric orbits, as they would partake so much less of +the sun's rotatory motion at the time they parted from his surface, and +would therefore be carried further from the sun by the velocity they had +gained by the explosion which ejected them, and become comets. 5. They +would all obey the same laws of motion in their revolutions round the +sun; this has been determined by astronomers, who have demonstrated that +they move through equal areas in equal times. 6. As their annual periods +would depend on the height they rose by the explosion, these would +differ in them all. 7. As their diurnal revolutions would depend on one +side of the exploded matter adhering more than the other at the time it +was torn off by the explosion, these would also differ in the different +planets, and not bear any proportion to their annual periods. Now as all +these circumstances coincide with the known laws of the planetary +system, they serve to strengthen this conjecture. + +This coincidence of such a variety of circumstances induced M. de Buffon +to suppose that the planets were all struck off from the sun's surface +by the impact of a large comet, such as approached so near the sun's +disk, and with such amazing velocity, in the year 1680, and is expected +to return in 2255. But Mr. Buffon did not recollect that these comets +themselves are only planets with more eccentric orbits, and that +therefore it must be asked, what had previously struck off these comets +from the sun's body? 2. That if all these planets were struck off from +the sun at the same time, they must have been so near as to have +attracted each other and have formed one mass: 3. That we shall want new +causes for separating the secondary planets from the primary ones, and +must therefore look out for some other agent, as it does not appear how +the impulse of a comet could have made one planet roll round another at +the time they both of them were driven off from the surface of the sun. + +If it should be asked, why new planets are not frequently ejected from +the sun? it may be answered, that after many large earthquakes many +vents are left for the elastic vapours to escape, and hence, by the +present appearance of the surface of our earth, earthquakes prodigiously +larger than any recorded in history have existed; the same circumstances +may have affected the sun, on whose surface there are appearances of +volcanos, as described above. Add to this, that some of the comets, and +even the georgium sidus, may, for ought we know to the contrary, have +been emitted from the sun in more modern days, and have been diverted +from their course, and thus prevented from returning into the sun, by +their approach to some of the older planets, which is somewhat +countenanced by the opinion several philosophers have maintained, that +the quantity of matter of the sun has decreased. Dr. Halley observed, +that by comparing the proportion which the periodical time of the moon +bore to that of the sun in former times, with the proportion between +them at present, that the moon is found to be somewhat accelerated in +respect to the sun. Pemberton's View of Sir Isaac Newton, p. 247. And so +large is the body of this mighty luminary, that all the planets thus +thrown out of it would make scarcely any perceptible diminution of it, +as mentioned above. The cavity mentioned above, as measured by Dr. +Wilson of 4000 miles in depth, not penetrating an hundredth part of the +sun's semi-diameter; and yet, as its width was many times greater than +its depth, was large enough to contain a greater body than our +terrestrial world. + +I do not mean to conceal, that from the laws of gravity unfolded by Sir +Isaac Newton, supposing the sun to be a sphere and to have no +progressive motion, and not liable itself to be disturbed by the +supposed projection of the planets from it, that such planets must +return into the sun. The late Rev. William Ludlam, of Leicester, whose +genius never met with reward equal to its merits, in a letter to me, +dated January, 1787, after having shewn, as mentioned above, that +planets so projected from the sun would return to it, adds, "That a body +as large as the moon so projected, would disturb the motion of the earth +in its orbit, is certain; but the calculation of such disturbing forces +is difficult. The body in some circumstances might become a satellite, +and both move round their common centre of gravity, and that centre be +carried in an annual orbit round the sun." + +There are other circumstances which might have concurred at the time of +such supposed explosions, which would render this idea not impossible. +1. The planets might be thrown out of the sun at the time the sun itself +was rising from chaos, and be attracted by other suns in their vicinity +rising at the same time out of chaos, which would prevent them from +returning into the sun. 2. The new planet in its course or ascent from +the sun, might explode and eject a satellite, or perhaps more than one, +and thus by its course being affected might not return into the sun. 3. +If more planets were ejected at the same time from the sun, they might +attract and disturb each others course at the time they left the body of +the sun, or very soon afterwards, when they would be so much nearer each +other. + + + + + NOTE XVI.--CALCAREOUS EARTH. + + + _While Ocean wrap'd it in his azure robe_. + + CANTO II. l. 34. + + +From having observed that many of the highest mountains of the world +consist of lime-stone replete with shells, and that these mountains bear +the marks of having been lifted up by subterraneous fires from the +interior parts of the globe; and as lime-stone replete with shells is +found at the bottom of many of our deepest mines some philosophers have +concluded that the nucleus of the earth was for many ages covered with +water which was peopled with its adapted animals; that the shells and +bones of these animals in a long series of time produced solid strata in +the ocean surrounding the original nucleus. + +These strata consist of the accumulated exuviae of shell-fish, the +animals perished age after age but their shells remained, and in +progression of time produced the amazing quantities of lime-stone which +almost cover the earth. Other marine animals called coralloids raised +walls and even mountains by the congeries of their calcareous +habitations, these perpendicular corralline rocks make some parts of the +Southern Ocean highly dangerous, as appears in the journals of Capt. +Cook. From contemplating the immense strata of lime-stone, both in +respect to their extent and thickness, formed from these shells of +animals, philosophers have been led to conclude that much of the water +of the sea has been converted into calcareous earth by passing through +their organs of digestion. The formation of calcareous earth seems more +particularly to be an animal process as the formation of clay belongs to +the vegetable economy; thus the shells of crabs and other testaceous +fish are annually reproduced from the mucous membrane beneath them; the +shells of eggs are first a mucous membrane, and the calculi of the +kidneys and those found in all other parts of our system which sometimes +contain calcareous earth, seem to originate from inflamed membranes; the +bones themselves consist of calcareous earth united with the phosphoric +or animal acid, which may be separated by dissolving the ashes of +calcined bones in the nitrous acid; the various secretions of animals, +as their saliva and urine, abound likewise with calcareous earth, as +appears by the incrustations about the teeth and the sediments of urine. +It is probable that animal mucus is a previous process towards the +formation of calcareous earth; and that all the calcareous earth in the +world which is seen in lime-stones, marbles, spars, alabasters, marls, +(which make up the greatest part of the earth's crust, as far as it has +yet been penetrated,) have been formed originally by animal and +vegetable bodies from the mass of water, and that by these means the +solid part of the terraqueous globe has perpetually been in an +increasing state and the water perpetually in a decreasing one. + +After the mountains of shells and other recrements of aquatic animals +were elevated above the water the upper heaps of them were gradually +dissolved by rains and dews and oozing through were either perfectly +crystallized in smaller cavities and formed calcareous spar, or were +imperfectly crystallized on the roofs of larger cavities and produced +stalactes; or mixing with other undissolved shells beneath them formed +marbles, which were more or less crystallized and more or less pure; or +lastly, after being dissolved, the water was exhaled from them in such a +manner that the external parts became solid, and forming an arch +prevented the internal parts from approaching each other so near as to +become solid, and thus chalk was produced. I have specimens of chalk +formed at the root of several stalactites, and in their central parts; +and of other stalactites which are hollow like quills from a similar +cause, viz. from the external part of the stalactite hardening first by +its evaporation, and thus either attracting the internal dissolved +particles to the crust, or preventing them from approaching each other +so as to form a solid body. Of these I saw many hanging from the arched +roof of a cellar under the high street in Edinburgh. + +If this dissolved limestone met with vitriolic acid it was converted +into alabaster, parting at the same time with its fixable air. If it met +with the fluor acid it became fluor; if with the siliceous acid, flint; +and when mixed with clay and sand, or either of them, acquires the name +of marl. And under one or other of these forms composes a great part of +the solid globe of the earth. + +Another mode in which limestone appears is in the form of round +granulated particles, but slightly cohering together; of this kind a bed +extends over Lincoln heath, perhaps twenty miles long by ten wide. The +form of this calcareous sand, its angles having been rubbed off, and the +flatness of its bed, evinces that that part of the country was so formed +under water, the particles of sand having thus been rounded, like all +other rounded pebbles. This round form of calcareous sand and of other +larger pebbles is produced under water, partly by their being more or +less soluble in water, and hence the angular parts become dissolved, +first, by their exposing a larger surface to the action of the +menstruum, and secondly, from their attrition against each other by the +streams or tides, for a great length of time, successively as they were +collected, and perhaps when some of them had not acquired their hardest +state. + +This calcareous sand has generally been called ketton-stone and believed +to resemble the spawn of fish, it has acquired a form so much rounder +than siliceous sand from its being of so much softer a texture and also +much more soluble in water. There are other soft calcareous stones +called tupha which are deposited from water on mosses, as at Matlock, +from which moss it is probable the water may receive something which +induces it the readier to part with its earth. + +In some lime-stones the living animals seem to have been buried as well +as their shells during some great convulsion of nature, these shells +contain a black coaly substance within them, in others some phlogiston +or volatile alcali from the bodies of the dead animals remains mixed +with the stone, which is then called liver-stone as it emits a +sulphurous smell on being struck, and there is a stratum about six +inches thick extends a considerable way over the iron ore at Wingerworth +near Chesterfield in Derbyshire which seems evidently to have been +formed from the shells of fresh-water muscles. + +There is however another source of calcareous earth besides the aquatic +one above described and that is from the recrements of land animals and +vegetables as found in marls, which consist of various mixtures of +calcareous earth, sand, and clay, all of them perhaps principally from +vegetable origin. + +Dr. Hutton is of opinion that the rocks of marble have been softened by +fire into a fluid mass, which he thinks under immense pressure might be +done without the escape of their carbonic acid or fixed air. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. If this ingenious idea be allowed it might account for +the purity of some white marbles, as during their fluid state there +might be time for their partial impurities, whether from the bodies of +the animals which produced the shells or from other extraneous matter, +either to sublime to the uppermost part of the stratum or to subside to +the lowermost part of it. As a confirmation of this theory of Dr. +Hutton's it may be added that some calcareous stones are found mixed +with lime, and have thence lost a part of their fixed air or carbonic +gas, as the bath-stone, and on that account hardens on being exposed to +the air, and mixed with sulphur produces calcareous liver of sulphur. +Falconer on Bath-water. Vol. I. p. 156. and p. 257. Mr. Monnet found +lime in powder in the mountains of Auvergne, and suspected it of +volcanic origin. Kirwan's Min. p. 22. + + + + + NOTE XVII.--MORASSES. + + + _Gnomes! you then taught transuding dews to pass + Through time-fallen woods, and root-inwove morass_. + + CANTO II. l. 115. + + +Where woods have repeatedly grown and perished morasses are in process +of time produced, and by their long roots fill up the interstices till +the whole becomes for many yards deep a mass of vegetation. This fact is +curiously verified by an account given many years ago by the Earl of +Cromartie, of which the following is a short abstract. + +In the year 1651 the EARL OF CROMARTIE being then nineteen years of age +saw a plain in the parish of Lockburn covered over with a firm standing +wood, which was so old that not only the trees had no green leaves upon +them but the bark was totally thrown off, which he was there informed by +the old countrymen was the universal manner in which fir-woods +terminated, and that in twenty or thirty years the trees would cast +themselves up by the roots. About fifteen years after he had occasion to +travel the same way and observed that there was not a tree nor the +appearance of a root of any of them; but in their place the whole plain +where the wood stood was covered with a flat green moss or morass, and +on asking the country people what was become of the wood he was informed +that no one had been at the trouble to carry it away, but that it had +all been overturned by the wind, that the trees lay thick over each +other, and that the moss or bog had overgrown the whole timber, which +they added was occasioned by the moisture which came down from the high +hills above it and stagnated upon the plain, and that nobody could yet +pass over it, which however his Lordship was so incautious as to attempt +and slipt up to the arm-pits. Before the year 1699 that whole piece of +ground was become a solid moss wherein the peasants then dug turf or +peat, which however was not yet of the best sort. Philos. Trans. No. +330. Abridg. Vol. V. p. 272. + +Morasses in great length of time undergo variety of changes, first by +elutriation, and afterwards by fermentation, and the consequent heat. 1. +By water perpetually oozing through them the most soluble parts are +first washed away, as the essential salts, these together with the salts +from animal recrements are carried down the rivers into the sea, where +all of them seem to decompose each other except the marine salt. Hence +the ashes of peat contain little or no vegetable alcali and are not used +in the countries, where peat constitutes the fuel of the lower people, +for the purpose of washing linen. The second thing which is always seen +oozing from morasses is iron in solution, which produces chalybeate +springs, from whence depositions of ochre and variety of iron ores. The +third elutriation seems to consist of vegetable acid, which by means +unknown appears to be converted into all other acids. 1. Into marine and +nitrous acids as mentioned above. 2. Into vitriolic acid which is found +in some morasses so plentifully as to preserve the bodies of animals +from putrefaction which have been buried in them, and this acid carried +away by rain and dews and meeting with calcareous earth produces gypsum +or alabaster, with clay it produces alum, and deprived of its vital air +produces sulphur. 3. Fluor acid which being washed away and meeting with +calcareous earth produces fluor or cubic spar. 4. The siliceous acid +which seems to have been disseminated in great quantity either by +solution in water or by solution in air, and appears to have produced +the sand in the sea uniting with calcareous earth previously dissolved +in that element, from which were afterwards formed some of the grit- +stone rocks by means of a siliceous or calcareous cement. By its union +with the calcareous earth of the morass other strata of siliceous sand +have been produced; and by the mixture of this with clay and lime arose +the beds of marl. + +In other circumstances, probably where less moisture has prevailed, +morasses seem to have undergone a fermentation, as other vegetable +matter, new hay for instance is liable to do from the great quantity of +sugar it contains. From the great heat thus produced in the lower parts +of immense beds of morass the phlogistic part, or oil, or asphaltum, +becomes distilled, and rising into higher strata becomes again condensed +forming coal-beds of greater or less purity according to their greater +or less quantity of inflammable matter; at the same time the clay beds +become purer or less so, as the phlogistic part is more or less +completely exhaled from them. Though coal and clay are frequently +produced in this manner, yet I have no doubt, but that they are likewise +often produced by elutriation; in situations on declivities the clay is +washed away down into the valleys, and the phlogistic part or coal left +behind; this circumstance is seen in many valleys near the beds of +rivers, which are covered recently by a whitish impure clay, called +water-clay. See note XIX. XX. and XXIII. + +LORD CROMARTIE has furnished another curious observation on morasses in +the paper above referred to. In a moss near the town of Eglin in Murray, +though there is no river or water which communicates with the moss, yet +for three or four feet of depth in the moss there are little shell-fish +resembling oysters with living fish in them in great quantities, though +no such fish are found in the adjacent rivers, nor even in the water +pits in the moss, but only in the solid substance of the moss. This +curious fact not only accounts for the shells sometimes found on the +surface of coals, and in the clay above them; but also for a thin +stratum of shells which sometimes exists over iron-ore. + + + + + NOTE XVIII.--IRON. + + + _Cold waves, immerged, the glowing mass congeal, + And turn to adamant the hissing Steel._ + + CANTO II. l. 191. + + +As iron is formed near the surface of the earth, it becomes exposed to +streams of water and of air more than most other metallic bodies, and +thence becomes combined with oxygene, or vital air, and appears very +frequently in its calciform state, as in variety of ochres. Manganese, +and zinc, and sometimes lead, are also found near the surface of the +earth, and on that account become combined with vital air and are +exhibited in their calciform state. + +The avidity with which iron unites with oxygene, or vital air, in which +process much heat is given out from the combining materials, is shewn by +a curious experiment of M. Ingenhouz. A fine iron wire twisted spirally +is fixed to a cork, on the point of the spire is fixed a match made of +agaric dipped in solution of nitre; the match is then ignited, and the +wire with the cork put immediately into a bottle full of vital air, the +match first burns vividly, and the iron soon takes fire and consumes +with brilliant sparks till it is reduced to small brittle globules, +gaining an addition of about one third of its weight by its union, with +vital air. Annales de Chymie. Traite de Chimie, per Lavoisier, c. iii. + + + STEEL. + +It is probably owing to a total deprivation of vital air which it holds +with so great avidity, that iron on being kept many hours or days in +ignited charcoal becomes converted into steel, and thence acquires the +faculty of being welded when red hot long before it melts, and also the +power of becoming hard when immersed in cold water; both which I suppose +depend on the same cause, that is, on its being a worse conductor of +heat than other metals; and hence the surface both acquires heat much +sooner, and loses it much sooner, than the internal parts of it, in this +circumstance resembling glass. + +When steel is made very hot, and suddenly immerged in very cold water, +and moved about in it, the surface of the steel becomes cooled first, +and thus producing a kind of case or arch over the internal part, +prevents that internal part from contracting quite so much as it +otherwise would do, whence it becomes brittler and harder, like the +glass-drops called Prince Rupert's drops, which are made by dropping +melted glass into cold water. This idea is countenanced by the +circumstance that hardened steel is specifically lighter than steel +which is more gradually cooled. (Nicholson's Chemistry, p. 313.) Why the +brittleness and hardness of steel or glass should keep pace or be +companions to each other may be difficult to conceive. + +When a steel spring is forcibly bent till it break, it requires less +power to bend it through the first inch than the second, and less +through the second than the third; the same I suppose to happen if a +wire be distended till it break by hanging weights to it; this shews +that the particles may be forced from each other to a small distance by +less power, than is necessary to make them recede to a greater distance; +in this circumstance perhaps the attraction of cohesion differs from +that of gravitation, which exerts its power inversely as the squares of +the distance. Hence it appears that if the innermost particles of a +steel bar, by cooling the external surface first, are kept from +approaching each other so nearly as they otherwise would do, that they +become in the situation of the particles on the convex side of a bent +spring, and can not be forced further from each other except by a +greater power than would have been necessary to have made them recede +thus far. And secondly, that if they be forced a little further from +each other they separate; this may be exemplified by laying two magnetic +needles parallel to each other, the contrary poles together, then +drawing them longitudinally from each other, they will slide with small +force till they begin to separate, and will then require a stronger +force to really separate them. Hence it appears, that hardness and +brittleness depend on the same circumstance, that the particles are +removed to a greater distance from each other and thus resist any power +more forcibly which is applied to displace them further, this +constitutes hardness. And secondly, if they are displaced by such +applied force they immediately separate, and this constitutes +brittleness. + +Steel may be thus rendered too brittle for many purposes, on which +account artists have means of softening it again, by exposing it to +certain degrees of heat, for the construction of different kinds of +tools, which is called tempering it. Some artists plunge large tools in +very cold water as soon as they are compleatly ignited, and moving it +about, take it out as soon as it ceases to be luminous beneath the +water; it is then rubbed quickly with a file or on sand to clean the +surface, the heat which the metal still retains soon begins to produce a +succession of colours; if a hard temper be required, the piece is dipped +again and stirred about in cold water as soon as the yellow tinge +appears, if it be cooled when the purple tinge appears it becomes fit +for gravers' tools used in working upon metals; if cooled while blue it +is proper for springs. Nicholson's Chemistry, p. 313. Keir's Chemical +Dictionary. + + + MODERN PRODUCTION OF IRON. + +The recent production of iron is evinced from the chalybeate waters +which flow from morasses which lie upon gravel-beds, and which must +therefore have produced iron after those gravel-beds were raised out of +the sea. On the south side of the road between Cheadle and Okeymoor in +Staffordshire, yellow stains of iron are seen to penetrate the gravel +from a thin morass on its surface. There is a fissure eight or ten feet +wide, in a gravel-bed on the eastern side of the hollow road ascending +the hill about a mile from Trentham in Staffordshire, leading toward +Drayton in Shropshire, which fissure is filled up with nodules of iron- +ore. A bank of sods is now raised against this fissure to prevent the +loose iron nodules from falling into the turnpike road, and thus this +natural curiosity is at present concealed from travellers. A similar +fissure in a bed of marl, and filled up with iron nodules and with some +large pieces of flint, is seen on the eastern side of the hollow road +ascending the hill from the turnpike house about a mile from Derby in +the road towards Burton. And another such fissure filled with iron +nodes, appears about half a mile from Newton-Solney in Derbyshire, in +the road to Burton, near the summit of the hill. These collections of +iron and of flint must have been produced posterior to the elevation of +all those hills, and were thence evidently of vegetable or animal +origin. To which should be added, that iron is found in general in beds +either near the surface of the earth, or stratified with clay coals or +argillaceous grit, which are themselves productions of the modern world, +that is, from the recrements of vegetables and air-breathing animals. + +Not only iron but manganese, calamy, and even copper and lead appear in +some instances to have been of recent production. Iron and manganese are +detected in all vegetable productions, and it is probable other metallic +bodies might be found to exist in vegetable or animal matters, if we had +tests to detect them in very minute quantities. Manganese and calamy are +found in beds like iron near the surface of the earth, and in a +calciform state, which countenances their modern production. The recent +production of calamy, one of the ores of zinc, appears from its +frequently incrusting calcareous spar in its descent from the surface of +the earth into the uppermost fissures of the limestone mountains of +Derbyshire. That the calamy has been carried by its solution or +diffusion in water into these cavities, and not by its ascent from below +in form of steam, is evinced from its not only forming a crust over the +dogtooth spar, but by its afterwards dissolving or destroying the sparry +crystal. I have specimens of calamy in the form of dogtooth spar, two +inches high, which are hollow, and stand half an inch above the +diminished sparry crystal on which they were formed, like a sheath a +great deal too big for it; this seems to shew, that this process was +carried on in water, otherwise after the calamy had incrusted its spar, +and dissolved its surface, so as to form a hollow cavern over it, it +could not act further upon it except by the interposition of some +medium. As these spars and calamy are formed in the fissures of +mountains they must both have been formed after the elevation of those +mountains. + +In respect to the recent production of copper, it was before observed in +note on Canto II. l. 394, that the summit of the grit-stone mountain at +Hawkstone in Shropshire, is tinged with copper, which from the +appearance of the blue stains seems to have descended to the parts of +the rock beneath. I have a calciform ore of copper consisting of the +hollow crusts of cubic cells, which has evidently been formed on +crystals of fluor, which it has eroded in the same manner as the calamy +erodes the calcareous crystals, from whence may be deduced in the same +manner, the aqueous solution or diffusion, as well as the recent +production of this calciform ore of copper. + +Lead in small quantities is sometimes found in the fissures of coal- +beds, which fissures are previously covered with spar; and sometimes in +nodules of iron-ore. Of the former I have a specimen from near Caulk in +Derbyshire, and of the latter from Colebrook Dale in Shropshire. Though +all these facts shew that some metallic bodies are formed from vegetable +or animal recrements, as iron, and perhaps manganese and calamy, all +which are found near the surface of the earth; yet as the other metals +are found only in fissures of rocks, which penetrate to unknown depths, +they may be wholly or in part produced by ascending steams from +subterraneous fires, as mentioned in note on Canto II. l. 398. + + + + SEPTARIA OF IRON-STONE. + +Over some lime works at Walsall in Staffordshire, I observed some years +ago a stratum of iron earth about six inches thick, full of very large +cavities; these cavities were evidently produced when the material +passed from a semifluid state into a solid one; as the frit of the +potters, or a mixture of clay and water is liable to crack in drying; +which is owing to the further contraction of the internal part, after +the crust is become hard. These hollows are liable to receive extraneous +matter, as I believe gypsum, and sometimes spar, and even lead; a +curious specimen of the last was presented to me by Mr. Darby of +Colebrook Dale, which contains in its cavity some ounces of lead-ore. +But there are other septaria of iron-stone which seem to have had a very +different origin, their cavities having been formed in cooling or +congealing from an ignited state, as is ingeniously deduced by Dr. +Hutton from their internal structure. Edinb. Transact. Vol. I. p. 246. +The volcanic origin of these curious septaria appears to me to be +further evinced from their form and the places where they are found. +They consist of oblate spheroids and are found in many parts of the +earth totally detached from the beds in which they lie, as at East +Lothian in Scotland. Two of these, which now lie before me, were found +with many others immersed in argillaceous shale or shiver, surrounded by +broken limestone mountains at Bradbourn near Ashbourn in Derbyshire, and +were presented to me by Mr. Buxton, a gentleman of that town. One of +these is about fifteen inches in its equatorial diameter, and about six +inches in its polar one, and contains beautiful star-like septaria +incrusted and in part filled with calcareous spar. The other is about +eight inches in its equatorial diameter, and about four inches in its +polar diameter, and is quite solid, but shews on its internal surface +marks of different colours, as if a beginning separation had taken +place. Now as these septaria contain fifty per cent, of iron, according +to Dr. Hutton, they would soften or melt into a semifluid globule by +subterraneous fire by less heat than the limestone in their vicinity; +and if they were ejected through a hole or fissure would gain a circular +motion along with their progressive one by their greater friction or +adhesion to one side of the hole. This whirling motion would produce the +oblate spheroidical form which they possess, and which as far as I know +can not in any other way be accounted for. They would then harden in the +air as they rose into the colder parts of the atmosphere; and as they +descended into so soft a material as shale or shiver, their forms would +not be injured in their fall; and their presence in materials so +different from themselves becomes accounted for. + +About the tropics of the large septarium above mentioned, are circular +eminent lines, such as might have been left if it had been coarsely +turned in a lathe. These lines seem to consist of a fluid matter, which +seems to have exsuded in circular zones, as their edges appear blunted +or retracted; and the septarium seems to have split easier in such +sections parallel to its equator. Now as the crust would first begin to +cool and harden after its ejection in a semifluid state, and the +equatorial diameter would become gradually enlarged as it rose in the +air; the internal parts being softer would slide beneath the polar +crust, which might crack and permit part of the semifluid to exsude, and +it is probable the adhesion would thus become less in sections parallel +to the equator. Which further confirms this idea of the production of +these curious septaria. A new-cast cannon ball red-hot with its crust +only solid, if it were shot into the air would probably burst in its +passage; as it would consist of a more fluid material than these +septaria; and thus by discharging a shower of liquid iron would produce +more dreadful combustion, if used in war, than could be effected by a +ball, which had been cooled and was heated again: since in the latter +case the ball could not have its internal parts made hotter than the +crust of it, without first loosing its form. + + + + + NOTE XIX.--FLINT. + + + _Transmute to glittering flints her chalky lands, + Or sink on Ocean's bed in countless sands._ + + CANTO II. l. 217. + + + 1. SILICEOUS ROCKS. + +The great masses of siliceous sand which lie in rocks upon the beds of +limestone, or which are stratified with clay, coal, and iron-ore, are +evidently produced in the decomposition of vegetable or animal matters, +as explained in the note on morasses. Hence the impressions of vegetable +roots and even whole trees are often found in sand-stone, as well as in +coals and iron-ore. In these sand-rocks both the siliceous acid and the +calcareous base seem to be produced from the materials of the morass; +for though the presence of a siliceous acid and of a calcareous base +have not yet been separately exhibited from flints, yet from the analogy +of flint to fluor, and gypsum, and marble, and from the conversion of +the latter into flint, there can be little doubt of their existence. + +These siliceous sand-rocks are either held together by a siliceous +cement, or have a greater or less portion of clay in them, which in some +acts as a cement to the siliceous crystals, but in others is in such +great abundance that in burning them they become an imperfect porcelain +and are then used to repair the roads, as at Chesterfield in Derbyshire; +these are called argillaceous grit by Mr. Kirwan. In other places a +calcareous matter cements the crystals together; and in other places the +siliceous crystals lie in loose strata under the marl in the form of +white sand; as at Normington about a mile from Derby. + +The lowest beds of siliceous sand-stone produced from morasses seem to +obtain their acid from the morass, and their calcareous base from the +limestone on which it rests; These beds possess a siliceous cement, and +from their greater purity and hardness are used for course grinding- +stones and scyth stones, and are situated on the edges of limestone +countries, having lost the other strata of coals, or clay, or iron, +which were originally produced above them. Such are the sand-rocks +incumbent on limestone near Matlock in Derbyshire. As these siliceous +sand-rocks contain no marine productions scattered amongst them, they +appear to have been elevated, torn to pieces, and many fragments of them +scattered over the adjacent country by explosions, from fires within the +morass from which they have been formed; and which dissipated every +thing inflammable above and beneath them, except some stains of iron, +with which they are in some places spotted. If these sand-rocks had been +accumulated beneath the sea, and elevated along with the beds of +limestone on which they rest, some vestiges of marine shells either in +their siliceous or calcareous state must have been discerned amongst +them. + + + 2. SILICEOUS TREES. + +In many of these sand-rocks are found the impressions of vegetable +roots, which seem to have been the most unchangeable parts of the plant, +as shells and shark's teeth are found in chalk-beds from their being the +most unchangeable parts of the animal. In other instances the wood +itself is penetrated, and whole trees converted into flint; specimens of +which I have by me, from near Coventry, and from a gravel-pit in +Shropshire near Child's Archal in the road to Drayton. Other polished +specimens of vegetable flints abound in the cabinets of the curious, +which evidently shew the concentric circles of woody fibres, and their +interstices filled with whiter siliceous matter, with the branching off +of the knots when cut horizontally, and the parallel lines of wood when +cut longitudinally, with uncommon beauty and variety. Of these I possess +some beautiful specimens, which were presented to me by the Earl of +Uxbridge. + +The colours of these siliceous vegetables are generally brown, from the +iron, I suppose, or manganese, which induced them to crystallize or to +fuse more easily. Some of the cracks of the wood in drying are filled +with white flint or calcedony, and others of them remain hollow, lined +with innumerable small crystals tinged with iron, which I suppose had a +share in converting their calcareous matter into siliceous crystals, +because the crystals called Peak-diamonds are always found bedded in an +ochreous earth; and those called Bristol-stones are situated on +limestone coloured with iron. Mr. F. French presented me with a +congeries of siliceous crystals, which he gathered on the crater (as he +supposes) of an extinguished volcano at Cromach Water in Cumberland. The +crystals are about an inch high in the shape of dogtooth or calcareous +spar, covered with a dark ferruginous matter. The bed on which they rest +is about an inch in thickness, and is stained with iron on its +undersurface. This curious fossil shews the transmutation of calcareous +earth into siliceous, as much as the siliceous shells which abound in +the cabinets of the curious. There may sometime be discovered in this +age of science, a method of thus impregnating wood with liquid flint, +which would produce pillars for the support, and tiles for the covering +of houses, which would be uninflammable and endure as long as the earth +beneath them. + +That some siliceous productions have been in a fluid state without much +heat at the time of their formation appears from the vegetable flints +above described not having quite lost their organized appearance; from +shells, and coralloids, and entrochi being converted into flint without +loosing their form; from the bason of calcedony round Giesar in Iceland; +and from the experiment of Mr. Bergman, who obtained thirteen regular +formed crystals by suffering the powder of quartz to remain in a vessel +with fluor acid for two years; these crystals were about the size of +small peas, and were not so hard as quartz. Opusc. de Terra Silicea, p. +33. Mr. Achard procured both calcareous and siliceous crystals, one from +calcareous earth, and the other from the earth of alum, both dissolved +in water impregnated with fixed air; the water filtrating very slowly +through a porous bottom of baked clay. See Journal de Physique, for +January, 1778. + + + 3. AGATES, ONYXES, SCOTS-PEBBLES. + +In small cavities of these sand-rocks, I am informed, the beautiful +siliceous nodules are found which are called Scot's-pebbles; and which +on being cut in different directions take the names of agates, onyxes, +sardonyxes, &c. according to the colours of the lines or strata which +they exhibit. Some of the nodules are hollow and filled with crystals, +others have a nucleus of less compact siliceous matter which is +generally white, surrounded with many concentric strata coloured with +iron, and other alternate strata of white agate or calcedony, sometimes +to the number of thirty. + +I think these nodules bear evident marks of their having been in perfect +fusion by either heat alone, or by water and heat, under great pressure, +according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton; but I do not imagine, +that they were injected into cavities from materials from without, but +that some vegetables or parts of vegetables containing more iron or +manganese than others, facilitated the compleat fusion, thus destroying +the vestiges of vegetable organization, which were conspicuous in the +siliceous trees above mentioned. Some of these nodules being hollow and +lined with crystals, and others containing a nucleus of white siliceous +matter of a looser texture, shew they were composed of the materials +then existing in the cavity; which consisting before of loose sand, must +take up less space when fused into a solid mass. + +These siliceous nodules resemble the nodules of iron-stone mentioned in +note on Canto II. l. 183, in respect to their possessing a great number +of concentric spheres coloured generally with iron, but they differ in +this circumstance, that the concentric spheres generally obey the form +of the external crust, and in their not possessing a chalybeate nucleus. +The stalactites formed on the roofs of caverns are often coloured in +concentric strata, by their coats being spread over each other at +different times; and some of them, as the cupreous ones, possess great +beauty from this formation; but as these are necessarily more or less of +a cylindrical or conic form, the nodules or globular flints above +described cannot have been constructed in this manner. To what law of +nature then is to be referred the production of such numerous concentric +spheres? I suspect to the law of congelation. + +When salt and water are exposed to severe frosty air, the salt is said +to be precipitated as the water freezes; that is, as the heat, in which +it was dissolved, is withdrawn; where the experiment is tried in a bowl +or bason, this may be true, as the surface freezes first, and the salt +is found at the bottom. But in a fluid exposed in a thin phial, I found +by experiment, that the extraneous matter previously dissolved by the +heat in the mixture was not simply set at liberty to subside, but was +detruded or pushed backward as the ice was produced. The experiment was +this: about two ounces of a solution of blue vitriol were accidentally +frozen in a thin phial, the glass was cracked and fallen to pieces, the +ice was dissolved, and I found a pillar of blue vitriol standing erect +on the bottom of the broken bottle. Nor is this power of congelation +more extraordinary, than that by its powerful and sudden expansion it +should burst iron shells and coehorns, or throw out the plugs with which +the water was secured in them above one hundred and thirty yards, +according to the experiments at Quebec by Major Williams. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. II. p. 23. + +In some siliceous nodules which now lie before me, the external crust +for about the tenth of an inch consists of white agate, in others it is +much thinner, and in some much thicker; corresponding with this crust +there are from twenty to thirty superincumbent strata, of alternately +darker and lighter colour; whence it appears, that the external crust as +it cooled or froze, propelled from it the iron or manganese which was +dissolved in it; this receded till it had formed an arch or vault strong +enough to resist its further protrusion; then the next inner sphere or +stratum as it cooled or froze, propelled forwards its colouring matter +in the same manner, till another arch or sphere produced sufficient +resistance to this frigoriscent expulsion. Some of them have detruded +their colouring matter quite to the centre, the rings continuing to +become darker as they are nearer it; in others the chalybeate arch seems +to have stopped half an inch from the centre, and become thicker by +having attracted to itself the irony matter from the white nucleus, +owing probably to its cooling less precipitately in the central parts +than at the surface of the pebble. + +A similar detrusion of a marly matter in circular arches or vaults +obtains in the salt mines in Cheshire; from whence Dr. Hutton very +ingeniously concludes, that the salt must have been liquified by heat; +which would seem to be much confirmed by the above theory. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. p. 244. + +I cannot conclude this account of Scots-pebbles without observing that +some of them on being sawed longitudinally asunder, seem still to +possess some vestiges of the cylindrical organization of vegetables; +others possess a nucleus of white agate much resembling some bulbous +roots with their concentric coats, or the knots in elm-roots or crab- +trees; some of these I suppose were formed in the manner above +explained, during the congelation of masses of melted flint and iron; +others may have been formed from a vegetable nucleus, and retain some +vestiges of the organization of the plant. + + + 4. SAND OF THE SEA. + +The great abundance of siliceous sand at the bottom of the ocean may in +part be washed down from the siliceous rocks above described, but in +general I suppose it derives its acid only from the vegetable and animal +matter of morasses, which is carried down by floods or by the +atmosphere, and becomes united in the sea with its calcareous base from +shells and coralloids, and thus assumes its crystalline form at the +bottom of the ocean, and is there intermixed with gravel or other +matters washed from the mountains in its vicinity. + + + 5. CHERT, OR PETROSILEX. + +The rocks of marble are often alternately intermixed with strata of +chert, or coarse flint, and this in beds from one to three feet thick, +as at Ham and Matlock, or of less than the tenth of an inch in +thickness, as a mile or two from Bakewell in the road to Buxton. It is +difficult to conceive in what manner ten or twenty strata of either +limestone or flint, of different shades of white and black, could be +laid quite regularly over each other from sediments or precipitations +from the sea; it appears to me much easier to comprehend, by supposing +with Dr. Hutton, that both the solid rocks of marble and the flint had +been fused by great heat, (or by heat and water,) under immense +pressure; by its cooling or congealing the colouring matter might be +detruded, and form parallel or curvilinean strata, as above explained. + +The colouring matter both of limestone and flint was probably owing to +the flesh of peculiar animals, as well as the siliceous acid, which +converted some of the limestone into flint; or to some strata of shell- +fish having been overwhelmed when alive with new materials, while others +dying in their natural situations would lose their fleshy parts, either +by its putrid solution in the water or by its being eaten by other sea- +insects. I have some calcareous fossil shells which contain a black +coaly matter in them, which was evidently the body of the animal, and +others of the same kind filled with spar instead of it. The Labradore +stone has I suppose its colours from the nacre or mother-pearl shells, +from which it was probably produced. And there is a stratum of +calcareous matter about six or eight inches thick at Wingerworth in +Derbyshire over the iron-beds, which is replete with shells of fresh- +water muscles, and evidently obtains its dark colour from them, as +mentioned in note XVI. Many nodules of flint resemble in colour as well +as in form the shell of the echinus or sea-urchin; others resemble some +coralloids both in form and colour; and M. Arduini found in the Monte de +Pancrasio, red flints branching like corals, from whence they seem to +have obtained both their form and their colour. Ferber's Travels in +Italy, p. 42. + + + 6. NODULES OF FLINT IN CHALK-BEDS. + +As the nodules of flint found in chalk-beds possess no marks of having +been rounded by attrition or solution, I conclude that they have gained +their form as well as their dark colour from the flesh of the shell-fish +from which they had their origin; but which have been so compleatly +fused by heat, or heat and water, as to obliterate all vestiges of the +shell, in the same manner as the nodules of agate and onyx were produced +from parts of vegetables, but which had been so completely fused as to +obliterate all marks of their organization, or as many iron-nodules have +obtained their form and origin from peculiar vegetables. + +Some nodules in chalk-beds consist of shells of echini filled up with +chalk, the animal having been dissolved away by putrescence in water, or +eaten by other sea-insects; other shells of echini, in which I suppose +the animal's body remained, are converted into flint but still retain +the form of the shell. Others, I suppose as above, being more completely +fused, have become flint coloured by the animal flesh, but without the +exact form either of the flesh or shell of the animal. Many of these are +hollow within and lined with crystals, like the Scot's-pebbles above +described; but as the colouring matter of animal bodies differs but +little from each other compared with those of vegetables, these flints +vary less in their colours than those above mentioned. At the same time +as they cooled in concentric spheres like the Scot's-pebbles, they often +possess faint rings of colours, and always break in conchoide forms +like them. + +This idea of the production of nodules of flint in chalk-beds is +countenanced from the iron which generally appears as these flints +become decomposed by the air; which by uniting with the iron in their +composition reduces it from a vitrescent state to that of calx, and thus +renders it visible. And secondly, by there being no appearance in chalk- +beds of a string or pipe of siliceous matter connecting one nodule with +another, which must have happened if the siliceous matter, or its acid, +had been injected from without according to the idea of Dr. Hutton. And +thirdly, because many of them have very large cavities at their centres, +which should not have happened had they been formed by the injection of +a material from without. + +When shells or chalk are thus converted from calcareous to siliceous +matter by the flesh of the animal, the new flint being heavier than the +shell or chalk occupies less space than the materials it was produced +from; this is the cause of frequent cavities within them, where the +whole mass has not been completely fused and pressed together. In +Derbyshire there are masses of coralloid and other shells which have +become siliceous, and are thus left with large vacuities sometimes +within and sometimes on the outside of the remaining form of the shell, +like the French millstones, and I suppose might serve the same purpose; +the gravel of the Derwent is full of specimens of this kind. + +Since writing the above I have received a very ingenious account of +chalk-beds from Dr. MENISH of Chelmsford. He distinguishes chalk-beds +into three kinds; such as have been raised from the sea with little +disturbance of their strata, as the cliffs of Dover and Margate, which +he terms _intire_ chalk. Another state of chalk is where it has suffered +much derangement, as the banks of the Thames at Gravesend and Dartford. +And a third state where fragments of chalk have been rounded by water, +which he terms _alluvial_ chalk. In the first of these situations of +chalk he observes, that the flint lies in strata horizontally, generally +in distinct nodules, but that he has observed two instances of solid +plates or strata of flint, from an inch to two inches in thickness, +interposed between the chalk-beds; one of these is in a chalk-bank by +the road side at Berkhamstead, the other in a bank on the road from +Chatham leading to Canterbury. Dr. Menish has further observed, that +many of the echini are crushed in their form, and yet filled with flint, +which has taken the form of the crushed shell, and that though many +flint nodules are hollow, yet that in some echini the siliceum seems to +have enlarged, as it passed from a fluid to a solid state, as it swells +out in a protuberance at the mouth and anus of the shell, and that +though these shells are so filled with flint yet that in many places the +shell itself remains calcareous. These strata of nodules and plates of +flint seem to countenance their origin from the flesh of a stratum of +animals which perished by some natural violence, and were buried in +their shells. + + + 7. ANGLES OF SILICEOUS SAND. + +In many rocks of siliceous sand the particles retain their angular form, +and in some beds of loose sand, of which there is one of considerable +purity a few yards beneath the marl at Normington about a mile south of +Derby. Other siliceous sands have had their angles rounded off, like the +pebbles in gravel-beds. These seem to owe their globular form to two +causes; one to their attrition against each other, when they may for +centuries have lain at the bottom of the sea, or of rivers; where they +may have been progressively accumulated, and thus progressively at the +same time rubbed upon each other by the dashing of the water, and where +they would be more easily rolled over each other by their gravity being +so much less than in air. This is evidently now going on in the river +Derwent, for though there are no limestone rocks for ten or fifteen +miles above Derby, yet a great part of the river-gravel at Derby +consists of limestone nodules, whose angles are quite worn off in their +descent down the stream. + +There is however another cause which must have contributed to round the +angles both of calcareous and siliceous fragments; and that is, their +solubility in water; calcareous earth is perpetually found suspended in +the waters which pass over it; and the earth of flints was observed by +Bergman to be contained in water in the proportion of one grain to a +gallon. Kirwan's Mineralogy, p. 107. In boiling water, however, it is +soluble in much greater proportion, as appears from the siliceous earth +sublimed in the distillation of fluor acid in glass vessels; and from +the basons of calcedony which surrounded the jets of hot water near +mount Heccla in Iceland. Troil on Iceland. It is probable most siliceous +sands or pebbles have at some ages of the world been long exposed to +aqueous steams raised by subterranean fires. And if fragments of stone +were long immersed in a fluid menstrum, their angular parts would be +first dissolved, on account of their greater surface. + +Many beds of siliceous gravel are cemented together by a siliceous +cement, and are called breccia; as the plumb-pudding stones of +Hartfordshire, and the walls of a subterraneous temple excavated by Mr. +Curzon, at Hagley near Rugely in Staffordfshire; these may have been +exposed to great heat as they were immersed in water; which water under +great pressure of superincumbent materials may have been rendered red- +hot, as in Papin's digester; and have thus possessed powers of solution +with which we are unacquainted. + + + 8. BASALTES AND GRANITES. + +Another source of siliceous stones is from the granite, or basaltes, or +porphyries, which are of different hardnesses according to the materials +of their composition, or to the fire they have undergone; such are the +stones of Arthur's-hill near Edinburgh, of the Giant's Causway in +Ireland, and of Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire; the uppermost +stratum of which last seems to have been cracked either by its +elevation, or by its hastily cooling after ignition by the contact of +dews or snows, and thus breaks into angular fragments, such as the +streets of London are paved with; or have had their angles rounded by +attrition or by partial solution; and have thus formed the common paving +stones or bowlers; as well as the gravel, which is often rolled into +strata amid the siliceous sand-beds, which are either formed or +collected in the sea. + +In what manner such a mass of crystallized matter as the Giant's Causway +and similar columns of basaltes, could have been raised without other +volcanic appearances, may be a matter not easy to comprehend; but there +is another power in nature besides that of expansile vapour which may +have raised some materials which have previously been in igneous or +aqueous solution; and that is the act of congelation. When the water in +the experiments above related of Major Williams had by congelation +thrown out the plugs from the bomb-shells, a column of ice rose from the +hole of the bomb six or eight inches high. Other bodies I suspect +increase in bulk which crystallize in cooling, as iron and type-metal. I +remember pouring eight or ten pounds of melted brimstone into a pot to +cool and was surprized to see after a little time a part of the fluid +beneath break a hole in the congealed crust above it, and gradually rise +into a promontory several inches high; the basaltes has many marks of +fusion and of crystallization and may thence, as well as many other +kinds of rocks, as of spar, marble, petrosilex, jasper, &c. have been +raised by the power of congelation, a power whose quantity has not yet +been ascertained, and perhaps greater and more universal than that of +vapours expanded by heat. These basaltic columns rise sometimes out of +mountains of granite itself, as mentioned by Dr. Beddoes, (Phil. +Transact. Vol. LXXX.) and as they seem to consist of similar materials +more completely fused, there is still greater reason to believe them to +have been elevated in the cooling or crystallization of the mass. See +note XXIV. + + + + + NOTE XX.--CLAY. + + + _Whence ductile Clays in wide expansion spread, + Soft as the Cygnet's down, their snow-white bed._ + + CANTO II. l. 277. + + +The philosophers, who have attended to the formation of the earth, have +acknowledged two great agents in producing the various changes which the +terraqueous globe has undergone, and these are water and fire. Some of +them have perhaps ascribed too much to one of these great agents of +nature, and some to the other. They have generally agreed that the +stratification of materials could only be produced from sediments or +precipitations, which were previously mixed or dissolved in the sea; and +that whatever effects were produced by fire were performed afterwards. + +There is however great difficulty in accounting for the universal +stratification of the solid globe of the earth in this manner, since +many of the materials, which appear in strata, could not have been +suspended in water; as the nodules of flint in chalk-beds, the extensive +beds of shells, and lastly the strata of coal, clay, sand, and iron-ore, +which in most coal-countries lie from five to seven times alternately +stratified over each other, and none of them are soluble in water. Add +to this if a solution of them or a mixture of them in water could be +supposed, the cause of that solution must cease before a precipitation +could commence. + +1. The great masses of lava, under the various names of granite, +porphyry, toadstone, moor-stone, rag, and slate, which constitute the +old world, may have acquired the stratification, which some of them +appear to possess, by their having been formed by successive eruptions +of a fluid mass, which at different periods of antient time arose from +volcanic shafts and covered each other, the surface of the interior mass +of lava would cool and become solid before the superincumbent stratum +was poured over it; to the same cause may be ascribed their different +compositions and textures, which are scarcely the same in any two parts +of the world. + +2. The stratifications of the great masses of limestone, which were +produced from sea-shells, seem to have been formed by the different +times at which the innumerable shells were produced and deposited. A +colony of echini, or madrepores, or cornua ammonis, lived and perished +in one period of time; in another a new colony of either similar or +different shells lived and died over the former ones, producing a +stratum of more recent shell over a stratum of others which had began to +petrify or to become marble; and thus from unknown depths to what are +now the summits of mountains the limestone is disposed in strata of +varying solidity and colour. These have afterwards undergone variety of +changes by their solution and deposition from the water in which they +were immersed, or from having been exposed to great heat under great +pressure, according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. See Note XVI. + +3. In most of the coal-countries of this island there are from five to +seven beds of coal stratified with an equal number of beds, though of +much greater thickness, of clay and sandstone, and occasionally of iron- +ores. In what manner to account for the stratification of these +materials seems to be a problem of greater difficulty. Philosophers have +generally supposed that they have been arranged by the currents of the +sea; but considering their insolubility in water, and their almost +similar specific gravity, an accumulation of them in such distinct beds +from this cause is altogether inconceiveable, though some coal-countries +bear marks of having been at some time immersed beneath the waves and +raised again by subterranean fires. + +The higher and lower parts of morasses were necessarily produced at +different periods of time, see Note XVII. and would thus originally be +formed in strata of different ages. For when an old wood perished, and +produced a morass, many centuries would elapse before another wood could +grow and perish again upon the same ground, which would thus produce a +new stratum of morass over the other, differing indeed principally in +its age, and perhaps, as the timber might be different, in the +proportions of its component parts. + +Now if we suppose the lowermost stratum of a morass become ignited, like +fermenting hay, (after whatever could be carried away by solution in +water was gone,) what would happen? Certainly the inflammable part, the +oil, sulphur, or bitumen, would burn away, and be evaporated in air; and +the fixed parts would be left, as clay, lime, and iron; while some of +the calcareous earth would join with the siliceous acid, and produce +sand, or with the argillaceous earth, and produce marl. Thence after +many centuries another bed would take fire, but with less degree of +ignition, and with a greater body of morass over it, what then would +happen? The bitumen and sulphur would rise and might become condensed +under an impervious stratum, which might not be ignited, and there form +coal of different purities according to its degree of fluidity, which +would permit some of the clay to subside through it into the place from +which it was sublimed. + +Some centuries afterwards another similar process might take place, and +either thicken the coal-bed, or produce a new clay-bed, or marl, or +sand, or deposit iron upon it, according to the concomitant +circumstances above mentioned. + +I do not mean to contend that a few masses of some materials may not +have been rolled together by currents, when the mountains were much more +elevated than at present, and in consequence the rivers broader and more +rapid, and the storms of rain and wind greater both in quantity and +force. Some gravel-beds may have been thus washed from the mountains; +and some white clay washed from morasses into valleys beneath them; and +some ochres of iron dissolved and again deposited by water; and some +calcareous depositions from water, (as the bank for instance on which +stand the houses at Matlock-bath;) but these are of small extent or +consequence compared to the primitive rocks of granite or porpyhry which +form the nucleus of the earth, or to the immense strata of limestone +which crust over the greatest part of this granite or porphyry; or +lastly to the very extensive beds of clay, marl, sandstone, coal, and +iron, which were probably for many millions of years the only parts of +our continents and islands, which were then elevated above the level of +the sea, and which on that account became covered with vegetation, and +thence acquired their later or superincumbent strata, which constitute, +what some have termed, the new world. + +There is another source of clay, and that of the finest kind, from +decomposed granite, this is of a snowy white and mixed with mining +particles of mica, of this kind is an earth from the country of +Cherokees. Other kinds are from less pure lavas; Mr. Ferber asserts that +the sulphurous steams from Mount Vesuvius convert the lava into clay. + +"The lavas of the antient Solfatara volcano have been undoubtedly of a +vitreous nature, and these appear at present argillaceous. Some +fragments of this lava are but half or at one side changed into clay, +which either is viscid or ductile, or hard and stoney. Clays by fire are +deprived of their coherent quality, which cannot be restored to them by +pulverization, nor by humectation. But the sulphureous Solfatara steams +restore it, as may be easily observed on the broken pots wherein they +gather the sal ammoniac; though very well baked and burnt at Naples they +are mollified again by the acid steams into a viscid clay which keeps +the former fire-burnt colour." Travels in Italy, p. 156. + + + + + NOTE XXI.--ENAMELS. + + + _Smear'd her huge dragons with metallic hues, + With golden purples, and cobaltic blues;_ + + CANTO II. l. 287. + + +The fine bright purples or rose colours which we see on china cups are +not producible with any other material except gold, manganese indeed +gives a purple but of a very different kind. + +In Europe the application of gold to these purposes appears to be of +modern invention. Cassius's discovery of the precipitate of gold by tin, +and the use of that precipitate for colouring glass and enamels, are now +generally known, but though the precipitate with tin be more successful +in producing the ruby glass, or the colourless glass which becomes red +by subsequent ignition, the tin probably contributing to prevent the +gold from separating, (which it is very liable to do during the fusion; +yet, for enamels, the precipitates made by alcaline salts answer equally +well, and give a finer red, the colour produced by the tin precipitate +being a bluish purple, but with the others a rose red. I am informed +that some of our best artists prefer aurum fulminans, mixing it, before +it has become dry, with the white composition or enamel flux; when once +it is divided by the other matter, it is ground with great safety, and +without the least danger of explosion, whether moist or dry. The colour +is remarkably improved and brought forth by long grinding, which +accordingly makes an essential circumstance in the process. + +The precipitates of gold, and the colcothar or other red preparations of +iron, are called _tender_ colours. The heat must be no greater than is +just sufficient to make the enamel run upon the piece, for if greater, +the colours will be destroyed or changed to a different kind. When the +vitreous matter has just become fluid it seems as if the coloured +metallic calx remained barely _intermixed_ with it, like a coloured +powder of exquisite tenuity suspended in water: but by stronger fire the +calx is _dissolved_, and metallic colours are altered by _solution_ in +glass as well as in acids or alcalies. + +The Saxon mines have till very lately almost exclusively supplied the +rest of Europe with cobalt, or rather with its preparations, zaffre and +smalt, for the exportation of the ore itself is there a capital crime. +Hungary, Spain, Sweden, and some other parts of the continent, are now +said to afford cobalts equal to the Saxon, and specimens have been +discovered in our own island, both in Cornwall and in Scotland; but +hitherto in no great quantity. + +Calces of cobalt and of copper differ very materially from those above +mentioned in their application for colouring enamels. In those the calx +has previously acquired the intended colour, a colour which bears a red +heat without injury, and all that remains is to fix it on the piece by a +vitreous flux. But the blue colour of cobalt, and the green or bluish +green of copper, are _produced_ by vitrification, that is, by _solution_ +in the glass, and a strong fire is necessary for their perfection. These +calces therefore, when mixed with the enamel flux, are melted in +crucibles, once or oftener, and the deep coloured opake glass, thence +resulting, is ground into unpalpable powder, and used for enamel. One +part of either of these calces is put to ten, sixteen, or twenty parts +of the flux, according to the depth of colour required. The heat of the +enamel kiln is only a full red, such as is marked on Mr. Wedgwood's +thermometer 6 degrees. It is therefore necessary that the flux be so +adjusted as to melt in that low heat. The usual materials are flint, or +flint-glass, with a due proportion of red-led, or borax, or both, and +sometimes a little tin calx to give opacity. + +_Ka-o-lin_ is the name given by the Chinese to their porcelain clay, and +_pe-tun-tse_ to the other ingredient in their China ware. Specimens of +both these have been brought into England, and found to agree in quality +with some of our own materials. Kaolin is the very same with the clay +called in Cornwall [Transcriber's note: word missing] and the petuntse +is a granite similar to the Cornish moorstone. There are differences, +both in the Chinese petuntses, and the English moorstones; all of them +contain micaceous and quartzy particles, in greater or less quantity, +along with feltspat, which last is the essential ingredient for the +porcelain manufactory. The only injurious material commonly found in +them is iron, which discolours the ware in proportion to its quantity, +and which our moorstones are perhaps more frequently tainted with than +the Chinese. Very fine porcelain has been made from English materials +but the nature of the manufacture renders the process precarious and the +profit hazardous; for the semivitrification, which constitutes +porcelain, is necessarily accompanied with a degree of softness, or +semifusion, so that the vessels are liable to have their forms altered +in the kiln, or to run together with any accidental augmentations of the +fire. + + + + + NOTE XXII.--PORTLAND VASE. + + + _Or bid Mortality rejoice or mourn + O'er the fine forms of Portland's mystic urn._ + + CANTO II. l. 319. + + +The celebrated funereal vase, long in possession of the Barberini +family, and lately purchased by the Duke of Portland for a thousand +guineas, is about ten inches high and six in diameter in the broadest +part. The figures are of most exquisite workmanship in bas relief of +white opake glass, raised on a ground of deep blue glass, which appears +black except when held against the light. Mr. Wedgwood is of opinion +from many circumstances that the figures have been made by cutting away +the external crust of white opake glass, in the manner the finest +cameo's have been produced, and that it must thence have been the labour +of a great many years. Some antiquarians have placed the time of its +production many centuries before the christian aera; as sculpture was +said to have been declining in respect to its excellence in the time of +Alexander the Great. See an account of the Barberini or Portland vase by +M. D'Hancarville, and by Mr. Wedgwood. + +Many opinions and conjectures have been published concerning the figures +on this celebrated vase. Having carefully examined one of Mr. Wedgwood's +beautiful copies of this wonderful production of art, I shall add one +more conjecture to the number. + +Mr. Wedgwood has well observed that it does not seem probable that the +Portland vase was purposely made for the ashes of any particular person +deceased, because many years must have been necessary for its +production. Hence it may be concluded, that the subject of its +embellishments is not private history but of a general nature. This +subject appears to me to be well chosen, and the story to be finely +told; and that it represents what in antient times engaged the attention +of philosophers, poets, and heroes, I mean a part of the Eleusinian +mysteries. + +These mysteries were invented in Aegypt, and afterwards transferred to +Greece, and flourished more particularly at Athens, which was at the +same time the seat of the fine arts. They consisted of scenical +exhibitions representing and inculcating the expectation of a future +life after death, and on this account were encouraged by the government, +insomuch that the Athenian laws punished a discovery of their secrets +with death. Dr. Warburton has with great learning and ingenuity shewn +that the descent of Aeneas into hell, described in the Sixth Book of +Virgil, is a poetical account of the representations of the future state +in the Eleusinian mysteries. Divine Legation, Vol. I. p. 210. + +And though some writers have differed in opinion from Dr. Warburton on +this subject, because Virgil has introduced some of his own heroes into +the Elysian fields, as Deiphobus, Palinurus, and Dido, in the same +manner as Homer had done before him, yet it is agreed that the received +notions about a future state were exhibited in these mysteries, and as +these poets described those received notions, they may be said, as far +as these religious doctrines were concerned, to have described the +mysteries. + +Now as these were emblematic exhibitions they must have been as well +adapted to the purposes of sculpture as of poetry, which indeed does not +seem to have been uncommon, since one compartment of figures in the +sheild of Aeneas represented the regions of Tartarus. Aen. Lib. X. The +procession of torches, which according to M. De St. Croix was exhibited +in these mysteries, is still to be seen in basso relievo, discovered by +Spon and Wheler. Memoires sur le Mysteres par De St. Croix. 1784. And it +is very probable that the beautiful gem representing the marriage of +Cupid and Psyche, as described by Apuleus, was originally descriptive of +another part of the exhibitions in these mysteries, though afterwards it +became a common subject of antient art. See Divine Legat. Vol. I. p. +323. What subject could have been imagined so sublime for the ornaments +of a funereal urn as the mortality of all things and their +resuscitation? Where could the designer be supplied with emblems for +this purpose, before the Christian era, but from the Eleusinian +mysteries? + +1. The exhibitions of the mysteries were of two kinds, those which the +people were permitted to see, and those which were only shewn to the +initiated. Concerning the latter, Aristides calls them "the most +shocking and most ravishing representations." And Stoboeus asserts that +the initiation into the grand mysteries exactly resembles death. Divine +Legat. Vol. I. p. 280, and p. 272. And Virgil in his entrance to the +shades below, amongst other things of terrible form, mentions death. +Aen. VI. This part of the exhibition seems to be represented in one of +the compartments of the Portland vase. + +Three figures of exquisite workmanship are placed by the side of a +ruined column whose capital is fallen off, and lies at their feet with +other disjointed stones, they sit on loose piles of stone beneath a +tree, which has not the leaves of any evergreen of this climate, but may +be supposed to be an elm, which Virgil places near the entrance of the +infernal regions, and adds, that a dream was believed to dwell under +every leaf of it. Aen. VI. l. 281. In the midst of this group reclines a +female figure in a dying attitude, in which extreme languor is +beautifully represented, in her hand is an inverted torch, an antient +emblem of extinguished life, the elbow of the same arm resting on a +stone supports her as she sinks, while the other hand is raised and +thrown over her drooping head, in some measure sustaining it and gives +with great art the idea of fainting lassitude. On the right of her sits +a man, and on the left a woman, both supporting themselves on their +arms, as people are liable to do when they are thinking intensely. They +have their backs towards the dying figure, yet with their faces turned +towards her, as if seriously contemplating her situation, but without +stretching out their hands to assist her. + +This central figure then appears to me to be an hieroglyphic or +Eleusinian emblem of MORTAL LIFE, that is, the lethum, or death, +mentioned by Virgil amongst the terrible things exhibited at the +beginning of the mysteries. The inverted torch shews the figure to be +emblematic, if it had been designed to represent a real person in the +act of dying there had been no necessity for the expiring torch, as the +dying figure alone would have been sufficiently intelligible;--it would +have been as absurd as to have put an inverted torch into the hand of a +real person at the time of his expiring. Besides if this figure had +represented a real dying person would not the other figures, or one of +them at least, have stretched out a hand to support her, to have eased +her fall among loose stones, or to have smoothed her pillow? These +circumstances evince that the figure is an emblem, and therefore could +not be a representation of the private history of any particular family +or event. + +The man and woman on each side of the dying figure must be considered as +emblems, both from their similarity of situation and dress to the middle +figure, and their being grouped along with it. These I think are +hieroglyphic or Eleusinian emblems of HUMANKIND, with their backs toward +the dying figure of MORTAL LIFE, unwilling to associate with her, yet +turning back their serious and attentive countenances, curious indeed to +behold, yet sorry to contemplate their latter end. These figures bring +strongly to one's mind the Adam and Eve of sacred writ, whom some have +supposed to have been allegorical or hieroglyphic persons of Aegyptian +origin, but of more antient date, amongst whom I think is Dr. Warburton. +According to this opinion Adam and Eve were the names of two +hieroglyphic figures representing the early state of mankind; Abel was +the name of an hieroglyphic figure representing the age of pasturage, +and Cain the name of another hieroglyphic symbol representing the age of +agriculture, at which time the uses of iron were discovered. And as the +people who cultivated the earth and built houses would increase in +numbers much faster by their greater production of food, they would +readily conquer or destroy the people who were sustained by pasturage, +which was typified by Cain slaying Abel. + +2. On the other compartment of this celebrated vase is exhibited an +emblem of immortality, the representation of which was well known to +constitute a very principal part of the shews at the Eleusinian +mysteries, as Dr. Warburton has proved by variety of authority. The +habitation of spirits or ghosts after death was supposed by the antients +to be placed beneath the earth, where Pluto reigned, and dispensed +rewards or punishments. Hence the first figure in this group is of the +MANES or GHOST, who having passed through an open portal is descending +into a dusky region, pointing his toe with timid and unsteady step, +feeling as it were his way in the gloom. This portal Aeneas enters, +which is described by Virgil,--patet atri janua ditis, Aen. VI. l. 126; +as well as the easy descent,--facilis descensus Averni. Ib. The darkness +at the entrance to the shades is humorously described by Lucian. Div. +Legat. Vol. I. p. 241. And the horror of the gates of hell was in the +time of Homer become a proverb; Achilles says to Ulysses, "I hate a liar +worse than the gates of hell;" the same expression is used in Isaiah, +ch. xxxviii. v. 10. The MANES or GHOST appears lingering and fearful, +and wishes to drag after him a part of his mortal garment, which however +adheres to the side of the portal through which he has passed. The +beauty of this allegory would have been expressed by Mr. Pope, by "We +feel the ruling passion strong in death." + +A little lower down in the group the manes or ghost is received by a +beautiful female, a symbol of IMMORTAL LIFE. This is evinced by her +fondling between her knees a large and playful serpent, which from its +annually renewing its external skin has from great antiquity, even as +early as the fable of Prometheus, been esteemed an emblem of renovated +youth. The story of the serpent acquiring immortal life from the ass of +Prometheus, who carried it on his back, is told in Bacon's Works, Vol. +V. p. 462. Quarto edit. Lond. 1778. For a similar purpose a serpent was +wrapped round the large hieroglyphic egg in the temple of Dioscuri, as +an emblem of the renewal of life from a state of death. Bryant's +Mythology, Vol II. p. 359. sec. edit. On this account also the serpent +was an attendant on Aesculapius, which seems to have been the name of +the hieroglyphic figure of medicine. This serpent shews this figure to +be an emblem, as the torch shewed the central figure of the other +compartment to be an emblem, hence they agreeably correspond, and +explain each other, one representing MORTAL LIFE, and the other IMMORTAL +LIFE. + +This emblematic figure of immortal life sits down with her feet towards +the figure of Pluto, but, turning back her face towards the timid ghost, +she stretches forth her hand, and taking hold of his elbow, supports his +tottering steps, as well as encourages him to advance, both which +circumstances are thus with wonderful ingenuity brought to the eye. At +the same time the spirit loosely lays his hand upon her arm, as one +walking in the dark would naturally do for the greater certainty of +following his conductress, while the general part of the symbol of +IMMORTAL LIFE, being turned toward the figure of Pluto, shews that she +is leading the phantom to his realms. + +In the Pamphili gardens at Rome, Perseus in assisting Andromeda to +descend from the rock takes hold of her elbow to steady or support her +step, and she lays her hand loosely on his arm as in this figure. Admir. +Roman. Antiq. + +The figure of PLUTO can not be mistaken, as is agreed by most of the +writers who have mentioned this vase; his grisley beard, and his having +one foot buried in the earth, denotes the infernal monarch. He is placed +at the lowest part of the group, and resting his chin on his hand, and +his arm upon his knee, receives the stranger-spirit with inquisitive +attention; it was before observed that when people think attentively +they naturally rest their bodies in some easy attitude, that more animal +power may be employed on the thinking faculty. In this group of figures +there is great art shewn in giving an idea of a descending plain, viz. +from earth to Elysium, and yet all the figures are in reality on an +horizontal one. This wonderful deception is produced first by the +descending step of the manes or ghost; secondly, by the arm of the +sitting figure of immortal life being raised up to receive him as he +descends; and lastly, by Pluto having one foot sunk into the earth. + +There is yet another figure which is concerned in conducing the manes or +ghost to the realms of Pluto, and this is LOVE. He precedes the +descending spirit on expanded wings, lights him with his torch, and +turning back his beautiful countenance beckons him to advance. The +antient God of love was of much higher dignity than the modern Cupid. He +was the first that came out of the great egg of night, (Hesiod. Theog. +V. CXX. Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. p. 348.) and is said to possess the +keys of the sky, sea, and earth. As he therefore led the way into this +life, he seems to constitute proper emblem for leading the way to a +future life. See Bacon's works. Vol. I. p. 568. and Vol. III. p. 582. +Quarto edit. + +The introduction of love into this part of the mysteries requires a +little further explanation. The Psyche of the Aegyptians was one of +their most favourite emblems, and represented the soul, or a future +life; it was originally no other than the aurelia, or butterfly, but in +after times was represented by a lovely female child with the beautiful +wings of that insect. The aurelia, after its first stage as an eruca or +caterpillar, lies for a season in a manner dead, and is inclosed in a +sort of coffin, in this state of darkness it remains all the winter, but +at the return of spring it bursts its bonds and comes out with new life, +and in the most beautiful attire. The Aegyptians thought this a very +proper picture of the soul of man, and of the immortality to which it +aspired. But as this was all owing to divine Love, of which EROS was an +emblem, we find this person frequently introduced as a concomitant of +the soul in general or Psyche. (Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. p. 386.) EROS, +or divine Love, is for the same reason a proper attendant on the manes +or soul after death, and much contributes to tell the story, that is, to +shew that a soul or manes is designed by the descending figure. From +this figure of Love M. D'Hancarville imagines that Orpheus and Eurydice +are typified under the figure of the manes and immortal life as above +described. It may be sufficient to answer, first, that Orpheus is always +represented with a lyre, of which there are prints of four different +gems in Spence's Polymetis, and Virgil so describes him, Aen. VI. +cythara fretus. And secondly, that it is absurd to suppose that Eurydice +was fondling and playing with a serpent that had slain her. Add to this +that Love seems to have been an inhabitant of the infernal regions, as +exhibited in the mysteries, for Claudian, who treats more openly of the +Eleusinian mysteries, when they were held in less veneration, invokes +the deities to disclose to him their secrets, and amongst other things +by what torch Love softens Pluto. + + Dii, quibus in numerum, &c. + Vos mihi sacrarum penetralia pandite rerum, + Et vestri secreta poli, qua lampade Ditem + Flexit amor. + +In this compartment there are two trees, whose branches spread over the +figures, one of them has smoother leaves like some evergreens, and might +thence be supposed to have some allusion to immortality, but they may +perhaps have been designed only as ornaments, or to relieve the figures, +or because it was in groves, where these mysteries were originally +celebrated. Thus Homer speaks of the woods of Proserpine, and mentions +many trees in Tartarus, as presenting their fruits to Tantalus; Virgil +speaks of the pleasant groves of Elysium; and in Spence's Polymetis +there are prints of two antient gems, one of Orpheus charming Cerberus +with his lyre, and the other of Hercules binding him in a cord, each of +them standing by a tree. Polymet. p. 284. As however these trees have +all different foliage so clearly marked by the artist, they may have had +specific meanings in the exhibitions of the mysteries, which have not +reached posterity, of this kind seem to have been the tree of knowledge +of good and evil, and the tree of life, in sacred writ, both which must +have been emblematic or allegorical. The masks, hanging to the handles +of the vase, seem to indicate that there is a concealed meaning in the +figures besides their general appearance. And the priestess at the +bottom, which I come now to describe, seems to shew this concealed +meaning to be of the sacred or Eleusinian kind. + +3. The figure on the bottom of the vase is on a larger scale than the +others, and less finely finished, and less elevated, and as this bottom +part was afterwards cemented to the upper part, it might be executed by +another artist for the sake of expedition, but there seems no reason to +suppose that it was not originally designed for the upper part of it as +some have conjectured. As the mysteries of Ceres were celebrated by +female priests, for Porphyrius says the antients called the priestesses +of Ceres, Melissai, or bees, which were emblems of chastity. Div. Leg. +Vol. I. p. 235. And as, in his Satire against the sex, Juvenal says, +that few women are worthy to be priestesses of Ceres. Sat. VI. the +figure at the bottom of the vase would seem to represent a PRIESTESS or +HIEROPHANT, whose office it was to introduce the initiated, and point +out to them, and explain the exhibitions in the mysteries, and to +exclude the uninitiated, calling out to them, "Far, far retire, ye +profane!" and to guard the secrets of the temple. Thus the introductory +hymn sung by the hierophant, according to Eusebius, begins, "I will +declare a secret to the initiated, but let the doors be shut against the +profane." Div. Leg. Vol. I. p. 177. The priestess or hierophant appears +in this figure with a close hood, and dressed in linen, which fits close +about her; except a light cloak, which flutters in the wind. Wool, as +taken from slaughtered animals, was esteemed profane by the priests of +Aegypt, who were always dressed in linen. Apuleus, p. 64. Div. Leg. Vol. +I. p. 318. Thus Eli made for Samuel a linen ephod. Samuel i. 3. + +Secrecy was the foundation on which all mysteries rested, when publicly +known they ceased to be mysteries; hence a discovery of them was not +only punished with death by the Athenian law; but in other countries a +disgrace attended the breach of a solemn oath. The priestess in the +figure before us has her finger pointing to her lips as an emblem of +silence. There is a figure of Harpocrates, who was of Aegyptian origin, +the same as Orus, with the lotus on his head, and with his finger +pointing to his lips not pressed upon them, in Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. +p. 398, and another female figure standing on a lotus, as if just risen +from the Nile, with her finger in the same attitude, these seem to have +been representations or emblems of male and female priests of the secret +mysteries. As these sort of emblems were frequently changed by artists +for their more elegant exhibition, it is possible the foliage over the +head of this figure may bear some analogy to the lotus above mentioned. + +This figure of secrecy seems to be here placed, with great ingenuity, as +a caution to the initiated, who might understand the meaning of the +emblems round the vase, not to divulge it. And this circumstance seems +to account for there being no written explanation extant, and no +tradition concerning these beautiful figures handed down to us along +with them. + +Another explanation of this figure at the bottom of the vase would seem +to confirm the idea that the basso relievos round its sides are +representations of a part of the mysteries, I mean that it is the head +of ATIS. Lucian says that Atis was a young man of Phrygia, of uncommon +beauty, that he dedicated a temple in Syria to Rhea, or Cybele, and +first taught her mysteries to the Lydians, Phrygians, and Samothracians, +which mysteries he brought from India. He was afterwards made an eunuch +by Rhea, and lived like a woman, and assumed a feminine habit, and in +that garb went over the world teaching her ceremonies and mysteries. +Dict. par M. Danet, art. Atis. As this figure is covered with clothes, +while those on the sides of the vase are naked, and has a Phrygian cap +on the head, and as the form and features are so soft, that it is +difficult to say whether it be a male or female figure, there is reason +to conclude, 1. that it has reference to some particular person of some +particular country; 2. that this person is Atis, the first great +hierophant, or teacher of mysteries, to whom M. De la Chausse says the +figure itself bears a resemblance. Museo. Capitol. Tom. IV. p. 402. + +In the Museum Etruscum, Vol. I. plate 96, there is the head of Atis with +feminine features, clothed with a Phrygian cap, and rising from very +broad foliage, placed on a kind of term supported by the paw of a lion. +Goreus in his explanation of the figure says that it is placed on a +lion's foot because that animal was sacred to Cybele, and that it rises +from very broad leaves because after he became an eunuch he determined +to dwell in the groves. Thus the foliage, as well as the cap and +feminine features, confirm the idea of this figure at the bottom of the +vase representing the head of Atis the first great hierophant, and that +the figures on the sides of the vase are emblems from the antient +mysteries. + +I beg leave to add that it does not appear to have been uncommon amongst +the antients to put allegorical figures on funeral vases. In the +Pamphili palace at Rome there is an elaborate representation of Life and +of Death, on an antient sarcophagus. In the first Prometheus is +represented making man, and Minerva is placing a butterfly, or the soul, +upon his head. In the other compartment Love extinguishes his torch in +the bosom of the dying figure, and is receiving the butterfly, or +Psyche, from him, with a great number of complicated emblematic figures +grouped in very bad taste. Admir. Roman. Antiq. + + + + + NOTE XXIII.--COAL + + + _Whence sable Coal his massy couch extends, + And stars of gold the sparkling Pyrite blends._ + + CANTO II. l. 349. + + +To elucidate the formation of coal-beds I shall here describe a fountain +of fossil tar, or petroleum, discovered lately near Colebrook Dale in +Shropshire, the particulars of which were sent me by Dr. Robert Darwin +of Shrewsbury. + +About a mile and a half below the celebrated iron-bridge, constructed by +the late Mr. DARBY near Colebrook Dale, on the east side of the river +Severn, as the workmen in October 1786 were making a subterranean canal +into the mountain, for the more easy acquisition and conveyance of the +coals which lie under it, they found an oozing of liquid bitumen, or +petroleum; and as they proceeded further cut through small cavities of +different sizes from which the bitumen issued. From ten to fifteen +barrels of this fossil tar, each barrel containing thirty-two gallons, +were at first collected in a day, which has since however gradually +diminished in quantity, so that at present the product is about seven +barrels in fourteen days. + +The mountain, into which this canal enters, consists of siliceous sand, +in which however a few marine productions, apparently in their recent +state, have been found, and are now in the possession of Mr. WILLIAM +REYNOLDS of Ketly Bank. About three hundred yards from the entrance into +the mountain, and about twenty-eight yards below the surface of it, the +tar is found oozing from the sand-rock above into the top and sides of +the canal. + +Beneath the level of this canal a shaft has been sunk through a grey +argillaceous substance, called in this country clunch, which is said to +be a pretty certain indication of coal; beneath this lies a stratum of +coal, about two or three inches thick, of an inferior kind, yielding +little flame in burning, and leaving much ashes; below this is a rock of +a harder texture; and beneath this are found coals of an excellent +quality; for the purpose of procuring which with greater facility the +canal, or horizontal aperture, is now making into the mountain. July, +1788. + +Beneath these coals in some places is found salt water, in other parts +of the adjacent country there are beds of iron-stone, which also contain +some bitumen in a less fluid state, and which are about on a level with +the new canal, into which the fossil tar oozes, as above described. + +There are many interesting circumstances attending the situation and +accompaniments of this fountain of fossil tar, tending to develop the +manner of its production. 1. As the canal passing into the mountain runs +over the beds of coals, and under the reservoir of petroleum, it appears +that a _natural distillation_ of this fossil in the bowels of the earth +must have taken place at some early period of the world, similar to the +artificial distillation of coal, which has many years been carried on in +this place on a smaller scale above ground. When this reservoir of +petroleum was cut into, the slowness of its exsudation into the canal +was not only owing to its viscidity, but to the pressure of the +atmosphere, or to the necessity there was that air should at the same +time insinuate itself into the small cavities from which the petroleum +descended. The existence of such a distillation at some antient time is +confirmed by the thin stratum of coal beneath the canal, (which covers +the hard rock,) having been deprived of its fossil oil, so as to burn +without flame, and thus to have become a natural coak, or fossil +charcoal, while the petroleum distilled from it is found in the cavities +of the rock above it. + +There are appearances in other places, which favour this idea of the +natural distillation of petroleum, thus at Matlock in Derbyshire a hard +bitumen is found adhering to the spar in the clefts of the lime-rocks in +the form of round drops about the size of peas; which could perhaps only +be deposited there in that form by sublimation. + +2. The second deduction, which offers itself, is, that these beds of +coal have been _exposed to a considerable degree of heat_, since the +petroleum above could not be separated, as far as we know, by any other +means, and that the good quality of the coals beneath the hard rock was +owing to the impermeability of this rock to the bituminous vapour, and +to its pressure being too great to permit its being removed by the +elasticity of that vapour. Thus from the degree of heat, the degree of +pressure, and the permeability of the superincumbent strata, many of the +phenomena attending coal-beds receive an easy explanation, which much +accords with the ingenious theory of the earth by Dr. Hutton, Trans. of +Edinb. Vol. I. + +In some coal works the fusion of the strata of coal has been so slight, +that there remains the appearance of ligneus fibres, and the impression +of leaves, as at Bovey near Exeter, and even seeds of vegetables, of +which I have had specimens from the collieries near Polesworth in +Warwickshire. In some, where the heat was not very intense and the +incumbent stratum not permeable to vapour, the fossil oil has only risen +to the upper part of the coal-bed, and has rendered that much more +inflammable than the lower parts of it, as in the collieries near +Beaudesert, the seat of the EARL OF UXBRIDGE in Staffordshire, where the +upper stratum is a perfect cannel, or candle-coal, and the lower one of +an inferior quality. Over the coal-beds near Sir H. HARPUR'S house in +Derbyshire a thin lamina of asphaltum is found in some places near the +surface of the earth, which would seem to be from a distillation of +petroleum from the coals below, the more fluid part of which had in +process of time exhaled, or been consolidated by its absorption of air. +In other coal-works the upper part of the stratum is of a worse kind +than the lower one, as at Alfreton and Denbigh in Derbyshire, owing to +the supercumbent stratum having permitted the exhalation of a great part +of the petroleum; whilst at Widdrington in Northumberland there is first +a seam of coal about six inches thick of no value, which lies under +about four fathom of clay, beneath this is a white freestone, then a +hard stone, which the workmen there call a whin, then two fathoms of +clay, then another white stone, and under that a vein of coals three +feet nine inches thick, of a similar nature to the Newcastle coal. Phil. +Trans. Abridg. Vol. VI. plate II. p. 192. The similitude between the +circumstances of this colliery, and of the coal beneath the fountain of +tar above described, renders it highly probable that this upper thin +seam of coal has suffered a similar distillation, and that the +inflammable part of it had either been received into the clay above in +the form of sulphur, which when burnt in the open air would produce +alum; or had been dissipated for want of a receiver, where it could be +condensed. The former opinion is perhaps in this case more probable as +in some other coal-beds, of which I have procured accounts, the surface +of the coal beneath clunch or clay is of an inferior quality, as at West +Hallum in Nottinghamshire. The clunch probably from hence acquires its +inflammable part, which on calcination becomes vitriolic acid. I +gathered pieces of clunch converted partially into alum at a colliery +near Bilston, where the ground was still on fire a few years ago. + +The heat, which has thus pervaded the beds of morass, seems to have been +the effect of the fermentation of their vegetable materials; as new hay +sometimes takes fire even in such very small masses from the sugar it +contains, and seems hence not to have been attended with any expulsion +of lava, like the deeper craters of volcanos situated in beds of +granite. + +3. The marine shells found in the loose sand-rock above this reservoir +of petroleum, and the coal-beds beneath it, together with the existence +of sea-salt beneath these coals, prove that these coal beds have been +_at the bottom of the sea_, during some remote period of time, and were +afterwards raised into their present situation by subterraneous +expansions of vapour. This doctrine is further supported by the marks of +violence, which some coal-beds received at the time they were raised out +of the sea, as in the collieries at Mendip in Somersetshire. In these +there are seven strata of coals, equitant upon each other, with beds of +clay and stone intervening; amongst which clay are found shells and fern +branches. In one part of this hill the strata are disjoined, and a +quantity of heterogeneous substances fill up the chasm which disjoins +them, on one side of this chasm the seven strata of coal are seen +corresponding in respect to their reciprocal thickness and goodness with +the seven strata on the other side of the cavity, except that they have +been elevated several yards higher. Phil. Trans. No. 360. abridg. Vol. +V. p. 237. + +The cracks in the coal-bed near Ticknall in Derbyshire, and in the sand- +stone rock over it, in both of which specimens of lead-ore and spar are +found, confirm this opinion of their having been forcibly raised up by +subterraneous fires. Over the colliery at Brown-hills near Lichfield, +there is a stratum of gravel on the surface of the ground; which may be +adduced as another proof to shew that those coals had some time been +beneath the sea, or the bed of a river. Nevertheless, these arguments +only apply to the collieries above mentioned, which are few compared +with those which bear no marks of having been immersed in the sea. + +On the other hand the production of coals from morasses, as described in +note XX. is evinced from the vegetable matters frequently found in them, +and in the strata over them; as fern-leaves in nodules of iron-ore, and +from the bog-shells or fresh water muscles sometimes found over them, of +both which I have what I believe to be specimens; and is further proved +from some parts of these beds being only in part transformed to coal; +and the other part still retaining not only the form, but some of the +properties of wood; specimens of which are not unfrequent in the +cabinets of the curious, procured from Loch Neigh in Ireland, from Bovey +near Exeter, and other places; and from a famous cavern called the +Temple of the Devil, near the town of Altorf in Franconia, at the foot +of a mountain covered with pine and savine, in which are found large +coals resembling trees of ebony; which are so far mineralized as to be +heavy and compact; and so to effloresce with pyrites in some parts as to +crumble to pieces; yet from other parts white ashes are produced on +calcination, from which _fixed alcali_ is procured; which evinces their +vegetable origin. (Dict. Raisonne, art. Charbon.) To these may be added +another argument from the oil which is distilled from coals, and which +is analogous to vegetable oil, and does not exist in any bodies truly +mineral. Keir's Chemical Dictionary, art. Bitumen. + +Whence it would appear, that though most collieries with their attendant +strata of clay, sand-stone, and iron, were formed on the places where +the vegetables grew, from which they had their origin; yet that other +collections of vegetable matter were washed down from eminences by +currents of waters into the beds of rivers, or the neighbouring seas, +and were there accumulated at different periods of time, and underwent a +great degree of heat from their fermentation, in the same manner as +those beds of morass which had continued on the plains where they were +produced. And that by this fermentation many of them had been raised +from the ocean with sand and sea-shells over them; and others from the +beds of rivers with accumulations of gravel upon them. + +4. For the purpose of bringing this history of the products of morasses +more distinctly to the eye of the reader, I shall here subjoin two or +three accounts of sinking or boring for coals, out of above twenty which +I have procured from various places, though the terms are not very +intelligible, being the language of the overseers of coal-works. + +1. _Whitfield mine_ near the Pottery in Staffordshire. Soil 1 foot. +brick-clay 3 feet. shale 4. metal which is hard brown and falls in the +weather 42. coal 3. warrant clay 6. brown gritstone 36. coal 31/2. warrant +clay 31/2. bass and metal 531/2. hardstone 4. shaly bass 11/2. coal 4. +warrant clay, depth unknown. in all about 55 yards. + +2. _Coal-mine at Alfreton_ in Derbyshire. Soil and clay 7 feet. +fragments of stone 9. bind 13. stone 6. bind 34. stone 5. bind 2. stone +2. bind 10. coal 11/2. bind 11/2. stone 37. bind 7. soft coal 3. bind 3. +stone 20. bind 16. coal 71/2. in all about 61 yards. + +3. _A basset coal-mine at Woolarton_ in Nottinghamshire. Sand and gravel +6 feet. bind 21. stone 10. smut or effete coal 1. clunch 4. bind 21. +stone 18. bind 18. stone-bind 15. soft coal 2. clunch and bind 21. coal +7. in all about 48 yards. + +4. _Coal-mine at West-Hallam_ in Nottinghamshire. Soil and clay 7 feet. +bind 48. smut 11/2. clunch 4. bind 3. stone 2. bind 1. stone 1. bind 3. +stone 1. bind 16. shale 2. bind 12. shale 3. clunch, stone, and a bed of +cank 54. soft coal 4. clay and dun 1. soft coal 41/2. clunch and bind 21. +coal 1. broad bind 26. hard coal 6. in all about 74 yards. + +As these strata generally lie inclined, I suppose parallel with the +limestone on which they rest, the upper edges of them all come out to +day, which is termed bassetting; when the whole mass was ignited by its +fermentation, it is probable that the inflammable part of some strata +might thus more easily escape than of others in the form of vapour; as +dews are known to slide between such strata in the production of +springs; which accounts for some coal-beds being so much worse than +others. See note XX. + +From this account of the production of coals from morasses it would +appear, that coal-beds are not to be expected beneath masses of lime- +stone. Nevertheless I have been lately informed by my friend Mr. Michell +of Thornhill, who I hope will soon favour the public with his geological +investigations, that the beds of chalk are the uppermost of all the +limestones; and that they rest on the granulated limestone, called +ketton-stone; which I suppose is similar to that which covers the whole +country from Leadenham to Sleaford, and from Sleaford to Lincoln; and +that, thirdly, coal-delphs are frequently found beneath these two +uppermost beds of limestone. + +Now as the beds of chalk and of granulated limestone may have been +formed by alluviation, on or beneath the shores of the sea, or in +vallies of the land; it would seem, that some coal countries, which in +the great commotions of the earth had been sunk beneath the water, were +thus covered with alluvial limestone, as well as others with alluvial +basaltes, or common gravel-beds. Very extensive plains which now consist +of alluvial materials, were in the early times covered with water; which +has since diminished as the solid parts of the earth have increased. For +the solid parts of the earth consisting chiefly of animal and vegetable +recrements must have originally been formed or produced from the water +by animal and vegetable processes; and as the solid parts of the earth +may be supposed to be thrice as heavy as water, it follows that thrice +the quantity of water must have vanished compared with the quantity of +earth thus produced. This may account for many immense beds of alluvial +materials, as gravel, rounded sand granulated limestone, and chalk, +covering such extensive plains as Lincoln-heath, having become dry +without the supposition of their having been again elevated from the +ocean. At the same time we acquire the knowledge of one of the uses or +final causes of the organized world, not indeed very flattering to our +vanity, that it converts water into earth, forming islands and +continents by its recrements or exuviae. + + + + + NOTE XXIV.--GRANITE. + + + _Climb the rude steeps, the Granite-cliffs surround._ + + CANTO II. l. 523. + + +The lowest stratum of the earth which human labour has arrived to, is +granite; and of this likewise consists the highest mountains of the +world. It is known under variety of names according to some difference +in its appearance or composition, but is now generally considered by +philosophers as a species of lava; if it contains quartz, feltspat, and +mica in distinct crystals, it is called granite; which is found in +Cornwall in rocks; and in loose stones in the gravel near Drayton in +Shropshire, in the road towards Newcastle. If these parts of the +composition be less distinct, or if only two of them be visible to the +eye, it is termed porphyry, trap, whinstone, moorstone, slate. And if it +appears in a regular angular form, it is called basaltes. The affinity +of these bodies has lately been further well established by Dr. Beddoes +in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXX. + +These are all esteemed to have been volcanic productions that have +undergone different degrees of heat; it is well known that in Papin's +digester water may be made red hot by confinement, and will then +dissolve many bodies which otherwise are little or not at all acted upon +by it. From hence it may be conceived, that under immense pressure of +superincumbent materials, and by great heat, these masses of lava may +have undergone a kind of aqueous solution, without any tendency to +vitrification, and might thence have a power of crystallization, whence +all the varieties above mentioned from the different proportion of the +materials, or the different degrees of heat they may have undergone in +this aqueous solution. And that the uniformity of the mixture of the +original earths, as of lime, argil, silex, magnesia, and barytes, which +they contain, was owing to their boiling together a longer or shorter +time before their elevation into mountains. See note XIX. art. 8. + +The seat of volcanos seems to be principally, if not entirely, in these +strata of granite; as many of them are situated on granite mountains, +and throw up from time to time sheets of lava which run down over the +proceeding strata from the same origin; and in this they seem to differ +from the heat which has separated the clay, coal, and sand in morasses, +which would appear to have risen from a kind of fermentation, and thus +to have pervaded the whole mass without any expuition of lava. + +[Illustration: _Section of the Earth. A sketch of a supposed Section of +the Earth in respect to the disposition of the Strata over each other +without regard to their proportions or number. London Published Dec'r +1st 1791 by J. Johnson St Paul's Church Yard._] + +All the lavas from Vesuvius contain one fourth part of iron, (Kirwan's +Min.) and all the five primitive earths, viz. calcareous, argillaceous, +siliceous, barytic, and magnesian earths, which are also evidently +produced now daily from the recrements of animal and vegetable bodies. +What is to be thence concluded? Has the granite stratum in very antient +times been produced like the present calcareous and siliceous masses, +according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton, who says new continents +are now forming at the bottom of the sea to rise in their turn, and that +thus the terraqueous globe has been, and will be, eternal? Or shall we +suppose that this internal heated mass of granite, which forms the +nucleus of the earth, was a part of the body of the sun before it was +separated by an explosion? Or was the sun originally a planet, inhabited +like ours, and a satellite to some other greater sun, which has long +been extinguished by diffusion of its light, and around which the +present sun continues to revolve, according to a conjecture of the +celebrated Mr. Herschell, and which conveys to the mind a most sublime +idea of the progressive and increasing excellence of the works of the +Creator of all things? + +For the more easy comprehension of the facts and conjectures concerning +the situation and production of the various strata of the earth, I shall +here subjoin a supposed section of the globe, but without any attempt to +give the proportions of the parts, or the number of them, but only their +respective situation over each other, and a geological recapitulation. + + + GEOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. + +1. The earth was projected along with the other primary planets from the +sun, which is supposed to be on fire only on its surface, emitting light +without much internal heat like a ball of burning camphor. + +2. The rotation of the earth round its axis was occasioned by its +greater friction or adhesion to one side of the cavity from which it was +ejected; and from this rotation it acquired its spheroidical form. As it +cooled in its ascent from the sun its nucleus became harder; and its +attendant vapours were condensed, forming the ocean. + +3. The masses or mountains of granite, porphery, basalt, and stones of +similar structure, were a part of the original nucleus of the earth; or +consist of volcanic productions since formed. + +4. On this nucleus of granite and basaltes, thus covered by the ocean, +were formed the calcareous beds of limestone, marble, chalk, spar, from +the exuviae of marine animals; with the flints, or chertz, which +accompany them. And were stratified by their having been formed at +different and very distant periods of time. + +5. The whole terraqueous globe was burst by central fires; islands and +continents were raised, consisting of granite or lava in some parts, and +of limestone in others; and great vallies were sunk, into which the +ocean retired. + +6. During these central earthquakes the moon was ejected from the earth, +causing new tides; and the earth's axis suffered some change in its +inclination, and its rotatory motion was retarded. + +7. On some parts of these islands and continents of granite or limestone +were gradually produced extensive morasses from the recrements of +vegetables and of land animals; and from these morasses, heated by +fermentation, were produced clay, marle, sandstone, coal, iron, (with +the bases of variety of acids;) all which were stratified by their +having been formed at different, and very distant periods of time. + +8. In the elevation of the mountains very numerous and deep fissures +necessarily were produced. In these fissures many of the metals are +formed partly from descending materials, and partly from ascending ones +raised in vapour by subterraneous fires. In the fissures of granite or +porphery quartz is formed; in the fissures of limestone calcareous spar +is produced. + +9. During these first great volcanic fires it is probable the atmosphere +was either produced, or much increased; a process which is perhaps now +going on in the moon; Mr. Herschell having discovered a volcanic crater +three miles broad burning on her disk. + +10. The summits of the new mountains were cracked into innumerable +lozenges by the cold dews or snows falling upon them when red hot. From +these summits, which were then twice as high as at present, cubes and +lozenges of granite, and basalt, and quartz in some countries, and of +marble and flints in others, descended gradually into the valleys, and +were rolled together in the beds of rivers, (which were then so large as +to occupy the whole valleys, which they now only intersect;) and +produced the great beds of gravel, of which many valleys consist. + +11. In several parts of the earth's surface subsequent earthquakes, from +the fermentation of morasses, have at different periods of time deranged +the position of the matters above described. Hence the gravel, which was +before in the beds of rivers, has in some places been raised into +mountains, along with clay and coal strata which were formed from +morasses and washed down from eminences into the beds of rivers or the +neighbouring seas, and in part raised again with gravel or marine shells +over them; but this has only obtained in few places compared with the +general distribution of such materials. Hence there seem to have existed +two sources of earthquakes, which have occurred at great distance of +time from each other; one from the granite beds in the central parts of +the earth, and the other from the morasses on its surface. All the +subsequent earthquakes and volcanos of modern days compared with these +are of small extent and insignificant effect. + +12. Besides the argillaceous sand-stone produced from morasses, which is +stratified with clay, and coal, and iron, other great beds of siliceous +sand have been formed in the sea by the combination of an unknown acid +from morasses, and the calcareous matters of the ocean. + +13. The warm waters which are found in many countries, are owing to +steam arising from great depths through the fissures of limestone or +lava, elevated by subterranean fires, and condensed between the strata +of the hills over them; and not from any decomposition of pyrites or +manganese near the surface of the earth. + +14. The columns of basaltes have been raised by the congelation or +expansion of granite beds in the act of cooling from their semi-vitreous +fusion. + + + + + NOTE XXV.--EVAPORATION. + + + _Aquatic nymphs! you lead with viewless march + The winged vapour up the aerial arch._ + + CANTO III. l. 13. + + +I. The atmosphere will dissolve a certain quantity of moisture as a +chemical menstruum, even when it is much below the freezing point, as +appears from the diminution of ice suspended in frosty air, but a much +greater quantity of water is evaporated and suspended in the air by +means of heat, which is perhaps the universal cause of fluidity, for +water is known to boil with less heat in vacuo, which is a proof that it +will evaporate faster in vacuo, and that the air therefore rather +hinders than promotes its evaporation in higher degrees of heat. The +quick evaporation occasioned in vacuo by a small degree of heat is +agreeably seen in what is termed a pulse-glass, which consists of an +exhausted tube of glass with a bulb at each end of it and with about two +thirds of the cavity filled with alcohol, in which the spirit is +instantly seen to boil by the heat of the finger-end applied on a bubble +of steam in the lower bulb, and is condensed again in the upper bulb by +the least conceivable comparative coldness. + +2. Another circumstance evincing that heat is the principal cause of +evaporation is that at the time of water being converted into steam, a +great quantity of heat is taken away from the neighbouring bodies. If a +thermometer be repeatedly dipped in ether, or in rectified spirit of +wine, and exposed to a blast of air, to expedite the evaporation by +perpetually removing the saturated air from it, the thermometer will +presently sink below freezing. This warmth, taken from the ambient +bodies at the time of evaporation by the steam, is again given out when +the steam is condensed into water. Hence the water in a worm-tub during +distillation so soon becomes hot; and hence the warmth accompanying the +descent of rain in cold weather. + +3. The third circumstance, shewing that heat is the principal cause of +evaporation, is, that some of the steam becomes again condensed when any +part of the heat is withdrawn. Thus when warmer south-west winds replete +with moisture succeed the colder north-east winds all bodies that are +dense and substantial, as stone walls, brick floors, &c. absorb some of +the heat from the passing air, and its moisture becomes precipitated on +them, while the north-east winds become warmer on their arrival in this +latitude, and are thence disposed to take up more moisture, and are +termed drying winds. + +4. Heat seems to be the principal cause of the solution of many other +bodies, as common salt, or blue vitriol dissolved in water, which when +exposed to severe cold are precipitated, or carried, to the part of the +water last frozen; this I observed in a phial filled with a solution of +blue vitriol which was frozen; the phial was burst, the ice thawed, and +a blue column of cupreous vitriol was left standing upright on the +bottom of the broken glass, as described in note XIX. + +II. Hence water may either be dissolved in air, and may then be called +an aerial solution of water; or it may be dissolved in the fluid matter +of heat, according to the theory of M. Lavoisier, and may then be called +steam. In the former case it is probable there are many other vapours +which may precipitate it, as marine acid gas, or fluor acid gas. So +alcaline gas and acid gas dissolved in air precipitate each other, +nitrous gas precipitates vital air from its azote, and inflammable gas +mixed with vital air ignited by an electric spark either produces or +precipitates the water in both of them. Are there any subtle exhalations +occasionally diffused in the atmosphere which may thus cause rain? + +1. But as water is perhaps many hundred times more soluble in the fluid +matter of heat than in air, I suppose the eduction of this heat, by +whatever means it is occasioned, is the principal cause of devaporation. +Thus if a region of air is brought from a warmer climate, as the S.W. +winds, it becomes cooled by its contact with the earth in this latitude, +and parts with so much of its moisture as was dissolved in the quantity +of calorique, or heat, which it now looses, but retains that part which +was suspended by its attraction to the particles of air, or by aerial +solution, even in the most severe frosts. + +2. A second immediate cause of rain is a stream of N.E. wind descending +from a superior current of air, and mixing with the warmer S.W. wind +below; or the reverse of this, viz. a superior current of S.W. wind +mixing with an inferior one of N.E. wind; in both these cases the whole +heaven becomes instantly clouded, and the moisture contained in the S.W. +current is precipitated. This cause of devaporation has been ingeniously +explained by Dr. Hutton in the Transact. of Edinburgh, Vol. I, and seems +to arise from this circumstance; the particles of air of the N.E. wind +educe part of the heat from the S.W. wind, and therefore the water which +was dissolved by that quantity of _heat_ is precipitated; all the other +part of the water, which was suspended by its attraction to the +particles of air, or dissolved in the remainder of the heat, continues +unprecipitated. + +3. A third method by which a region of air becomes cooled, and in +consequence deposits much of its moisture, is from the mechanical +expansion of air, when part of the pressure is taken off. In this case +the expanded air becomes capable of receiving or attracting more of the +matter of heat into its interstices, and the vapour, which was +previously dissolved in this heat, is deposited, as is seen in the +receiver of an air-pump, which becomes dewy, as the air within becomes +expanded by the eduction of part of it. See note VII. Hence when the +mercury in the barometer sinks without a change of the wind the air +generally becomes colder. See note VII. on Elementary Heat. And it is +probably from the varying pressure of the incumbent air that in summer +days small black clouds are often thus suddenly produced, and again soon +vanish. See a paper in Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. intitled Frigorific +Experiments on the Mechanical Expansion of Air. + +4. Another portion of atmospheric water may possibly be held in solution +by the electric fluid, since in thunder storms a precipitation of the +water seems to be either the cause or the consequence of the eduction of +the electricity. But it appears more probable that the water is +condensed into clouds by the eduction of its heat, and that then the +surplus of electricity prevents their coalescence into larger drops, +which immediately succeeds the departure of the lightning. + +5. The immediate cause why the barometer sinks before rain is, first, +because a region of warm air, brought to us in the place of the cold air +which it had displaced, must weigh lighter, both specifically and +absolutely, if the height of the warm atmosphere be supposed to be equal +to that of the preceeding cold one. And secondly, after the drops of +rain begin to fall in any column of air, that column becomes lighter, +the falling drops only adding to the pressure of the air in proportion +to the resistance which they meet with in passing through that fluid. + +If we could suppose water to be dissolved in air without heat, or in +very low degrees of heat, I suppose the air would become heavier, as +happens in many chemical solutions, but if water dissolved in the matter +of heat, or calorique, be mixed with an aerial solution of water, there +can be no doubt but an atmosphere consisting of such a mixture must +become lighter in proportion to the quantity of calorique. On the same +circumstance depends the visible vapour produced from the breath of +animals in cold weather, or from a boiling kettle; the particles of cold +air, with which it is mixed, steal a part of its heat, and become +themselves raised in temperature, whence part of the water is +precipitated in visible vapour, which, if in great quantity sinks to the +ground; if in small quantity, and the surrounding air is not previously +saturated, it spreads itself till it becomes again dissolved. + + + + + NOTE XXVI.--SPRINGS + + + _Your lucid bands condense with fingers chill + The blue mist hovering round the gelid hill_. + + CANTO III. l. 19. + + +The surface of the earth consists of strata many of which were formed +originally beneath the sea, the mountains were afterwards forced up by +subterraneous fires, as appears from the fissures in the rocks of which +they consist, the quantity of volcanic productions all over the world, +and the numerous remains of craters of volcanos in mountainous +countries. Hence the strata which compose the sides of mountains lie +slanting downwards, and one or two or more of the external strata not +reaching to the summit when the mountain was raised up, the second or +third stratum or a more inferior one is there exposed to day; this may +be well represented by forceably thrusting a blunt instrument through +several sheets of paper, a bur will stand up with the lowermost sheet +standing highest in the center of it. On this uppermost stratum, which +is colder as it is more elevated, the dews are condensed in large +quantities; and sliding down pass under the first or second or third +stratum which compose the sides of the hill; and either form a morass +below, or a weeping rock, by oozing out in numerous places, or many of +these less currents meeting together burst out in a more copious rill. + +The summits of mountains are much colder than the plains in their +vicinity, owing to several causes; 1. Their being in a manner insulated +or cut off from the common heat of the earth, which is always of 48 +degrees, and perpetually counteracts the effects of external cold +beneath that degree. 2. From their surfaces being larger in proportion +to their solid contents, and hence their heat more expeditiously carried +away by the ever-moving atmosphere. 3. The increasing rarity of the air +as the mountain rises. All those bodies which conduct electricity well +or ill, conduct the matter of heat likewise well or ill. See note VII. +Atmospheric air is a bad conductor of electricity and thence confines it +on the body where it is accumulated, but when it is made very rare, as +in the exhausted receiver, the electric aura passes away immediately to +any distance. The same circumstance probably happens in respect to heat, +which is thus kept by the denser air on the plains from escaping, but is +dissipated on the hills where the air is thinner. 4. As the currents of +air rise up the sides of mountains they become mechanically rarefied, +the pressure of the incumbent column lessening as they ascend. Hence the +expanding air absorbs heat from the mountain as it ascends, as explained +in note VII. 5. There is another, and perhaps more powerful cause, I +suspect, which may occasion the great cold on mountains, and in the +higher parts of the atmosphere, and which has not yet been attended to; +I mean that the fluid matter of heat may probably gravitate round the +earth, and form an atmosphere on its surface, mixed with the aerial +atmosphere, which may diminish or become rarer, as it recedes from the +earth's surface, in a greater proportion than the air diminishes. + +6. The great condensation of moisture on the summits of hills has +another cause, which is the dashing of moving clouds against them, in +misty days this is often seen to have great effect on plains, where an +eminent tree by obstructing the mist as it moves along shall have a much +greater quantity of moisture drop from its leaves than falls at the same +time on the ground in its vicinity. Mr. White, in his History of +Selborne gives an account of a large tree so situated, from which a +stream flowed during a moving mist so as to fill the cart-ruts in a lane +otherwise not very moist, and ingeniously adds, that trees planted about +ponds of stagnant water contribute much by these means to supply the +reservoir. The spherules which constitute a mist or cloud are kept from +uniting by so small a power that a little agitation against the leaves +of a tree, or the greater attraction of a flat moist surface, condenses +or precipitates them. + +If a leaf has its surface moistened and particles of water separate from +each other as in a mist be brought near the moistened surface of a leaf, +each particle will be attracted more by that plain surface of water on +the leaf than it can be by the surrounding particles of the mist, +because globules only attract each other in one point, whereas a plain +attracts a globule by a greater extent of its surface. + +The common cold springs are thus formed on elevated grounds by the +condensed vapours, and hence are stronger when the nights are cold after +hot days in spring, than even in the wet days of winter. For the warm +atmosphere during the day has dissolved much more water than it can +support in solution during the cold of the night, which is thus +deposited in large quantities on the hills, and yet so gradually as to +soak in between the strata of them, rather than to slide off over their +surfaces like showers of rain. The common heat of the internal parts of +the earth is ascertained by springs which arise from strata of earth too +deep to be affected by the heat of summer or the frosts of winter. Those +in this country are of 48 degrees of heat, those about Philidelphia were +said by Dr. Franklin to be 52; whether this variation is to be accounted +for by the difference of the sun's heat on that country, according to +the ingenious theory of Mr. Kirwan, or to the vicinity of subterranean +fires is not yet, I think, decided. There are however subterraneous +streams of water not exactly produced in this manner, as streams issuing +from fissures in the earth, communicating with the craters of old +volcanoes; in the Peak of Derbyshire are many hollows, called swallows, +where the land floods sink into the earth, and come out at some miles +distant, as at Ilam near Ashborne. See note on Fica, Vol. II. + +Other streams of cold water arise from beneath the snow on the Alps and +Andes, and other high mountains, which is perpetualy thawing at its +under surface by the common heat of the earth, and gives rise to large +rivers. For the origin of warm springs see note on Fucus, Vol. II. + + + + + NOTE XXVII.--SHELL FISH. + + + _You round Echinus ray his arrowy mail, + Give the keel'd Nautilus his oar and sail. + Firm to his rock with silver cords suspend + The anchored Pinna, and his Cancer-friend_. + + CANTO III. l. 67. + + +The armour of the Echinus, or Sea-hedge Hog, consists generally of +moveable spines; (_Linnei System. Nat._ Vol. I. p. 1102.) and in that +respect resembles the armour of the land animal of the same name. The +irregular protuberances on other sea-shells, as on some species of the +Purpura, and Murex, serve them as a fortification against the attacks of +their enemies. + +It is said that this animal foresees tempestuous weather, and sinking to +the bottom of the sea adheres firmly to sea-plants, or other bodies by +means of a substance which resembles the horns of snails. Above twelve +hundred of these fillets have been counted by which this animal fixes +itself; and when afloat, it contracts these fillets between the bases of +its points, the number of which often amounts to two thousand. Dict +raisonne. art. Oursin. de mer. + +There is a kind of Nautilus, called by Linneus, Argonauta, whose shell +has but one cell; of this animal Pliny affirms, that having exonerated +its shell by throwing out the water, it swims upon the surface, +extending a web of wonderful tenuity, and bending back two of its arms +and rowing with the rest, makes a sail, and at length receiving the +water dives again. Plin. IX. 29. Linneus adds to his description of this +animal, that like the Crab Diogenes or Bernhard, it occupies a house +not its own, as it is not connected to its shell, and is therefore +foreign to it; who could have given credit to this if it had not been +attested by so many who have with their own eyes seen this argonaut in +the act of sailing? Syst. Nat p. 1161. + +The Nautilus, properly so named by Linneus, has a shell consisting of +many chambers, of which cups are made in the East with beautiful +painting and carving on the mother-pearl. The animal is said to inhabit +only the uppermost or open chamber, which is larger than the rest; and +that the rest remain empty except that the pipe, or siphunculus, which +communicates from one to the other of them is filled with an appendage +of the animal like a gut or string. Mr. Hook in his Philos. Exper. p. +306, imagines this to be a dilatable or compressible tube, like the air- +bladders of fish, and that by contracting or permitting it to expand, it +renders its shell boyant or the contrary. See Note on Ulva, Vol. II. + +The Pinna, or Sea-wing, is contained in a two-valve shell, weighing +sometimes fifteen pounds, and emits a beard of fine long glossy silk- +like fibres, by which it is suspended to the rocks twenty or thirty feet +beneath the surface of the sea. In this situation it is so successfully +attacked by the eight-footed Polypus, that the species perhaps could not +exist but for the exertions of the Cancer Pinnotheris, who lives in the +same shell as a guard and companion. Amoen. Academ. Vol. II. p. 48. Lin. +Syst. Nat. Vol. I. p. 1159, and p. 1040. + +The Pinnotheris, or Pinnophylax, is a small crab naked like Bernard the +Hermit, but is furnished with good eyes, and lives in the same shell +with the Pinna; when they want food the Pinna opens its shell, and sends +its faithful ally to forage; but if the Cancer sees the Polypus, he +returns suddenly to the arms of his blind hostess, who by closing the +shell avoids the fury of her enemy; otherwise, when it has procured a +booty, it brings it to the opening of the shell, where it is admitted, +and they divide the prey. This was observed by Haslequist in his voyage +to Palestine. + +The Byssus of the antients, according to Aristotle, was the beard of the +Pinna above mentioned, but seems to have been used by other writers +indiscriminately for any spun material, which was esteemed finer or more +valuable than wool. Reaumur says the threads of this Byssus are not less +fine or less beautiful than the silk, as it is spun by the silk-worm; +the Pinna on the coasts of Italy and Provence (where it is fished up by +iron-hooks fixed on long poles) is called the silk-worm of the sea. The +stockings and gloves manufactured from it, are of exquisite fineness, +but too warm for common wear, and are thence esteemed useful in +rhumatism and gout. Dict. raisonne art. Pinne-marine. The warmth of the +Byssus, like that of silk, is probably owing to their being bad +conductors of heat, as well as of electricity. When these fibres are +broken by violence, this animal as well as the muscle has the power to +reproduce them like the common spiders, as was observed by M. Adanson. +As raw silk, and raw cobwebs, when swallowed, are liable to produce +great sickness (as I am informed) it is probable the part of muscles, +which sometimes disagrees with the people who eat them, may be this +silky web, by which they attach themselves to stones. The large kind of +Pinna contains some mother-pearl of a reddish tinge, according to M. +d'Argenville. The substance sold under the name of Indian weed, and used +at the bottom of fish-lines, is probably a production of this kind; +which however is scarcely to be distinguished by the eye from the +tendons of a rat's tail, after they have been separated by putrefaction +in water, and well cleaned and rubbed; a production, which I was once +shewn as a great curiosity; it had the uppermost bone of the tail +adhering to it, and was said to have been used as an ornament in a +lady's hair. + + + + + NOTE XXVIII.--STURGEON. + + + _With worm-like hard his toothless lips array, + And teach the unweildy Sturgeon to betray._ + + CANTO III. l. 71. + + +The Sturgeon, _Acipenser, Strurio._ Lin. Syst. Nat. Vol. I. p. 403. is a +fish of great curiosity as well as of great importance; his mouth is +placed under the head, without teeth, like the opening of a purse, which +he has the power to push suddenly out or retract. Before this mouth +under the beak or nose hang four tendrils some inches long, and which so +resemble earth-worms that at first sight they may be mistaken for them. +This clumsy toothless fish is supposed by this contrivance to keep +himself in good condition, the solidity of his flesh evidently shewing +him to be a fish of prey. He is said to hide his large body amongst the +weeds near the sea-coast, or at the mouths of large rivers, only +exposing his cirrhi or tendrils, which small fish or sea-insects +mistaking for real worms approach for plunder, and are sucked into the +jaws of their enemy. He has been supposed by some to root into the soil +at the bottom of the sea or rivers; but the cirrhi, or tendrills +abovementioned, which hang from his snout over his mouth, must +themselves be very inconvenient for this purpose, and as it has no jaws +it evidently lives by suction, and during its residence in the sea a +quantity of sea-insects are found in its stomach. + +The flesh was so valued in the time of the Emperor Severus, that it was +brought to table by servants with coronets on their heads, and preceded +by music, which might give rise to its being in our country presented by +the Lord Mayor to the King. At present it is caught in the Danube, and +the Walga, the Don, and other large rivers for various purposes. The +skin makes the best covering for carriages; isinglass is prepared from +parts of the skin; cavear from the spawn; and the flesh is pickled or +salted, and sent all over Europe. + + + + + NOTE XXIX.--OIL ON WATER. + + + _Who with fine films, suspended o'er the deep, + Of Oil effusive lull the waves to sleep._ + + CANTO III. l. 87. + + +There is reason to believe that when oil is poured upon water, the two +surfaces do not touch each other, but that the oil is suspended over the +water by their mutual repulsion. This seems to be rendered probable by +the following experiment: if one drop of oil be droped on a bason of +water, it will immediately diffuse itself over the whole, for there +being no friction between the two surfaces, there is nothing to prevent +its spreading itself by the gravity of the upper part of it, except its +own tenacity, into a pellicle of the greatest tenuity. But if a second +drop of oil be put upon the former, it does not spread itself, but +remains in the form of a drop, as the other already occupied the whole +surface of the bason, and there is friction in oil passing over oil, +though none in oil passing over water. + +Hence when oil is diffused on the surface of water gentle breezes have +no influence in raising waves upon it; for a small quantity of oil will +cover a very great surface of water, (I suppose a spoonful will diffuse +itself over some acres) and the wind blowing upon this carries it +gradually forwards; and there being no friction between the two surfaces +the water is not affected. On which account oil has no effect in +stilling the agitation of the water after the wind ceases, as was found +by the experiments of Dr. Franklin. + +This circumstance lately brought into notice by Dr. Franklin had been +mentioned by Pliny, and is said to be in use by the divers for pearls, +who in windy weather take down with them a little oil in their mouths, +which they occasionally give out when the inequality of the supernatant +waves prevents them from seeing sufficiently distinctly for their +purpose. + +The wonderful tenuity with which oil can be spread upon water is evinced +by a few drops projected from a bridge, where the eye is properly placed +over it, passing through all the prismatic colours as it diffuses +itself. And also from another curious experiment of Dr. Franklin's: he +cut a piece of cork to about the size of a letter-wafer, leaving a point +standing off like a tangent at one edge of the circle. This piece of +cork was then dipped in oil and thrown into a large pond of water, and +as the oil flowed off at the point, the cork-wafer continued to revolve +in a contrary direction for several minutes. The oil flowing off all +that time at the pointed tangent in coloured streams. In a small pond of +water this experiment does not so well succeed, as the circulation of +the cork stops as soon as the water becomes covered with the pellicle of +oil. See Additional Note, No. XIII. and Note on Fucus, Vol. II. + +The ease with which oil and water slide over each other is agreeably +seen if a phial be about half filled with equal parts of oil and water, +and made to oscillate suspended by a string, the upper surface of the +oil and the lower one of the water will always keep smooth; but the +agitation of the surfaces where the oil and water meet, is curious; for +their specific gravities being not very different, and their friction on +each other nothing, the highest side of the water, as the phial descends +in its oscillation, having acquired a greater momentum than the lowest +side (from its having descended further) would rise the highest on the +ascending side of the oscillation, and thence pushes the then uppermost +part of the water amongst the oil. + + + + + NOTE XXX.--SHIP-WORM. + + + _Meet fell Teredo, as he mines the keel + With beaked head, and break his lips of steel._ + + CANTO III. l. 91. + + +The Teredo, or ship-worm, has two calcareous jaws, hemispherical, flat +before, and angular behind. The shell is taper, winding, penetrating +ships and submarine wood, and was brought from India into Europe, Linnei +System. Nat. p. 1267. The Tarieres, or sea-worms, attack and erode ships +with such fury, and in such numbers, as often greatly to endanger them. +It is said that our vessels have not known this new enemy above fifty +years, that they were brought from the sea about the Antilles to our +parts of the ocean, where they have increased prodigiously. They bore +their passage in the direction of the fibres of the wood, which is their +nourishment, and cannot return or pass obliquely, and thence when they +come to a knot in the wood, or when two of them meet together with their +stony mouths, they perish for want of food. + +In the years 1731 and 1732 the United Provinces were under a dreadful +alarm concerning these insects, which had made great depredation on the +piles which support the banks of Zeland, but it was happily discovered a +few years afterwards that these insects had totally abandoned that +island, (Dict Raisonne, art, Vers Rongeurs,) which might have been +occasioned by their not being able to live in that latitude when the +winter was rather severer than usual. + + + + + NOTE XXXI.--MAELSTROM. + + + _Turn the broad helm, the fluttering canvas urge + From Maelstrom's fierce innavigable surge._ + + CANTO III. l. 93. + + +On the coast of Norway there is an extensive vortex, or eddy, which lies +between the islands of Moskoe and Moskenas, and is called Moskoestrom, +or Maelstrom; it occupies some leagues in circumference, and is said to +be very dangerous and often destructive to vessels navigating these +seas. It is not easy to understand the existence of a constant +descending stream without supposing it must pass through a subterranean +cavity to some other part of the earth or ocean which may lie beneath +its level; as the Mediterranean seems to lie beneath the level of the +Atlantic ocean, which therefore constantly flows into it through the +Straits; and the waters of the Gulph of Mexico lie much above the level +of the sea about the Floridas and further northward, which gives rise to +the Gulph-stream, as described in note on Cassia in Vol. II. + +The Maelstrom is said to be still twice in about twenty-four hours when +the tide is up, and most violent at the opposite times of the day. This +is not difficult to account for, since when so much water is brought +over the subterraneous passage, if such exists, as compleatly to fill it +and stand many feet above it, less disturbance must appear on the +surface. The Maelstrom is described in the Memoires of the Swedish +Academy of Sciences, and Pontoppiden's Hist. of Norway, and in Universal +Museum for 1763, p. 131. + +The reason why eddies of water become hollow in the middle is because +the water immediately over the centre of the well, or cavity, falls +faster, having less friction to oppose its descent, than the water over +the circumference or edges of the well. The circular motion or gyration +of eddies depends on the obliquity of the course of the stream, or to +the friction or opposition to it being greater on one side of the well +than the other; I have observed in water passing through a hole in the +bottom of a trough, which was always kept full, the gyration of the +stream might be turned either way by increasing the opposition of one +side of the eddy with ones finger, or by turning the spout, through +which the water was introduced, a little more obliquely to the hole on +one side or on the other. Lighter bodies are liable to be retained long +in eddies of water, while those rather heavier than water are soon +thrown out beyond the circumference by their acquired momentum becoming +greater than that of the water. Thus if equal portions of oil and water +be put into a phial, and by means of a string be whirled in a circle +round the hand, the water will always keep at the greater distance from +the centre, whence in the eddies formed in rivers during a flood a +person who endeavours to keep above water or to swim is liable to be +detained in them, but on suffering himself to sink or dive he is said +readily to escape. This circulation of water in descending through a +hole in a vessel Dr. Franklin has ingeniously applied to the explanation +of hurricanes or eddies of air. + + + + + NOTE XXXII.--GLACIERS. + + + _While round dark crags imprison'd waters bend + Through rifted ice, in ivory veins descend._ + + CANTO III. l. 113. + + +The common heat of the interior parts of the earth being always 48 +degrees, both in winter and summer, the snow which lies in contact with +it is always in a thawing state; Hence in ice-houses the external parts +of the collection of ice is perpetually thawing and thus preserves the +internal part of it; so that it is necessary to lay up many tons for the +preservation of one ton. Hence in Italy considerable rivers have their +source from beneath the eternal glaciers, or mountains of snow and ice. + +In our country when the air in the course of a frost continues a day or +two at very near 32 degrees, the common heat of the earth thaws the ice +on its surface, while the thermometer remains at the freezing point. +This circumstance is often observable in the rimy mornings of spring; +the thermometer shall continue at the freezing point, yet all the rime +will vanish, except that which happens to lie on a bridge, a board, or +on a cake of cow-dung, which being thus as it were insulated or cut off +from so free a communication with the common heat of the earth by means +of the air under the bridge, or wood, or dung, which are bad conductors +of heat, continues some time longer unthawed. Hence when the ground is +covered thick with snow, though the frost continues, and the sun does +not shine, yet the snow is observed to decrease very sensibly. For the +common heat of the earth melts the under surface of it, and the upper +one evaporates by its solution in the air. The great evaporation of ice +was observed by Mr. Boyle, which experiment I repeated some time ago. +Having suspended a piece of ice by a wire and weighed it with care +without touching it with my hand, I hung it out the whole of a clear +frosty night, and found in the morning it had lost nearly a fifth of its +weight. Mr. N. Wallerius has since observed that ice at the time of its +congelation evaporates faster than water in its fluid form; which may be +accounted for from the heat given out at the instant of freezing; +(Saussure's Essais sur Hygromet. p. 249.) but this effect is only +momentary. + +Thus the vegetables that are covered with snow are seldom injured; +since, as they lie between the thawing snow, which has 32 degrees of +heat, and the covered earth which has 48, they are preserved in a degree +of heat between these; viz. in 40 degrees of heat. Whence the moss on +which the rein-deer feed in the northern latitudes vegetates beneath the +snow; (See note on Muschus, Vol. II.) and hence many Lapland and Alpine +plants perished through cold in the botanic garden at Upsal, for in +their native situations, though the cold is much more intense, yet at +its very commencement they are covered deep with snow, which remains +till late in the spring. For this fact see Amaenit. Academ. Vol. I. No. +48. In our climate such plants do well covered with dried fern, under +which they will grow, and even flower, till the severe vernal frosts +cease. For the increase of glaciers see Note on Canto I. l. 529. + + + + + NOTE XXXIII.--WINDS. + + + _While southern gales o'er western oceans roll, + And Eurus steals his ice-winds from the pole._ + + CANTO IV. l. 15. + + +The theory of the winds is yet very imperfect, in part perhaps owing to +the want of observations sufficiently numerous of the exact times and +places where they begin and cease to blow, but chiefly to our yet +imperfect knowledge of the means by which great regions of air are +either suddenly produced or suddenly destroyed. + +The air is perpetually subject to increase or diminution from its +combination with other bodies, or its evolution from them. The vital +part of the air, called oxygene, is continually produced in this climate +from the perspiration of vegetables in the sunshine, and probably from +the action of light on clouds or on water in the tropical climates, +where the sun has greater power, and may exert some yet unknown laws of +luminous combination. Another part of the atmosphere, which is called +azote, is perpetually set at liberty from animal and vegetable bodies by +putrefaction or combustion, from many springs of water, from volatile +alcali, and probably from fixed alcali, of which there is an exhaustless +source in the water of the ocean. Both these component parts of the air +are perpetually again diminished by their contact with the soil, which +covers the surface of the earth, producing nitre. The oxygene is +diminished in the production of all acids, of which the carbonic and +muriatic exist in great abundance. The azote is diminished in the growth +of animal bodies, of which it constitutes an important part, and in its +combinations with many other natural productions. + +They are both probably diminished in immense quantities by uniting with +the inflammable air, which arises from the mud of rivers and lakes at +some seasons, when the atmosphere is light: the oxygene of the air +producing water, and the azote producing volatile alcali by their +combinations with this inflammable air. At other seasons of the year +these principles may again change their combinations, and the +atmospheric air be reproduced. + +Mr. Lavoisier found that one pound of charcoal in burning consumed two +pounds nine ounces of vital air, or oxygene. The consumption of vital +air in the process of making red lead may readily be reduced to +calculation; a small barrel contains about twelve hundred weight of this +commodity, 1200 pounds of lead by calcination absorb about 144 pounds of +vital air; now as a cubic foot of water weighs 1000 averdupois ounces, +and as vital air is above 800 times lighter than water, it follows that +every barrel of red lead contains nearly 2000 cubic feet of vital air. +If this can be performed in miniature in a small oven, what may not be +done in the immense elaboratories of nature! + +These great elaboratories of nature include almost all her fossil as +well as her animal and vegetable productions. Dr. Priestley obtained air +of greater or less purity, both vital and azotic, from almost all the +fossil substances he subjected to experiment. Four ounce-weight of lava +from Iceland heated in an earthen retort yielded twenty ounce-measures +of air. + + 4 ounce-weight of lava gave 20 ounce measures of air. + 7 ............... basaltes .... 104 ...................... + 2 ............... toadstone .... 40 ...................... + 11/2 ............... granite .... 20 ...................... + 1 ............... elvain .... 30 ...................... + 7 ............... gypsum .... 230 ...................... + 4 ............... blue slate .... 230 ...................... + 4 ............... clay .... 20 ...................... + 4 ............... limestone-spar .... 830 ...................... + 5 ............... limestone .... 1160 ...................... + 3 ............... chalk .... 630 ...................... + 31/2 ............... white iron-ore .... 560 ...................... + 4 ............... dark iron-ore .... 410 ...................... + 1/2 ............... molybdena .... 25 ...................... + 1/2 ............... stream tin .... 20 ...................... + 2 ............... steatites .... 40 ...................... + 2 ............... barytes .... 26 ...................... + 2 ............... black wad .... 80 ...................... + 4 ............... sand stone .... 75 ...................... + 3 ............... coal .... 700 ...................... + +In this account the fixed air was previously extracted from the +limestones by acids, and the heat applied was much less than was +necessary to extract all the air from the bodies employed. Add to this +the known quantities of air which are combined with the calciform ores, +as the ochres of iron, manganese, calamy, grey ore of lead, and some +idea may be formed of the great production of air in volcanic eruptions, +as mentioned in note on Chunda, Vol. II. and of the perpetual +absorptions and evolutions of whole oceans of air from every part of the +earth. + +But there would seem to be an officina aeris, a shop where air is both +manufactured and destroyed in the greatest abundance within the polar +circles, as will hereafter be spoken of. Can this be effected by some +yet unknown law of the congelation of aqueous or saline fluids, which +may set at liberty their combined heat, and convert a part both of the +acid and alcali of sea-water into their component airs? Or on the +contrary can the electricity of the northern lights convert inflammable +air and oxygene into water, whilst the great degree of cold at the poles +unites the azote with some other base? Another officina aeris, or +manufacture of air, would seem to exist within the tropics or at the +line, though in a much less quantity than at the poles, owing perhaps to +the action of the sun's light on the moisture suspended in the air, as +will also be spoken of hereafter; but in all other parts of the earth +these absorptions and evolutions of air in a greater or less degree are +perpetually going on in inconceivable abundance; increased probably, and +diminished at different seasons of the year by the approach or +retrocession of the sun's light; future discoveries must elucidate this +part of the subject. To this should be added that as heat and +electricity, and perhaps magnetism, are known to displace air, that it +is not impossible but that the increased or diminished quantities of +these fluids diffused in the atmosphere may increase its weight a well +as its bulk; since their specific attractions or affinities to matter +are very strong, they probably also possess general gravitation to the +earth; a subject which wants further investigation. See Note XXVI. + + + SOUTH-WEST WINDS. + +The velocity of the surface of the earth in moving round its axis +diminishes from the equator to the poles. Whence if a region of air in +this country should be suddenly removed a few degrees towards the north +it must constitute a western wind, because from the velocity it had +previously acquired in this climate by its friction with the earth it +would for a time move quicker than the surface of the country it was +removed to; the contrary must ensue when a region of air is transported +from this country a few degrees southward, because the velocity it had +acquired in this climate would be less than that of the earth's surface +where it was removed to, whence it would appear to constitute a wind +from the east, while in reality the eminent parts of the earth would be +carried against the too slow air. But if this transportation of air from +south to north be performed gradually, the motion of the wind will blow +in the diagonal between south and west. And on the contrary if a region +of air be gradually removed from north to south it would also blow +diagonally between the north and east, from whence we may safely +conclude that all our winds in this country which blow from the north or +east, or any point between them, consist of regions of air brought from +the north; and that all our winds blowing from the south or west, or +from any point between them, are regions of air brought from the south. + +It frequently happens during the vernal months that after a north-east +wind has passed over us for several weeks, during which time the +barometer has flood at above 301/2 inches, it becomes suddenly succeeded +by a south-west wind, which also continues several weeks, and the +barometer sinks to nearly 281/2 inches. Now as two inches of the mercury +in the barometer balance one-fifteenth part of the whole atmosphere, an +important question here presents itself, _what is become of all this +air_. + +1. This great quantity of air can not be carried in a superior current +towards the line, while the inferior current slows towards the poles, +because then it would equally affect the barometer, which should not +therefore subside from 301/2 inches to 281/2 for six weeks together. + +2. It cannot be owing to the air having lost all the moisture which was +previously dissolved in it, because these warm south-west winds are +replete with moisture, and the cold north-east winds, which weigh up the +mercury in the barometer to 31 inches, consist of dry air. + +3. It can not be carried over the polar regions and be accumulated on +the meridian, opposite to us in its passage towards the line, as such an +accumulation would equal one-fifteenth of the whole atmosphere, and can +not be supposed to remain in that situation for six weeks together. + +4. It can not depend on the existence of tides in the atmosphere, since +it must then correspond to lunar periods. Nor to accumulations of air +from the specific levity of the upper regions of the atmosphere, since +its degree of fluidity must correspond with its tenuity, and +consequently such great mountains of air can not be supposed to exist +for so many weeks together as the south west winds sometimes continue. + +5. It remains therefore that there must be at this time a great and +sudden absorption of air in the polar circle by some unknown operation +of nature, and that the south wind runs in to supply the deficiency. Now +as this south wind consists of air brought from a part of the earth's +surface which moves faster than it does in this climate it must have at +the same time a direction from the west by retaining part of the +velocity it had previously acquired. These south-west winds coming from +a warmer country, and becoming colder by their contact with the earth of +this climate, and by their expansion, (so great a part of the +superincumbent atmosphere having vanished,) precipitate their moisture; +and as they continue for several weeks to be absorbed in the polar +circle would seem to receive a perpetual supply from the tropical +regions, especially over the line, as will hereafter be spoken of. + +It may sometimes happen that a north-east wind having passed over us may +be bent down and driven back before it has acquired any heat from the +climate, and may thus for a few hours or a day have a south-west +direction, and from its descending from a higher region of the +atmosphere may possess a greater degree of cold than an inferior north +east current of air. + +The extreme cold of Jan. 13, 1709, at Paris came on with a gentle south +wind, and was diminished when the wind changed to the north, which is +accounted for by Mr. Homberg from a reflux of air which had been flowing +for some time from the north. Chemical Essays by R. Watson, Vol. V. p. +182. + +It may happen that a north-east current may for a day or two pass over +us and produce incessant rain by mixing with the inferior south-west +current; but this as well as the former is of short duration, as its +friction will soon carry the inferior current along with it, and dry or +frosty weather will then succeed. + + + NORTH-EAST WINDS. + +The north-east winds of this country consist of regions of air from the +north, travelling sometimes at the rate of about a mile in two minutes +during the vernal months for several weeks together from the polar +regions toward the south, the mercury in the barometer standing above +30. These winds consist of air greatly cooled by the evaporation of the +ice and snow over which it passes, and as they become warmer by their +contact with the earth of this climate are capable of dissolving more +moisture as they pass along, and are thence attended with frosts in +winter and with dry hot weather in summer. + +1. This great quantity of air can not be supplied by superior currents +passing in a contrary direction from south to north, because such +currents must as they arise into the atmosphere a mile or two high +become exposed to so great cold as to occasion them to deposit their +moisture, which would fall through the inferior current upon the earth +in some part of their passage. + +2. The whole atmosphere must have increased in quantity, because it +appears by the barometer that there exists one-fifteenth part more air +over us for many weeks together, which could not be thus accumulated by +difference of temperature in respect to heat, or by any aerostatic laws +at present known, or by any lunar influence. + +From whence it would appear that immense masses of air were set at +liberty from their combinations with solid bodies, along with a +sufficient quantity of combined heat, within the polar circle, or in +some region to the north of us; and that they thus perpetually increase +the quantity of the atmosphere; and that this is again at certain times +re-absorbed, or enters into new combinations at the line or tropical +regions. By which wonderful contrivance the atmosphere is perpetually +renewed and rendered fit for the support of animal and vegetable life. + + + SOUTH-EAST WINDS. + +The south-east winds of this country consist of air from the north which +had passed by us, or over us, and before it had obtained the velocity of +the earth's surface in this climate had been driven back, owing to a +deficiency of air now commencing at the polar regions. Hence these are +generally dry or freezing winds, and if they succeed north-east winds +should prognosticate a change of wind from north-east to south-west; the +barometer is generally about 30. They are sometimes attended with cloudy +weather, or rain, owing to their having acquired an increased degree of +warmth and moisture before they became retrograde; or to their being +mixed with air from the south. + +2. Sometimes these south-east winds consist of a vertical eddy of north- +east air, without any mixture of south-west air; in that case the +barometer continues above 30, and the weather is dry or frosty for four +or five days together. + +It should here be observed, that air being an elastic fluid must be more +liable to eddies than water, and that these eddies must extend into +cylinders or vortexes of greater diameter, and that if a vertical eddy +of north-east air be of small diameter or has passed but a little way to +the south of us before its return, it will not have gained the velocity +of the earth's surface to the south of us, and will in consequence +become a south-east wind.--But if the vertical eddy be of large +diameter, or has passed much to the south of us, it will have acquired +velocity from its friction with the earth's surface to the south of us, +and will in consequence on its return become a south-west wind, +producing great cold. + + + NORTH-WEST WINDS. + +There seem to be three sources of the north-west winds of this +hemisphere of the earth. 1. When a portion of southern air, which was +passing over us, is driven back by accumulation of new air in the polar +regions. In this case I suppose they are generally moist or rainy winds, +with the barometer under 30, and if the wind had previously been in the +south-west, it would seem to prognosticate a change to the north-east. + +2. If a current of north wind is passing over us but a few miles high, +without any easterly direction; and is bent down upon us, it must +immediately possess a westerly direction, because it will now move +faster than the surface of the earth where it arrives; and thus becomes +changed from a north-east to a north-west wind. This descent of a north- +east current of air producing a north-west wind may continue some days +with clear or freezing weather, as it may be simply owing to a vertical +eddy of north-east air, as will be spoken of below. It may otherwise be +forced down by a current of south-west wind passing over it, and in this +case it will be attended with rain for a few days by the mixture of the +two airs of different degrees of heat; and will prognosticate a change +of wind from north-east to south-west if the wind was previously in the +north-east quarter. + +3. On the eastern coast of North America the north-west winds bring +frost, as the north-east winds do in this country, as appears from +variety of testimony. This seems to happen from a vertical spiral eddy +made in the atmosphere between the shore and the ridge of mountains +which form the spine or back-bone of that continent. If a current of +water runs along the hypothenuse of a triangle an eddy will be made in +the included angle, which will turn round like a water-wheel as the +stream passes in contact with one edge of it. The same must happen when +a sheet of air flowing along from the north-east rises from the shore in +a straight line to the summit of the Apalachian mountains, a part of the +stream of north-east air will flow over the mountains, another part will +revert and circulate spirally between the summit of the country and the +eastern shore, continuing to move toward the south; and thus be changed +from a north-east to a north-west wind. + +This vertical spiral eddy having been in contact with the cold summits +of these mountains, and descending from higher parts of the atmosphere +will lose part of its heat, and thus constitute one cause of the greater +coldness of the eastern sides of North America than of the European +shores opposite to them, which is said to be equal to twelve degrees of +north latitude, which is a wonderful fact, not otherwise easy to be +explained, since the heat of the springs at Philadelphia is said to be +50, which is greater than the medium heat of the earth in this country. + +The existence of vertical eddies, or great cylinders of air rolling on +the surface of the earth, is agreeable to the observations of the +constructors of windmills; who on this idea place the area of the sails +leaning backwards, inclined to the horizon; and believe that then they +have greater power than when they are placed quite perpendicularly. The +same kind of rolling cylinders of water obtain in rivers owing to the +friction of the water against the earth at their bottoms; as is known by +bodies having been observed to float upon their surfaces quicker than +when immersed to a certain depth. These vertical eddies of air probably +exist all over the earth's surface, but particularly at the bottom or +sides of mountains; and more so probably in the course of the south-west +than of the north-east winds; because the former fall from an eminence, +as it were, on a part of the earth where there is a deficiency of the +quantity of air; as is shewn by the sinking of the barometer: whereas +the latter are pushed or squeezed forward by an addition to the +atmosphere behind them, as appears by the rising of the barometer. + + + TRADE-WINDS. + +A column of heated air becomes lighter than before, and will therefore +ascend, by the pressure of the cold air which surrounds it, like a cork +in water, or like heated smoke in a chimney. + +Now as the sun passes twice over the equator for once over either +tropic, the equator has not time to become cool; and on this account it +is in general hotter at the line than at the tropics; and therefore the +air over the line, except in some few instances hereafter to be +mentioned, continues to ascend at all seasons of the year, pressed +upwards by regions of air brought from the tropics. + +This air thus brought from the tropics to the equator, would constitute +a north wind on one side of the equator, and a south wind on the other; +but as the surface of the earth at the equator moves quicker than the +surface of the earth at the tropics, it is evident that a region of air +brought from either tropic to the equator, and which had previously only +acquired the velocity of the earth's surface at the tropics, will now +move too slow for the earth's surface at the equator, and will thence +appear to move in a direction contrary to the motion of the earth. Hence +the trade-winds, though they consist of regions of air brought from the +north on one side of the line, and from the south on the other, will +appear to have the diagonal direction of north-east and south-west +winds. + +Now it is commonly believed that there are superior currents of air +passing over these north-east and south-west currents in a contrary +direction, and which descending near the tropics produce vertical +whirlpools of air. An important question here again presents itself, +_What becomes of the moisture which this heated air ought to deposit, as +it cools in the upper regions of the atmosphere in its journey to the +tropics?_ It has been shewn by Dr. Priestley and Mr. Ingenhouz that the +green matter at the bottom of cisterns, and the fresh leaves of plants +immersed in water, give out considerable quantities of vital air in the +sun-shine; that is, the perspirable matter of plants (which is water +much divided in its egress from their minute pores) becomes decomposed +by the sun's light, and converted into two kinds of air, the vital and +inflammable airs. The moisture contained or dissolved in the ascending +heated air at the line must exist in great tenuity; and by being exposed +to the great light of the sun in that climate, the water may be +decomposed, and the new airs spread on the atmosphere from the line to +the poles. + +1. From there being no constant deposition of rains in the usual course +of the trade-winds, it would appear that the water rising at the line is +decomposed in its ascent. + +2. From the observations of M. Bougner on the mountain Pinchinca, one of +the Cordelieres immediately under the line, there appears to be no +condensible vapour above three or four miles high. Now though the +atmosphere at that height may be cold to a very considerable degree; yet +its total deprivation of condensible vapour would seem to shew, that its +water was decomposed; as there are no experiments to evince that any +degree of cold hitherto known has been able to deprive air of its +moisture; and great abundance of snow is deposited from the air that +flows to the polar regions, though it is exposed to no greater degrees +of cold in its journey thither than probably exists at four miles height +in the atmosphere at the line. + +3. The hygrometer of Mr. Sauffure also pointed to dryness as he ascended +into rarer air; the single hair of which it was constructed, contracting +from deficiency of moisture. Essais sur l'Hygromet. p. 143. + +From these observations it appears either that rare and cold air +requires more moisture to saturate it than dense air; or that the +moisture becomes decomposed and converted into air, as it ascends into +these cold and rare regions of the atmosphere. + +4. There seems some analogy between the circumstance of air being +produced or generated in the cold parts of the atmosphere both at the +line and at the poles. + + + MONSOONS AND TORNADOES. + +1. In the Arabian and Indian seas are winds, which blow six months one +way, and six months the other, and are called Monsoons; by the +accidental dispositions of land and sea it happens, that in some places +the air near the tropic is supposed to become warmer when the sun is +vertical over it, than at the line. The air in these places +consequently ascends pressed upon one side by the north-east regions of +air, and on the other side by the south-west regions of air. For as the +air brought from the south has previously obtained the velocity of the +earth's surface at the line, it moves faster than the earth's surface +near the tropic where it now arrives, and becomes a south-west wind, +while the air from the north becomes a north-east wind as before +explained. These two winds do not so quietly join and ascend as the +north-east and south-east winds, which meet at the line with equal +warmth and velocity and form the trade-winds; but as they meet in +contrary directions before they ascend, and cannot be supposed +accurately to balance each other, a rotatory motion will be produced as +they ascend like water falling through a hole, and an horizontal or +spiral eddy is the consequence; these eddies are more or less rapid, and +are called Tornadoes in their most violent state, raising water from the +ocean in the west or sand from the deserts of the east, in less violent +degrees they only mix together the two currents of north-east and south- +west air, and produce by this means incessant rains, as the air of the +north-east acquires some of the heat from the south-west wind, as +explained in Note XXV. This circumstance of the eddies produced by the +monsoon-winds was seen by Mr. Bruce in Abyssinia; he relates that for +many successive mornings at the commencement of the rainy monsoon, he +observed a cloud of apparently small dimensions whirling round with +great rapidity, and in few minutes the heavens became covered with dark +clouds with consequent great rains. See Note on Canto III. l. 129. + +2. But it is not only at the place where the air ascends at the northern +extremity of the rainy monsoon, and where it forms tornadoes, as +observed above by Mr. Bruce, but over a great tract of country several +degrees in length in certain parts as in the Arabian sea, a perpetual +rain for several months descends, similar to what happens for weeks +together in our own climate in a less degree during the south-west +winds. Another important question presents itself here, _if the climate +to which this south-west wind arrives, it not colder than that it comes +from, why should it deposit its moisture during its whole journey? if it +be a colder climate, why does it come thither?_ The tornadoes of air +above described can extend but a little way, and it is not easy to +conceive that a superior cold current of air can mix with an inferior +one, and thus produce showers over ten degrees of country, since at +about three miles high there is perpetual frost; and what can induce +these narrow and shallow currents to flow over each other so many +hundred miles? + +Though the earth at the northren extremity of this monsoon may be more +heated by certain circumstances of situation than at the line, yet it +seems probable that the intermediate country between that and the line, +may continue colder than the line (as in other parts of the earth) and +hence that the air coming from the line to supply this ascent or +destruction of air at the northern extremity of the monsoon will be +cooled all the way in its approach, and in consequence deposit its +water. It seems probable that at the northern extremity of this monsoon, +where the tornadoes or hurricanes exist, that the air not only ascends +but is in part converted into water, or otherwise diminished in +quantity, as no account is given of the existence of any superior +currents of it. + +As the south-west winds are always attended with a light atmosphere, an +incipient vacancy, or a great diminution of air must have taken place to +the northward of them in all parts of the earth wherever they exist, and +a deposition of their moisture succeeds their being cooled by the +climate they arrive at, and not by a contrary current of cold air over +them, since in that case the barometer would not sink. They may thus in +our own country be termed monsoons without very regular periods. + +3. Another cause of TORNADOES independent of the monsoons is ingeniously +explained by Dr. Franklin, when in the tropical countries a stratum of +inferior air becomes so heated by its contact with the warm earth, that +its expansion is increased more than is equivalent to the pressure of +the stratum of air over it; or when the superior stratum becomes more +condensed by cold than the inferior one by pressure, the upper region +will descend and the lower one ascend. In this situation if one part of +the atmosphere be hotter from some fortuitous circumstances, or, has +less pressure over it, the lower stratum will begin to ascend at this +part, and resemble water falling through a hole as mentioned above. If +the lower region of air was going forwards with considerable velocity, +it will gain an eddy by riling up this hole in the incumbent heavy air, +so that the whirlpool or tornado has not only its progressive velocity, +but its circular one also, which thus lifts up or overturns every thing +within its spiral whirl. By the weaker whirlwinds in this country the +trees are sometimes thrown down in a line of only twenty or forty yards +in breadth, making a kind of avenue through a country. In the West +Indies the sea rises like a cone in the whirl, and is met by black +clouds produced by the cold upper air and the warm lower air being +rapidly mixed; whence are produced the great and sudden rains called +water-spouts; while the upper and lower airs exchange their plus or +minus electricity in perpetual lightenings. + + + LAND AND SEA-BREEZES. + +The sea being a transparent mass is less heated at its surface by the +sun's rays than the land, and its continual change of surface +contributes to preserve a greater uniformity in the heat of the air +which hangs over it. Hence the surface of the tropical islands is more +heated during the day than the sea that surrounds them, and cools more +in the night by its greater elevation: whence in the afternoon when the +lands of the tropical islands have been much heated by the sun, the air +over them ascends pressed upwards by the cooler air of the incircling +ocean, in the morning again the land becoming cooled more than the sea, +the air over it descends by its increased gravity, and blows over the +ocean near its shores. + + + CONCLUSION. + +1. There are various irregular winds besides those above described, +which consist of horizontal or vertical eddies of air owing to the +inequality of the earth's surface, or the juxtaposition of the sea. +Other irregular winds have their origin from increased evaporation of +water, or its sudden devaporation and descent in showers; others from +the partial expansion and condensation of air by heat and cold; by the +accumulation or defect of electric fluid, or to the air's new production +or absorption occasioned by local causes not yet discovered. See Notes +VII. and XXV. + +2. There seem to exist only two original winds: one consisting of air +brought from the north, and the other of air brought from the south. The +former of these winds has also generally an apparent direction from the +east, and the latter from the west, arising from the different +velocities of the earth's surface. All the other winds above described +are deflections or retrogressions of some parts of these currents of air +from the north or south. + +3. One fifteenth part of the atmosphere is occasionally destroyed, and +occasionally reproduced by unknown causes. These causes are brought into +immediate activity over a great part of the surface of the earth at +nearly the same time, but always act more powerful to the northward than +to the southward of any given place; and would hence seem to have their +principal effect in the polar circles, existing nevertheless though with +less power toward the tropics or at the line. + +For when the north-east wind blows the barometer rises, sometimes from +281/2 inches to 301/2, which shews a great new generation of air in the +north; and when the south-west wind blows the barometer sinks as much, +which shews a great destruction of air in the north. But as the north- +east winds sometimes continue for five or six weeks, the newly-generated +air must be destroyed at those times in the warmer climates to the south +of us, or circulate in superior currents, which has been shewn to be +improbable from its not depositing its water. And as the south-west +winds sometimes continue for some weeks, there must be a generation of +air to the south at those times, or superior currents, which last has +been shewn to be improbable. + +4. The north-east winds being generated about the poles are pushed +forwards towards the tropics or line, by the pressure from behind, and +hence they become warmer, as explained in Note VII. as well as by their +coming into contact with a warmer part of the earth which contributes to +make these winds greedily absorb moisture in their passage. On the +contrary, the south-west winds, as the atmosphere is suddenly diminished +in the polar regions, are drawn as it were into an incipient vacancy, +and become therefore expanded in their passage, and thus generate cold, +as explained in Note VII. and are thus induced to part with their +moisture, as well as by their contact with a colder part of the earth's +surface. Add to this, that the difference in the sound of the north-east +and south-west winds may depend on the former being pushed forwards by a +pressure behind, and the latter falling as it were into a partial or +incipient vacancy before; whence the former becomes more condensed, and +the latter more rarefied as it passes. There is a whistle, termed a +lark-call, which consists of a hollow cylinder of tin-plate, closed at +each end, about half an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch high, +with opposite holes about the size of a goose-quill through the centre +of each end; if this lark-whistle be held between the lips the sound of +it is manifestly different when the breath is forceably blown through it +from within outwards, and when it is sucked from without inwards. +Perhaps this might be worthy the attention of organ-builders. + +5. A stop is put to this new generation of air, when about a fifteenth +of the whole is produced, by its increasing pressure; and a similar +boundary is fixed to its absorption or destruction by the decrease of +atmospheric pressure. As water requires more heat to convert it into +vapour under a heavy atmosphere than under a light one, so in letting +off the water from muddy fish-ponds great quantities of air-bubbles are +seen to ascend from the bottom, which were previously confined there by +the pressure of the water. Similar bubbles of inflammable air are seen +to arise from lakes in many seasons of the year, when the atmosphere +suddenly becomes light. + +6. The increased absorptions and evolutions of air must, like its simple +expansions, depend much on the presence or absence of heat and light, +and will hence, in respect to the times and places of its production and +destruction, be governed by the approach or retrocession of the sun, and +on the temperature, in regard to heat, of various latitudes, and parts +of the same latitude, so well explained by Mr. Kirwan. + +7. Though the immediate cause of the destruction or reproduction of +great masses of air at certain times, when the wind changes from north +to south, or from south to north can not yet be ascertained; yet as +there appears greater difficulty in accounting for this change of wind +for any other known causes, we may still suspect that there exists in +the arctic and antarctic circles a BEAR or DRAGON yet unknown to +philosophers, which at times suddenly drinks up, and as suddenly at +other times vomits out one-fifteenth part of the atmosphere: and hope +that this or some future age will learn how to govern and domesticate a +monster which might be rendered of such important service to mankind. + + + INSTRUMENTS. + +If along with the usual registers of the weather observations were made +on the winds in many parts of the earth with the three following +instruments, which might be constructed at no great expence, some useful +information might be acquired. + +1. To mark the hour when the wind changes from north-east to south-west, +and the contrary. This might be managed by making a communication from +the vane of a weathercock to a clock; in such a manner, that if the vane +mould revolve quite round, a tooth on its revolving axis should stop the +clock, or put back a small bolt on the edge of a wheel revolving once in +twenty-four hours. + +2. To discover whether in a year more air passed from north to south, or +the contrary. This might be effected by placing a windmill-sail of +copper about nine inches diameter in a hollow cylinder about six inches +long, open at both ends, and fixed on an eminent situation exactly north +and south. Thence only a part of the north-east and south-west currents +would affect the sail so as to turn it; and if its revolutions were +counted by an adapted machinery, as the sail would turn one way with the +north currents of air, and the contrary one with the south currents, the +advance of the counting finger either way would shew which wind had +prevailed most at the end of the year. + +3. To discover the rolling cylinders of air, the vane of a weathercock +might be so suspended as to dip or rise vertically, as well as to have +its horizontal rotation. + + + RECAPITULATION. + +NORTH-EAST WINDS consist of air flowing from the north, where it seems +to be occasionally produced; has an apparent direction from the east +owing to its not having acquired in its journey the increasing velocity +of the earth's surface; these winds are analogous to the trade-winds +between the tropics, and frequently continue in the vernal months for +four and six weeks together, with a high barometer, and fair or frosty +weather. 2. They sometimes consist of south-west air, which had passed +by us or over us, driven back by a new accumulation of air in the north, +These continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain. See Note +XXV. + +SOUTH-WEST WIND consists of air flowing from the south, and seems +occasionally absorbed at its arrival to the more northern latitudes. It +has a real direction from the west owing to its not having lost in its +journey the greater velocity it had acquired from the earth's surface +from whence it came. These winds are analogous to the monsoons between +the tropics, and frequently continue for four or six weeks together, +with a low barometer and rainy weather. 2. They sometimes consist of +north-east air, which had passed by us or over us, which becomes +retrograde by a commencing deficiency of air in the north. These winds +continue but a day or two, attended with severer frost with a sinking +barometer; their cold being increased by their expansion, as they +return, into an incipient vacancy. + +NORTH-WEST WINDS consist, first, of south-west winds, which have passed +over us, bent down and driven back towards the south by newly generated +northern air. They continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain +or clouds. 2. They consist of north-east winds bent down from the higher +parts of the atmosphere, and having there acquired a greater velocity +than, the earth's surface; are frosty or fair. 3. They consist of north- +east winds formed into a vertical spiral eddy, as on the eastern coasts +of North America, and bring severe frost. + +SOUTH-EAST WINDS consist, first, of north-east winds become retrograde, +continue for a day or two, frosty or fair, sinking barometer. 2. They +consist of north-east winds formed into a vertical eddy not a spiral +one, frost or fair. + +NORTH WINDS consist, first, of air flowing slowly from the north, so +that they acquire the velocity of the earth's surface as they approach, +are fair or frosty, seldom occur. 2. They consist of retrograde south +winds; these continue but a day or two, are preceded by south-west +winds; and are generally succeeded by north-east winds, cloudy or rainy, +barometer rising. + +SOUTH WINDS consist, first, of air flowing slowly from the south, +loosing their previous western velocity by the friction of the earth's +surface as they approach, moist, seldom occur, 2. They consist of +retrograde north winds; these continue but a day or two, are preceded by +north-east winds, and generally succeeded by south-west winds, colder, +barometer sinking. + +EAST WINDS consist of air brought hastily from the north, and not +impelled farther southward, owing to a sudden beginning absorption of +air in the northern regions, very cold, barometer high, generally +succeeded by south-west wind. + +WEST WINDS consist of air brought hastily from the south, and checked +from proceeding further to the north by a beginning production of air in +the northern regions, warm and moist, generally succeeded by north-east +wind. 2. They consist of air bent down from the higher regions of the +atmosphere, if this air be from the south, and brought hastily it +becomes a wind of great velocity, moving perhaps 60 miles an hour, is +warm and rainy; if it consists of northern air bent down it is of less +velocity and colder. + + + _Application of the preceding Theory to Some Extracts + from a Journal of the Weather._ + +_Dec. 1, 1790._ The barometer sunk suddenly, and the wind, which had +been some days north-east with frost, changed to south-east with an +incessant though moderate fall of snow. A part of the northern air, +which had passed by us I suppose, now became retrograde before it had +acquired the velocity of the earth's surface to the south of us, and +being attended by some of the southern air in its journey, the moisture +of the latter became condensed and frozen by its mixture mith the +former. + +_Dec. 2, 3._ The wind changed to north-west and thawed the snow. A part +of the southern air, which had passed by us or over us, with the +retrograde northern air above described, was now in its turn driven +back, before it had lost the velocity of the surface of the earth to the +south of us, and consequently became a north-west wind; and not having +lost the warmth it brought from the south produced a thaw. + +_Dec. 4, 5._ Wind changed to north-east with frost and a rising +barometer. The air from the north continuing to blow, after it had +driven back the southern air as above described, became a north-east +wind, having less velocity than the surface of the earth in this +climate, and produced frost from its coldness. + +_Dec. 6, 7._ Wind now changed to the south-west with incessant rain and +a sinking barometer. From unknown causes I suppose the quantity of air +to be diminished in the polar regions, and the southern air cooled by +the earth's surface, which was previously frozen, deposits its moisture +for a day or two; afterwards the wind continued south-west without rain, +as the surface of the earth became warmer. + +_March 18, 1785._ There has been a long frost; a few days ago the +barometer sunk to 291/2, and the frost became more severe. Because the air +being expanded by a part of the pressure being taken off became colder. +This day the mercury rose to 30, and the frost ceased, the wind +continuing as before between north and east. _March 19._ Mercury above +30, weather still milder, no frost, wind north-east. _March 20._ The +same, for the mercury rising shews that the air becomes more compressed +by the weight above, and in consequence gives out warmth. + +_April 4, 5._ Frost, wind north-east, the wind changed in the middle of +the day to the north-west without rain, and has done so for three or +four days, becoming again north-east at night. For the sun now giving +greater degrees of heat, the air ascends as the sun passes the zenith, +and is supplied below by the air on the western side as well as on the +eastern side of the zenith during the hot part of the day; whence for a +few hours, on the approach of the hot part of the day, the air acquires +a westerly direction in this longitude. If the north-west wind had been +caused by a retrograde motion of some southern air, which had passed +over us, it would have been attended with rain or clouds. + +_April 10._ It rained all day yesterday, the wind north-west, this +morning there was a sharp frost. The evaporation of the moisture, (which +fell yesterday) occasioned by the continuance of the wind, produced so +much cold as to freeze the dew. + +_May 12._ Frequent showers with a current of colder wind preceding every +shower. The sinking of the rain or cloud pressed away the air from +beneath it in its descent, which having been for a time shaded from the +sun by the floating cloud, became cooled in some degree. + +_June 20._ The barometer sunk, the wind became south-west, and the whole +heaven was instantly covered with clouds. A part of the incumbent +atmosphere having vanished, as appeared by the sinking of the barometer, +the remainder became expanded by its elasticity, and thence attracted +some of the matter of heat from the vapour intermixed with it, and thus +in a few minutes a total devaporation took place, as in exhausting the +receiver of an air-pump. See note XXV. At the place where the air is +destroyed, currents both from the north and south flow in to supply the +deficiency, (for it has been shewn that there are no other proper winds +but these two) and the mixture of these winds produces so sudden +condensation of the moisture, both by the coldness of the northern air +and the expansion of both of them, that lightning is given out, and an +incipient tornado takes place; whence thunder is said frequently to +approach against the wind. + +_August 28, 1732._ Barometer was at 31, and _Dec. 30_, in the same year, +it was at 28 2-tenths. Medical Essays, Edinburgh, Vol. II. p. 7. It +appears from these journals that the mercury at Edinburgh varies +sometimes nearly three inches, or one tenth of the whole atmosphere. +From the journals kept by the Royal Society at London it appears seldom +to vary more than two inches, or one-fifteenth of the whole atmosphere. +The quantity of the variation is said still to decrease nearer the line, +and to increase in the more northern latitudes; which much confirms the +idea that there exists at certain times a great destruction or +production of air within the polar circle. + +_July 2, 1732._ The westerly winds in the journal in the Medical Essays, +Vol. II. above referred to, are frequently marked with the number three +to shew their greater velocity, whereas the easterly winds seldom +approach to the number two. The greater velocity of the westerly winds +than the easterly ones is well known I believe in every climate of the +world; which may be thus explained from the theory above delivered. 1. +When the air is still, the higher parts of the atmosphere move quicker +than those parts which touch the earth, because they are at a greater +distance from the axis of motion. 2. The part of the atmosphere where +the north or south wind comes from is higher than the part of it where +it comes to, hence the more elevated parts of the atmosphere continue to +descend towards the earth as either of those winds approach. 3. When +southern air is brought to us it possesses a westerly direction also, +owing to the velocity it had previously acquired from the earth's +surface; and if it consists of air from the higher parts of the +atmosphere descending nearer the earth, this westerly velocity becomes +increased. But when northern air is brought to us, it possesses an +apparent easterly direction also, owing to the velocity which it had +previously acquired from the earth's surface being less than that of the +earth's surface in this latitude; now if the north-east wind consists of +air descending from higher parts of the atmosphere, this deficiency of +velocity will be less, in consequence of the same cause, viz. The higher +parts of the atmosphere descending, as the wind approaches, increases +the real velocity of the western winds, and decreases the apparent +velocity of the eastern ones. + +_October 22._ Wind changed from south-east to south-west. There is a +popular prognostication that if the wind changes from the north towards +the south passing through the east, it is more likely to continue in the +south, than if it passes through the west, which may be thus accounted +for. If the north-east wind changes to a north-west wind, it shews +either that a part of the northern air descends upon us in a spiral +eddy, or that a superior current of southern air is driven back; but if +a north-east wind be changed into a south-east wind it shews that the +northern air is become retrograde, and that in a day or two, as soon as +that part of it has passed, which has not gained the velocity of the +earth's surface in this latitude, it will become a south wind for a few +hours, and then a south-west wind. + +The writer of this imperfect sketch of anemology wishes it may incite +some person of greater leizure and ability to attend to this subject, +and by comparing the various meteorological journals and observations +already published, to construct a more accurate and methodical treatise +on this interesting branch of philosophy. + + + + + NOTE XXXIV.--VEGETABLE PERSPIRATION. + + + _And wed the enamoured Oxygene to Light._ + + CANTO IV. l. 34. + + +When points or hairs are put into spring-water, as in the experiments of +Sir B. Thompson, (Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVII.) and exposed to the light +of the sun, much air, which loosely adhered to the water, rises in +bubbles, as explained in note on Fucus, Vol. II. A still greater +quantity of air, and of a purer kind, is emitted by Dr. Priestley's +green matter, and by vegetable leaves growing in water in the sun-shine, +according to Mr. Ingenhouze's experiments; both which I suspect to be +owing to a decomposition of the water perspired by the plant, for the +edge of a capillary tube of great tenuity may be considered as a circle +of points, and as the oxygene, or principle of vital air, may be +expanded into a gas by the sun's light; the hydrogene or inflammable air +may be detained in the pores of the vegetable. + +Hence plants growing in the shade are white, and become green by being +exposed to the sun's light; for their natural colour being blue, the +addition of hydrogene adds yellow to this blue, and _tans_ them green. I +suppose a similar circumstance takes place in animal bodies; their +perspirable matter as it escapes in the sun-shine becomes decomposed by +the edges of their pores as in vegetables, though in less quantity, as +their perspiration is less, and by the hydrogene being retained the skin +becomes _tanned_ yellow. In proof of this it must be observed that both +vegetable and animal substances become bleached white by the sun-beams +when they are dead, as cabbage-stalks, bones, ivory, tallow, bees-wax, +linen and cotton cloth; and hence I suppose the copper-coloured natives +of sunny countries might become etiolated or blanched by being kept from +their infancy in the dark, or removed for a few generations to more +northerly climates. + +It is probable that on a sunny morning much pure air becomes separated +from the dew by means of the points of vegetables on which it adheres, +and much inflammable air imbibed by the vegetable, or combined with it; +and by the sun's light thus decomposing water the effects of it in +bleaching linen seems to depend (as described in Note X.): the water is +decomposed by the light at the ends or points of the cotton or thread, +and the vital air unites with the phlogistic or colouring matters of the +cloth, and produces a new acid, which is either itself colourless or +washes out, at the same time the inflammable part of the water escapes. +Hence there seems a reason why cotton bleaches so much sooner than +linen, viz. because its fibres are three or four times shorter, and +therefore protrude so many more points, which seem to facilitate the +liberation of the vital air from the inflammable part of the water. + +Bee's wax becomes bleached by exposure to the sun and dews in a similar +manner as metals become calcined or rusty, viz. by the water on their +surface being decomposed; and hence the inflammable material which +caused the colour becomes united with vital air forming a new acid, and +is washed away. + +Oil close stopped in a phial not full, and exposed long to the sun's +light, becomes bleached, as I suppose, by the decomposition of the water +it contains; the inflammable air rising above the surface, and the vital +air uniting with the colouring matter of the oil. For it is remarkable, +that by shutting up a phial of bleached oil in a dark drawer, it in a +little time becomes coloured again. + +The following experiment shews the power of light in separating vital +air from another basis, viz. from azote. Mr. Scheel inverted a glass +vessel filled with colourless nitrous acid into another glass containing +the same acid, and on exposing them to the sun's light, the inverted +glass became partly filled with pure air, and the acid at the same time +became coloured. Scheel in Crell's Annal. 1786. But if the vessel of +colourless nitrous acid be quite full and stopped, so that no space is +left for the air produced to expand itself into, no change of colour +takes place. Priestley's Exp. VI. p. 344. See Keir's very excellent +Chemical Dictionary, p. 99. new edition. + +A sun-flower three feet and half high according to the experiment of Dr. +Hales, perspired two pints in one day (Vegetable Statics.) which is many +times as much in proportion to its surface, as is perspired from the +surface and lungs of animal bodies; it follows that the vital air +liberated from the surfaces of plants by the sunshine must much exceed +the quantity of it absorbed by their respiration, and that hence they +improve the air in which they live during the light part of the day, and +thus blanched vegetables will sooner become _tanned into green_ by the +sun's light, than etiolated animal bodies will become _tanned yellow_ by +the same means. + +It is hence evident, that the curious discovery of Dr. Priestley, that +his green vegetable matter and other aquatic plants gave out vital air +when the sun shone upon them, and the leaves of other plants did the +same when immersed in water, as observed by Mr. Ingenhouze, refer to the +perspiration of vegetables not to their respiration. Because Dr. +Priestley observed the pure air to come from both sides of the leaves +and even from the stalks of a water-flag, whereas one side of the leaf +only serves the office of lungs, and certainly not the stalks. Exper. on +Air, Vol. III. And thus in respect to the circumstance in which plants +and animals seemed the furtherest removed from each other, I mean in +their supposed mode of respiration, by which one was believed to purify +the air which the other had injured, they seem to differ only in degree, +and the analogy between them remains unbroken. + +Plants are said by many writers to grow much faster in the night than in +the day; as is particularly observable in seedlings at their rising out +of the ground. This probably is a consequence of their sleep rather than +of the absence of light; and in this I suppose they also resemble animal +bodies. + + + + + NOTE XXXV.--VEGETABLE PLACENTATION. + + + _While in bright veins the silvery sap ascends. + + CANTO IV. l. 419. + + +As buds are the viviparous offspring of vegetables, it becomes necessary +that they should be furnished with placental vessels for their +nourishment, till they acquire lungs or leaves for the purpose of +elaborating the common juices of the earth into nutriment. These vessels +exist in bulbs and in seeds, and supply the young plant with a sweet +juice till it acquires leaves, as is seen in converting barley into +malt, and appears from the sweet taste of onions and potatoes, when they +begin to grow. + +The placental vessels belonging to the buds of trees are placed about +the roots of most, as the vine; so many roots are furnished with sweet +or mealy matter as fern-root, bryony, carrot, turnip, potatoe, or in the +alburnum or sap-wood as in those trees which produce manna, which is +deposited about the month of August, or in the joints of sugar cane, and +grasses; early in the spring the absorbent mouths of these vessels drink +up moisture from the earth, with a saccharine matter lodged for that +purpose during the preceding autumn, and push this nutritive fluid up +the vessels of the alburnum to every individual bud, as is evinced by +the experiments of Dr. Hales, and of Mr. Walker in the Edinburgh +Philosophical Transact. The former observed that the sap from the stump +of a vine, which he had cut off in the beginning of April, arose twenty- +one feet high in tubes affixed to it for that purpose, but in a few +weeks it ceased to bleed at all, and Dr. Walker marked the progress of +the ascending sap, and found likewise that as soon as the leaves became +expanded the sap ceased to rise; the ascending juice of some trees is so +copious and so sweet during the sap-season that it is used to make wine, +as the birch, betula, and sycamore, acer pseudo-platinus, and +particularly the palm. + +During this ascent of the sap-juice each individual leaf-bud expands its +new leaves, and shoots down new roots, covering by their intertexture +the old bark with a new one; and as soon as these new roots (or bark) +are capable of absorbing sufficient juices from the earth for the +support of each bud, and the new leaves are capable of performing their +office of exposing these juices to the influence of the air; the +placental vessels cease to act, coalesce, and are transformed from sap- +wood, or alburnum, into inert wood; serving only for the support of the +new tree, which grows over them. + +Thus from the pith of the new bud of the horse-chesnut five vessels pass +out through the circle of the placental vessels above described, and +carry with them a minuter circle of those vessels; these five bundles of +vessels unite after their exit, and form the footstalk or petiole of the +new five-fingered leaf, to be spoken of hereafter. This structure is +well seen by cutting off a leaf of the horse-chesnut (Aesculus +Hippocastanum) in September before it falls, as the buds of this tree +are so large that the flower may be seen in them with the naked eye. + +After a time, perhaps about midsummer, another bundle of vessels passes +from the pith through the alburnum or sap-vessels in the bosom of each +leaf, and unites by the new bark with the leaf, which becomes either a +flower-bud or a leaf-bud to be expanded in the ensuing spring, for which +purpose an apparatus of placental vessels are produced with proper +nutriment during the progress of the summer and autumn, and thus the +vegetable becomes annually increased, ten thousand buds often existing +on one tree, according to the estimate of Linneus. Phil. Bot. + +The vascular connection of vegetable buds with the leaves in whose +bosoms they are formed is confirmed by the following experiment, (Oct. +20, 1781.) On the extremity of a young bud of the Mimosa (sensitive +plant) a small drop of acid of vitriol was put by means of a pen, and, +after a few seconds, the leaf in whose axilla it dwelt closed and opened +no more, though the drop of vitriolic acid was so small as apparently +only to injure the summit of the bud. Does not this seem to shew that +the leaf and its bud have connecting vessels though they arise at +different times and from different parts of the medulla or pith? And, as +it exists previously to it, that the leaf is the parent of the bud? + +This placentation of vegetable buds is clearly evinced from the +sweetness of the rising sap, and from its ceasing to rise as soon as the +leaves are expanded, and thus compleats the analogy between buds and +bulbs. Nor need we wonder at the length of the umbilical cords of buds +since that must correspond with their situation on the tree, in the same +manner as their lymphatics and arteries are proportionally elongated. + +It does not appear probable that any umbilical artery attends these +placental absorbents, since, as there seems to be no system of veins in +vegetables to bring back the blood from the extremities of their +arteries, (except their pulmonary veins,) there could not be any +vegetable fluids to be returned to their placenta, which in vegetables +seems to be simply an organ for nutrition, whereas the placenta of the +animal foetus seems likewise to serve as a respiratory organ like the +gills of fishes. + + + + + NOTE XXXVI--VEGETABLE CIRCULATION. + + + _And refluent blood in milky eddies bends._ + + CANTO IV. l. 420. + + +The individuality of vegetable buds was spoken of before, and is +confirmed by the method of raising all kinds of trees by Mr. Barnes. +(Method of propagating Fruit Trees. 1759. Lond. Baldwin.) He cut a +branch into as many pieces as there were buds or leaves upon it, and +wiping the two wounded ends dry he quickly applied to each a cement, +previously warmed a little, which consisted principally of pitch, and +planted them in the earth. The use of this cement I suppose to consist +in its preventing the bud from bleeding to death, though the author +ascribes it to its antisceptic quality. + +These buds of plants, which are thus each an individual vegetable, in +many circumstances resemble individual animals, but as animal bodies are +detached from the earth, and move from place to place in search of food, +and take that food at considerable intervals of time, and prepare it for +their nourishiment within their own bodies after it is taken, it is +evident they must require many organs and powers which are not necessary +to a stationary bud. As vegetables are immoveably fixed to the soil from +whence they draw their nourishment ready prepared, and this uniformly +not at returning intervals, it follows that in examining their anatome +we are not to look for muscles of locomotion, as arms and legs; nor for +organs to receive and prepare their nourishment, as a stomach and +bowels; nor for a reservoir for it after it is prepared, as a general +system of veins, which in locomotive animals contains and returns the +superfluous blood which is left after the various organs of secretion +have been supplied, by which contrivance they are enabled to live a long +time without new supplies of food. + +The parts which we may expert to find in the anatome of vegetables +correspondent to those in the animal economy are, 1. A system of +absorbent vessels to imbibe the moisture of the earth similar to the +lacteal vessels, as in the roots of plants; and another system of +absorbents similar to the lymphatics of animal bodies, opening its +mouths on the internal cells and external surfaces of vegetables; and a +third system of absorbent vessels correspondent with those of the +placentation of the animal foetus. 2. A pulmonary system correspondent +to the lungs or gills of quadrupeds and fish, by which the fluid +absorbed by the lacteals and lymphatics may be exposed to the influence +of the air, this is done by the green leaves of plants, those in the air +resembling lungs, and those in the water resembling gills; and by the +petals of flowers. 3. Arterial systems to convey the fluid thus +elaborated to the various glands of the vegetable for the purposes of +its growth, nutrition, and various secretions. 4. The various glands +which separate from the vegetable blood the honey, wax, gum, resin, +starch, sugar, essential oil, &c. 5. The organs adapted for their +propagation or reproduction. 6. Muscles to perform several motions of +their parts. + +I. The existence of that branch of the absorbent vessels of vegetables +which resembles the lacteals of animal bodies, and imbibes their +nutriment from the moist earth, is evinced by their growth so long as +moisture is applied to their roots, and their quickly withering when it +is withdrawn. + +Besides these absorbents in the roots of plants there are others which +open their mouths on the external surfaces of the bark and leaves, and +on the internal surfaces of all the cells, and between the bark and the +alburnum or sap-wood; the existence of these is shewn, because a leaf +plucked off and laid with its under side on water will not wither so +soon as if left in the dry air,--the same if the bark alone of a branch +which is separated from a tree be kept moist with water,--and lastly, by +moistening the alburnum or sap-wood alone of a branch detached from a +tree it will not so soon wither as if left in the dry air. By the +following experiment these vessels were agreeably visible by a common +magnifying glass, I placed in the summer of 1781 the footstalks of some +large fig-leaves about an inch deep in a decoction of madder, (rubia +tinctorum,) and others in a decoction of logwood, (haematoxylum +campechense,) along with some sprigs cut off from a plant of picris, +these plants were chosen because their blood is white, after some hours, +and on the next day, on taking out either of these and cutting off from +its bottom about a quarter of an inch of the stalk an internal circle of +red points appeared, which were the ends of absorbent vessels coloured +red with the decoction, while an external ring of arteries was seen to +bleed out hastily a milky juice, and at once evinced both the absorbent +and arterial system. These absorbent vessels have been called by Grew, +and Malphigi, and some other philosophers, bronchi, and erroneously +supposed to be air-vessels. It is probable that these vessels, when cut +through, may effuse their fluids, and receive air, their sides being too +stiff to collapse; since dry wood emits air-bubles in the exhausted +receiver in the same manner as moist wood. + +The structure of these vegetable absorbents consists of a spiral line, +and not of a vessel interrupted with valves like the animal lymphatics, +since on breaking almost any tender leaf and drawing out some of the +fibres which adhere longest this spiral structure becomes visible even +to the naked eye, and distinctly so by the use of a common lens. See +Grew, Plate 51. + +In such a structure it is easy to conceive how a vermicular or +peristaltic motion of the vessel beginning at the lowest part of it, +each spiral ring successively contracting itself till it fills up the +tube, must forcibly push forwards its contents, as from the roots of +vines in the bleeding season; and if this vermicular motion should begin +at the upper end of the vessel it is as easy to see how it must carry +its contained fluid in a contrary direction. The retrograde motion of +the vegetable absorbent vessels is shewn by cutting a forked branch from +a tree, and immersing a part of one of the forks in water, which will +for many days prevent the other from withering; or it is shewn by +planting a willow branch with the wrong end upwards. This structure in +some degree obtains in the esophagus or throat of cows, who by similar +means convey their food first downwards and afterward upwards by a +retrograde motion of the annular muscles or cartilages for the purpose +of a second mastication of it. + +II. The fluids thus drank up by the vegetable absorbent vessels from the +earth, or from the atmosphere, or from their own cells and interfaces, +are carried to the foot-stalk of every leaf, where the absorbents +belonging to each leaf unite into branches, forming so many pulmonary +arteries, and are thence dispersed to the extremities of the leaf, as +may be seen in cutting away slice after slice the footstalk of a horse- +chesnut in September before the leaf falls. There is then a compleat +circulation in the leaf; a pulmonary vein receiving the blood from the +extremities of each artery on the upper side of the leaf, and joining +again in the footstalk of the leaf these veins produce so many arteries, +or aortas, which disperse the new blood over the new bark, elongating +its vessels, or producing its secretions; but as a reservoir of blood +could not be wanted by a vegetable bud which takes in its nutriment at +all times, I imagine there is no venous system, no veins properly so +called, which receive the blood which was to spare, and return it into +the pulmonary or arterial system. + +The want of a system of veins was countenanced by the following +experiment; I cut off several stems of tall spurge, (Euphorbia +helioscopia) in autumn, about the centre of the plant, and observed +tenfold the quantity of milky juice ooze from the upper than from the +lower extremity, which could hardly have happened if there had been a +venous system of vessels to return the blood from the roots to the +leaves. + +Thus the vegetable circulation, complete in the lungs, but probably in +the other part of the system deficient in respect to a system of +returning veins, is carried forwards without a heart, like the +circulation through the livers of animals where the blood brought from +the intestines and mesentery by one vein is dispersed through the liver +by the vena portarum, which assumes the office of an artery. See Note +XXXVII. + +At the same time so minute are the vessels in the intertexture of the +barks of plants, which belong to each individual bud, that a general +circulation may possibly exist, though we have not yet been able to +discover the venous part of it. + +There is however another part of the circulation of vegetable juices +visible to the naked eye, and that is in the corol or petals of flowers, +in which a part of the blood of the plant is exposed to the influence of +the air and light in the same manner as in the foliage, as will be +mentioned more at large in Notes XXXVII and XXXIX. + +These circulations of their respective fluids seem to be carried on in +the vessels of plants precisely as in animal bodies by their +irritability to the stimulus of their adapted fluids, and not by any +mechanical or chemical attraction, for their absorbent vessels propel +the juice upwards, which they drink up from the earth, with great +violence; I suppose with much greater than is exerted by the lacteals of +animals, probably owing to the greater minuteness of these vessels in +vegetables and the greater rigidity of their coats. Dr. Hales in the +spring season cut off a vine near the ground, and by fixing tubes on the +remaining stump of it, found the sap to rise twenty-one feet in the tube +by the propulsive power of these absorbents of the roots of it. Veget. +Stat. p. 102. Such a power can not be produced by capillary attraction, +as that could only raise a fluid nearly to the upper edge of the +attracting cylinder, but not enable it to flow over that edge, and much +less to rise 21 feet above it. What then can this power be owing to? +Doubtless to the living activity of the absorbent vessels, and to their +increased vivacity from the influence of the warmth of the spring +succeeding the winter's cold, and their thence greater susceptibility to +irritation from the juices which they absorb, resembling in all +circumstances the action of the living vessels of animals. + + + + + NOTE XXXVII--VEGETABLE RESPIRATION. + + _While spread in air the leaves respiring play._ + + CANTO IV. l. 421. + + +I. There have been various opinions concerning the use of the leaves of +plants in the vegetable oeconomy. Some have contended that they are +perspiratory organs; this does not seem probable from an experiment of +Dr. Hales, Veg. Stat. p. 30. He found by cutting off branches of trees +with apples on them, and taking off the leaves, that an apple exhaled +about as much as two leaves, the surfaces of which were nearly equal to +the apple; whence it would appear that apples have as good a claim to be +termed perspiratory organs as leaves. Others have believed them +excretory organs of excrementious juices; but as the vapour exhaled from +vegetables has no taste, this idea is no more probable than the other; +add to this that in moist weather, they do not appear to perspire or +exhale at all. + +The internal surface of the lungs or air-vessels in men, are said to be +equal to the external surface of the whole body, or about fifteen square +feet; on this surface the blood is exposed to the influence of the +respired air through the medium however of a thin pellicle; by this +exposure to the air it has its colour changed from deep red to bright +scarlet, and acquires something so necessary to the existence of life, +that we can live scarcely a minute without this wonderful process. + +The analogy between the leaves of plants and the lungs or gills of +animals seems to embrace so many circumstances, that we can scarcely +withhold our assent to their performing similar offices. + +I. The great surface of the leaves compared to that of the trunk and +branches of trees is such, that it would seem to be an organ well +adapted for the purpose of exposing the vegetable juices to the +influence of the air; this however we shall see afterwards is probably +performed only by their upper surfaces, yet even in this case the +surface of the leaves in general bear a greater proportion to the +surface of the tree, than the lungs of animals to their external +surfaces. + +2. In the lungs of animal, the blood after having been exposed to the +air in the extremities of pulmonary artery, is changed in colour from +deep red to bright scarlet, and certainly in some of its essential +properties; it is then collected by the pulmonary vein and returned to +the heart. To shew a similarity of circumstance in the leaves of plants +the following experiment was made, June 24, 1781: A stalk with leaves +and seed-vessels of large spurge (Euphorbia helioscopia) had been +several days placed in a decoction of madder (Rubia tinctorum) so that +the lower part of the stem, and two of the undermost leaves were +immersed in it. After having washed the immersed leaves in clear water, +I could readily discern the colour of the madder passing along the +middle rib of each leaf. This red artery was beautifully visible both on +the under and upper surface of the leaf; but on the upper side many red +branches were seen going from it to the extremities of the leaf, which +on the other side were not visible except by looking through it against +the light. On this under side a system of branching vessels carrying a +pale milky fluid were seen coming from the extremities of the leaf, and +covering the whole underside of it, and joining into two large veins, +one on each side of the red artery in the middle rib of the leaf, and +along with it descending to the footstalk or petiole. On slitting one of +these leaves with scissars, and having a common magnifying lens ready, +the milky blood was seen oozing out of the returning veins on each side +of the red artery in the middle rib, but none of the red fluid from the +artery. + +All these appearances were more easily seen in a leaf of Picris treated +in the same manner; for in this milky plant the stems and middle rib of +the leaves are sometimes naturally coloured reddish, and hence the +colour of the madder seemed to pass further into the ramifications of +their leaf-arteries, and was there beautifully visible with the +returning branches of milky veins on each side. + +3. From these experiments the upper surface of the leaf appeared to be +the immediate organ of respiration, because the coloured fluid was +carried to the extremities of the leaf by vessels most conspicuous on +the upper surface, and there changed into a milky fluid, which is the +blood of the plant, and then returned by concomitant veins on the under +surface, which were seen to ooze when divided with scissars, and which +in Picris, particularly render the under surface of the leaves greatly +whiter than the upper one. + +4. As the upper surface of leaves constitutes the organ of respiration, +on which the sap is exposed in the terminations of arteries beneath a +thin pellicle to the action of the atmosphere, these surfaces in many +plants strongly repel moisture, as cabbage-leaves, whence the particles +of rain lying over their surfaces without touching them, as observed by +Mr. Melville (Essays Literary and Philosop. Edinburgh) have the +appearance of globules of quicksilver. And hence leaves laid with the +upper surfaces on water, wither as soon as in the dry air, but continue +green many days, if placed with the under surfaces on water, as appears +in the experiments of Mons. Bonnet (Usage des Fevilles.) Hence some +aquatic plants, as the Water-lily (Nymphoea) have the lower sides of +their leaves floating on the water, while the upper surfaces remain dry +in the air. + +5. As those insects, which have many spiracula, or breathing apertures, +as wasps and flies, are immediately suffocated by pouring oil upon +them, I carefully covered with oil the surfaces of several leaves of +Phlomis, of Portugal Laurel, and Balsams, and though it would not +regularly adhere, I found them all die in a day or two. + +Of aquatic leaves, see Note on Trapa and on Fucus, in Vol. II. to which +must be added that many leaves are furnished with muscles about their +footstalks, to turn their upper surfaces to the air or light, as Mimosa +and Hedysarum gyrans. From all these analogies I think there can be no +doubt but that leaves of trees are their lungs, giving out a phlogistic +material to the atmosphere, and absorbing oxygene or vital air. + +6. The great use of light to vegetation would appear from this theory to +be by disengaging vital air from the water which they perspire, and +thence to facilitate its union with their blood exposed beneath the thin +surface of their leaves; since when pure air is thus applied, it is +probable, that it can be more readily absorbed. Hence in the curious +experiments of Dr. Priestley and Mr. Ingenhouze, some plants purified +air less than others, that is, they perspired less in the sunshine; and +Mr. Scheele found that by putting peas into water, which about half- +covered them, that they converted the vital air into fixed air, or +carbonic acid gas, in the same manner as in animal respiration. See Note +XXXIV. + +7. The circulation in the lungs or leaves of plants is very similar to +that of fish. In fish the blood after having passed through their gills +does not return to the heart as from the lungs of air-breathing animals, +but the pulmonary vein taking the structure of an artery after having +received the blood from the gills, which there gains a more florrid +colour, distributes it to the other parts of their bodies. The same +structure occurs in the livers of fish, whence we see in those animals +two circulations independent of the power of the heart, viz. that +beginning at the termination of the veins of the gills, and branching +through the muscles; and that which passes through the liver; both which +are carried on by the action of those respective arteries and veins. +Monro's Physiology of Fish, p. 19. + +The course of the fluids in the roots, leaves, and buds of vegetables +seems to be performed in a manner similar to both these. First the +absorbent vessels of the roots and surfaces unite at the footstalk of +the leaf; and then, like the Vena Portarum, an artery commences without +the intervention of a heart, and spreads the sap in its numerous +ramifications on the upper surface of the leaf; here it changes its +colour and properties, and becomes vegetable blood; and is again +collected by a pulmonary vein on the under surface of the leaf. This +vein, like that which receives the blood from the gills of fish, assumes +the office and name of an artery, and branching again disperses the +blood upward to the bud from the footstalk of the leaf, and downward to +the roots; where it is all expended in the various secretions, the +nourishment and growth of the plant, as fast as it is prepared. + +II. The organ of respiration already spoken of belongs particularly to +the shoots or buds, but there is another pulmonary system, perhaps +totally independent of the green foliage, which belongs to the +fructification only, I mean the corol or petals. In this there is an +artery belonging to each petal, which conveys the vegetable blood to its +extremities, exposing it to the light and air under a delicate membrane +covering the internal surface of the petal, where it often changes its +colour, as is beautifully seen in some party-coloured poppies; though it +is probable some of the iridescent colours of flowers may be owing to +the different degrees of tenuity of the exterior membrane of the leaf +refracting the light like soap-bubbles, the vegetable blood is then +returned by correspondent vegetable veins, exactly as in the green +foliage; for the purposes of the important secretions of honey, wax, the +finer essential oil, and the prolific dust of the anthers. + +1. The vascular structure of the corol as above described, and which is +visible to the naked eye, and its exposing the vegetable juices to the +air and light during the day, evinces that it is a pulmonary organ. + +2. As the glands which produce the prolific dust of the anthers, the +honey, wax, and frequently some odoriferous essential oil, are generally +attached to the corol, and always fall off and perish with it, it is +evident that the blood is elaborated or oxygenated in this pulmonary +system for the purpose of these important secretions. + +3. Many flowers, as the Colchicum, and Hamamelis arise naked in autumn, +no green leaves appearing till the ensuing spring; and many others put +forth their flowers and complete their impregnation early in the spring +before the green foliage appears, as Mezereon, cherries, pears, which +shews that these corols are the lungs belonging to the fructification. + +4. This organ does not seem to have been necessary for the defence of +the stamens and pistils, since the calyx of many flowers, as Tragopogon, +performs this office; and in many flowers these petals themselves are so +tender as to require being shut up in the calyx during the night, for +what other use then can such an apparatus of vessels be designed? + +5. In the Helleborus-niger, Christmas-rose, after the seeds are grown to +a certain size, the nectaries and stamens drop off, and the beautiful +large white petals change their colour to a deep green, and gradually +thus become a calyx inclosing and defending the ripening seeds, hence it +would seem that the white vessels of the corol served the office of +exposing the blood to the action of the air, for the purposes of +separating or producing the honey, wax, and prolific dust, and when +these were no longer wanted, that these vessels coalesced like the +placental vessels of animals after their birth, and thus ceased to +perform that office and lost at the same time their white colour. Why +should they loose their white colour, unless they at the same time lost +some other property besides that of defending the seed-vessel, which +they still continue to defend? + +6. From these observations I am led to doubt whether green leaves be +absolutely necessary to the progress of the fruit-bud after the last +year's leaves are fallen off. The green leaves serve as lungs to the +shoots and foster the new buds in their bosoms, whether these buds be +leaf-buds or fruit-buds; but in the early spring the fruit-buds expand +their corols, which are their lungs, and seem no longer to require green +leaves; hence the vine bears fruit at one joint without leaves, and puts +out a leaf-bud at another joint without fruit. And I suppose the green +leaves which rise out of the earth in the spring from the Colchicum are +for the purpose of producing the new bulb, and its placenta, and not for +the giving maturity to the seed. When currant or goosberry trees lose +their leaves by the depredation of insects the fruit continues to be +formed, though less sweet and less in size. + +7. From these facts it appears that the flower-bud after the corol falls +off, (which is its lungs,) and the stamens and nectary along with it, +becomes simply an uterus for the purpose of supplying the growing +embryon with nourishment, together with a system of absorbent vessels +which bring the juices of the earth to the footstalk of the fruit, and +which there changes into an artery for the purpose of distributing the +sap for the secretion of the saccharine or farinaceous or acescent +materials for the use of the embryon. At the same time as all the +vessels of the different buds of trees inosculate or communicate with +each other, the fruit becomes sweeter and larger when the green leaves +continue on the tree, but the mature flowers themselves, (the succeeding +fruit not considered) perhaps suffer little injury from the green leaves +being taken off, as some florists have observed. + +8. That the vessels of different vegetable buds inosculate in various +parts of their circulation is rendered probable by the increased growth +of one bud, when others in its vicinity are cut away; as it thus seems +to receive the nourishment which was before divided amongst many. + + + + + NOTE XXXVIII.--VEGETABLE IMPREGNATION. + + + _Love out their hour and leave their lives in air._ + + CANTO IV. l. 456. + + +From the accurate experiments and observations of Spallanzani it appears +that in the Spartium Junceum, rush-broom, the very minute seeds were +discerned in the pod at least twenty days before the flower is in full +bloom, that is twenty days before fecundation. At this time also the +powder of the anthers was visible, but glued fast to their summits. The +seeds however at this time, and for ten days after the blossom had +fallen off, appeared to consist of a gelatinous substance. On the +eleventh day after the falling of the blossom the seeds became heart- +shape, with the basis attached by an appendage to the pod, and a white +point at the apex; this white point was on pressure found to be a cavity +including a drop of liquor. + +On the 25th day the cavity which at first appeared at the apex was much +enlarged and still full of liquor, it also contained a very small semi- +transparent body, of a yellowish colour, gelatinous, and fixed by its +two opposite ends to the sides of the cavity. + +In a month the seed was much enlarged and its shape changed from a heart +to a kidney, the little body contained in the cavity was increased in +bulk and was less transparent, and gelatinous, but there yet appeared no +organization. + +On the 40th day the cavity now grown larger was quite filled with the +body, which was covered with a thin membrane; after this membrane was +removed the body appeared of a bright green, and was easily divided by +the point of a needle into two portions, which manifestly formed the two +lobes, and within these attached to the lower part the exceedingly small +plantule was easily perceived. + +The foregoing observations evince, 1. That the seeds exist in the +ovarium many days before fecundation. 2. That they remain for some time +solid, and then a cavity containing a liquid is formed in them. 3. That +after fecundation a body begins to appear within the cavity fixed by two +points to the sides, which in process of time proves to be two lobes +containing a plantule. 4. That the ripe seed consists of two lobes +adhering to a plantule, and surrounded by a thin membrane which is +itself covered with a husk or cuticle. Spalanzani's Dissertations, Vol. +II. p. 253. + +The analogy between seeds and eggs has long been observed, and is +confirmed by the mode of their production. The egg is known to be formed +within the hen long before its impregnation; C.F. Wolf asserts that the +yolk of the egg is nourished by the vessels of the mother, and that it +has from those its arterial and venous branches, but that after +impregnation these vessels gradually become impervious and obliterated, +and that new ones are produced from the fetus and dispersed into the +yolk. Haller's Physiolog. Tom. VIII. p. 94. The young seed after +fecundation, I suppose, is nourished in a similar manner from the +gelatinous liquor, which is previously deposited for that purpose; the +uterus of the plant producing or secreting it into a reservoir or amnios +in which the embryon is lodged, and that the young embryon is furnished +with vessels to absorb a part of it, as in the very early embryon in the +animal uterus. + +The spawn of frogs and of fish is delivered from the female before its +impregnation. M. Bonnet says that the male salamander darts his semen +into the water, where it forms a little whitish cloud which is +afterwards received by the swoln anus of the female, and she is +fecundated.--He adds that marine plants approach near to these animals, +as the male does not project a fine powder but a liquor which in like +manner forms a little cloud in the water.--And further adds, who knows +but the powder of the stamina of certain plants may not make some +impression on certain germs belonging to the animal kingdom! Letter +XLIII. to Spalanzani, Oevres Philos. + +Spalanzani found that the seminal fluid of frogs and dogs even when +diluted with much water retained its prolific quality. Whether this +quality be simply a stimulus exciting the egg into animal action, which +may be called a vivifying principle, or whether part of it be actually +conjoined with the egg is not yet determined, though the latter seems +more probable from the frequent resemblance of the fetus to the male +parent. A conjunction however of both the male and female influence +seems necessary for the purpose of reproduction throughout all organized +nature, as well in hermaphrodite insects, microscopic animals, and +polypi, and exists as well in the formation of the buds of vegetables as +in the production of their seeds, which is ingeniously conceived and +explained by Linneus. After having compared the flower to the larva of a +butterfly, confining of petals instead of wings, calyxes instead of +wing-sheaths, with the organs of reproduction, and having shewn the use +of the farina in fecundating the egg or seed, he proceeds to explain the +production of the bud. The calyx of a flower, he says, is an expansion +of the outer bark, the petals proceed from the inner bark or rind, the +stamens from the alburnum or woody circle, and the style from the pith. +In the production and impregnation of the seed a commixture of the +secretions of the stamens and style are necessary; and for the +production of a bud he thinks the medulla or pith bursts its integuments +and mixes with the woody part or alburnum, and these forcing their +passage through the rind and bark constitute the bud or viviparous +progeny of the vegetable. System of Vegetables translated from Linneus, +p. 8. + +It has been supposed that the embryon vegetable after fecundation, by +its living activity or stimulus exerted on the vessels of the parent +plant, may produce the fruit or seed-lobes, as the animal fetus produces +its placenta, and as vegetable buds may be supposed to produce their +umbilical vessels or roots down the bark of the tree. This in respect to +the production of the fruit surrounding the seeds of trees has been +assimilated to the gall-nuts on oak-leaves, and to the bedeguar on +briars, but there is a powerful objection to this doctrine, viz. that +the fruit of figs, all which are female in this country, grow nearly as +large without fecundation, and therefore the embryon has in them no +self-living principle. + + + + + NOTE XXXIX.--VEGETABLE GLANDULATION. + + + _Seeks, where fine pores their dulcet balm distil._ + + CANTO IV. l. 503. + + +The glands of vegetables which separate from their blood the mucilage, +starch, or sugar for the placentation or support of their seeds, bulbs, +and buds; or those which deposit their bitter, acrid, or narcotic juices +for their defence from depredations of insects or larger animals; or +those which secrete resins or wax for their protection from moisture or +frosts, consist of vessels too fine for the injection or absorption of +coloured fluids, and have not therefore yet been exhibited to the +inspection even of our glasses, and can therefore only be known by their +effects, but one of the most curious and important of all vegetable +secretions, that of honey, is apparent to our naked eyes, though before +the discoveries of Linneus the nectary or honey-gland had not even +acquired a name. + +The odoriferous essential oils of several flowers seem to have been +designed for their defence against the depredations of insects, while +their beautiful colours were a necessary consequence of the size of the +particles of their blood, or of the tenuity of the exterior membrane of +the petal. The use of the prolific dust is now well ascertained, the wax +which covers the anthers prevents this dust from receiving moisture, +which would make it burst prematurely and thence prevent its application +to the stigma, as sometimes happens in moist years and is the cause of +deficient fecundation both of our fields and orchards. + +The universality of the production of honey in the vegetable world, and +the very complicated apparatus which nature has constructed in many +flowers, as well as the acrid or deleterious juices she has furnished +those flowers with (as in the Aconite) to protect this honey from rain +and from the depredations of insects, seem to imply that this fluid is +of very great importance in the vegetable economy; and also that it was +necessary to expose it to the open air previous to its reabsorption into +the vegetable vessels. + +In the animal system the lachrymal gland separates its fluid into the +open air for the purpose of moistening the eye, of this fluid the part +which does not exhale it absorbed by the puncta lachrymalia and carried +into the nostrils; but as this is not a nutritive fluid the analogy goes +no further than its secretion into the open air and its reabsorption +into the system; every other secreted fluid in the animal body is in +part absorbed again into the system, even those which are esteemed +excrementitious, as the urine and perspirable matter, of which the +latter is secreted, like the honey, into the external air. That the +honey is a nutritious fluid, perhaps the most so of any vegetable +production, appears from its great similarity to sugar, and from its +affording sustenance to such numbers of insects, which live upon it +solely during summer, and lay it up for their winter provision. These +proofs of its nutritive nature evince the necessity of its reabsorption +into the vegetable system for some useful purpose. + +This purpose however has as yet escaped the researches of philosophical +botanists. M. Pontedera believes it designed to lubricate the vegetable +uterus, and compares the horn-like nectaries of some flowers to the +appendicle of the caecum intestinum of animals. (Antholog. p. 49.) +Others have supposed that the honey, when reabsorbed, might serve the +purpose of the liquor amnii, or white of the egg, as a nutriment for the +young embryon or fecundated seed in its early state of existence. But as +the nectary is found equally general in male flowers as in female ones; +and as the young embryon or seed grows before the petals and nectary are +expanded, and after they fall off; and, thirdly, as the nectary so soon +falls off after the fecundation of the pistillum; these seem to be +insurmountable objections to both the above-mentioned opinions. + +In this state of uncertainty conjectures may be of use so far as they +lead to further experiment and investigation. In many tribes of insects, +as the silk-worm, and perhaps in all the moths and butterflies, the male +and female parents die as soon as the eggs are impregnated and excluded; +the eggs remaining to be perfected and hatched at some future time. The +same thing happens in regard to the male and female parts of flowers; +the anthers and filaments, which constitute the male parts of the +flower, and the stigma and style, which constitute the female part of +the flower, fall off and die as soon as the seeds are impregnated, and +along with these the petals and nectary. Now the moths and butterflies +above-mentioned, as soon as they acquire the passion and the apparatus +for the reproduction of their species, loose the power of feeding upon +leaves as they did before, and become nourished by what?--by honey alone. + +Hence we acquire a strong analogy for the use of the nectary or +secretion of honey in the vegetable economy, which is, that the male +parts of flowers, and the female parts, as soon as they leave their +fetus-state, expanding their petals, (which constitute their lungs,) +become sensible to the passion, and gain the apparatus for the +reproduction of their species, and are fed and nourished with honey like +the insects above described; and that hence the nectary begins its +office of producing honey, and dies or ceases to produce honey at the +same time with the birth and death of the stamens and the pistils; +which, whether existing in the same or in different flowers, are +separate and distinct animated beings. + +Previous to this time the anthers with their filaments, and the stigmas +with their styles, are in their fetus-state sustained by their placental +vessels, like the unexpanded leaf-bud; with the seeds existing in the +vegetable womb yet unimpregnated, and the dust yet unripe in the cells +of the anthers. After this period they expand their petals, which have +been shewn above to constitute the lungs of the flower; the placental +vessels, which before nourished the anthers and the stigmas, coalesce or +cease to nourish them; and they now acquire blood more oxygenated by the +air, obtain the passion and power of reproduction, are sensible to heat, +and cold, and moisture, and to mechanic stimulus, and become in reality +insects fed with honey, similar in every respect except their being +attached to the tree on which they were produced. + +Some experiments I have made this summer by cutting out the nectaries of +several flowers of the aconites before the petals were open, or had +become much coloured, some of these flowers near the summit of the +plants produced no seeds, others lower down produced seeds; but they +were not sufficiently guarded from the farina of the flowers in their +vicinity; nor have I had opportunity to try if these seeds would +vegetate. + +I am acquainted with a philosopher, who contemplating this subject +thinks it not impossible, that the first insects were the anthers or +stigmas of flowers; which had by some means loosed themselves from their +parent plant, like the male flowers of Vallisneria; and that many other +insects have gradually in long process of time been formed from these; +some acquiring wings, others fins, and others claws, from their +ceaseless efforts to procure their food, or to secure themselves from +injury. He contends, that none of these changes are more +incomprehensible than the transformation of tadpoles into frogs, and +caterpillars into butterflies. + +There are parts of animal bodies, which do not require oxygenated blood +for the purpose of their secretions, as the liver; which for the +production of bile takes its blood from the mesenteric veins, after it +must have lost the whole or a great part of its oxygenation, which it +had acquired in its passage through the lungs. In like manner the +pericarpium, or womb of the flower, continues to secrete its proper +juices for the present nourishment of the newly animated embryon-seed; +and the saccharine, acescent, or starchy matter of the fruit or seed- +lobes for its future growth; in the same manner as these things went on +before fecundation; that is, without any circulation of juices in the +petals, or production of honey in the nectary; these having perished and +fallen off with the male and female apparatus for impregnation. + +It is probable that the depredations of insects on this nutritious fluid +must be injurious to the products of vegetation, and would be much more +so, but that the plants have either acquired means to defend their honey +in part, or have learned to make more than is absolutely necessary for +their own economy. In the same manner the honey-dew on trees is very +injurious to them; in which disease the nutritive fluid, the vegetable- +sap-juice, seems to be exsuded by a retrograde motion of the cutaneous +lymphatics, as in the sweating sickness of the last century. To prevent +the depredation of insects on honey a wealthy man in Italy is said to +have poisoned his neighbour's bees perhaps by mixing arsnic with honey, +against which there is a most flowery declamation in Quintilian. No. +XIII. As the use of the wax is to preserve the dust of the anthers from +moisture, which would prematurely burst them, the bees which collect +this for the construction of the combs or cells, must on this account +also injure the vegetation of a country where they too much abound. + +It is not easy to conjecture why it was necessary that this secretion of +honey should be exposed to the open air in the nectary or honey-cup, for +which purpose so great an apparatus for its defence from insects and +from showers became necessary. This difficulty increases when we +recollect that the sugar in the joints of grass, in the sugar-cane, and +in the roots of beets, and in ripe fruits is produced without the +exposure to the air. On supposition of its serving for nutriment to the +anthers and stigmas it may thus acquire greater oxygenation for the +purpose of producing greater powers of sensibility, according to a +doctrine lately advanced by a French philosopher, who has endeavoured to +shew that the oxygene, or base of vital air, is the constituent +principle of our power of sensibility. + +From this provision of honey for the male and female parts of flowers, +and from the provision of sugar, starch, oil, and mucilage, in the +fruits, seed-cotyledons, roots, and buds of plants laid up for the +nutriment of the expanding fetus, not only a very numerous class of +insects, but a great part of the larger animals procure their food; and +thus enjoy life and pleasure without producing pain to others, for these +seeds or eggs with the nutriment laid up in them are not yet endued with +sensitive life. + +The secretions from various vegetable glands hardened in the air produce +gums, resins, and various kinds of saccharine, saponaceous, and wax-like +substances, as the gum of cherry or plumb-trees, gum tragacanth from the +astragalus tragacantha, camphor from the laurus camphora, elemi from +amyris elemifera, aneme from hymenoea courbaril, turpentine from +pistacia terebinthus, balsam of Mecca from the buds of amyris +opobalsamum, branches of which are placed in the temples of the East on +account of their fragrance, the wood is called xylobalsamum, and the +fruit carpobalsamum; aloe from a plant of the same name; myrrh from a +plant not yet described; the remarkably elastic resin is brought into +Europe principally in the form of flasks, which look like black leather, +and are wonderfully elastic, and not penetrable by water, rectified +ether dissolves it; its flexibility is encreased by warmth and destroyed +by cold; the tree which yields this juice is the jatropha elastica, it +grows in Guaiana and the neighbouring tracts of America; its juice is +said to resemble wax in becoming soft by heat, but that it acquires no +elasticity till that property is communicated to it by a secret art, +after which it is poured into moulds and well dried and can no longer be +rendered fluid by heat. Mr. de la Borde physician at Cayenne has given +this account. Manna is obtained at Naples from the fraxinus ornus, or +manna-ash, it partly issues spontaneously, which is preferred, and +partly exsudes from wounds made purposely in the month of August, many +other plants yield manna more sparingly; sugar is properly made from the +saccharum officinale, or sugar-cane, but is found in the roots of beet +and many other plants; American wax is obtained from the myrica +cerifera, candle-berry myrtle, the berries are boiled in water and a +green wax separates, with luke-warm water the wax is yellow: the seed of +croton sebiferum are lodged in tallow; there are many other vegetable +exsudations used in the various arts of dyeing, varnishing, tanning, +lacquering, and which supply the shop of the druggist with medicines and +with poisons. + +There is another analogy, which would seem to associate plants with +animals, and which perhaps belongs to this Note on Glandulation, I mean +the similarity of their digestive powers. In the roots of growing +vegetables, as in the process of making malt, the farinaceous part of +the seed is converted into sugar by the vegetable power of digestion in +the same manner as the farinaceous matter of seeds are converted into +sweet chyle by the animal digestion. The sap-juice which rises in the +vernal months from the roots of trees through the alburnum or sap-wood, +owes its sweetness I suppose to a similar digestive power of the +absorbent system of the young buds. This exists in many vegetables in +great abundance as in vines, sycamore, birch, and most abundantly in the +palm-tree, (Isert's Voyage to Guinea,) and seems to be a similar fluid +in all plants, as chyle is similar in all animals. + +Hence as the digested food of vegetables consists principally of sugar, +and from that is produced again their mucilage, starch, and oil, and +since animals are sustained by these vegetable productions, it would +seem that the sugar-making process carried on in vegetable vessels was +the great source of life to all organized beings. And that if our +improved chemistry should ever discover the art of making sugar from +fossile or aerial matter without the assistance of vegetation, food for +animals would then become as plentiful as water, and mankind might live +upon the earth as thick as blades of grass, with no restraint to their +numbers but the want of local room. + +It would seem that roots fixed in the earth, and leaves innumerable +waving in the air were necessary for the decomposition of water, and the +conversion of it into saccharine matter, which would have been not only +cumberous but totally incompatible with the locomotion of animal bodies. +For how could a man or quadruped have carried on his head or back a +forest of leaves, or have had long branching lacteal or absorbent +vessels terminating in the earth? Animals therefore subsist on +vegetables; that is, they take the matter so far prepared, and have +organs to prepare it further for the purposes of higher animation, and +greater sensibility. In the same manner the apparatus of green leaves +and long roots were found inconvenient for the more animated and +sensitive parts of vegetable-flowers, I mean the anthers and stigmas, +which are therefore separate beings, endued with the passion and power +of reproduction, with lungs of their own, and fed with honey, a food +ready prepared by the long roots and green leaves of the plant, and +presented to their absorbent mouths. + +From this outline a philosopher may catch a glimpse of the general +economy of nature; and like the mariner cast upon an unknown shore, who +rejoiced when he saw the print of a human foot upon the sand, he may cry +out with rapture, "A GOD DWELLS HERE." + + + + + CONTENTS + + OF THE + + ADDITIONAL NOTES. + + + NOTE I ... METEORS. + +There are four strata of the atmosphere, and four kinds of meteors. 1. +Lightning is electric, exists in visible clouds, its short course, and +red light. 2. Shooting stars exist in invisible vapour, without sound, +white light, have no luminous trains. 3. Twilight; fire-balls move +thirty miles in a second, and are about sixty miles high, have luminous +trains, occasioned by an electric spark passing between the aerial and +inflammable strata of the atmosphere, and mixing them and setting them +on fire in its passage; attracted by volcanic eruptions; one thousand +miles through such a medium resists less than the tenth of an inch of +glass. 4. Northern lights not attracted to a point but diffused; their +colours; passage of electric fire in vacuo dubious; Dr. Franklin's +theory of northern lights countenanced in part by the supposition of +a superior atmosphere of inflammable air; antiquity of their appearance; +described in Maccabees. + + + NOTE II ... PRIMARY COLOURS. + +The rainbow was in part understood before Sir Isaac Newton; the seven +colours were discovered by him; Mr. Gallon's experiments on colours; +manganese and lead produce colourless glass. + + + NOTE III ... COLOURED CLOUDS. + +The rays refracted by the convexity of the atmosphere; the particles of +air and of water are blue; shadow by means of a candle in the day; halo +round the moon in a fog; bright spot in the cornea of the eye; light +from cat's eyes in the dark, from a horse's eyes in a cavern, coloured +by the choroid coat within the eye. + + + NOTE IV ... COMETS. + +Tails of comets from rarified vapour, like northern lights, from +electricity; twenty millions of miles long; expected comet. + + + NOTE V ... SUN'S RAYS. + +Dispute about phlogiston; the sun the fountain from whence all +phlogiston is derived; its rays not luminous till they arrive at our +atmosphere; light owing to their combustion with air, whence an unknown +acid; the sun is on fire only on its surface; the dark spots on it are +excavations through its luminous crust. + + + NOTE VI ... CENTRAL FIRES. + +Sun's heat much less than that from the fire at the earth's centre; +sun's heat penetrates but a few feet in summer; some mines are warm; +warm springs owing to subterraneous fire; situations of volcanos on high +mountains; original nucleus of the earth; deep vallies of the ocean; +distant perception of earthquakes; great attraction of mountains; +variation of the compass; countenance the existence of a cavity or fluid +lava within the earth. + + + NOTE VII ... ELEMENTARY HEAT. + +Combined and sensible heat; chemical combinations attract heat, +solutions reject heat; ice cools boiling water six times as much as cold +water cools it; cold produced by evaporation; heat by devaporation; +capacities of bodies in respect to heat, 1. Existence of the matter of +heat shewn from the mechanical condensation and rarefaction of air, from +the steam produced in exhausting a receiver, snow from rarefied air, +cold from discharging an air-gun, heat from vibration or friction; 2. +Matter of heat analogous to the electric fluid in many circumstances, +explains many chemical phenomena. + + + NOTE VIII ... MEMNON'S LYRE. + +Mechanical impulse of light dubious; a glass tube laid horizontally +before a fire revolves; pulse-glass suspended on a centre; black leather +contracts in the sunshine; Memnon's statue broken by Cambyses. + + + NOTE IX ... LUMINOUS INSECTS. + +Eighteen species of glow-worm, their light owing to their respiration in +transparent lungs; Acudia of Surinam gives light enough to read and draw +by, use of its light to the insect; luminous sea-insects adhere to the +skin of those who bathe in the ports of Languedoc, the light may arise +from putrescent slime. + + + NOTE X ... PHOSPHORUS. + +Discovered by Kunkel, Brandt, and Boyle; produced in respiration, and by +luminous insects, decayed wood, and calcined shells; bleaching a slow +combustion in which the water is decomposed; rancidity of animal fat +owing to the decomposition of water on its surface; aerated marine acid +does not whiten or bleach the hand. + + + NOTE XI ... STEAM-ENGINE. + +Hero of Alexandria first applied steam to machinery, next a French +writer in 1630, the Marquis of Worcester in 1655, Capt. Savery in 1689, +Newcomen and Cawley added the piston; the improvements of Watt and +Boulton; power of one of their large engines equal to two hundred +horses. + + + NOTE XII ... FROST. + +Expansion of water in freezing; injury done by vernal frosts; fish, +eggs, seeds, resist congelation; animals do not resist the increase of +heat; frosts do not meliorate the ground, nor are in general salubrious; +damp air produces cold on the skin by evaporation; snow less pernicious +to agriculture than heavy rains for two reasons. + + + NOTE XIII ... ELECTRICITY. + +1. _Points_ preferable to knobs for defence of buildings; why points +emit the electric fluid; diffusion of oil on water; mountains are points +on the earth's globe; do they produce ascending currents of air? 2. +_Fairy-rings_ explained; advantage of paring and burning ground. + + + NOTE XIV ... BUDS AND BULBS. + +A tree is a swarm of individual plants; vegetables are either oviparous +or viviparous; are all annual productions like many kinds of insects? +Hybernacula, a new bark annually produced over the old one in trees and +in some herbaceous plants, whence their roots seem end-bitten; all +bulbous roots perish annually; experiment on a tulip-root; both the +leaf-bulbs and the flower-bulbs are annually renewed. + + + NOTE XV ... SOLAR VOLCANOS. + +The spots in the sun are cavities, some of them four thousand miles deep +and many times as broad; internal parts of the sun are not in a state of +combustion; volcanos visible in the sun; all the planets together are +less than one six hundred and fiftieth part of the sun; planets were +ejected from the sun by volcanos; many reasons shewing the probability +of this hypothesis; Mr. Buffon's hypothesis that planets were struck off +from the sun by comets; why no new planets are ejected from the sun; +some comets and the georgium sidus may be of later date; Sun's matter +decreased; Mr. Ludlam's opinion, that it is possible the moon might be +projected from the earth. + + + NOTE XVI ... CALCAREOUS EARTH. + +High mountains and deep mines replete with shells; the earth's nucleus +covered with limestone; animals convert water into limestone; all the +calcareous earth in the world formed in animal and vegetable bodies; +solid parts of the earth increase; the water decreases; tops of +calcareous mountains dissolved; whence spar, marbles, chalk, +stalactites; whence alabaster, fluor, flint, granulated limestone, from +solution of their angles, and by attrition; tupha deposited on moss; +limestones from shells with animals in them; liver-stone from fresh- +water muscles; calcareous earth from land-animals and vegetables, as +marl; beds of marble softened by fire; whence Bath-stone contains lime +as well as limestone. + + + NOTE XVII ... MORASSES. + +The production of morasses from fallen woods; account by the Earl +Cromartie of a new morass; morasses lose their salts by solution in +water; then their iron; their vegetable acid is converted into marine, +nitrous, and vitriolic acids; whence gypsum, alum, sulphur; into fluor- +acid, whence fluor; into siliceous acid, whence flint, the sand of the +sea, and other strata of siliceous sand and marl; some morasses ferment +like new hay, and, subliming their phlogistic part, form coal-beds above +and clay below, which are also produced by elutriation; shell-fish in +some morasses, hence shells sometimes found on coals and over iron- +stone. + + + NOTE XVIII ... IRON + +Calciform ores; combustion of iron in vital air; steel from deprivation +of vital air; welding; hardness; brittleness like Rupert's drops; +specific levity; hardness and brittleness compared; steel tempered by +its colours; modern production of iron, manganese, calamy; septaria of +iron-stone ejected from volcanos; red-hot cannon balls. + + + NOTE XIX ... FLINT. + +1. _Siliceous rocks_ from morasses; their cements. 2. _Siliceous trees_; +coloured by iron or manganese; Peak-diamonds; Bristol-stones; flint in +form of calcareous spar; has been fluid without much heat; obtained from +powdered quartz and fluor-acid by Bergman and by Achard. 3. _Agates and +onyxes_ found in sand-rocks; of vegetable origin; have been in complete +fusion; their concentric coloured circles not from superinduction but +from congelation; experiment of freezing a solution of blue vitriol; +iron and manganese repelled in spheres as the nodule of flint cooled; +circular stains of marl in salt-mines; some flint nodules resemble knots +of wood or roots. 4. _Sand of the sea_; its acid from morasses; its base +from shells. 5. _Chert or petrosilex_ stratified in cooling; their +colour and their acid from sea-animals; labradore-stone from mother- +pearl. 6. _Flints in chalk-beds_; their form, colour, and acid, from the +flesh of sea-animals; some are hollow and lined with crystals; contain +iron; not produced by injection from without; coralloids converted to +flint; French-millstones; flints sometimes found in solid strata. 7. +_Angles of sand_ destroyed by attrition and solution in steam; siliceous +breccia cemented by solution in red-hot water. 8. _Basaltes and +granites_ are antient lavas; basaltes raised by its congelation not by +subterraneous fire. + + + NOTE XX ... CLAY. + +Fire and water two great agents; stratification from precipitation; many +stratified materials not soluble in water. 1. Stratification of lava +from successive accumulation. 2. Stratifications of limestone from the +different periods of time in which the shells were deposited. 3. +Stratifications of coal, and clay, and sandstone, and iron-ores, not +from currents of water, but from the production of morass-beds at +different periods of time; morass-beds become ignited; their bitumen and +sulphur is sublimed; the clay, lime, and iron remain; whence sand, +marle, coal, white clay in valleys, and gravel-beds, and some ochres, +and some calcareous depositions owing to alluviation; clay from +decomposed granite; from the lava of Vesuvius; from vitreous lavas. + + + NOTE XXI ... ENAMELS. + +Rose-colour and purple from gold; precipitates of gold by alcaline salt +preferable to those by tin; aurum fulminans long ground; tender colours +from gold or iron not dissolved but suspended in the glass; cobalts; +calces of cobalt and copper require a strong fire; Ka-o-lin and +Pe-tun-tse the same as our own materials. + + + NOTE XXII ... PORTLAND VASE. + +Its figures do not allude to private history; they represent a part of +the Elusinian mysteries; marriage of Cupid and Psyche; procession of +torches; the figures in one compartment represent MORTAL LIFE in the act +of expiring, and HUMANKIND attending to her with concern; Adam and Eve +hyeroglyphic figures; Abel and Cain other hyeroglyphic figures; on the +other compartment is represented IMMORTAL LIFE, the Manes or Ghost +descending into Elisium is led on by DIVINE LOVE, and received by +IMMORTAL LIFE, and conducted to Pluto; Tree of Life and Knowledge are +emblematical; the figure at the bottom is of Atis, the first great +Hierophant, or teacher of mysteries. + + + NOTE XXIII ... COAL. + +1. A fountain of fossile tar in Shropshire; has been distilled from the +coal-beds beneath, and condensed in the cavities of a sand-rock; the +coal beneath is deprived of its bitumen in part; bitumen sublimed at +Matlock into cavities lined with spar. 2. Coal has been exposed to heat; +woody fibres and vegetable seeds in coal at Bovey and Polesworth; upper +part of coal-beds more bituminous at Beaudesert; thin stratum of +asphaltum near Caulk; upper part of coal-bed worse at Alfreton; upper +stratum of no value at Widdrington; alum at West-Hallum; at Bilston. 3. +Coal at Coalbrooke-Dale has been immersed in the sea, shewn by sea- +shells; marks of violence in the colliery at Mendip and at Ticknal; +Lead-ore and spar in coal-beds; gravel over coal near Lichfield; Coal +produced from morasses shewn by fern-leaves, and bog-shells, and muscle- +shells; by some parts of coal being still woody; from Lock Neagh and +Bovey, and the Temple of the devil; fixed alcali; oil. + + + NOTE XXIV ... GRANITE. + +Granite the lowest stratum of the earth yet known; porphory, trap, Moor- +stone, Whin-stone, slate, basaltes, all volcanic productions dissolved +in red-hot water; volcanos in granite strata; differ from the heat of +morasses from fermentation; the nucleus of the earth ejected from the +sun? was the sun originally a planet? supposed section of the globe. + + + NOTE XXV ... EVAPORATION. + +I. Solution of water in air; in the matter of heat; pulse-glass. 2. Heat +is the principal cause of evaporation; thermometer cooled by evaporation +of ether; heat given from steam to the worm-tub; warmth accompanying +rain. 3. Steam condensed on the eduction of heat; moisture on cold +walls; south-west and north-east winds. 4. Solution of salt and of blue +vitriol in the matter of heat. II. Other vapours may precipitate steam +and form rain. 1. Cold the principal cause of devaporation; hence the +steam dissolved in heat is precipitated, but that dissolved in air +remains even in frosts; south-west wind. 2. North-east winds mixing with +south-west winds produce rain; because the cold particles of air of the +north-east acquire some of the matter of heat from the south-west winds. +3. Devaporation from mechanical expansion of air, as in the receiver of +an air-pump; summer-clouds appear and vanish; when the barometers sink +without change of wind the weather becomes colder. 4. Solution of water +in electric fluid dubious. 5. Barometer sinks from the lessened gravity +of the air, and from the rain having less pressure as it falls; a +mixture of a solution of water in calorique with an aerial solution of +water is lighter than dry air; breath of animals in cold weather why +condensed into visible vapour and dissolved again. + + + NOTE XXVI ... SPRINGS. + +Lowest strata of the earth appear on the highest hills; springs from +dews sliding between them; mountains are colder than plains; 1. from +their being insulated in the air; 2. from their enlarged surface; 3. +from the rarety of the air it becomes a better conductor of heat; 4. by +the air on mountains being mechanically rarefied as it ascends; 5. +gravitation of the matter of heat; 6. the dashing of clouds against +hills; of fogs against trees; springs stronger in hot days with cold +nights; streams from subterranean caverns; from beneath the snow on the +Alps. + + + NOTE XXVII ... SHELL-FISH. + +The armour of the Echinus moveable; holds itself in storms to stones by +1200 or 2000 strings: Nautilus rows and sails; renders its shell +buoyant: Pinna and Cancer; Byssus of the antients was the beard of the +Pinna; as fine as the silk is spun by the silk-worm; gloves made of it; +the beard of muscles produces sickness; Indian weed; tendons of rats +tails. + + + NOTE XXVIII ... STURGEON. + +Sturgeon's mouth like a purse; without teeth; tendrils like worms hang +before his lips, which entice small fish and sea-insects mistaking them +for worms; his skin used for covering carriages; isinglass made from it; +cavear from the spawn. + + + NOTE XXIX ... OIL ON WATER. + +Oil and water do not touch; a second drop of oil will not diffuse itself +on the preceeding one; hence it stills the waves; divers for pearl carry +oil in their mouths; oil on water produces prismatic colours; oiled cork +circulates on water; a phial of oil and water made to oscillate. + + + NOTE XXX ... SHIP-WORM. + +The Teredo has calcareous jaws; a new enemy; they perish when they meet +together in their ligneous canals; United Provinces alarmed for the +piles of the banks of Zeland; were destroyed by a severe winter. + + + NOTE XXXI ... MAELSTROM. + +A whirlpool on the coast of Norway; passes through a subterraneous +cavity; less violent when the tide is up; eddies become hollow in the +middle; heavy bodies are thrown out by eddies; light ones retained; oil +and water whirled in a phial; hurricanes explained. + + + NOTE XXXII ... GLACIERS. + +Snow in contact with the earth is in a state of thaw; ice-houses; rivers +from beneath the snow; rime in spring vanishes by its contact with the +earth; and snow by its evaporation and contact with the earth; moss +vegetates beneath the snow; and Alpine plants perish at Upsal for want +of show. + + + NOTE XXXIII ... WINDS. + +Air is perpetually subject to increase and to diminution; Oxygene is +perpetually produced from vegetables in the sunshine, and from clouds in +the light, and from water; Azote is perpetually produced from animal and +vegetable putrefaction, or combustion; from springs of water; volatile +alcali; fixed alcali; sea-water; they are both perpetually diminished by +their contact with the soil, producing nitre; Oxygene is diminished in +the production of all acids; Azote by the growth of animal bodies; +charcoal in burning consumes double its weight of pure air; every barrel +of red-lead absorbes 2000 cubic feet of vital air; air obtained from +variety of substances by Dr. Priestley; Officina aeris in the polar +circle, and at the Line. _South-west winds_; their westerly direction +from the less velocity of the earth's surface; the contrary in respect +to north-east winds; South-west winds consist of regions of air from the +south; and north-east winds of regions of air from the north; when the +south-west prevails for weeks and the barometer sinks to 28, what +becomes of above one fifteenth part of the atmosphere; 1. It is not +carried back by superior currents; 2. Not from its loss of moisture; 3. +Not carried over the pole; 4. Not owing to atmospheric tides or +mountains; 5. It is absorbed at the polar circle; hence south-west winds +and rain; south-west sometimes cold. _North-east winds_ consist of air +from the north; cold by the evaporation of ice; are dry winds; 1. Not +supplied by superior current; 2. The whole atmosphere increased in +quantity by air set at liberty from its combinations in the polar +circles. _South-east winds_ consist of north winds driven back. _North- +west winds_ consist of south-west winds driven back; north-west winds of +America bring frost; owing to a vertical spiral eddy of air between the +eastern coast and the Apalachian mountains; hence the greater cold of +North America. _Trade-winds_; air over the Line always hotter than at +the tropics; trade-winds gain their easterly direction from the greater +velocity of the earth's surface at the line; not supplied by superior +currents; supplied by decomposed water in the sun's great light; 1. +Because there are no constant rains in the tract of the trade-winds; 2. +Because there is no condensible vapour above three or four miles high at +the line. _Monsoons and tornadoes_; some places at the tropic become +warmer when the sun is vertical than at the line; hence the air ascends, +supplied on one side by the north-east winds, and on the other by the +south-west; whence an ascending eddy or tornado, raising water from the +sea, or sand from the desert, and incessant rains; air diminished to the +northward produces south-west winds; tornadoes from heavier air above +sinking through lighter air below, which rises through a perforation; +hence trees are thrown down in a narrow line of twenty or forty yards +broad, the sea rises like a cone, with great rain and lightning. _Land +and sea breezes_; sea less heated than land; tropical islands more +heated in the day than the sea, and are cooled more in the night. +_Conclusion_; irregular winds from other causes; only two original winds +north and south; different sounds of north-east and south-west winds; a +Bear or Dragon in the arctic circle that swallows at times and +disembogues again above one fifteenth part of the atmosphere; wind- +instruments; recapitulation. + + + NOTE XXXIV ... VEGETABLE PERSPIRATION. + +Pure air from Dr. Priestley's vegetable matter, and from vegetable +leaves, owing to decomposition of water; the hydrogene retained by the +vegetables; plants in the shade are _tanned_ green by the sun's light; +animal skins are _tanned_ yellow by the retention of hydrogene; much +pure air from dew on a sunny morning; bleaching why sooner performed on +cotton than linen; bees wax bleached; metals calcined by decomposition +of water; oil bleached in the light becomes yellow again in the dark; +nitrous acid coloured by being exposed to the sun; vegetables perspire +more than animals, hence in the sun-shine they purify air more by their +perspiration than they injure it by their respiration; they grow fastest +in their sleep. + + + NOTE XXXV ... VEGETABLE PLACENTATION. + +Buds the viviparous offspring of vegetables; placentation in bulbs and +seeds; placentation of buds in the roots, hence the rising of sap in the +spring, as in vines, birch, which ceases as soon as the leaves expand; +production of the leaf of Horse-chesnut, and of its new bud; oil of +vitriol on the bud of Mimosa killed the leaf also; placentation shewn +from the sweetness of the sap; no umbilical artery in vegetables. + + + NOTE XXXVI ... VEGETABLE CIRCULATION. + +Buds set in the ground will grow if prevented from bleeding to death by +a cement; vegetables require no muscles of locomotion, no stomach or +bowels, no general system of veins; they have, 1. Three systems of +absorbent vessels; 2. Two pulmonary systems; 3. Arterial systems; 4. +Glands; 5. Organs of reproduction; 6. muscles. I. Absorbent system +evinced by experiments by coloured absorptions in fig-tree and picris; +called air-vessels erroneously; spiral structure of absorbent vessels; +retrograde motion of them like the throats of cows. II. Pulmonary +arteries in the leaves, and pulmonary veins; no general system of veins +shewn by experiment; no heart; the arteries act like the vena portarum +of the liver; pulmonary system in the petals of flowers; circulation +owing to living irritability; vegetable absorption more powerful than +animal, as in vines; not by capillary attraction. + + + NOTE XXXVII ... VEGETABLE RESPIRATION. + +I. Leaves not perspiratory organs, nor excretory ones; lungs of animals. +1. Great surfaces of leaves. 2. Vegetable blood changes colour in the +leaves; experiment with spurge; with picris. 3. Upper surface of the +leaf only acts as a respiratory organ. 4. Upper surface repels moisture; +leaves laid on water. 5. Leaves killed by oil like insects; muscles at +the foot-stalks of leaves. 6. Use of light to vegetable leaves; +experiments of Priestley, Ingenhouze, and Scheel. 7. Vegetable +circulation similar to that of fish. II. Another pulmonary system +belongs to flowers; colours of flowers. 1. Vascular structure of the +corol. 2. Glands producing honey, wax, &c. perish with the corol. 3. +Many flowers have no green leaves attending them, as Colchicum. 4. +Corols not for the defence of the stamens. 5. Corol of Helleborus Niger +changes to a calyx. 6. Green leaves not necessary to the fruit-bud; +green leaves of Colchicum belong to the new bulb not to the flower. 7. +Flower-bud after the corol falls is simply an uterus; mature flowers not +injured by taking of the green leaves. 8. Inosculation of vegetable +vessels. + + + NOTE XXXVIII ... VEGETABLE IMPREGNATION. + +Seeds in broom discovered twenty days before the flower opens; progress +of the seed after impregnation; seeds exist before fecundation; analogy +between seeds and eggs; progress of the egg within the hen; spawn of +frogs and of fish; male Salamander; marine plants project a liquor not a +powder; seminal fluid diluted with water, if a stimulus only? Male and +female influence necessary in animals, insects, and vegetables, both in +production of seeds and buds; does the embryon seed produce the +surrounding fruit, like insects in gall-nuts? + + + NOTE XXXIX ... VEGETABLE GLANDULATION. + +Vegetable glands cannot be injected with coloured fluids; essential oil; +wax; honey; nectary, its complicate apparatus; exposes the honey to the +air like the lacrymal gland; honey is nutritious; the male and female +parts of flowers copulate and die like moths and butterflies, and are +fed like them with honey; anthers supposed to become insects; +depredation of the honey and wax injurious to plants; honey-dew; honey +oxygenated by exposure to air; necessary for the production of +sensibility; the provision for the embryon plant of honey, sugar, +starch, &c. supplies food to numerous classes of animals; various +vegetable secretions as gum tragacanth, camphor, elemi, anime, +turpentine, balsam of Mecca, aloe, myrrh, elastic resin, manna, sugar, +wax, tallow, and many other concrete juices; vegetable digestion; +chemical production of sugar would multiply mankind; economy of nature. + + + THE END + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Botanic Garden, by Erasmus Darwin + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIC GARDEN *** + +This file should be named 7bot110.txt or 7bot110.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7bot111.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7bot110a.txt + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Robert Shimmin +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Botanic Garden + A Poem in Two Parts. Part 1: The Economy of Vegetation + +Author: Erasmus Darwin + +Release Date: January, 2006 [EBook #9612] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on October 10, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIC GARDEN *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Robert Shimmin +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Illustration: FLORA attired by the ELEMENTS] + + + + + THE + + BOTANIC GARDEN; + + + _A Poem, in Two Parts._ + + + PART I. + + CONTAINING + + THE ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + PART II. + + THE LOVES OF THE PLANTS. + + + WITH + + + Philosophical Notes. + + + + ADVERTISEMENT. + + +The general design of the following sheets is to inlist Imagination +under the banner of Science; and to lead her votaries from the looser +analogies, which dress out the imagery of poetry, to the stricter, ones +which form the ratiocination of philosophy. While their particular +design is to induce the ingenious to cultivate the knowledge of Botany, +by introducing them to the vestibule of that delightful science, and +recommending to their attention the immortal works of the celebrated +Swedish Naturalist, LINNEUS. + +In the first Poem, or Economy of Vegetation, the physiology of Plants is +delivered; and the operation of the Elements, as far as they may be +supposed to affect the growth of Vegetables. In the second Poem, or +Loves of the Plants, the Sexual System of Linneus is explained, with the +remarkable properties of many particular plants. + + + + + APOLOGY. + + +It may be proper here to apologize for many of the subsequent +conjectures on some articles of natural philosophy, as not being +supported by accurate investigation or conclusive experiments. +Extravagant theories however in those parts of philosophy, where our +knowledge is yet imperfect, are not without their use; as they encourage +the execution of laborious experiments, or the investigation of +ingenious deductions, to confirm or refute them. And since natural +objects are allied to each other by many affinities, every kind of +theoretic distribution of them adds to our knowledge by developing some +of their analogies. + +The Rosicrucian doctrine of Gnomes, Sylphs, Nymphs, and Salamanders, was +thought to afford a proper machinery for a Botanic poem; as it is +probable, that they were originally the names of hieroglyphic figures +representing the elements. + +Many of the important operations of Nature were shadowed or allegorized +in the heathen mythology, as the first Cupid springing from the Egg of +Night, the marriage of Cupid and Psyche, the Rape of Proserpine, the +Congress of Jupiter and Juno, Death and Resuscitation of Adonis, &c. +many of which are ingeniously explained in the works of Bacon, Vol. V. +p. 47. 4th Edit. London, 1778. The Egyptians were possessed of many +discoveries in philosophy and chemistry before the invention of letters; +these were then expressed in hieroglyphic paintings of men and animals; +which after the discovery of the alphabet were described and animated by +the poets, and became first the deities of Egypt, and afterwards of +Greece and Rome. Allusions to those fables were therefore thought proper +ornaments to a philosophical poem, and are occasionally introduced +either as represented by the poets, or preserved on the numerous gems +and medallions of antiquity. + + + + + TO + + THE AUTHOR + + OF THE + + POEM ON THE LOVES OF THE PLANTS. + + + BY THE REV. W.B. STEPHENS. + + + Oft tho' thy genius, D----! amply fraught +With native wealth, explore new worlds of mind; +Whence the bright ores of drossless wisdom brought, +Stampt by the Muse's hand, enrich mankind; + + Tho' willing Nature to thy curious eye, +Involved in night, her mazy depths betray; +Till at their source thy piercing search descry +The streams, that bathe with Life our mortal clay; + + Tho', boldly soaring in sublimer mood +Through trackless skies on metaphysic wings, +Thou darest to scan the approachless Cause of Good, +And weigh with steadfast hand the Sum of Things; + + Yet wilt thou, charm'd amid his whispering bowers +Oft with lone step by glittering Derwent stray, +Mark his green foliage, count his musky flowers, +That blush or tremble to the rising ray; + + While FANCY, seated in her rock-roof'd dell, +Listening the secrets of the vernal grove, +Breathes sweetest strains to thy symphonious shell, +And gives new echoes to the throne of Love. + +_Repton, Nov. 28, 1788._ + + + + + _Argument of the First Canto._ + + +The Genius of the place invites the Goddess of Botany. 1. She descends, +is received by Spring, and the Elements, 59. Addresses the Nymphs of +Fire. Star-light Night seen in the Camera Obscura, 81. I. Love created +the Universe. Chaos explodes. All the Stars revolve. God. 97. II. +Shooting Stars. Lightning. Rainbow. Colours of the Morning and Evening +Skies. Exterior Atmosphere of inflammable Air. Twilight. Fire-balls. +Aurora Borealis. Planets. Comets. Fixed Stars. Sun's Orb, 115. III. 1. +Fires at the Earth's Centre. Animal Incubation, 137. 2. Volcanic +Mountains. Venus visits the Cyclops, 149. IV. Heat confined on the Earth +by the Air. Phosphoric lights in the Evening. Bolognian Stone. Calcined +Shells. Memnon's Harp, 173. Ignis fatuus. Luminous Flowers. Glow-worm. +Fire-fly. Luminous Sea-insects. Electric Eel. Eagle armed with +Lightning, 189. V. 1. Discovery of Fire. Medusa, 209. 2. The chemical +Properties of Fire. Phosphorus. Lady in Love, 223. 3. Gunpowder, 237. +VI. Steam-engine applied to Pumps, Bellows, Water-engines, Corn-mills, +Coining, Barges, Waggons, Flying-chariots, 253. Labours of Hercules. +Abyla and Calpe, 297. VII. 1. Electric Machine. Hesperian Dragon. +Electric kiss. Halo round the heads of Saints. Electric Shock. Fairy- +rings, 335. 2. Death of Professor Richman, 371. 3. Franklin draws +Lightning from the Clouds. Cupid snatches the Thunder-bolt from Jupiter, +383. VIII. Phosphoric Acid and Vital Heat produced in the Blood. The +great Egg of Night, 399. IX. Western Wind unfettered. Naiad released. +Frost assailed. Whale attacked, 421. X. Buds and Flowers expanded by +Warmth, Electricity, and Light. Drawings with colourless sympathetic +Inks; which appear when warmed by the Fire, 457. XI. Sirius. Jupiter and +Semele. Northern Constellations. Ice-islands navigated into the Tropic +Seas. Rainy Monsoons, 497. XII. Points erected to procure Rain. Elijah +on Mount-Carmel, 549. Departure of the Nymphs of Fire like sparks from +artificial Fireworks, 587. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO I. + + + STAY YOUR RUDE STEPS! whose throbbing breasts infold + The legion-fiends of Glory, or of Gold! + Stay! whose false lips seductive simpers part, + While Cunning nestles in the harlot-heart!-- + 5 For you no Dryads dress the roseate bower, + For you no Nymphs their sparkling vases pour; + Unmark'd by you, light Graces swim the green, + And hovering Cupids aim their shafts, unseen. + + "But THOU! whose mind the well-attemper'd ray + 10 Of Taste and Virtue lights with purer day; + Whose finer sense each soft vibration owns + With sweet responsive sympathy of tones; + So the fair flower expands it's lucid form + To meet the sun, and shuts it to the storm;-- + 15 For thee my borders nurse the fragrant wreath, + My fountains murmur, and my zephyrs breathe; + Slow slides the painted snail, the gilded fly + Smooths his fine down, to charm thy curious eye; + On twinkling fins my pearly nations play, + 20 Or win with sinuous train their trackless way; + My plumy pairs in gay embroidery dress'd + Form with ingenious bill the pensile nest, + To Love's sweet notes attune the listening dell, + And Echo sounds her soft symphonious shell. + + +[ _So the fair flower_. l. 13. It seems to have been the original design +of the philosophy of Epicurus to render the mind exquisitely sensible to +agreeable sensations, and equally insensible to disagreeable ones.] + + + 25 "And, if with Thee some hapless Maid should stray, + Disasterous Love companion of her way, + Oh, lead her timid steps to yonder glade, + Whose arching cliffs depending alders shade; + There, as meek Evening wakes her temperate breeze, + 30 And moon-beams glimmer through the trembling trees, + The rills, that gurgle round, shall soothe her ear, + The weeping rocks shall number tear for tear; + There as sad Philomel, alike forlorn, + Sings to the Night from her accustomed thorn; + 35 While at sweet intervals each falling note + Sighs in the gale, and whispers round the grot; + The sister-woe shall calm her aching breast, + And softer slumbers steal her cares to rest.-- + + +[_Disasterous Love_. l. 26. The scenery is taken from a botanic garden +about a mile from Lichfield, where a cold bath was erected by Sir John +Floyer. There is a grotto surrounded by projecting rocks, from the edges +of which trickles a perpetual shower of water; and it is here +represented as adapted to love-scenes, as being thence a proper +residence for the modern goddess of Botany, and the easier to introduce +the next poem on the Loves of the Plants according to the system of +Linneus.] + + + "Winds of the North! restrain your icy gales, + 40 Nor chill the bosom of these happy vales! + Hence in dark heaps, ye gathering Clouds, revolve! + Disperse, ye Lightnings! and, ye Mists, dissolve! + --Hither, emerging from yon orient skies, + BOTANIC GODDESS! bend thy radiant eyes; + 45 O'er these soft scenes assume thy gentle reign, + Pomona, Ceres, Flora in thy train; + O'er the still dawn thy placid smile effuse, + And with thy silver sandals print the dews; + In noon's bright blaze thy vermil vest unfold, + 50 And wave thy emerald banner star'd with gold." + + Thus spoke the GENIUS, as He stept along, + And bade these lawns to Peace and Truth belong; + Down the steep slopes He led with modest skill + The willing pathway, and the truant rill, + 55 Stretch'd o'er the marshy vale yon willowy mound, + Where shines the lake amid the tufted ground, + Raised the young woodland, smooth'd the wavy green, + And gave to Beauty all the quiet scene.-- + + She comes!--the GODDESS!--through the whispering air, + 60 Bright as the morn, descends her blushing car; + Each circling wheel a wreath of flowers intwines, + And gem'd with flowers the silken harness shines; + The golden bits with flowery studs are deck'd, + And knots of flowers the crimson reins connect.-- + 65 And now on earth the silver axle rings, + And the shell sinks upon its slender springs; + Light from her airy seat the Goddess bounds, + And steps celestial press the pansied grounds. + + Fair Spring advancing calls her feather'd quire, + 70 And tunes to softer notes her laughing lyre; + Bids her gay hours on purple pinions move, + And arms her Zephyrs with the shafts of Love, + Pleased GNOMES, ascending from their earthy beds, + Play round her graceful footsteps, as she treads; + 75 Gay SYLPHS attendant beat the fragrant air + On winnowing wings, and waft her golden hair; + Blue NYMPHS emerging leave their sparkling streams, + And FIERY FORMS alight from orient beams; + Musk'd in the rose's lap fresh dews they shed, + 80 Or breathe celestial lustres round her head. + + +[_Pleased Gnomes_. l. 73. The Rosicrucian doctrine of Gnomes, Sylphs, +Nymphs, and Salamanders affords proper machinery for a philosophic poem; +as it is probable that they were originally the names of hieroglyphic +figures of the Elements, or of Genii presiding over their operations. +The Fairies of more modern days seem to have been derived from them, and +to have inherited their powers. The Gnomes and Sylphs, as being more +nearly allied to modern Fairies are represented as either male or +female, which distinguishes the latter from the Aurae of the Latin +Poets, which were only female; except the winds, as Zephyrus and Auster, +may be supposed to have been their husbands.] + + + First the fine Forms her dulcet voice requires, + Which bathe or bask in elemental fires; + From each bright gem of Day's refulgent car, + From the pale sphere of every twinkling star, + 85 From each nice pore of ocean, earth, and air, + With eye of flame the sparkling hosts repair, + Mix their gay hues, in changeful circles play, + Like motes, that tenant the meridian ray.-- + So the clear Lens collects with magic power + 90 The countless glories of the midnight hour; + Stars after stars with quivering lustre fall, + And twinkling glide along the whiten'd wall.-- + Pleased, as they pass, she counts the glittering bands, + And stills their murmur with her waving hands; + 95 Each listening tribe with fond expectance burns, + And now to these, and now to those, she turns. + + I. "NYMPHS OF PRIMEVAL FIRE! YOUR vestal train + Hung with gold-tresses o'er the vast inane, + Pierced with your silver shafts the throne of Night, +100 And charm'd young Nature's opening eyes with light; + When LOVE DIVINE, with brooding wings unfurl'd, + Call'd from the rude abyss the living world. + "--LET THERE BE LIGHT!" proclaim'd the ALMIGHTY LORD, + Astonish'd Chaos heard the potent word;-- +105 Through all his realms the kindling Ether runs, + And the mass starts into a million suns; + Earths round each sun with quick explosions burst, + And second planets issue from the first; + Bend, as they journey with projectile force, +110 In bright ellipses their reluctant course; + Orbs wheel in orbs, round centres centres roll, + And form, self-balanced, one revolving Whole. + --Onward they move amid their bright abode, + Space without bound, THE BOSOM OF THEIR GOD! + + +[_Nymphs of primeval fire_. l. 97. The fluid matter of heat is perhaps +the most extensive element in nature; all other bodies are immersed in +it, and are preserved in their present state of solidity or fluidity by +the attraction of their particles to the matter of heat. Since all known +bodies are contractible into less space by depriving them of some +portion of their heat, and as there is no part of nature totally +deprived of heat, there is reason to believe that the particles of +bodies do not touch, but are held towards each other by their self- +attraction, and recede from each other by their attraction to the mass +of heat which surrounds them; and thus exist in an equilibrium between +these two powers. If more of the matter of heat be applied to them, they +recede further from each other, and become fluid; if still more be +applied, they take an aerial form, and are termed Gasses by the modern +chemists. Thus when water is heated to a certain degree, it would +instantly assume the form of steam, but for the pressure of the +atmosphere, which prevents this change from taking place so easily; the +same is true of quicksilver, diamonds, and of perhaps all other bodies +in Nature; they would first become fluid, and then aeriform by +appropriated degrees of heat. On the contrary, this elastic matter of +heat, termed Calorique in the new nomenclature of the French +Academicians, is liable to become consolidated itself in its +combinations with some bodies, as perhaps in nitre, and probably in +combustible bodies as sulphur and charcoal. See note on l. 232, of this +Canto. Modern philosophers have not yet been able to decide whether +light and heat be different fluids, or modifications of the same fluid, +as they have many properties in common. See note on l. 462 of this +Canto.] + +[_When Love Divine_. l. 101. From having observed the gradual evolution +of the young animal or plant from its egg or seed; and afterwards its +successive advances to its more perfect state, or maturity; philosophers +of all ages seem to have imagined, that the great world itself had +likewise its infancy and its gradual progress to maturity; this seems to +have given origin to the very antient and sublime allegory of Eros, or +Divine Love, producing the world from the egg of Night, as it floated in +Chaos. See l. 419. of this Canto. + +The external crust of the earth, as far as it has been exposed to our +view in mines or mountains, countenances this opinion; since these have +evidently for the most part had their origin from the shells of fishes, +the decomposition of vegetables, and the recrements of other animal +materials, and must therefore have been formed progressively from small +beginnings. There are likewise some apparently useless or incomplete +appendages to plants and animals, which seem to shew they have gradually +undergone changes from their original state; such as the stamens without +anthers, and styles without stigmas of several plants, as mentioned in +the note on Curcuma, Vol. II. of this work. Such is the halteres, or +rudiments of wings of some two-winged insects; and the paps of male +animals; thus swine have four toes, but two of them are imperfectly +formed, and not long enough for use. The allantoide in some animals +seems to have become extinct; in others is above tenfold the size, which +would seem necessary for its purpose. Buffon du Cochon. T. 6. p. 257. +Perhaps all the supposed monstrous births of Nature are remains of their +habits of production in their former less perfect state, or attempts +towards greater perfection.] + +[_Through all his realms_. l. 105. Mr. Herschel has given a very sublime +and curious account of the construction of the heavens with his +discovery of some thousand nebulae, or clouds of stars; many of which +are much larger collections of stars, than all those put together, which +are visible to our naked eyes, added to those which form the galaxy, or +milky zone, which surrounds us. He observes that in the vicinity of +these clusters of stars there are proportionally fewer stars than in +other parts of the heavens; and hence he concludes, that they have +attracted each other, on the supposition that infinite space was at +first equally sprinkled with them; as if it had at the beginning been +filled with a fluid mass, which had coagulated. Mr. Herschel has further +shewn, that the whole sidereal system is gradually moving round some +centre, which may be an opake mass of matter, Philos. Trans. V. LXXIV. +If all these Suns are moving round some great central body; they must +have had a projectile force, as well as a centripetal one; and may +thence be supposed to have emerged or been projected from the material, +where they were produced. We can have no idea of a natural power, which +could project a Sun out of Chaos, except by comparing it to the +explosions or earthquakes owing to the sudden evolution of aqueous or of +other more elastic vapours; of the power of which under immeasurable +degrees of heat, and compression, we are yet ignorant. + +It may be objected, that if the stars had been projected from a Chaos by +explosions, that they must have returned again into it from the known +laws of gravitation; this however would not happen, if the whole of +Chaos, like grains of gunpowder, was exploded at the same time, and +dispersed through infinite space at once, or in quick succession, in +every possible direction. The same objection may be stated against the +possibility of the planets having been thrown from the sun by +explosions; and the secondary planets from the primary ones; which will +be spoken of more at large in the second Canto, but if the planets are +supposed to have been projected from their suns, and the secondary from +the primary ones, at the beginning of their course; they might be so +influenced or diverted by the attractions of the suns, or sun, in their +vicinity, as to prevent their tendency to return into the body, from +which they were projected. + +If these innumerable and immense suns thus rising out of Chaos are +supposed to have thrown out their attendant planets by new explosions, +as they ascended; and those their respective satellites, filling in a +moment the immensity of space with light and motion, a grander idea +cannot be conceived by the mind of man.] + + +115 II. "ETHEREAL POWERS! YOU chase the shooting stars, + Or yoke the vollied lightenings to your cars, + Cling round the aërial bow with prisms bright, + And pleased untwist the sevenfold threads of light; + Eve's silken couch with gorgeous tints adorn, +120 And fire the arrowy throne of rising Morn. + --OR, plum'd with flame, in gay battalion's spring + To brighter regions borne on broader wing; + Where lighter gases, circumfused on high, + Form the vast concave of exterior sky; +125 With airy lens the scatter'd rays assault, + And bend the twilight round the dusky vault; + Ride, with broad eye and scintillating hair, + The rapid Fire-ball through the midnight air; + Dart from the North on pale electric streams, +130 Fringing Night's sable robe with transient beams. + --OR rein the Planets in their swift careers, + Gilding with borrow'd light their twinkling spheres; + Alarm with comet-blaze the sapphire plain, + The wan stars glimmering through its silver train; +135 Gem the bright Zodiac, stud the glowing pole, + Or give the Sun's phlogistic orb to roll. + + +[_Chase the shooting stars_. l. 115. The meteors called shooting stars, +the lightening, the rainbow, and the clouds, are phenomena of the lower +regions of the atmosphere. The twilight, the meteors call'd fire-balls, +or flying dragons, and the northern lights, inhabit the higher regions +of the atmosphere. See additional notes, No. I.] + +[_Cling round the aerial bow_. l. 117. See additional notes, No. II] + +[_Eve's silken couch_. l. 119. See additional notes, No. III.] + +[_Where lighter gases_. l. 123. Mr. Cavendish has shewn that the gas +called inflammable air, is at least ten times lighter than common air; +Mr. Lavoisier contends, that it is one of the component parts of water, +and is by him called hydrogene. It is supposed to afford their principal +nourishment to vegetables and thence to animals, and is perpetually +rising from their decomposition; this source of it in hot climates, and +in summer months, is so great as to exceed estimation. Now if this light +gas passes through the atmosphere, without combining with it, it must +compose another atmosphere over the aerial one; which must expand, when +the pressure above it is thus taken away, to inconceivable tenuity. + +If this supernatural gasseous atmosphere floats upon the aerial one, +like ether upon water, what must happen? 1. it will flow from the line, +where it will be produced in the greatest quantities, and become much +accumulated over the poles of the earth; 2. the common air, or lower +stratum of the atmosphere, will be much thinner over the poles than at +the line; because if a glass globe be filled with oil and water, and +whirled upon its axis, the centrifugal power will carry the heavier +fluid to the circumference, and the lighter will in consequence be found +round the axis. 3. There may be a place at some certain latitude between +the poles and the line on each side the equator, where the inflammable +supernatant atmosphere may end, owing to the greater centrifugal force +of the heavier aerial atmosphere. 4. Between the termination of the +aerial and the beginning of the gasseous atmosphere, the airs will +occasionally be intermixed, and thus become inflammable by the electric +spark; these circumstances will assist in explaining the phenomena of +fire-balls, northern lights, and of some variable winds, and long +continued rains. + +Since the above note was first written, Mr. Volta I am informed has +applied the supposition of a supernatant atmosphere of inflammable air, +to explain some phenomena in meteorology. And Mr. Lavoisier has +announced his design to write on this subject. Traité de Chimie, Tom. I. +I am happy to find these opinions supported by such respectable +authority.] + +[_And bend the twilight_. l. 126. The crepuscular atmosphere, or the +region where the light of the sun ceases to be refracted to us, is +estimated by philosophers to be between 40 and 50 miles high, at which +time the sun is about 18 degrees below the horizon; and the rarity of +the air is supposed to be from 4,000 to 10,000 times greater than at the +surface of the earth. Cotes's Hydrost. p. 123. The duration of twilight +differs in different seasons and in different latitudes; in England the +shortest twilight is about the beginning of October and of March; in +more northern latitudes, where the sun never sinks more than 18 degrees, +below the horizon, the twilight continues the whole night. The time of +its duration may also be occasionally affected by the varying height of +the atmosphere. A number of observations on the duration of twilight in +different latitudes might afford considerable information concerning the +aerial strata in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and might assist +in determining whether an exterior atmosphere of inflammable gas, or +Hydrogene, exists over the aerial one.] + +[_Alarm with Comet-blaze_. l. 133. See additional notes, No. IV.] + +[_The Sun's phlogistic orb_. l. 136. See additional notes, No. V.] + + + III. NYMPHS! YOUR fine forms with steps impassive mock + Earth's vaulted roofs of adamantine rock; + Round her still centre tread the burning soil, +140 And watch the billowy Lavas, as they boil; + Where, in basaltic caves imprison'd deep, + Reluctant fires in dread suspension sleep; + Or sphere on sphere in widening waves expand, + And glad with genial warmth the incumbent land. +145 So when the Mother-bird selects their food + With curious bill, and feeds her callow brood; + Warmth from her tender heart eternal springs, + And pleased she clasps them with extended wings. + + +[_Round the still centre_. l. 139. Many philosophers have believed that +the central parts of the earth consist of a fluid mass of burning lava, +which they have called a subterraneous sun; and have supposed, that it +contributes to the production of metals, and to the growth of +vegetables. See additional notes, No. VI.] + +[_Or sphere on sphere_. l. 143. See additional notes, No. VII.] + + + "YOU from deep cauldrons and unmeasured caves +150 Blow flaming airs, or pour vitrescent waves; + O'er shining oceans ray volcanic light, + Or hurl innocuous embers to the night.-- + While with loud shouts to Etna Heccla calls, + And Andes answers from his beacon'd walls; +155 Sea-wilder'd crews the mountain-stars admire, + And Beauty beams amid tremendous fire. + + +[_Hurl innocuous embers_. l. 152. The immediate cause of volcanic +eruptions is believed to be owing to the water of the sea, or from +lakes, or inundations, finding itself a passage into the subterraneous +fires, which may lie at great depths. This must first produce by its +coldness a condensation of the vapour there existing, or a vacuum, and +thus occasion parts of the earth's crust or shell to be forced down by +the pressure of the incumbent atmosphere. Afterwards the water being +suddenly raised into steam produces all the explosive effects of +earthquakes. And by new accessions of water during the intervals of the +explosions the repetition of the shocks is caused. These circumstances +were hourly illustrated by the fountains of boiling water in Iceland, in +which the surface of the water in the boiling wells sunk down low before +every new ebullition. + +Besides these eruptions occasioned by the steam of water, there seems to +be a perpetual effusion of other vapours, more noxious and (as far as it +is yet known) perhaps greatly more expansile than water from the +Volcanos in various parts of the world. As these Volcanos are supposed +to be spiracula or breathing holes to the great subterraneous fires, it +is probable that the escape of elastic vapours from them is the cause, +that the earthquakes of modern days are of such small extent compared to +those of antient times, of which vestiges remain in every part of the +world, and on this account may be said not only to be innocuous, but +useful.] + + + "Thus when of old, as mystic bards presume, + Huge CYCLOPS dwelt in Etna's rocky womb, + On thundering anvils rung their loud alarms, +160 And leagued with VULCAN forged immortal arms; + Descending VENUS sought the dark abode, + And sooth'd the labours of the grisly God.-- + While frowning Loves the threatening falchion wield, + And tittering Graces peep behind the shield, +165 With jointed mail their fairy limbs o'erwhelm, + Or nod with pausing step the plumed helm; + With radiant eye She view'd the boiling ore, + Heard undismay'd the breathing bellows roar, + Admired their sinewy arms, and shoulders bare, +170 And ponderous hammers lifted high in air, + With smiles celestial bless'd their dazzled sight, + And Beauty blazed amid infernal night. + + IV. "EFFULGENT MAIDS! YOU round deciduous day, + Tressed with soft beams, your glittering bands array; +175 On Earth's cold bosom, as the Sun retires, + Confine with folds of air the lingering fires; + O'er Eve's pale forms diffuse phosphoric light, + And deck with lambent flames the shrine of Night. + So, warm'd and kindled by meridian skies, +180 And view'd in darkness with dilated eyes, + BOLOGNA'S chalks with faint ignition blaze, + BECCARI'S shells emit prismatic rays. + So to the sacred Sun in MEMNON's fane, + Spontaneous concords quired the matin strain; +185 --Touch'd by his orient beam, responsive rings + The living lyre, and vibrates all it's strings; + Accordant ailes the tender tones prolong, + And holy echoes swell the adoring song. + + +[_Confine with folds of air_. l. 176. The air, like all other bad +conductors of electricity, is known to be a bad conductor of heat; and +thence prevents the heat acquired from the sun's rays by the earth's +surface from being so soon dissipated, in the same manner as a blanket, +which may be considered as a sponge filled with air, prevents the escape +of heat from the person wrapped in it. This seems to be one cause of the +great degree of cold on the tops of mountains, where the rarity of the +air is greater, and it therefore becomes a better conductor both of heat +and electricity. See note on Barometz, Vol. II. of this work. + +There is however another cause to which the great coldness of mountains +and of the higher regions of the atmosphere is more immediately to be +ascribed, explained by Dr. Darwin in the Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. +who has there proved by experiments with the air-gun and air-pump, that +when any portion of the atmosphere becomes mechanically expanded, it +absorbs heat from the bodies in its vicinity. And as the air which +creeps along the plains, expands itself by a part of the pressure being +taken off when it ascends the sides of mountains; it at the same time +attracts heat from the summits of those mountains, or other bodies which +happen to be immersed in it, and thus produces cold. Hence he concludes +that the hot air at the bottom of the Andes becomes temperate by its own +rarefaction when it ascends to the city of Quito; and by its further +rarefaction becomes cooled to the freezing point when it ascends to the +snowy regions on the summits of those mountains. To this also he +attributes the great degree of cold experienced by the aeronauts in +their balloons; and which produces hail in summer at the height of only +two or three miles in the atmosphere.] + +[_Diffuse phosphoric light_. l. 177. I have often been induced to +believe from observation, that the twilight of the evenings is lighter +than that of the mornings at the same distance from noon. Some may +ascribe this to the greater height of the atmosphere in the evenings +having been rarefied by the sun during the day; but as its density must +at the same time be diminished, its power of refraction would continue +the same. I should rather suppose that it may be owing to the +phosphorescent quality (as it is called) of almost all bodies; that is, +when they have been exposed to the sun they continue to emit light for a +considerable time afterwards. This is generally believed to arise either +from such bodies giving out the light which they had previously +absorbed; or to the continuance of a slow combustion which the light +they had been previously exposed to had excited. See the next note.] + +[_Beccari's shells_. l. 182. Beccari made many curious experiments on +the phosphoric light, as it is called, which becomes visible on bodies +brought into a dark room, after having been previously exposed to the +sunshine. It appears from these experiments, that almost all inflammable +bodies possess this quality in a greater or less degree; white paper or +linen thus examined after having been exposed to the sunshine, is +luminous to an extraordinary degree; and if a person shut up in a dark +room, puts one of his hands out into the sun's light for a short time +and then retracts it, he will be able to see that hand distinctly and +not the other. These experiments seem to countenance the idea of light +being absorbed and again emitted from bodies when they are removed into +darkness. But Beccari further pretended, that some calcareous +compositions when exposed to red, yellow, or blue light, through +coloured glasses, would on their being brought into a dark room emit +coloured lights. This mistaken fact of Beccari's, Mr. Wilson decidedly +refutes; and among many other curious experiments discovered, that if +oyster-shells were thrown into a common fire and calcined for about half +an hour, and then brought to a person who had previously been some +minutes in a dark room, that many of them would exhibit beautiful irises +of prismatic colours, from whence probably arose Beccari's mistake. Mr. +Wilson from hence contends, that these kinds of phosphori do not emit +the light they had previously received, but that they are set on fire by +the sun's rays, and continue for some time a slow combustion after they +are withdrawn from the light. Wilson's Experiments on Phosphori. +Dodsley, 1775. + +The Bolognian stone is a selenite, or gypsum, and has been long +celebrated for its phosphorescent quality after having been burnt in a +sulphurous fire; and exposed when cold to the sun's light. It may be +thus well imitated: Calcine oyster-shells half an hour, pulverize them +when cold, and add one third part of flowers of sulphur, press them +close into a small crucible, and calcine them for an hour or longer, and +keep the powder in a phial close stopped. A part of this powder is to be +exposed for a minute or two to the sunbeams, and then brought into a +dark room. The calcined Bolognian stone becomes a calcareous hepar of +sulphur; but the calcined shells, as they contain the animal acid, may +also contain some of the phosphorus of Kunkel.] + +[_In Memnon's fane_. l. 183. See additional notes. No. VIII.] + + + "YOU with light Gas the lamps nocturnal feed, +190 Which dance and glimmer o'er the marshy mead; + Shine round Calendula at twilight hours, + And tip with silver all her saffron flowers; + Warm on her mossy couch the radiant Worm, + Guard from cold dews her love-illumin'd form, +195 From leaf to leaf conduct the virgin light, + Star of the earth, and diamond of the night. + You bid in air the tropic Beetle burn, + And fill with golden flame his winged urn; + Or gild the surge with insect-sparks, that swarm +200 Round the bright oar, the kindling prow alarm; + Or arm in waves, electric in his ire, + The dread Gymnotus with ethereal fire.-- + Onward his course with waving tail he helms, + And mimic lightenings scare the watery realms, +205 So, when with bristling plumes the Bird of JOVE + Vindictive leaves the argent fields above, + Borne on broad wings the guilty world he awes, + And grasps the lightening in his shining claws. + + +[_The lamps nocturnal_. l. 189. The ignis fatuus or Jack a lantern, +frequently alluded to by poets, is supposed to originate from the +inflammable air, or Hydrogene, given up from morasses; which being of a +heavier kind from its impurity than that obtained from iron and water, +hovers near the surface of the earth, and uniting with common air gives +out light by its slow ignition. Perhaps such lights have no existence, +and the reflection of a star on watery ground may have deceived the +travellers, who have been said to be bewildered by them? if the fact was +established it would much contribute to explain the phenomena of +northern lights. I have travelled much in the night, in all seasons of +the year, and over all kinds of soil, but never saw one of these Will +o'wisps.] + +[_Shine round Calendula_. l. 191. See note on Tropaeolum in Vol. II.] + +[_The radiant Worm_. l. 193. See additional notes, No. IX.] + +[_The dread Gymnotus_. l. 202. The Gymnotus electricus is a native of +the river of Surinam in South America; those which were brought over to +England about eight years ago were about three or four feet long, and +gave an electric shock (as I experienced) by putting one finger on the +back near its head, and another of the opposite hand into the water near +its tail. In their native country they are said to exceed twenty feet in +length, and kill any man who approaches them in an hostile manner. It is +not only to escape its enemies that this surprizing power of the fish is +used, but also to take its prey; which it does by benumbing them and +then devouring them before they have time to recover, or by perfectly +killing them; for the quantity of the power seemed to be determined by +the will or anger of the animal; as it sometimes struck a fish twice +before it was sufficiently benumbed to be easily swallowed. + +The organs productive of this wonderful accumulation of electric matter +have been accurately dissected and described by Mr. J. Hunter. Philos. +Trans. Vol. LXV. And are so divided by membranes as to compose a very +extensive surface, and are supplied with many pairs of nerves larger +than any other nerves of the body; but how so large a quantity is so +quickly accumulated as to produce such amazing effects in a fluid ill +adapted for the purpose is not yet satisfactorily explained. The Torpedo +possesses a similar power in a less degree, as was shewn by Mr. Walch, +and another fish lately described by Mr. Paterson. Philo. Trans. Vol. +LXXVI. + +In the construction of the Leyden-Phial, (as it is called) which is +coated on both sides, it is known, that above one hundred times the +quantity of positive electricity can be condensed on every square inch +of the coating on one side, than could have been accumulated on the same +surface if there had been no opposite coating communicating with the +earth; because the negative electricity, or that part of it which caused +its expansion, is now drawn off through the glass. It is also well +known, that the thinner the glass is (which is thus coated on both sides +so as to make a Leyden-phial, or plate) the more electricity can be +condensed on one of its surfaces, till it becomes so thin as to break, +and thence discharge itself. + +Now it is possible, that the quantity of electricity condensible on one +side of a coated phial may increase in some high ratio in respect to the +thinness of the glass, since the power of attraction is known to +decrease as the squares of the distances, to which this circumstance of +electricity seems to bear some analogy. Hence if an animal membrane, as +thin as the silk-worm spins its silk, could be so situated as to be +charged like the Leyden bottle, without bursting, (as such thin glass +would be liable to do,) it would be difficult to calculate the immense +quantity of electric fluid, which might be accumulated on its surface. +No land animals are yet discovered which possess this power, though the +air would have been a much better medium for producing its effects; +perhaps the size of the necessary apparatus would have been inconvenient +to land animals.] + +[_In his shining claws_. l. 208. Alluding to an antique gem in the +collection of the Grand Duke of Florence. Spence.] + + + V. 1. "NYMPHS! Your soft smiles uncultur'd man subdued, +210 And charm'd the Savage from his native wood; + You, while amazed his hurrying Hords retire + From the fell havoc of devouring FIRE, + Taught, the first Art! with piny rods to raise + By quick attrition the domestic blaze, +215 Fan with soft breath, with kindling leaves provide, + And lift the dread Destroyer on his side. + So, with bright wreath of serpent-tresses crown'd, + Severe in beauty, young MEDUSA frown'd; + Erewhile subdued, round WISDOM'S Aegis roll'd +220 Hiss'd the dread snakes, and flam'd in burnish'd gold; + Flash'd on her brandish'd arm the immortal shield, + And Terror lighten'd o'er the dazzled field. + + +[_Of devouring fire_. l. 212. The first and most important discovery of +mankind seems to have been that of fire. For many ages it is probable +fire was esteemed a dangerous enemy, known only by its dreadful +devastations; and that many lives must have been lost, and many +dangerous burns and wounds must have afflicted those who first dared to +subject it to the uses of life. It is said that the tall monkies of +Borneo and Sumatra lie down with pleasure round any accidental fire in +their woods; and are arrived to that degree of reason, that knowledge of +causation, that they thrust into the remaining fire the half-burnt ends +of the branches to prevent its going out. One of the nobles of the +cultivated people of Otaheita, when Captain Cook treated them with tea, +catched the boiling water in his hand from the cock of the tea-urn, and +bellowed with pain, not conceiving that water could become hot, like red +fire. + +Tools of steel constitute another important discovery in consequence of +fire; and contributed perhaps principally to give the European nations +so great superiority over the American world. By these two agents, fire +and tools of steel, mankind became able to cope with the vegetable +kingdom, and conquer provinces of forests, which in uncultivated +countries almost exclude the growth of other vegetables, and of those +animals which are necessary to our existence. Add to this, that the +quantity of our food is also increased by the use of fire, for some +vegetables become salutary food by means of the heat used in cookery, +which are naturally either noxious or difficult of digestion; as +potatoes, kidney-beans, onions, cabbages. The cassava when made into +bread, is perhaps rendered mild by the heat it undergoes, more than by +expressing its superfluous juice. The roots of white bryony and of arum, +I am informed lose much of their acrimony by boiling.] + +[_Young Medusa frowned_. l. 218. The Egyptian Medusa is represented on +antient gems with wings on her head, snaky hair, and a beautiful +countenance, which appears intensely thinking; and was supposed to +represent divine wisdom. The Grecian Medusa, on Minerva's shield, as +appears on other gems, has a countenance distorted with rage or pain, +and is supposed to represent divine vengeance. This Medusa was one of +the Gorgons, at first very beautiful and terrible to her enemies; +Minerva turned her hair into snakes, and Perseus having cut off her head +fixed it on the shield of that goddess; the sight of which then +petrified the beholders. Dannet Dict.] + + + 2. NYMPHS! YOU disjoin, unite, condense, expand, + And give new wonders to the Chemist's hand; +225 On tepid clouds of rising steam aspire, + Or fix in sulphur all it's solid fire; + With boundless spring elastic airs unfold, + Or fill the fine vacuities of gold; + With sudden flash vitrescent sparks reveal, +230 By fierce collision from the flint and steel; + Or mark with shining letter KUNKEL's name + In the pale Phosphor's self-consuming flame. + So the chaste heart of some enchanted Maid + Shines with insidious light, by Love betray'd; +235 Round her pale bosom plays the young Desire, + And slow she wastes by self-consuming fire. + + +[_Or fix in sulphur_. l. 226. The phenomena of chemical explosions +cannot be accounted for without the supposition, that some of the bodies +employed contain concentrated or solid heat combined with them, to which +the French Chemists have given the name of Calorique. When air is +expanded in the air-pump, or water evaporated into steam, they drink up +or absorb a great quantity of heat; from this analogy, when gunpowder is +exploded it ought to absorb much heat, that is, in popular language, it +ought to produce a great quantity of cold. When vital air is united with +phlogistic matter in respiration, which seems to be a slow combustion, +its volume is lessened; the carbonic acid, and perhaps phosphoric acid +are produced; and heat is given out; which according to the experiments +of Dr. Crawford would seem to be deposited from the vital air. But as +the vital air in nitrous acid is condensed from a light elastic gas to +that of a heavy fluid, it must possess less heat than before. And hence +a great part of the heat, which is given out in firing gunpowder, I +should suppose, must reside in the sulphur or charcoal. + +Mr. Lavoisier has shewn, that vital air, or Oxygene, looses less of its +heat when it becomes one of the component parts of nitrous acid, than in +any other of its combinations; and is hence capable of giving out a +great quantity of heat in the explosion of gunpowder; but as there seems +to be great analogy between the matter of heat, or Calorique, and the +electric matter; and as the worst conductors of electricity are believed +to contain the greatest quantity of that fluid; there is reason to +suspect that the worst conductors of heat may contain the most of that +fluid; as sulphur, wax, silk, air, glass. See note on l. 174 of this +Canto.] + +[_Vitrescent sparks_. l. 229. When flints are struck against other +flints they have the property of giving sparks of light; but it seems to +be an internal light, perhaps of electric origin, very different from +the ignited sparks which are struck from flint and steel. The sparks +produced by the collision of steel with flint appear to be globular +particles of iron, which have been fused, and imperfectly scorified or +vitrified. They are kindled by the heat produced by the collision; but +their vivid light, and their fusion and vitrification are the effects of +a combustion continued in these particles during their passage through +the air. This opinion is confirmed by an experiment of Mr. Hawksbee, who +found that these sparks could not be produced in the exhausted receiver. +See Keir's Chemical Dict. art. Iron, and art. Earth vitrifiable.] + +[_The pale Phosphor_. l. 232. See additionable notes, No. X.] + + + 3. "YOU taught mysterious BACON to explore + Metallic veins, and part the dross from ore; + With sylvan coal in whirling mills combine +240 The crystal'd nitre, and the sulphurous mine; + Through wiry nets the black diffusion strain, + And close an airy ocean in a grain.-- + Pent in dark chambers of cylindric brass + Slumbers in grim repose the sooty mass; +245 Lit by the brilliant spark, from grain to grain + Runs the quick fire along the kindling train; + On the pain'd ear-drum bursts the sudden crash, + Starts the red flame, and Death pursues the flash.-- + Fear's feeble hand directs the fiery darts, +250 And Strength and Courage yield to chemic arts; + Guilt with pale brow the mimic thunder owns, + And Tyrants tremble on their blood-stain'd thrones. + + +[_And close an airy ocean_. l. 242. Gunpowder is plainly described in +the works of Roger Bacon before the year 1267. He describes it in a +curious manner, mentioning the sulphur and nitre, but conceals the +charcoal in an anagram. The words are, sed tamen salis petrae _lure mope +can ubre_, et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitrum, et corruscationem, si +scias, artificium. The words lure mope can ubre are an anagram of +carbonum pulvere. Biograph. Britan. Vol. I. Bacon de Secretis Operibus, +Cap. XI. He adds, that he thinks by an artifice of this kind Gideon +defeated the Midianites with only three hundred men. Judges, Chap. VII. +Chamb. Dict. art. Gunpowder. As Bacon does not claim this as his own +invention, it is thought by many to have been of much more antient +discovery. + +The permanently elastic fluid generated in the firing of gunpowder is +calculated by Mr. Robins to be about 244 if the bulk of the powder be 1. +And that the heat generated at the time of the explosion occasions the +rarefied air thus produced to occupy about 1000 times the space of the +gunpowder. This pressure may therefore be called equal to 1000 +atmospheres or six tons upon a square inch. As the suddenness of this +explosion must contribute much to its power, it would seem that the +chamber of powder, to produce its greatest effect, should be lighted in +the centre of it; which I believe is not attended to in the manufacture +of muskets or pistols. + +From the cheapness with which a very powerful gunpowder is likely soon +to be manufactured from aerated marine acid, or from a new method of +forming nitrous acid by means of mangonese or other calciform ores, it +may probably in time be applied to move machinery, and supersede the use +of steam. + +There is a bitter invective in Don Quixot against the inventors of gun- +powder, as it levels the strong with the weak, the knight cased in steel +with the naked shepherd, those who have been trained to the sword, with +those who are totally unskilful in the use of it; and throws down all +the splendid distinctions of mankind. These very reasons ought to have +been urged to shew that the discovery of gunpowder has been of public +utility by weakening the tyranny of the few over the many.] + + + VI. NYMPHS! You erewhile on simmering cauldrons play'd, + And call'd delighted SAVERY to your aid; +255 Bade round the youth explosive STEAM aspire + In gathering clouds, and wing'd the wave with fire; + Bade with cold streams the quick expansion stop, + And sunk the immense of vapour to a drop.-- + Press'd by the ponderous air the Piston falls +260 Resistless, sliding through it's iron walls; + Quick moves the balanced beam, of giant-birth, + Wields his large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth. + + +[_Delighted Savery_. l. 254. The invention of the steam-engine for +raising water by the pressure of the air in consequence of the +condensation of steam, is properly ascribed to Capt. Savery; a plate and +description of this machine is given in Harris's Lexicon Technicum, art. +Engine. Though the Marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions +printed in the year 1663 had described an engine for raising water by +the explosive power of steam long before Savery's. Mr. Desegulier +affirms, that Savery bought up all he could procure of the books of the +Marquis of Worcester, and destroyed them, professing himself then to +have discovered the power of steam by accident, which seems to have been +an unfounded slander. Savery applied it to the raising of water to +supply houses and gardens, but could not accomplish the draining of +mines by it. Which was afterwards done by Mr. Newcomen and Mr. John +Cowley at Dartmouth, in the year 1712, who added the piston. + +A few years ago Mr. Watt of Glasgow much improved this machine, and with +Mr. Boulton of Birmingham has applied it to variety of purposes, such as +raising water from mines, blowing bellows to fuse the ore, supplying +towns with water, grinding corn and many other purposes. There is reason +to believe it may in time be applied to the rowing of barges, and the +moving of carriages along the road. As the specific levity of air is too +great for the support of great burthens by balloons, there seems no +probable method of flying conveniently but by the power of steam, or +some other explosive material; which another half century may probable +discover. See additional notes, No. XI.] + + + "The Giant-Power from earth's remotest caves + Lifts with strong arm her dark reluctant waves; +265 Each cavern'd rock, and hidden den explores, + Drags her dark coals, and digs her shining ores.-- + Next, in close cells of ribbed oak confined, + Gale after gale, He crowds the struggling wind; + The imprison'd storms through brazen nostrils roar, +270 Fan the white flame, and fuse the sparkling ore. + Here high in air the rising stream He pours + To clay-built cisterns, or to lead-lined towers; + Fresh through a thousand pipes the wave distils, + And thirsty cities drink the exuberant rills.-- +275 There the vast mill-stone with inebriate whirl + On trembling floors his forceful fingers twirl. + Whose flinty teeth the golden harvests grind, + Feast without blood! and nourish human-kind. + + +[_Feast without blood!_ l. 278. The benevolence of the great Author of +all things is greatly manifest in the sum of his works, as Dr. Balguy +has well evinced in his pamphlet on Divine Benevolence asserted, printed +for Davis, 1781. Yet if we may compare the parts of nature with each +other, there are some circumstances of her economy which seem to +contribute more to the general scale of happiness than others. Thus the +nourishment of animal bodies is derived from three sources: 1. the milk +given from the mother to the offspring; in this excellent contrivance +the mother has pleasure in affording the sustenance to the child, and +the child has pleasure in receiving it. 2. Another source of the food of +animals includes seeds or eggs; in these the embryon is in a torpid or +insensible state, and there is along with it laid up for its early +nourishment a store of provision, as the fruit belonging to some seeds, +and the oil and starch belonging to others; when these are consumed by +animals the unfeeling seed or egg receives no pain, but the animal +receives pleasure which consumes it. Under this article may be included +the bodies of animals which die naturally. 3. But the last method of +supporting animal bodies by the destruction of other living animals, as +lions preying upon lambs, these upon living vegetables, and mankind upon +them all, would appear to be a less perfect part of the economy of +nature than those before mentioned, as contributing less to the sum of +general happiness.] + + + "Now his hard hands on Mona's rifted crest, +280 Bosom'd in rock, her azure ores arrest; + With iron lips his rapid rollers seize + The lengthening bars, in thin expansion squeeze; + Descending screws with ponderous fly-wheels wound + The tawny plates, the new medallions round; +285 Hard dyes of steel the cupreous circles cramp, + And with quick fall his massy hammers stamp. + The Harp, the Lily and the Lion join, + And GEORGE and BRITAIN guard the sterling coin. + + +[_Mona's rifted crest_. l. 279. Alluding to the very valuable copper- +mines in the isle of Anglesey, the property of the Earl of Uxbridge.] + +[_With iron-lips_. l. 281. Mr. Boulton has lately constructed at Soho +near Birmingham, a most magnificent apparatus for Coining, which has +cost him some thousand pounds; the whole machinery is moved by an +improved steam-engine, which rolls the copper for half-pence finer than +copper has before been rolled for the purpose of making money; it works +the coupoirs or screw-presses for cutting out the circular pieces of +copper; and coins both the faces and edges of the money at the same +time, with such superior excellence and cheapness of workmanship, as +well as with marks of such powerful machinery as must totally prevent +clandestine imitation, and in consequence save many lives from the hand +of the executioner; a circumstance worthy the attention of a great +minister. If a civic crown was given in Rome for preserving the life of +one citizen, Mr. Boulton should be covered with garlands of oak! By this +machinery four boys of ten or twelve years old are capable of striking +thirty thousand guineas in an hour, and the machine itself keeps an +unerring account of the pieces struck.] + + + "Soon shall thy arm, UNCONQUER'D STEAM! afar +290 Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car; + Or on wide-waving wings expanded bear + The flying-chariot through the fields of air. + --Fair crews triumphant, leaning from above, + Shall wave their fluttering kerchiefs as they move; +295 Or warrior-bands alarm the gaping crowd, + And armies shrink beneath the shadowy cloud. + + "So mighty HERCULES o'er many a clime + Waved his vast mace in Virtue's cause sublime, + Unmeasured strength with early art combined, +300 Awed, served, protected, and amazed mankind.-- + First two dread Snakes at JUNO'S vengeful nod + Climb'd round the cradle of the sleeping God; + Waked by the shrilling hiss, and rustling sound, + And shrieks of fair attendants trembling round, +305 Their gasping throats with clenching hands he holds; + And Death untwists their convoluted folds. + Next in red torrents from her sevenfold heads + Fell HYDRA'S blood on Lerna's lake he sheds; + Grasps ACHELOUS with resistless force, +310 And drags the roaring River to his course; + Binds with loud bellowing and with hideous yell + The monster Bull, and threefold Dog of Hell. + + +[_So mighty Hercules_. l. 297. The story of Hercules seems of great +antiquity, as appears from the simplicity of his dress and armour, a +lion's skin and a club; and from the nature of many of his exploits, the +destruction of wild beasts and robbers. This part of the history of +Hercules seems to have related to times before the invention of the bow +and arrow, or of spinning flax. Other stories of Hercules are perhaps of +later date, and appear to be allegorical, as his conquering the river- +god Achilous, and bringing Cerberus up to day light; the former might +refer to his turning the course of a river, and draining a morass, and +the latter to his exposing a part of the superstition of the times. The +strangling the lion and tearing his jaws asunder, are described from a +statue in the Museum Florentinum, and from an antique gem; and the +grasping Anteus to death in his arms as he lifts him from the earth, is +described from another antient cameo. The famous pillars of Hercules +have been variously explained. Pliny asserts that the natives of Spain +and of Africa believed that the mountains of Abyla and Calpè on each +side of the straits of Gibraltar were the pillars of Hercules; and that +they were reared by the hands of that god, and the sea admitted between +them. Plin. Hist. Nat. p. 46. Edit. Manut. Venet. 1609. + +If the passage between the two continents was opened by an earthquake in +antient times, as this allegorical story would seem to countenance, +there must have been an immense current of water at first run into the +Mediterranean from the Atlantic; since there is at present a strong +stream sets always from thence into the Mediterranean. Whatever may be +the cause, which now constantly operates, so as to make the surface of +the Mediterranean lower than that of the Atlantic, it must have kept it +very much lower before a passage for the water through the streights was +opened. It is probable before such an event took place, the coasts and +islands of the Mediterranean extended much further into that sea, and +were then for a great extent of country, destroyed by the floods +occasioned by the new rise of water, and have since remained beneath the +sea. Might not this give rise to the flood of Deucalion? See note +Cassia, V. II. of this work.] + + + "Then, where Nemea's howling forests wave, + He drives the Lion to his dusky cave; +315 Seized by the throat the growling fiend disarms, + And tears his gaping jaws with sinewy arms; + Lifts proud ANTEUS from his mother-plains, + And with strong grasp the struggling Giant strains; + Back falls his fainting head, and clammy hair, +320 Writhe his weak limbs, and flits his life in air;-- + By steps reverted o'er the blood-dropp'd fen + He tracks huge CACUS to his murderous den; + Where breathing flames through brazen lips he fled, + And shakes the rock-roof'd cavern o'er his head. + +325 "Last with wide arms the solid earth He tears, + Piles rock on rock, on mountain mountain rears; + Heaves up huge ABYLA on Afric's sand, + Crowns with high CALPÈ Europe's saliant strand, + Crests with opposing towers the splendid scene, +330 And pours from urns immense the sea between.-- + --Loud o'er her whirling flood Charybdis roars, + Affrighted Scylla bellows round his shores, + Vesuvio groans through all his echoing caves, + And Etna thunders o'er the insurgent waves. + +335 VII. 1. NYMPHS! YOUR fine hands ethereal floods amass + From the warm cushion, and the whirling glass; + Beard the bright cylinder with golden wire, + And circumfuse the gravitating fire. + Cold from each point cerulean lustres gleam, +340 Or shoot in air the scintillating stream. + So, borne on brazen talons, watch'd of old + The sleepless dragon o'er his fruits of gold; + Bright beam'd his scales, his eye-balls blazed with ire, + And his wide nostrils breath'd inchanted fire. + + +[_Ethereal floods amass_. l. 335. The theory of the accumulation of the +electric fluid by means of the glass-globe and cushion is difficult to +comprehend. Dr. Franklin's idea of the pores of the glass being opened +by the friction, and thence rendered capable of attracting more electric +fluid, which it again parts with, as the pores contract again, seems +analogous in some measure to the heat produced by the vibration, or +condensation of bodies, as when a nail is hammered or filed till it +becomes hot, as mentioned in additional Notes, No. VII. Some +philosophers have endeavoured to account for this phenomenon by +supposing the existence of two electric fluids which may be called the +vitreous and resinous ones, instead of the plus and minus of the same +ether. But its accumulation on the rubbed glass bears great analogy to +its accumulation on the surface of the Leyden bottle, and can not +perhaps be explained from any known mechanical or chemical principle. +See note on Gymnotus. l. 202, of this Canto.] + +[_Cold from each point_. l. 339. See additional note, No. XIII.] + + +345 "YOU bid gold-leaves, in crystal lantherns held, + Approach attracted, and recede repel'd; + While paper-nymphs instinct with motion rife, + And dancing fauns the admiring Sage surprize. + OR, if on wax some fearless Beauty stand, +350 And touch the sparkling rod with graceful hand; + Through her fine limbs the mimic lightnings dart, + And flames innocuous eddy round her heart; + O'er her fair brow the kindling lustres glare, + Blue rays diverging from her bristling hair; +355 While some fond Youth the kiss ethereal sips. + And soft fires issue from their meeting lips. + So round the virgin Saint in silver streams + The holy Halo shoots it's arrowy beams. + + +[_You bid gold leaves_. l. 345. Alluding to the very sensible +electrometer improved by Mr. Bennett, it consists of two slips of gold- +leaf suspended from a tin cap in a glass cylinder, which has a partial +coating without, communicating with the wooden pedestal. If a stick of +sealing wax be rubbed for a moment on a dry cloth, and then held in the +air _at the distance of two or three feet_ from the cap of this +instrument, the gold leaves seperate, such is its astonishing +sensibility to electric influence! (See Bennet on electricity, Johnson, +Lond.) The nerves of sense of animal bodies do not seem to be affected +by less quantities of light or heat!] + +[_The holy Halo_. l. 358. I believe it is not known with certainty at +what time the painters first introduced the luminous circle round the +head to import a Saint or holy person. It is now become a part of the +symbolic language of painting, and it is much to be wished that this +kind of hieroglyphic character was more frequent in that art; as it is +much wanted to render historic pictures both more intelligible, and more +sublime; and why should not painting as well as poetry express itself in +metaphor, or in indistinct allegory? A truly great modern painter lately +endeavoured to enlarge the sphere of pictorial language, by putting a +demon behind the pillow of a wicked man on his death bed. Which +unfortunately for the scientific part of painting, the cold criticism of +the present day has depreciated; and thus barred perhaps the only road +to the further improvement in this science.] + + + "YOU crowd in coated jars the denser fire, +360 Pierce the thin glass, and fuse the blazing wire; + Or dart the red flash through the circling band + Of youths and timorous damsels, hand in hand. + --Starts the quick Ether through the fibre-trains + Of dancing arteries, and of tingling veins, +365 Goads each fine nerve, with new sensation thrill'd, + Bends the reluctant limbs with power unwill'd; + Palsy's cold hands the fierce concussion own, + And Life clings trembling on her tottering throne.-- + So from dark clouds the playful lightning springs, +370 Rives the firm oak, or prints the Fairy-rings. + + +[_With new sensation thrill'd_. l. 365. There is probably a system of +nerves in animal bodies for the purpose of perceiving heat; since the +degree of this fluid is so necessary to health that we become presently +injured either by its access or defect; and because almost every part of +our bodies is supplied with branches from different pairs of nerves, +which would not seem necessary for their motion alone: It is therefore +probable, that our sensation of electricity is only of its violence in +passing through our system by its suddenly distending the muscles, like +any other mechanical violence; and that it is general pain alone that we +feel, and not any sensation analogous to the specific quality of the +object. Nature may seem to have been niggardly to mankind in bestowing +upon them so few senses; since a sense to have perceived electricity, +and another to have perceived magnetism might have been of great service +to them, many ages before these fluids were discovered by accidental +experiment, but it is possible an increased number of senses might have +incommoded us by adding to the size of our bodies.] + +[_Palsy's cold hands_. l. 367. Paralytic limbs are in general only +incapable of being stimulated into action by the power of the will; +since the pulse continues to beat and the fluids to be absorbed in them; +and it commonly happens, when paralytic people yawn and stretch +themselves, (which is not a voluntary motion,) that the affected limb +moves at the same time. The temporary motion of a paralytic limb is +likewise caused by passing the electric shock through it; which would +seem to indicate some analogy between the electric fluid, and the +nervous fluid, which is seperated from the blood by the brain, and +thence diffused along the nerves for the purposes of motion and +sensation. It probably destroys life by its sudden expansion of the +nerves or fibres of the brain; in the same manner as it fuses metals and +splinters wood or stone, and removes the atmosphere, when it passes from +one object to another in a dense state.] + +[_Prints the Fairy rings_. l. 370. See additional note No. XIII.] + + + 2. NYMPHS! on that day YE shed from lucid eyes. + Celestial tears, and breathed ethereal sighs! + When RICHMAN rear'd, by fearless haste betrayed, + The wiry rod in Nieva's fatal shade;-- +375 Clouds o'er the Sage, with fringed skirts succeed, + Flash follows flash, the warning corks recede; + Near and more near He ey'd with fond amaze + The silver streams, and watch'd the saphire blaze; + Then burst the steel, the dart electric sped, +380 And the bold Sage lay number'd with the dead!-- + NYMPHS! on that day YE shed from lucid eyes + Celestial tears, and breathed ethereal sighs! + + +[_When Richman reared_. l. 373. Dr. Richman Professor of natural +philosophy at Petersburgh about the year 1763, elevated an insulated +metallic rod to collect the aerial electricity, as Dr. Franklin had +previously done at Philadelphia; and as he was observing the repulsion +of the balls of his electrometer approached too near the conductor, and +receiving the lightening in his head with a loud explosion, was struck +dead amidst his family.] + + + 3. "YOU led your FRANKLIN to your glazed retreats, + Your air-built castles, and your silken seats; +385 Bade his bold arm invade the lowering sky, + And seize the tiptoe lightnings, ere they fly; + O'er the young Sage your mystic mantle spread, + And wreath'd the crown electric round his head.-- + Thus when on wanton wing intrepid LOVE +390 Snatch'd the raised lightning from the arm of JOVE; + Quick o'er his knee the triple bolt He bent, + The cluster'd darts and forky arrows rent, + Snapp'd with illumin'd hands each flaming shaft, + His tingling fingers shook, and stamp'd, and laugh'd; +395 Bright o'er the floor the scatter'd fragments blaz'd, + And Gods retreating trembled as they gaz'd; + The immortal Sire, indulgent to his child, + Bow'd his ambrosial locks, and Heaven relenting smiled. + + +[_You led your Franklin_. l. 383. Dr. Franklin was the first that +discovered that lightening consisted of electric matter, he elevated a +tall rod with a wire wrapped round it, and fixing the bottom of a rod +into a glass bottle, and preserving it from falling by means of silk- +strings, he found it electrified whenever a cloud parted over it, +receiving sparks by his finger from it, and charging coated phials. This +great discovery taught us to defend houses and ships and temples from +lightning, and also to understand, _that people are always perfectly +safe in a room during a thunder storm if they keep themselves at three +or four feet distance from the walls_; for the matter of lightning in +passing from the clouds to the earth, or from the earth to the clouds, +runs through the walls of a house, the trunk of a tree, or other +elevated object; except there be some moister body, as an animal in +contact with them, or nearly so; and in that case the lightning leaves +the wall or tree, and passes through the animal; but as it can pass +through metals with still greater facility, it will leave animal bodies +to pass through metallic ones. + +If a person in the open air be surprized by a thunderstorm, he will know +his danger by observing on a second watch the time which passes between +the flash and the crack, and reckoning a mile for every four seconds and +a half, and a little more. For sound travels at the rate of 1142 feet in +a second of time, and the velocity of light through such small distances +is not to be estimated. In these circumstances a person will be safer by +lying down on the ground, than erect, and still safer if within a few +feet of his horse; which being then a more elevated animal will receive +the shock, in preference as the cloud passes over. See additional notes, +No. XIII.] + +[_Intrepid Love_. l. 389. This allegory is uncommonly beautiful, +representing Divine Justice as disarmed by Divine Love, and relenting of +his purpose. It is expressed on an agate in the Great Duke's collection +at Florence. Spence.] + + + VIII. "When Air's pure essence joins the vital flood, +400 And with phosphoric Acid dyes the blood, + YOUR VIRGIN TRAINS the transient HEAT dispart, + And lead the soft combustion round the heart; + Life's holy lamp with fires successive feed, + From the crown'd forehead to the prostrate weed, +405 From Earth's proud realms to all that swim or sweep + The yielding ether or tumultuous deep. + You swell the bulb beneath the heaving lawn, + Brood the live seed, unfold the bursting spawn; + Nurse with soft lap, and warm with fragrant breath +410 The embryon panting in the arms of Death; + Youth's vivid eye with living light adorn, + And fire the rising blush of Beauty's golden morn. + + +[_Transient heat dispart_. l. 401. Dr. Crawford in his ingenious work on +animal heat has endeavoured to prove, that during the combination of the +pure part of the atmosphere with the phlogistic part of the blood, that +much of the matter of the heat is given out from the air; and that this +is the great and perpetual source of the heat of animals; to which we +may add that the phosphoric acid is probably produced by this +combination; by which acid the colour of the blood is changed in the +lungs from a deep crimson to a bright scarlet. There seems to be however +another source of animal heat, though of a similar nature; and that is +from the chemical combinations produced in all the glands; since by +whatever cause any glandular secretion is increased, as by friction or +topical imflammation, the heat of that part becomes increased at the +same time; thus after the hands have been for a time immersed in snow, +on coming into a warm room, they become red and hot, without any +increased pulmonary action. BESIDES THIS there would seem to be another +material received from the air by respiration; which is so necessary to +life, that the embryon must learn to breathe almost within a minute +after +its birth, or it dies. The perpetual necessity of breathing shews, that +the material thus acquired is perpetually consuming or escaping, and on +that account requires perpetual renovation. Perhaps the spirit of +animation itself is thus acquired from the atmosphere, which if it be +supposed to be finer or more subtle than the electric matter, could not +long be retained in our bodies, and must therefore require perpetual +renovation.] + + + "Thus when the Egg of Night, on Chaos hurl'd, + Burst, and disclosed the cradle of the world; +415 First from the gaping shell refulgent sprung + IMMORTAL LOVE, his bow celestial strung;-- + O'er the wide waste his gaudy wings unfold, + Beam his soft smiles, and wave his curls of gold;-- + With silver darts He pierced the kindling frame, +420 And lit with torch divine the ever-living flame." + + +[_Thus when the egg of Night_. l. 413. There were two Cupids belonging +to the antient mythology, one much elder than the other. The elder +cupid, or Eros, or divine Love, was the first that came out of the great +egg of night, which floated in Chaos, and was broken by the horns of the +celestial bull, that is, was hatched by the warmth of the spring. He was +winged and armed, and by his arrows and torch pierced and vivified all +things, producing life and joy. Bacon, Vol. V. p. 197. Quarto edit. +Lond. 1778. "At this time, (says Aristophanes,) sable-winged night +produced an egg, from whence sprung up like a blossom Eros, the lovely, +the desirable, with his glossy golden wings." Avibus. Bryant's +Mythology, Vol. II. p. 350. second edition. This interesting moment of +this sublime allegory Mrs. Cosway has chosen for her very beautiful +painting. She has represented Eros or divine Love with large wings +having the strength of the eagle's wings, and the splendor of the +peacocks, with his hair floating in the form of flame, and with a halo +of light vapour round his head; which illuminates the painting; while he +is in the act of springing forwards, and with his hands separating the +elements.] + + + IX. The GODDESS paused, admired with conscious pride + The effulgent legions marshal'd by her side, + Forms sphered in fire with trembling light array'd, + Ens without weight, and substance without shade; +425 And, while tumultuous joy her bosom warms, + Waves her white hand, and calls her hosts to arms, + + "Unite, ILLUSTRIOUS NYMPHS! your radiant powers, + Call from their long repose the VERNAL HOURS. + Wake with soft touch, with rosy hands unbind +430 The struggling pinions of the WESTERN WIND; + Chafe his wan cheeks, his ruffled plumes repair, + And wring the rain-drops from his tangled hair. + Blaze round each frosted rill, or stagnant wave, + And charm the NAIAD from her silent cave; +435 Where, shrined in ice, like NIOBE she mourns, + And clasps with hoary arms her empty urns. + Call your bright myriads, trooping from afar, + With beamy helms, and glittering shafts of war; + In phalanx firm the FIEND OF FROST assail, +440 Break his white towers, and pierce his crystal mail; + To Zembla's moon-bright coasts the Tyrant bear, + And chain him howling to the Northern Bear. + + +[_Of the Western Wind_. l. 430. The principal frosts of this country are +accompanied or produced by a N.E. wind, and the thaws by a S.W. wind; +the reason of which is that the N.E. winds consist of regions of air +brought from the north, which appear to acquire an easterly direction as +they advance; and the S.W. winds consist of regions of air brought from +the south, which appear to acquire a westerly direction as they advance. +The surface of the earth nearer the pole moves slower than it does in +our latitude; whence the regions of air brought from thence, move +slower, when they arrive hither, than the earth's surface with which +they now become in contact; that is they acquire an apparent easterly +direction, as the earth moves from west to east faster than this new +part of its atmosphere. The S.W. winds on the contrary consist of +regions of air brought from the south, where the surface of the earth +moves faster than in our latitude; and have therefore a westerly +direction when they arrive hither by their moving faster than the +surface of the earth, with which they are in contact; and in general the +nearer to the west and the greater the velocity of these winds the +warmer they should be in respect to the season of the year, since they +have been brought more expeditiously from the south, than those winds +which have less westerly direction, and have thence been less cooled in +their passage. + +Sometimes I have observed the thaw to commence immediately on the change +of the wind, even within an hour, if I am not mistaken, or sooner. At +other times the S.W. wind has continued a day, or even two, before the +thaw has commenced; during which time some of the frosty air, which had +gone southwards, is driven back over us; and in consequence has taken a +westerly direction, as well as a southern one. At other times I have +observed a frost with a N.E. wind every morning, and a thaw with a S.W. +wind every noon for several days together. See additional note, XXXIII.] + +[_The Fiend of Frost_. l. 439. The principal injury done to vegetation +by frost is from the expansion of the water contained in the vessels of +plants. Water converted into ice occupies a greater space than it did +before, as appears by the bursting of bottles filled with water at the +time of their freezing. Hence frost destroys those plants of our island +first, which are most succulent; and the most succulent parts first of +other plants; as their leaves and last year's shoots; the vessels of +which are distended and burst by the expansion of their freezing fluids, +while the drier or more resinous plants, as pines, yews, laurels, and +other ever-greens, are less liable to injury from cold. The trees in +vallies are on this account more injured by the vernal frosts than those +on eminencies, because their early succulent shoots come out sooner. +Hence fruit trees covered by a six-inch coping of a wall are less +injured by the vernal frosts because their being shielded from showers +and the descending night-dews has prevented them from being moist at the +time of their being frozen: which circumstance has given occasion to a +vulgar error amongst gardeners, who suppose frost to descend. + +As the common heat of the earth in this climate is 48 degrees, those +tender trees which will bear bending down, are easily secured from the +frost by spreading them upon the ground, and covering them with straw or +fern. This particularly suits fig-trees, as they easily bear bending to +the ground, and are furnished with an acrid juice, which secures them +from the depredations of insects; but are nevertheless liable to be +eaten by mice. See additional notes, No. XII.] + + + "So when enormous GRAMPUS, issuing forth + From the pale regions of the icy North; +445 Waves his broad tail, and opes his ribbed mouth, + And seeks on winnowing fin the breezy South; + From towns deserted rush the breathless hosts, + Swarm round the hills, and darken all the coasts; + Boats follow boats along the shouting tides, +450 And spears and javelins pierce his blubbery sides; + Now the bold Sailor, raised on pointed toe, + Whirls the wing'd harpoon on the slimy foe; + Quick sinks the monster in his oozy bed, + The blood-stain'd surges circling o'er his head, +455 Steers to the frozen pole his wonted track, + And bears the iron tempest on his back. + + X. "On wings of flame, ETHEREAL VIRGINS! sweep + O'er Earth's fair bosom, and complacent deep; + Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd, +460 In buds imprison'd, or in bulbs intomb'd, + Pervade, PELLUCID FORMS! their cold retreat, + Ray from bright urns your viewless floods of _heat_; + From earth's deep wastes _electric_ torrents pour, + Or shed from heaven the scintillating shower; +465 Pierce the dull root, relax its fibre-trains, + Thaw the thick blood, which lingers in its veins; + Melt with warm breath the fragrant gums, that bind + The expanding foliage in its scaly rind; + And as in air the laughing leaflets play, +470 And turn their shining bosoms to the ray, + NYMPHS! with sweet smile each opening glower invite, + And on its damask eyelids pour the _light_. + + +[_In buds imprison'd_. l. 460. The buds and bulbs of plants constitute +what is termed by Linneus the Hybernaculum, or winter cradle of the +embryon vegetable. The buds arise from the bark on the branches of +trees, and the bulbs from the caudex of bulbous-rooted plants, or the +part from which the fibres of the root are produced, they are defended +from too much moisture, and from frosts, and from the depredations of +insects by various contrivances, as by scales, hairs, resinous +varnishes, and by acrid rinds. + +The buds of trees are of two kinds, either flower-buds or leaf buds; the +former of these produce their seeds and die; the latter produce other +leaf buds or flower buds and die. So that all the buds of trees may be +considered as annual plants, having their embryon produced during the +preceeding summer. The same seems to happen with respect to bulbs; thus +a tulip produces annually one flower-bearing bulb, sometimes two, and +several leaf-bearing bulbs; and then the old root perishes. Next year +the flower-bearing bulb produces seeds and other bulbs and perishes; +while the leaf-bearing bulb, producing other bulbs only, perishes +likewise; these circumstances establish a strict analogy between bulbs +and buds. See additional notes, No. XIV.] + +[_Viewless floods of heat_. l. 462. The fluid matter of heat, or +Calorique, in which all bodies are immersed, is as necessary to +vegetable as to animal existence. It is not yet determinable whether +heat and light be different materials, or modifications of the same +materials, as they have some properties in common. They appear to be +both of them equally necessary to vegetable health, since without light +green vegetables become first yellow, that is, they lose the blue +colour, which contributed to produce the green; and afterwards they also +lose the yellow and become white; as is seen in cellery blanched or +etiolated for the table by excluding the light from it. + +The upper surface of leaves, which I suppose to be their organ of +respiration, seems to require light as well as air; since plants which +grow in windows on the inside of houses are equally sollicitous to turn +the upper side of their leaves to the light. Vegetables at the same time +exsude or perspire a great quantity from their leaves, as animals do +from their lungs; this perspirable matter as it rises from their fine +vessels, (perhaps much finer than the pores of animal skins,) is divided +into inconcievable tenuity; and when acted upon by the Sun's light +appears to be decomposed; the hydrogene becomes a part of the vegetable, +composing oils or resins; and the Oxygene combined with light or +calorique ascends, producing the pure part of the atmosphere or vital +air. Hence during the light of the day vegetables give up more pure air +than their respiration injures; but not so in the night, even though +equally exposed to warmth. This single fact would seem to shew, that +light is essentially different from heat; and it is perhaps by its +combination with bodies, that their combined or latent heat is set at +liberty, and becomes sensible. See additional note, XXXIV.] + +[_Electric torrents pour_. l. 463. The influence of electricity in +forwarding the germination of plants and their growth seems to be pretty +well established; though Mr. Ingenhouz did not succeed in his +experiments, and thence doubts the success of those of others. And +though M. Rouland from his new experiments believes, that neither +positive nor negative electricity increases vegetation; both which +philosophers had previously been supporters of the contrary doctrine; +for many other naturalists have since repeated their experiments +relative to this object, and their new results have confirmed their +former ones. Mr. D'Ormoy and the two Roziers have found the same success +in numerous experiments which they have made in the last two years; and +Mr. Carmoy has shewn in a convincing manner that electricity accelerates +germination. + +Mr. D'Ormoy not only found various seeds to vegetate sooner, and to grow +taller which were put upon his insulated table and supplied with +electricity, but also that silk-worms began to spin much sooner which +were kept electrified than those of the same hatch which were kept in +the same place and manner, except that they were not electrified. These +experiments of M. D'Ormoy are detailed at length in the Journal de +Physique of Rozier, Tom. XXXV. p. 270. + +M. Bartholon, who had before written a tract on this subject, and +proposed ingenious methods for applying electricity to agriculture and +gardening, has also repeated a numerous set of experiments; and shews +both that natural electricity, as well as the artificial, increases the +growth of plants, and the germination of seeds; and opposes Mr. +Ingenhouz by very numerous and conclusive facts. Ib. Tom. XXXV. p. 401. + +Since by the late discoveries or opinions of the Chemists there is +reason to believe that water is decomposed in the vessels of vegetables; +and that the Hydrogene or inflammable air, of which it in part consists, +contributes to the nourishment of the plant, and to the production of +its oils, rosins, gums, sugar, &c. and lastly as electricity decomposes +water into these two airs termed Oxygene and Hydrogene, there is a +powerful analogy to induce us to believe that it accelerates or +contributes to the growth of vegetation, and like heat may possibly +enter into combination with many bodies, or form the basis of some yet +unanalised acid.] + + + "So shall my pines, Canadian wilds that shade, + Where no bold step has pierc'd the tangled glade, +475 High-towering palms, that part the Southern flood + With shadowy isles and continents of wood, + Oaks, whose broad antlers crest Britannia's plain, + Or bear her thunders o'er the conquer'd main, + Shout, as you pass, inhale the genial skies, +480 And bask and brighten in your beamy eyes; + Bow their white heads, admire the changing clime, + Shake from their candied trunks the tinkling rime; + With bursting buds their wrinkled barks adorn, + And wed the timorous floret to her thorn; +485 Deep strike their roots, their lengthening tops revive, + And all my world of foliage wave, alive. + + "Thus with Hermetic art the ADEPT combines + The royal acid with cobaltic mines; + Marks with quick pen, in lines unseen portrayed, +490 The blushing mead, green dell, and dusky glade; + Shades with pellucid clouds the tintless field, + And all the future Group exists conceal'd; + Till waked by fire the dawning tablet glows, + Green springs the herb, the purple floret blows, +495 Hills vales and woods in bright succession rise, + And all the living landscape charms his eyes. + + +[_Thus with Hermetic art_. l. 487. The sympathetic inks made by Zaffre +dissolved in the marine and nitrous acids have this curious property, +that being brought to the fire one of them becomes green, and the other +red; but what is more wonderful, they again lose these colours, (unless +the heat has been too great,) on their being again withdrawn from the +fire. Fire-screens have been thus painted, which in the cold have shewn +only the trunk and branches of a dead tree, and sandy hills, which on +their approach to the fire have put forth green leaves and red flowers, +and grass upon the mountains. The process of making these inks is very +easy, take Zaffre, as sold by the druggists, and digest it in aqua +regia, and the calx of Cobalt will be dissolved; which solution must be +diluted with a little common water to prevent it from making too strong +an impression on the paper; the colour when the paper is heated becomes +of a fine green-blue. If Zaffre or Regulus of Cobalt be dissolved in the +same manner in spirit of nitre, or aqua fortis, a reddish colour is +produced on exposing the paper to heat. Chemical Dictionary by Mr. Keir, +Art. Ink Sympathetic.] + + + XI. "With crest of gold should sultry SIRIUS glare, + And with his kindling tresses scorch the air; + With points of flame the shafts of Summer arm, +500 And burn the beauties he designs to warm;-- + --So erst when JOVE his oath extorted mourn'd, + And clad in glory to the Fair return'd; + While Loves at forky bolts their torches light, + And resting lightnings gild the car of Night; +505 His blazing form the dazzled Maid admir'd, + Met with fond lips, and in his arms expir'd;-- + NYMPHS! on light pinion lead your banner'd hosts + High o'er the cliffs of ORKNEY'S gulphy coasts; + Leave on your left the red volcanic light, +510 Which HECCLA lifts amid the dusky night; + Mark on the right the DOFRINE'S snow-capt brow, + Where whirling MAELSTROME roars and foams below; + Watch with unmoving eye, where CEPHEUS bends + His triple crown, his scepter'd hand extends; +515 Where studs CASSIOPE with stars unknown + Her golden chair, and gems her sapphire zone; + Where with vast convolution DRACO holds + The ecliptic axis in his scaly folds, + O'er half the skies his neck enormous rears, +520 And with immense meanders parts the BEARS; + Onward, the kindred BEARS with footstep rude + Dance round the Pole, pursuing and pursued. + + +[_With stars unknown_. l. 515. Alluding to the star which appeared in +the chair of Cassiopea in the year 1572, which at first surpassed +Jupiter in magnitude and brightness, diminished by degrees and +disappeared in 18 months; it alarmed all the astronomers of the age, and +was esteemed a comet by some.--Could this have been the Georgium sidus?] + + + "There in her azure coif and starry stole, + Grey TWILIGHT sits, and rules the slumbering Pole; +525 Bends the pale moon-beams round the sparkling coast, + And strews with livid hands eternal frost. + There, NYMPHS! alight, array your dazzling powers, + With sudden march alarm the torpid Hours; + On ice-built isles expand a thousand sails, +530 Hinge the strong helms, and catch the frozen gales; + The winged rocks to feverish climates guide, + Where fainting Zephyrs pant upon the tide; + Pass, where to CEUTA CALPE'S thunder roars, + And answering echoes shake the kindred shores; +535 Pass, where with palmy plumes CANARY smiles, + And in her silver girdle binds her isles; + Onward, where NIGER'S dusky Naiad laves + A thousand kingdoms with prolific waves, + Or leads o'er golden sands her threefold train +540 In steamy channels to the fervid main, + While swarthy nations croud the sultry coast, + Drink the fresh breeze, and hail the floating Frost, + NYMPHS! veil'd in mist, the melting treasures steer, + And cool with arctic snows the tropic year. +545 So from the burning Line by Monsoons driven + Clouds sail in squadrons o'er the darken'd heaven; + Wide wastes of sand the gelid gales pervade, + And ocean cools beneath the moving shade. + + +[_On ice-built isles_. l. 529. There are many reasons to believe from +the accounts of travellers and navigators, that the islands of ice in +the higher northern latitudes as well as the Glaciers on the Alps +continue perpetually to increase in bulk. At certain times in the ice- +mountains of Switzerland there happen cracks which have shewn the great +thickness of the ice, as some of these cracks have measured three or +four hundred ells deep. The great islands of ice in the northern seas +near Hudson's bay have been observed to have been immersed above one +hundred fathoms beneath the surface of the sea, and to have risen a +fifth or sixth part above the surface, and to have measured between +three and four miles in circumference. Phil. Trans. No. 465. Sect. 2. + +Dr. Lister endeavoured to shew that the ice of sea-water contains some +salt and perhaps less air than common ice, and that it is therefore much +more difficult of solution; whence he accounts for the perpetual and +great increase of these floating islands of ice. Philos. Trans. No. 169. + +As by a famous experiment of Mr. Boyles it appears that ice evaporates +very fast in severe frosty weather when the wind blows upon it; and as +ice in a thawing state is known to contain six times more cold than +water at the same degree of sensible coldness, it is easy to understand +that winds blowing over islands and continents of ice perhaps much below +nothing on Farenheit's scale, and coming from thence into our latitude +must bring great degrees of cold along with them. If we add to this the +quantity of cold produced by the evaporation of the water as well as by +the solution of the ice, we cannot doubt but that the northern ice is +the principle source of the coldness of our winters, and that it is +brought hither by the regions of air blowing from the north, and which +take an apparent easterly direction by their coming to a part of the +surface of the earth which moves faster than the latitude they come +from. Hence the increase of the ice in the polar regions by increasing +the cold of our climate adds at the same time to the bulk of the +Glaciers of Italy and Switzerland. + +If the nations who inhabit this hemisphere of the globe, instead of +destroying their sea-men and exhausting their wealth in unnecessary +wars, could be induced to unite their labours to navigate these immense +masses of ice into the more southern oceans, two great advantages would +result to mankind, the tropic countries would be much cooled by their +solution, and our winters in this latitude would be rendered much milder +for perhaps a century or two, till the masses of ice became again +enormous. + +Mr. Bradley describes the cold winds and wet weather which sometimes +happen in May and June to the solution of ice-islands accidentally +floating from the north. Treatise on Husbandry and Gardening, Vol. II. +p. 437. And adds, that Mr. Barham about the year 1718, in his voyage +from Jamaica to England in the beginning of June, met with ice-islands +coming from the north, which were surrounded with so great a fog that +the ship was in danger of striking upon them, and that one of them +measured fifty miles in length. + +We have lately experienced an instance of ice-islands brought from the +Southern polar regions, on which the Guardian struck at the beginning of +her passage from the Cape of Good Hope towards Botany Bay, on December +22, 1789. These islands were involved in mist, were about one hundred +and fifty fathoms long, and about fifty fathoms above the surface of the +water. A part from the top of one of them broke off and fell into the +sea, causing an extraordinary commotion in the water and a thick smoke +all round it.] + +[_Threefold train_. l. 539. The river Niger after traversing an immense +tract of populous country is supposed to divide itself into three other +great rivers. The Rio Grande, the Gambia, and the Senegal. Gold-dust is +obtained from the sands of these rivers.] + +[_Wide wastes of sand_. l. 547. When the sun is in the Southern tropic +36 deg. distant from the zenith, the thermometer is seldom lower than 72 +deg. at Gondar in Abyssinia, but it falls to 60 or 53 deg. when the sun +is immediately vertical; so much does the approach of rain counteract +the heat of the sun. Bruce's Travels, Vol. 3. p. 670.] + + + XII. Should SOLSTICE, stalking through the sickening bowers, +550 Suck the warm dew-drops, lap the falling showers; + Kneel with parch'd lip, and bending from it's brink + From dripping palm the scanty river drink; + NYMPHS! o'er the soil ten thousand points erect, + And high in air the electric flame collect. +555 Soon shall dark mists with self-attraction shroud + The blazing day, and sail in wilds of cloud; + Each silvery Flower the streams aerial quaff, + Bow her sweet head, and infant Harvest laugh. + + +[_Ten thousand points erect_. l. 553. The solution of water in air or in +calorique, seems to acquire electric matter at the same time, as appears +from an experiment of Mr. Bennet. He put some live coals into an +insulated funnel of metal, and throwing on them a little water observed +that the ascending steam was electrised plus, and the water which +descended through the funnel was electrised minus. Hence it appears that +though clouds by their change of form may sometimes become electrised +minus yet they have in general an accumulation of electricity. This +accumulation of electric matter also evidently contributes to support +the atmospheric vapour when it is condensed into the form of clouds, +because it is seen to descend rapidly after the flashes of lightning +have diminished its quantity; whence there is reason to conclude that +very numerous metallic rods with fine points erected high in the air +might induce it at any time to part with some of its water. + +If we may trust the theory of Mr. Lavoisier concerning the composition +and decomposition of water, there would seem another source of thunder- +showers; and that is, that the two gasses termed oxygene gas or vital +air, and hydrogene gas or inflammable air, may exist in the summer +atmosphere in a state of mixture but not of combination, and that the +electric spark or flash of lightning may combine them and produce water +instantaneously.] + + + "Thus when ELIJA mark'd from Carmel's brow +560 In bright expanse the briny flood below; + Roll'd his red eyes amid the scorching air, + Smote his firm breast, and breathed his ardent prayer; + High in the midst a massy altar stood, + And slaughter'd offerings press'd the piles of wood; +565 While ISRAEL'S chiefs the sacred hill surround, + And famish'd armies crowd the dusty ground; + While proud Idolatry was leagued with dearth, + And wither'd famine swept the desert earth.-- + "OH, MIGHTY LORD! thy woe-worn servant hear, +570 "Who calls thy name in agony of prayer; + "Thy fanes dishonour'd, and thy prophets slain, + "Lo! I alone survive of all thy train!-- + "Oh send from heaven thy sacred fire,--and pour + "O'er the parch'd land the salutary shower,-- +575 "So shall thy Priest thy erring flock recal,-- + "And speak in thunder, "THOU ART LORD OF ALL."-- + He cried, and kneeling on the mountain-sands, + Stretch'd high in air his supplicating hands. + --Descending flames the dusky shrine illume; +580 Fire the wet wood, the sacred bull consume; + Wing'd from the sea the gathering mists arise, + And floating waters darken all the skies; + The King with shifted reins his chariot bends, + And wide o'er earth the airy flood descends; +585 With mingling cries dispersing hosts applaud, + And shouting nations own THE LIVING GOD." + + The GODDESS ceased,--the exulting tribes obey, + Start from the soil, and win their airy way; + The vaulted skies with streams of transient rays +590 Shine, as they pass, and earth and ocean blaze. + So from fierce wars when lawless Monarch's cease, + Or Liberty returns with laurel'd Peace; + Bright fly the sparks, the colour'd lustres burn, + Flash follows f +595 Blue serpents sweep along the dusky air, + Imp'd by long trains of scintillating hair; + Red rockets rise, loud cracks are heard on high, + And showers of stars rush headlong from the sky, + Burst, as in silver lines they hiss along, +600 And the quick flash unfolds the gazing throng. + + + + + _Argument of the Second Canto._ + + +Address to the Gnomes. I. The Earth thrown from a volcano of the Sun; +it's atmosphere and ocean; it's journey through the zodiac; vicissitude +of day-light, and of seasons, 11. II. Primeval islands. Paradise, or the +golden Age. Venus rising from the sea, 33. III. The first great +earthquakes; continents raised from the sea; the Moon thrown from a +volcano, has no atmosphere, and is frozen; the earth's diurnal motion +retarded; it's axis more inclined; whirls with the moon round a new +centre. 67. IV. Formation of lime-stone by aqueous solution; calcareous +spar; white marble; antient statue of Hercules resting from his labours. +Antinous. Apollo of Belvidere. Venus de Medici. Lady Elizabeth Foster, +and Lady Melbourn by Mrs. Damer. 93. V. 1. Of morasses. Whence the +production of Salt by elutriation. Salt-mines at Cracow, 115. 2. +Production of nitre. Mars and Venus caught by Vulcan, 143. 3. Production +of iron. Mr. Michel's improvement of artificial magnets. Uses of Steel +in agriculture, navigation, war, 183. 4. Production of acids, whence +Flint. Sea-sand. Selenite. Asbestus. Fluor. Onyx, Agate, Mocho, Opal, +Sapphire, Ruby, Diamond. Jupiter and Europa, 215. VI. 1. New +subterraneous fires from fermentation. Production of Clays; manufacture +of Porcelain in China; in Italy; in England. Mr. Wedgwood's works at +Etruria in Staffordshire. Cameo of a Slave in Chains; of Hope. Figures +on the Portland or Barberini vase explained, 271. 2. Coal; Pyrite; +Naphtha; Jet; Amber. Dr. Franklin's discovery of disarming the Tempest +of it's lightning. Liberty of America; of Ireland; of France, 349. VII. +Antient central subterraneous fires. Production of Tin, Copper, Zink, +Lead, Mercury, Platina, Gold and Silver. Destruction of Mexico. Slavery +of Africa, 395. VIII. Destruction of the armies of Cambyses, 431. IX. +Gnomes like stars of an Orrery. Inroads of the Sea stopped. Rocks +cultivated. Hannibal passes the Alps, 499. X. Matter circulates. Manures +to Vegetables like Chyle to Animals. Plants rising from the Earth. St. +Peter delivered from Prison, 537. XI. Transmigration of matter, 565. +Death and resuscitation of Adonis, 575. Departure of the Gnomes, 601. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO II. + + + AND NOW THE GODDESS with attention sweet + Turns to the GNOMES, that circle round her feet; + Orb within orb approach the marshal'd trains, + And pigmy legions darken all the plains; + 5 Thrice shout with silver tones the applauding bands, + Bow, ere She speaks, and clap their fairy hands. + So the tall grass, when noon-tide zephyr blows, + Bends it's green blades in undulating rows; + Wide o'er the fields the billowy tumult spreads, + 10 And rustling harvests bow their golden heads. + + I. "GNOMES! YOUR bright forms, presiding at her birth, + Clung in fond squadrons round the new-born EARTH; + When high in ether, with explosion dire, + From the deep craters of his realms of fire, + 15 The whirling Sun this ponderous planet hurl'd, + And gave the astonish'd void another world. + When from it's vaporous air, condensed by cold, + Descending torrents into oceans roll'd; + And fierce attraction with relentless force + 20 Bent the reluctant wanderer to it's course. + + +[_From the deep craters_. l. 14. The existence of solar volcanos is +countenanced by their analogy to terrestrial, and lunar volcanos; and by +the spots on the sun's disk, which have been shewn by Dr. Wilson to be +excavations through its luminous surface, and may be supposed to be the +cavities from whence the planets and comets were ejected by explosions. +See additional notes, No. XV. on solar volcanos.] + +[_When from its vaporous air_. l. 17. If the nucleus of the earth was +thrown out from the sun by an explosion along with as large a quantity +of surrounding hot vapour as its attraction would occasion to accompany +it, the ponderous semi-fluid nucleus would take a spherical form from +the attraction of its own parts, which would become an oblate spheroid +from its diurnal revolution. As the vapour cooled the water would be +precipitated, and an ocean would surround the spherical nucleus with a +superincumbent atmosphere. The nucleus of solar lava would likewise +become harder as it became cooler. To understand how the strata of the +earth were afterwards formed from the sediments of this circumfluent +ocean the reader is referred to an ingenious Treatise on the Theory of +the Earth by Mr. Whitehurst, who was many years a watch-maker and +engineer at Derby, but whose ingenuity, integrity, and humanity, were +rarely equalled in any station of life.] + + + "Where yet the Bull with diamond-eye adorns + The Spring's fair forehead, and with golden horns; + Where yet the Lion climbs the ethereal plain, + And shakes the Summer from his radiant mane; + 25 Where Libra lifts her airy arm, and weighs, + Poised in her silver ballance, nights and days; + With paler lustres where Aquarius burns, + And showers the still snow from his hoary urns; + YOUR ardent troops pursued the flying sphere, + 30 Circling the starry girdle of the year; + While sweet vicissitudes of day and clime + Mark'd the new annals of enascent Time. + + II. "You trod with printless step Earth's tender globe, + While Ocean wrap'd it in his azure robe; + 35 Beneath his waves her hardening strata spread, + Raised her PRIMEVAL ISLANDS from his bed, + Stretch'd her wide lawns, and sunk her winding dells, + And deck'd her shores with corals, pearls, and shells. + + +[_While ocean wrap'd_. l. 34. See additional notes, No. XVI. on the +production of calcareous earth.] + +[_Her hardening srata spread_. l. 35. The granite, or moor-stone, or +porphory, constitute the oldest part of the globe, since the limestone, +shells, coralloids, and other sea-productions rest upon them; and upon +these sea-productions are found clay, iron, coal, salt, and siliceous +sand or grit-stone. Thus there seem to be three divisions of the globe +distinctly marked; the first I suppose to have been the original nucleus +of the earth, or lava projected from the sun; 2. over this lie the +recrements of animal and vegetable matter produced in the ocean; and, 3. +over these the recrements of animal and vegetable matter produced upon +the land. Besides these there are bodies which owe their origin to a +combination of those already mentioned, as siliceous sand, fluor, +alabaster; which seem to have derived their acids originally from the +vegetable kingdom, and their earthy bases from sea-productions. See +additional notes, No. XVI. on calcareous earth.] + +[_Raised her primeval islands_. l. 36. The nucleus of the earth, still +covered with water, received perpetual increase by the immense +quantities of shells and coralloids either annually produced and +relinquishied, or left after the death of the animals. These would +gradually by their different degrees of cohesion be some of them more +and others less removable by the influence of solar tides, and gentle +tropical breezes, which then must have probably extended from one pole +to the other; for it is supposed the moon was not yet produced, and that +no storms or unequal winds had yet existence. + +Hence then the primeval islands had their gradual origin, were raised +but a few feet above the level of the sea, and were not exposed to the +great or sudden variations of heat and cold, as is so well explained in +Mr. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, chap. xvi. Whence the paradise of +the sacred writers, and the golden age of the profane ones, seems to +have had a real existence. As there can be no rainbow, when the heavens +are covered with clouds, because the sun-beams are then precluded from +falling upon the rain-drops opposite to the eye of the spectator, the +rainbow is a mark of gentle or partial showers. Mr. Whitehurst has +endeavoured to show that the primitive islands were only moistened by +nocturnal dews and not by showers, as occurs at this day to the Delta of +Egypt; and is thence of opinion, that the rainbow had no existence till +after the production of mountains and continents. As the salt of the sea +has been gradually accumulating, being washed down into it from the +recrements of animal and vegetable bodies, the sea must originally have +been as fresh as river water; and as it is not yet saturated with salt, +must become annually more saline. See note on l. 119 of this Canto.] + + + "O'er those blest isles no ice-crown'd mountains tower'd, + 40 No lightnings darted, and no tempests lower'd; + Soft fell the vesper-drops, condensed below, + Or bent in air the rain-refracted bow; + Sweet breathed the zephyrs, just perceiv'd and lost; + And brineless billows only kiss'd the coast; + 45 Round the bright zodiac danced the vernal hours, + And Peace, the Cherub, dwelt in mortal bowers! + + "So young DIONE, nursed beneath the waves, + And rock'd by Nereids in their coral caves, + Charm'd the blue sisterhood with playful wiles, + 50 Lisp'd her sweet tones, and tried her tender smiles. + Then, on her beryl throne by Triton's borne, + Bright rose the Goddess like the Star of morn; + When with soft fires the milky dawn He leads, + And wakes to life and love the laughing meads;-- + 55 With rosy fingers, as uncurl'd they hung + Round her fair brow, her golden locks she wrung; + O'er the smooth surge on silver sandals flood, + And look'd enchantment on the dazzled flood.-- + The bright drops, rolling from her lifted arms, + 60 In slow meanders wander o'er her charms, + Seek round her snowy neck their lucid track, + Pearl her white shoulders, gem her ivory back, + Round her fine waist and swelling bosom swim, + And star with glittering brine each crystal limb.-- + 65 --The immortal form enamour'd Nature hail'd, + And Beauty blazed to heaven and earth, unvail'd. + + +[_So young Dione_. l. 47. There is an antient gem representing Venus +rising out of the ocean supported by two Tritons. From the formality of +the design it would appear to be of great antiquity before the +introduction of fine taste into the world. It is probable that this +beautiful allegory was originally an hieroglyphic picture (before the +invention of letters) descriptive of the formation of the earth from the +ocean, which seems to have been an opinion of many of the most antient +philosophers.] + + + III. "You! who then, kindling after many an age, + Saw with new fires the first VOLCANO rage, + O'er smouldering heaps of livid sulphur swell + 70 At Earth's firm centre, and distend her shell, + Saw at each opening cleft the furnace glow, + And seas rush headlong on the gulphs below.-- + GNOMES! how you shriek'd! when through the troubled air + Roar'd the fierce din of elemental war; + 75 When rose the continents, and sunk the main, + And Earth's huge sphere exploding burst in twain.-- + GNOMES! how you gazed! when from her wounded side + Where now the South-Sea heaves its waste of tide, + Rose on swift wheels the MOON'S refulgent car, + 80 Circling the solar orb; a sister-star, + Dimpled with vales, with shining hills emboss'd, + And roll'd round Earth her airless realms of frost. + + +[_The first volcano_. l. 68. As the earth before the existence of +earthquakes was nearly level, and the greatest part of it covered with +sea; when the first great fires began deep in the internal parts of it, +those parts would become much expanded; this expansion would be +gradually extended, as the heat increased, through the whole terraqueous +globe of 7000 miles diameter; the crust would thence in many places open +into fissures, which by admitting the sea to flow in upon the fire, +would produce not only a quantity of steam beyond calculation by its +expansion, but would also by its decomposition produce inflammable air +and vital air in quantities beyond conception, sufficient to effect +those violent explosions, the vestiges of which all over the world +excite our admiration and our study; the difficulty of understanding how +subterraneous fires could exist without the presence of air has +disappeared since Dr. Priestley's discoveries of such great quantities +of pure air which constitute all the acids, and consequently exist in +all saline bodies, as sea-salt, nitre, lime-stone, and in all calciform +ores, as manganese, calamy, ochre, and other mineral substances. See an +ingenious treatise by Mr. Michel on earthquakes in the Philos. Trans. + +In these first tremendous ignitions of the globe, as the continents were +heaved up, the vallies, which now hold the sea, were formed by the earth +subsiding into the cavities made by the rising mountains; as the steam, +which raised them condensed; which would thence not have any caverns of +great extent remain beneath them, as some philosophers have imagined. +The earthquakes of modern days are of very small extent indeed compared +to those of antient times, and are ingeniously compared by M. De Luc to +the operations of a mole-hill, where from a small cavity are raised from +time to time small quantities of lava or pumice stone. Monthly Review, +June, 1790.] + +[_The moon's refulgent car_. l. 79. See additional notes, No. XV. on +solar volcanos.] + +[_Her airless realms of frost_. l. 82. If the moon had no atmosphere at +the time of its elevation from the earth; or if its atmosphere was +afterwards stolen from it by the earth's attraction; the water on the +moon would rise quickly into vapour; and the cold produced by a certain +quantity of this evaporation would congeal the remainder of it. Hence it +is not probable that the moon is at present inhabited, but as it seems +to have suffered and to continue to suffer much by volcanos, a +sufficient quantity of air may in process of time be generated to +produce an atmosphere; which may prevent its heat from so easily +escaping, and its water from so easily evaporating, and thence become +fit for the production of vegetables and animals. + +That the moon possesses little or no atmosphere is deduced from the +undiminished lustre of the stars, at the instant when they emerge from +behind her disk. That the ocean of the moon is frozen, is confirmed from +there being no appearance of lunar tides; which, if they existed, would +cover the part of her disk nearest the earth. See note on Canto III. l. +61.] + + + "GNOMES! how you trembled! with the dreadful force + When Earth recoiling stagger'd from her course; + 85 When, as her Line in slower circles spun, + And her shock'd axis nodded from the sun, + With dreadful march the accumulated main + Swept her vast wrecks of mountain, vale, and plain; + And, while new tides their shouting floods unite, + 90 And hail their Queen, fair Regent of the night; + Chain'd to one centre whirl'd the kindred spheres, + And mark'd with lunar cycles solar years. + + +[_When earth recoiling_. l. 84. On supposition that the moon was thrown +from the earth by the explosion of water or the generation of other +vapours of greater power, the remaining part of the globe would recede +from its orbit in one direction as the moon receded in another, and that +in proportion to the respective momentum of each, and would afterwards +revolve round their common centre of gravity. + +If the moon rose from any part of the earth except exactly at the line +or poles, the shock would tend to turn the axis of the earth out of its +previous direction. And as a mass of matter rising from deep parts of +the globe would have previously acquired less diurnal velocity than the +earth's surface from whence it rose, it would receive during the time of +its rising additional velocity from the earth's surface, and would +consequently so much retard the motion of the earth round its axis. + +When the earth thus receded the shock would overturn all its buildings +and forests, and the water would rush with inconceivable violence over +its surface towards the new satellite, from two causes, both by its not +at first acquiring the velocity with which the earth receded, and by the +attraction of the new moon, as it leaves the earth; on these accounts at +first there would be but one tide till the moon receded to a greater +distance, and the earth moving round a common centre of gravity between +them, the water on the side furthest from the moon would acquire a +centrifugal force in respect to this common centre between itself and +the moon.] + + + IV. "GNOMES! you then bade dissolving SHELLS distil + From the loose summits of each shatter'd hill, + 95 To each fine pore and dark interstice flow, + And fill with liquid chalk the mass below. + Whence sparry forms in dusky caverns gleam + With borrow'd light, and twice refract the beam; + While in white beds congealing rocks beneath +100 Court the nice chissel, and desire to breathe.-- + + +[Footnote: _Dissolving shells distil_. l. 93. The lime-stone rocks have +had their origin from shells formed beneath the sea, the softer strata +gradually dissolving and filling up the interstices of the harder ones, +afterwards when these accumulations of shells were elevated above the +waters the upper strata became dissolved by the actions of the air and +dews, and filled up the interstices beneath, producing solid rocks of +different kinds from the coarse lime-stones to the finest marbles. When +those lime-stones have been in such a situation that they could form +perfect crystals they are called spars, some of which possess a double +refraction, as observed by Sir Isaac Newton. When these crystals are +jumbled together or mixed with some colouring impurities it is termed +marble, if its texture be equable and firm; if its texture be coarse and +porous yet hard, it is called lime-stone; if its texture be very loose +and porous it is termed chalk. In some rocks the shells remain almost +unchanged and only covered, or bedded with lime-stone, which seems to +have been dissolved and sunk down amongst them. In others the softer +shells and bones are dissolved, and only sharks teeth or harder echini +have preserved their form inveloped in the chalk or lime-stone; in some +marbles the solution has been compleat and no vestiges of shell appear, +as in the white kind called statuary by the workmen. See addit. notes, +No. XVI.] + + + "Hence wearied HERCULES in marble rears + His languid limbs, and rests a thousand years; + Still, as he leans, shall young ANTINOUS please + With careless grace, and unaffected ease; +105 Onward with loftier step APOLLO spring, + And launch the unerring arrow from the string; + In Beauty's bashful form, the veil unfurl'd, + Ideal VENUS win the gazing world. + Hence on ROUBILIAC'S tomb shall Fame sublime +110 Wave her triumphant wings, and conquer Time; + Long with soft touch shall DAMER'S chissel charm, + With grace delight us, and with beauty warm; + FOSTER'S fine form shall hearts unborn engage, + And MELBOURN's smile enchant another age. + + +[_Hence wearied Hercules_. l. 101. Alluding to the celebrated Hercules +of Glyco resting after his labours; and to the easy attitude of +Antinous; the lofty step of the Apollo of Belvidere; and the retreating +modesty of the Venus de Medici. Many of the designs by Roubiliac in +Westminster Abbey are uncommonly poetical; the allegory of Time and Fame +contending for the trophy of General Wade, which is here alluded to, is +beautifully told; the wings of Fame are still expanded, and her hair +still floating in the air; which not only shews that she has that moment +arrived, but also that her force is not yet expended; at the same time, +that the old figure of Time with his disordered wings is rather leaning +backwards and yielding to her impulse, and must apparently in another +instant be driven from his attack upon the trophy.] + +[_Foster's fine form_. l. 113. Alluding to the beautiful statues of Lady +Elizabeth Foster and of Lady Melbourn executed by the ingenious Mrs. +Damer.] + + +115 V. GNOMES! you then taught transuding dews to pass + Through time-fall'n woods, and root-inwove morass + Age after age; and with filtration fine + Dispart, from earths and sulphurs, the saline. + + +[_Root-inwove morass_. l. 116. The great mass of matter which rests upon +the lime-stone strata of the earth, or upon the granite where the lime- +stone stratum has been removed by earthquakes or covered by lava, has +had its origin from the recrements of vegetables and of air-breathing +animals, as the lime-stone had its origin from sea animals. The whole +habitable world was originally covered with woods, till mankind formed +themselves into societies, and subdued them by fire and by steel. Hence +woods in uncultivated countries have grown and fallen through many ages, +whence morasses of immense extent; and from these as the more soluble +parts were washed away first, were produced sea-salt, nitre, iron, and +variety of acids, which combining with calcareous matter were productive +of many fossil bodies, as flint, sea-sand, selenite, with the precious +stones, and perhaps the diamond. See additional notes, No. XVII.] + + + 1. "HENCE with diffusive SALT old Ocean steeps +120 His emerald shallows, and his sapphire deeps. + Oft in wide lakes, around their warmer brim + In hollow pyramids the crystals swim; + Or, fused by earth-born fires, in cubic blocks + Shoot their white forms, and harden into rocks. + + +[_Hence with diffusive salt_. l. 119. Salts of various kinds are +produced from the recrements of animal and vegetable bodies, such as +phosphoric, ammoniacal, marine salt, and others; these are washed from +the earth by rains, and carried down our rivers into the sea; they seem +all here to decompose each other except the marine salt, which has +therefore from the beginning of the habitable world been perpetually +accumulating. + +There is a town in the immense salt-mines of Cracow in Poland, with a +market-place, a river, a church, and a famous statue, (here supposed to +be of Lot's wife) by the moist or dry appearance of which the +subterranean inhabitants are said to know when the weather is fair above +ground. The galleries in these mines are so numerous and so intricate, +that workmen have frequently lost their way, their lights having been +burnt out, and have perished before they could be found. Essais, &c. par +M. Macquart. And though the arches of these different stories of +galleries are boldly executed, yet they are not dangerous; as they are +held together or supported by large masses of timber of a foot square; +and these vast timbers remain perfectly sound for many centuries, while +all other pillars whether of brick, cement, or salt soon dissolve or +moulder away. Ibid. Could the timbers over water-mill wheels or cellars, +be thus preserved by occasionally soaking them with brine? These immense +masses of rock-salt seem to have been produced by the evaporation of +sea-water in the early periods of the world by subterranean fires. Dr. +Hutton's Theory of the Earth. See also Theorie des Sources Salees, par +Mr. Struve. Histoire de Sciences de Lausanne. Tom. II. This idea of Dr. +Hutton's is confirmed by a fact mentioned in M. Macquart's Essais sur +Minerologie, who found a great quantity of fossil shells, principally +bi-valves and madre-pores, in the salt-mines of Wialiczka near Cracow. +During the evaporation of the lakes of salt-water, as in artificial +salt-works, the salt begins to crystallize near the edges where the +water is shallowest, forming hollow inverted pyramids; which, when they +become of a certain size, subside by their gravity; if urged by a +stronger fire the salt fuses or forms large cubes; whence the salt +shaped in hollow pyramids, called flake-salt, is better tasted and +preserves flesh better, than the basket or powder salt; because it is +made by less heat and thence contains more of the marine acid. The sea- +water about our island contains from about one twenty-eighth to one +thirtieth part of sea-salt, and about one eightieth of magnesian salt. +See Brownrigg on Salt. See note on Ocymum, Vol. II. of this work.] + + +125 "Thus, cavern'd round in CRACOW'S mighty mines, + With crystal walls a gorgeous city shines; + Scoop'd in the briny rock long streets extend + Their hoary course, and glittering domes ascend; + Down the bright steeps, emerging into day, +130 Impetuous fountains burst their headlong way, + O'er milk-white vales in ivory channels spread, + And wondering seek their subterraneous bed. + Form'd in pellucid salt with chissel nice, + The pale lamp glimmering through the sculptured ice, +135 With wild reverted eyes fair LOTTA stands, + And spreads to Heaven, in vain, her glassy hands; + Cold dews condense upon her pearly breast, + And the big tear rolls lucid down her vest. + Far gleaming o'er the town transparent fanes +140 Rear their white towers, and wave their golden vanes; + Long lines of lustres pour their trembling rays, + And the bright vault returns the mingled blaze. + + 2. "HENCE orient NITRE owes it's sparkling birth, + And with prismatic crystals gems the earth, +145 O'er tottering domes in filmy foliage crawls, + Or frosts with branching plumes the mouldering walls. + As woos Azotic Gas the virgin Air, + And veils in crimson clouds the yielding Fair, + Indignant Fire the treacherous courtship flies, +150 Waves his light wing, and mingles with the skies. + + +[_Hence orient Nitre_. l. 143. Nitre is found in Bengal naturally +crystallized, and is swept by brooms from earths and stones, and thence +called sweepings of nitre. It has lately been found in large quantities +in a natural bason of calcareous earth at Molfetta in Italy, both in +thin strata between the calcareous beds, and in efflorescences of +various beautiful leafy and hairy forms. An account of this nitre-bed is +given by Mr. Zimmerman and abridged in Rozier's Journal de Physique +Fevrier. 1790. This acid appears to be produced in all situations where +animal and vegetable matters are compleatly decomposed, and which are +exposed to the action of the air as on the walls of stables, and +slaughter-houses; the crystals are prisms furrowed by longitudinal +groves. + +Dr. Priestley discovered that nitrous air or gas which he obtained by +dissolving metals in nitrous acid, would combine rapidly with vital air, +and produce with it a true nitrous acid; forming red clouds during the +combination; the two airs occupy only the space before occupied by one +of them, and at the same time heat is given out from the new +combination. This dimunition of the bulk of a mixture of nitrous gas and +vital air, Dr. Priestley ingeniously used as a test of the purity of the +latter; a discovery of the greatest importance in the analysis of airs. + +Mr. Cavendish has since demonstrated that two parts of vital air or +oxygene, and one part of phlogistic air or azote, being long exposed to +electric shocks, unite, and produce nitrous acid. Philos. Trans. Vols. +LXXV. and LXXVIII. + +Azote is one of the most abundant elements in nature, and combined with +calorique or heat, it forms azotic gas or phlogistic air, and composes +two thirds of the atmosphere; and is one of the principal component +parts of animal bodies, and when united to vital air or oxygene produces +the nitrous acid. Mr. Lavoisier found that 211/2 parts by weight of +azote, and 431/2 parts of oxygene produced 64 parts of nitrous gas, and +by the further addition of 36 parts of oxygene nitrous acid was +produced. Traité de Chimie. When two airs become united so as to produce +an unelastic liquid much calorique or heat is of necessity expelled from +the new combination, though perhaps nitrous acid and oxygenated marine +acid admit more heat into their combinations than other acids.] + + + "So Beauty's GODDESS, warm with new desire, + Left, on her silver wheels, the GOD of Fire; + Her faithless charms to fiercer MARS resign'd, + Met with fond lips, with wanton arms intwin'd. +155 --Indignant VULCAN eyed the parting Fair, + And watch'd with jealous step the guilty pair; + O'er his broad neck a wiry net he flung, + Quick as he strode, the tinkling meshes rung; + Fine as the spider's flimsy thread He wove +160 The immortal toil to lime illicit love; + Steel were the knots, and steel the twisted thong, + Ring link'd in ring, indissolubly strong; + On viewless hooks along the fretted roof + He hung, unseen, the inextricable woof.-- +165 --Quick start the springs, the webs pellucid spread, + And lock the embracing Lovers on their bed; + Fierce with loud taunts vindictive VULCAN springs, + Tries all the bolts, and tightens all the strings, + Shakes with incessant shouts the bright abodes, +170 Claps his rude hands, and calls the festive Gods.-- + --With spreading palms the alarmed Goddess tries + To veil her beauties from celestial eyes, + Writhes her fair limbs, the slender ringlets strains, + And bids her Loves untie the obdurate chains; +175 Soft swells her panting bosom, as she turns, + And her flush'd cheek with brighter blushes burns. + Majestic grief the Queen of Heaven avows, + And chaste Minerva hides her helmed brows; + Attendant Nymphs with bashful eyes askance +180 Steal of intangled MARS a transient glance; + Surrounding Gods the circling nectar quaff, + Gaze on the Fair, and envy as they laugh. + + 3. "HENCE dusky IRON sleeps in dark abodes, + And ferny foliage nestles in the nodes; +185 Till with wide lungs the panting bellows blow, + And waked by fire the glittering torrents flow; + --Quick whirls the wheel, the ponderous hammer falls, + Loud anvils ring amid the trembling walls, + Strokes follow strokes, the sparkling ingot shines, +190 Flows the red slag, the lengthening bar refines; + Cold waves, immersed, the glowing mass congeal, + And turn to adamant the hissing Steel. + + +[_Hence dusky Iron_. l. 183. The production of iron from the +decomposition of vegetable bodies is perpetually presented to our view; +the waters oozing from all morasses are chalybeate, and deposit their +ochre on being exposed to the air, the iron acquiring a calciform state +from its union with oxygene or vital air. Where thin morasses lie on +beds of gravel the latter are generally stained by the filtration of +some of the chalybeate water through them. This formation of iron from +vegetable recrements is further evinced by the fern leaves and other +parts of vegetables, so frequently found in the centre of the knobs or +nodules of some iron-ores. + +In some of these nodules there is a nucleus of whiter iron-earth +surrounded by many concentric strata of darker and lighter iron-earth +alternately. In one, which now lies before me, the nucleus is a prism of +a triangular form with blunted angles, and about half an inch high, and +an inch and half broad; on every side of this are concentric strata of +similar iron-earth alternately browner and less brown; each stratum is +about a tenth of an inch in thickness and there are ten of them in +number. To what known cause can this exactly regular distribution of so +many earthy strata of different colours surrounding the nucleus be +ascribed? I don't know that any mineralogists have attempted an +explanation of this wonderful phenomenon. I suspect it is owing to the +polarity of the central nucleus. If iron-filings be regularly laid on +paper by means of a small sieve, and a magnet be placed underneath, the +filings will dispose themselves in concentric curves with vacant +intervals between them. Now if these iron-filings are conceived to be +suspended in a fluid, whose specific gravity is similar to their own, +and a magnetic bar was introduced as an axis into this fluid, it is easy +to foresee that the iron filings would dispose themselves into +concentric spheres, with intervals of the circumnatant fluid between +them, exactly as is seen in these nodules of iron-earth. As all the +lavas consist of one fourth of iron, (Kirvan's Mineral) and almost all +other known bodies, whether of animal or vegetable origin, possess more +or less of this property, may not the distribution of a great portion of +the globe of the earth into strata of greater or less regularity be +owing to the polarity of the whole?] + +[_And turn to adamant_. l. 192. The circumstances which render iron more +valuable to mankind than any other metal are, 1. its property of being +rendered hard to so great a degree and thus constituting such excellent +tools. It was the discovery of this property of iron, Mr. Locke thinks, +that gave such pre-eminence to the European world over the American one. +2. Its power of being welded; that is, when two pieces are made very hot +and applied together by hammering, they unite compleatly, unless any +scale of iron intervenes; and to prevent this it is usual for smiths to +dip the very hot bar in sand, a little of which fuses into fluid glass +with the scale and is squeezed out from between the uniting parts by the +force of hammering. 3. Its power of acquiring magnetism. + +It is however to be wished that gold or silver were discovered in as +great quantity as iron, since these metals being indestructible by +exposure to air, water, fire or any common acids would supply wholesome +vessels for cookery, so much to be desired, and so difficult to obtain, +and would form the most light and durable coverings for houses, as well +as indestructible fire-grates, ovens, and boiling vessels. See +additional notes, No. XVIII. on Steel.] + + + "Last MICHELL'S hands with touch of potent charm + The polish'd rods with powers magnetic arm; +195 With points directed to the polar stars + In one long line extend the temper'd bars; + Then thrice and thrice with steady eye he guides, + And o'er the adhesive train the magnet slides; + The obedient Steel with living instinct moves, +200 And veers for ever to the pole it loves. + + +[_Last Michell's hands_. l. 193. The discovery of the magnet seems to +have been in very early times; it is mentioned by Plato, Lucretius, +Pliny, and Galen, and is said to have taken its name of magnes from +Magnesia, a sea-port of antient Lybia. + +As every piece of iron which was made magnetical by the touch of a +magnet became itself a magnet, many attempts were made to improve these +artificial magnets, but without much success till Servingdon Savary, +Esq. made them of hardened steel bars, which were so powerful that one +of them weighing three pounds averdupois would lift another of the same +weight. Philos. Trans. + +After this Dr. Knight made very successful experiments on this subject, +which, though he kept his method secret, seems to have excited others to +turn their attention to magnetism. At this time the Rev. Mr. Michell +invented an equally efficacious and more expeditious way of making +strong artificial magnets, which he published in the end of the year +1750, in which he explained his method of what he called "the double +touch", and which, since Mr. Knight's method has been known, appears to +be somewhat different from it. + +This method of rendering bars of hardened steel magnetical consists in +holding vertically two or more magnetic bars nearly parallel to each +other with their opposite poles very near each other (but nevertheless +separated to a small distance), these are to be slided over a line of +bars laid horizontally a few times backward and forward. See Michell on +Magnetism, also a detailed account in Chamber's Dictionary. + +What Mr. Michell proposed by this method was to include a very small +portion of the horizontal bars, intended to be made magnetical, between +the joint forces of two or more bars already magnetical, and by sliding +them from end to end every part of the line of bars became successively +included, and thus bars possessed of a very small degree of magnetism to +begin with, would in a few times sliding backwards and forwards make the +other ones much more magnetical than themselves, which are then to be +taken up and used to touch the former, which are in succession to be +laid down horizontally in a line. + +There is still a great field remains for future discoveries in magnetism +both in respect to experiment and theory; the latter consists of vague +conjectures the more probable of which are perhaps those of Elpinus, as +they assimulate it to electricity. + +One conjecture I shall add, viz. that the polarity of magnetism may be +owing to the earth's rotatory motion. If heat, electricity, and +magnetism are supposed to be fluids of different gravities, heat being +the heaviest of them, electricity the next heavy, and magnetism the +lightest, it is evident that by the quick revolution of the earth the +heat will be accumulated most over the line, electricity next beneath +this, and that the magnetism will be detruded to the poles and axis of +the earth, like the atmospheres of common air and of inflammable gas, as +explained in the note on Canto I. l. 123. + +Electricity and heat will both of them displace magnetism, and this +shows that they may gravitate on each other; and hence when too great a +quantity of the electric fluid becomes accumulated at the poles by +descending snows, or other unknown causes, it may have a tendency to +rise towards the tropics by its centrifugal force, and produce the +northern lights. See additional notes, No. I.] + + + "Hail, adamantine STEEL! magnetic Lord! + King of the prow, the plowshare, and the sword! + True to the pole, by thee the pilot guides + His steady helm amid the struggling tides, +205 Braves with broad sail the immeasurable sea, + Cleaves the dark air, and asks no star but Thee.-- + By thee the plowshare rends the matted plain, + Inhumes in level rows the living grain; + Intrusive forests quit the cultured ground, +210 And Ceres laughs with golden fillets crown'd.-- + O'er restless realms when scowling Discord flings + Her snakes, and loud the din of battle rings; + Expiring Strength, and vanquish'd Courage feel + Thy arm resistless, adamantine STEEL! + +215 4. "HENCE in fine streams diffusive ACIDS flow, + Or wing'd with fire o'er Earth's fair bosom blow; + Transmute to glittering Flints her chalky lands, + Or sink on Ocean's bed in countless Sands. + Hence silvery Selenite her chrystal moulds, +220 And soft Asbestus smooths his silky folds; + His cubic forms phosphoric Fluor prints, + Or rays in spheres his amethystine tints. + Soft cobweb clouds transparent Onyx spreads, + And playful Agates weave their colour'd threads; +225 Gay pictured Mochoes glow with landscape-dyes, + And changeful Opals roll their lucid eyes; + Blue lambent light around the Sapphire plays, + Bright Rubies blush, and living Diamonds blaze. + + +[_Diffusive Acids flow_. l. 215. The production of marine acid from +decomposing vegetable and animal matters with vital air, and of nitrous +acid from azote and vital air, the former of which is united to its +basis by means of the exhalations from vegetable and animal matters, +constitute an analogy which induces us to believe that many other acids +have either their bases or are united to vital air by means of some part +of decomposing vegetable and animal matters. + +The great quantities of flint sand whether formed in mountains or in the +sea would appear to derive its acid from the new world, as it is found +above the strata of lime-stone and granite which constitute the old +world, and as the earthy basis of flint is probably calcareous, a great +part of it seems to be produced by a conjunction of the new and old +world; the recrements of air-breathing animals and vegetables probably +afford the acid, and the shells of marine animals the earthy basis, +while another part may have derived its calcareous part also from the +decomposition of vegetable and animal bodies. + +The same mode of reasoning seems applicable to the siliceous stones +under various names, as amethyst, onyx, agate, mochoe, opal, &c. which +do not seem to have undergone any process from volcanic fires, and as +these stones only differ from flint by a greater or less admixture of +argillaceous and calcareous earths. The different proportions of which +in each kind of stone may be seen in Mr. Kirwan's valuable Elements of +Mineralogy. See additional notes, No. XIX.] + +[_Living diamonds blaze_. l. 228. Sir Isaac Newton having observed the +great power of refracting light, which the diamond possesses above all +other crystallized or vitreous matter, conjectured that it was an +inflammable body in some manner congealed. Insomuch that all the light +is reflected which falls on any of its interior surfaces at a greater +angle of incidence than 241/2 degrees; whereas an artificial gem of +glass does not reflect any light from its hinder surface, unless that +surface is inclined in an angle of 41 degrees. Hence the diamond +reflects half as much more light as a factitious gem in similar +circumstances; to which must be added its great transparency, and the +excellent polish it is capable of. The diamond had nevertheless been +placed at the head of crystals or precious stones by the mineralogists, +till Bergman ranged it of late in the combustible class of bodies, +because by the focus of Villette's burning mirror it was evaporated by a +heat not much greater than will melt silver, and gave out light. Mr. +Hoepfner however thinks the dispersion of the diamond by this great heat +should be called a phosphorescent evaporation of it, rather than a +combustion; and from its other analogies of crystallization, hardness, +transparency, and place of its nativity, wishes again to replace it +amongst the precious stones. Observ. sur la Physique, par Rozier, Tom. +XXXV. p. 448. See new edition of the Translation of Cronsted, by De +Costa.] + + + "Thus, for attractive earth, inconstant JOVE +230 Mask'd in new shapes forsook his realms above.-- + First her sweet eyes his Eagle-form beguiles, + And HEBE feeds him with ambrosial smiles; + Next the chang'd God a Cygnet's down assumes, + And playful LEDA smooths his glossy plumes; +235 Then glides a silver Serpent, treacherous guest! + And fair OLYMPIA folds him in her breast; + Now lows a milk-white Bull on Afric's strand, + And crops with dancing head the daisy'd land.-- + With rosy wreathes EUROPA'S hand adorns +240 His fringed forehead, and his pearly horns; + Light on his back the sportive Damsel bounds, + And pleased he moves along the flowery grounds; + Bears with slow step his beauteous prize aloof, + Dips in the lucid flood his ivory hoof; +245 Then wets his velvet knees, and wading laves + His silky sides amid the dimpling waves. + While her fond train with beckoning hands deplore, + Strain their blue eyes, and shriek along the shore; + Beneath her robe she draws her snowy feet, +250 And, half-reclining on her ermine seat, + Round his raised neck her radiant arms she throws, + And rests her fair cheek on his curled brows; + Her yellow tresses wave on wanton gales, + And high in air her azure mantle sails. +255 --Onward He moves, applauding Cupids guide, + And skim on shooting wing the shining tide; + Emerging Triton's leave their coral caves, + Sound their loud conchs, and smooth the circling waves, + Surround the timorous Beauty, as she swims, +260 And gaze enamour'd on her silver limbs. + --Now Europe's shadowy shores with loud acclaim + Hail the fair fugitive, and shout her name; + Soft echoes warble, whispering forests nod, + And conscious Nature owns the present God. +265 --Changed from the Bull, the rapturous God assumes + Immortal youth, with glow celestial blooms, + With lenient words her virgin fears disarms, + And clasps the yielding Beauty in his arms; + Whence Kings and Heroes own illustrious birth, +270 Guards of mankind, and demigods on earth. + + +[_Inconstant Jove_. l. 229. The purer air or ether in the antient +mythology was represented by Jupiter, and the inferior air by Juno; and +the conjunction of these deities was said to produce the vernal showers, +and procreate all things, as is further spoken of in Canto III. l. 204. +It is now discovered that pure air, or oxygene, uniting with variety of +bases forms the various kinds of acids; as the vitriolic acid from pure +air and sulphur; the nitrous acid from pure air and phlogistic air, or +azote; and carbonic acid, (or fixed air,) from pure air and charcoal. +Some of these affinities were perhaps portrayed by the Magi of Egypt, +who were probably learned in chemistry, in their hieroglyphic pictures +before the invention of letters, by the loves of Jupiter with +terrestrial ladies. And thus physically as well as metaphysically might +be said "Jovis omnia plena."] + + + VI. "GNOMES! as you pass'd beneath the labouring soil, + The guards and guides of Nature's chemic toil, + YOU saw, deep-sepulchred in dusky realms, + Which Earth's rock-ribbed ponderous vault o'erwhelms, +275 With self-born fires the mass fermenting glow, + And flame-wing'd sulphurs quit the earths below. + + +[_With self-born fires_. l. 275. After the accumulation of plains and +mountains on the calcareous rocks or granite which had been previously +raised by volcanic fires, a second set of volcanic fires were produced +by the fermentation of this new mass, by which after the salts or acids +and iron had been washed away in part by elutriation, dissipated the +sulphurous parts which were insoluble in water; whence argillaceous and +siliceous earths were left in some places; in others, bitumen became +sublimed to the upper part of the stratum, producing coals of various +degrees of purity.] + + + 1. "HENCE ductile CLAYS in wide expansion spread, + Soft as the Cygnet's down, their snow-white bed; + With yielding flakes successive forms reveal, +280 And change obedient to the whirling wheel. + --First CHINA'S sons, with early art elate, + Form'd the gay tea-pot, and the pictured plate; + Saw with illumin'd brow and dazzled eyes + In the red stove vitrescent colours rise; +285 Speck'd her tall beakers with enamel'd stars, + Her monster-josses, and gigantic jars; + Smear'd her huge dragons with metallic hues, + With golden purples, and cobaltic blues; + Bade on wide hills her porcelain castles glare, +290 And glazed Pagodas tremble in the air. + + +[_Hence ductile clays_ l. 277. See additional notes, No. XX.] + +[_Saw with illumin'd brow_. l. 283. No colour is distinguishable in the +red-hot kiln but the red itself, till the workman introduces a small +piece of dry wood, which by producing a white flame renders all the +other colours visible in a moment.] + +[_With golden purples_. l. 288. See additional notes, No. XXI.] + + + "ETRURIA! next beneath thy magic hands + Glides the quick wheel, the plaistic clay expands, + Nerved with fine touch, thy fingers (as it turns) + Mark the nice bounds of vases, ewers, and urns; +295 Round each fair form in lines immortal trace + Uncopied Beauty, and ideal Grace. + + +[_Etruria! next_. l. 291. Etruria may perhaps vie with China itself in +the antiquity of its arts. The times of its greatest splendour were +prior to the foundations of Rome, and the reign of one of its best +princes, Janus, was the oldest epoch the Romans knew. The earliest +historians speak of the Etruscans as being then of high antiquity, most +probably a colony from Phoenicia, to which a Pelasgian colony acceded, +and was united soon after Deucalion's flood. The peculiar character of +their earthern vases consists in the admirable beauty, simplicity, and +diversity of forms, which continue the best models of taste to the +artists of the present times; and in a species of non-vitreous encaustic +painting, which was reckoned, even in the time of Pliny, among the lost +arts of antiquity, but which has lately been recovered by the ingenuity +and industry of Mr. Wedgwood. It is supposed that the principal +manufactories were about Nola, at the foot of Vesuvius; for it is in +that neighbourhood that the greatest quantities of antique vases have +been found; and it is said that the general taste of the inhabitants is +apparently influenced by them; insomuch that strangers coming to Naples, +are commonly struck with the diversity and elegance even of the most +ordinary vases for common uses. See D'Hancarville's preliminary +discourses to the magnificent collection of Etruscan vases, published by +Sir William Hamilton.] + + + "GNOMES! as you now dissect with hammers fine + The granite-rock, the nodul'd flint calcine; + Grind with strong arm, the circling chertz betwixt, +300 Your pure Ka-o-lins and Pe-tun-tses mixt; + O'er each red saggars burning cave preside, + The keen-eyed Fire-Nymphs blazing by your side; + And pleased on WEDGWOOD ray your partial smile, + A new Etruria decks Britannia's isle.-- +305 Charm'd by your touch, the flint liquescent pours + Through finer sieves, and falls in whiter showers; + Charm'd by your touch, the kneaded clay refines, + The biscuit hardens, the enamel shines; + Each nicer mould a softer feature drinks, +310 The bold Cameo speaks, the soft Intaglio thinks. + + +[Illustration: _H. Webber init J. Holloway sculpt Copied from Capt. +Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, by permission of the Proprietor_] + +[Transcriber's note: names of painter and engraver are only guesswork.] + +[Illustration: AM I NOT A MAN AND A BROTHER] + + + "To call the pearly drops from Pity's eye, + Or stay Despair's disanimating sigh, + Whether, O Friend of art! the gem you mould + Rich with new taste, with antient virtue bold; +315 Form the poor fetter'd SLAVE on bended knee + From Britain's sons imploring to be free; + Or with fair HOPE the brightening scenes improve, + And cheer the dreary wastes at Sydney-cove; + Or bid Mortality rejoice and mourn +320 O'er the fine forms on PORTLAND'S mystic urn.-- + + +[_Form the poor fetter'd Slave_. l. 315. Alluding to two cameos of Mr. +Wedgwood's manufacture; one of a Slave in chains, of which he +distributed many hundreds, to excite the humane to attend to and to +assist in the abolition of the detestable traffic in human creatures; +and the other a cameo of Hope attended by Peace, and Art, and Labour; +which was made of clay from Botany Bay; to which place he sent many of +them to shew the inhabitants what their materials would do, and to +encourage their industry. A print of this latter medallion is prefixed +to Mr. Stockdale's edition of Philip's Expedition to Botany Bay.] + +[_Portland's mystic urn_. l. 320. See additional notes, No. XXII.] + + + "_Here_ by fall'n columns and disjoin'd arcades, + On mouldering stones, beneath deciduous shades, + Sits HUMANKIND in hieroglyphic state, + Serious, and pondering on their changeful state; +325 While with inverted torch, and swimming eyes, + Sinks the fair shade of MORTAL LIFE, and dies. + _There_ the pale GHOST through Death's wide portal bends + His timid feet, the dusky steep descends; + With smiles assuasive LOVE DIVINE invites, +330 Guides on broad wing, with torch uplifted lights; + IMMORTAL LIFE, her hand extending, courts + The lingering form, his tottering step supports; + Leads on to Pluto's realms the dreary way, + And gives him trembling to Elysian day. +335 _Beneath_ in sacred robes the PRIESTESS dress'd, + The coif close-hooded, and the fluttering vest, + With pointing finger guides the initiate youth, + Unweaves the many-colour'd veil of Truth, + Drives the profane from Mystery's bolted door, +340 And Silence guards the Eleusinian lore.-- + + +[Illustration: _The Portland Vase_] + +[Illustration: _The first Compartment_, London Published Dec'r 1st 1791 +by J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard.] + +[Transcriber's note: 2nd line with date very small and nearly illegible] + +[Illustration: _The second Compartment_] + +[Illustration: _The Handles & Bottom of the Vase._ London Published +Dec'r 1st 1791 by J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard.] + + + "Whether, O Friend of Art! your gems derive + Fine forms from Greece, and fabled Gods revive; + Or bid from modern life the Portrait breathe, + And bind round Honour's brow the laurel wreath; +345 Buoyant shall sail, with Fame's historic page, + Each fair medallion o'er the wrecks of age; + Nor Time shall mar; nor steel, nor fire, nor rust + Touch the hard polish of the immortal bust. + + +[_Fine forms from Greece_. l. 342. In real stones, or in paste or soft +coloured glass, many pieces of exquisite workmanship were produced by +the antients. Basso-relievos of various sizes were made in coarse brown +earth of one colour; but of the improved kind of two or more colours, +and of a true porcelain texture, none were made by the antients, nor +attempted I believe by the moderns, before those of Mr. Wedgwood's +manufactory.] + + + 2. "HENCE sable COAL his massy couch extends, +350 And stars of gold the sparkling Pyrite blends; + Hence dull-eyed Naphtha pours his pitchy streams, + And Jet uncolour'd drinks the solar beams, + Bright Amber shines on his electric throne, + And adds ethereal lustres to his own. +355 --Led by the phosphor-light, with daring tread + Immortal FRANKLIN sought the fiery bed; + Where, nursed in night, incumbent Tempest shrouds + The seeds of Thunder in circumfluent clouds, + Besieged with iron points his airy cell, +360 And pierced the monster slumbering in the shell. + + +[_Hence sable Coal_. l. 349. See additional notes, No. XXIII. on coal.] + +[_Bright Amber shines_. l. 353. Coal has probably all been sublimed more +or less from the clay, with which it was at first formed in decomposing +morasses; the petroleum seems to have been separated and condensed again +in superior strata, and a still finer kind of oil, as naphtha, has +probably had the same origin. Some of these liquid oils have again lost +their more volatile parts, and become cannel-coal, asphaltum, jet, and +amber, according to the purity of the original fossil oil. Dr. Priestley +has shewn, that essential oils long exposed to the atmosphere absorb +both the vital and phlogistic part of it; whence it is probable their +becoming solid may in great measure depend, as well as by the exhalation +of their more volatile parts. On distillation with volatile alcaly all +these fossil oils are shewn to contain the acid of amber, which evinces +the identity of their origin. If a piece of amber be rubbed it attracts +straws and hairs, whence the discovery of electricity, and whence its +name, from electron the Greek word for amber.] + +[_Immortal Franklin_. l. 356. See note on Canto I. l. 383.] + + + "So, born on sounding pinions to the WEST, + When Tyrant-Power had built his eagle nest; + While from his eyry shriek'd the famish'd brood, + Clenched their sharp claws, and champ'd their beaks for blood, +365 Immortal FRANKLIN watch'd the callow crew, + And stabb'd the struggling Vampires, ere they flew. + --The patriot-flame with quick contagion ran, + Hill lighted hill, and man electrised man; + Her heroes slain awhile COLUMBIA mourn'd, +370 And crown'd with laurels LIBERTY return'd. + + "The Warrior, LIBERTY, with bending sails + Helm'd his bold course to fair HIBERNIA'S vales;-- + Firm as he steps, along the shouting lands, + Lo! Truth and Virtue range their radiant bands; +375 Sad Superstition wails her empire torn, + Art plies his oar, and Commerce pours her horn. + + "Long had the Giant-form on GALLIA'S plains + Inglorious slept, unconscious of his chains; + Round his large limbs were wound a thousand strings +380 By the weak hands of Confessors and Kings; + O'er his closed eyes a triple veil was bound, + And steely rivets lock'd him to the ground; + While stern Bastile with iron cage inthralls + His folded limbs, and hems in marble walls. +385 --Touch'd by the patriot-flame, he rent amazed + The flimsy bonds, and round and round him gazed; + Starts up from earth, above the admiring throng + Lifts his Colossal form, and towers along; + High o'er his foes his hundred arms He rears, +390 Plowshares his swords, and pruning hooks his spears; + Calls to the Good and Brave with voice, that rolls + Like Heaven's own thunder round the echoing poles; + Gives to the winds his banner broad unfurl'd, + And gathers in its shade the living world! + + +[_While stern Bastile_. l. 383. "We descended with great difficulty into +the dungeons, which were made too low for our standing upright; and were +so dark, that we were obliged at noon-day to visit them by the light of +a candle. We saw the hooks of those chains, by which the prisoners were +fastened by their necks to the walls of their cells; many of which being +below the level of the water were in a constant state of humidity; from +which issued a noxious vapour, which more than once extinguished the +candles. Since the destruction of the building many subterraneous cells +have been discovered under a piece of ground, which seemed only a bank +of solid earth before the horrid secrets of this prison-house were +disclosed. Some skeletons were found in these recesses with irons still +fastened to their decayed bones." Letters from France, by H.M. Williams, +p. 24.] + + +395 VII. "GNOMES! YOU then taught volcanic airs to force + Through bubbling Lavas their resistless course, + O'er the broad walls of rifted Granite climb, + And pierce the rent roof of incumbent Lime, + Round sparry caves metallic lustres fling, +400 And bear phlogiston on their tepid wing. + + +[_And pierce the rent roof_. l. 398. The granite rocks and the limestone +rocks have been cracked to very great depths at the time they were +raised up by subterranean fires; in these cracks are found most of the +metallic ores, except iron and perhaps manganese, the former of which is +generally found in horizontal strata, and the latter generally near the +surface of the earth. + +Philosophers possessing so convenient a test for the discovery of iron +by the magnet, have long since found it in all vegetable and animal +matters; and of late Mr. Scheele has discovered the existence of +manganese in vegetable ashes. Scheele, 56 mem. Stock. 1774. Kirwan. Min. +353. Which accounts for the production of it near the surface of earth, +and thence for its calciform appearance, or union with vital air. +Bergman has likewise shewn, that the limestones which become bluish or +dark coloured when calcined, possess a mixture of manganese, and are +thence preferable as a cement to other kinds of lime. 2. Bergman, 229. +Which impregnation with manganese has probably been received from the +decomposition of superincumbent vegetable matters. + +These cracks or perpendicular caverns in the granite or limestone pass +to unknown depths; and it is up these channels that I have endeavoured +to shew that the steam rises which becomes afterwards condensed and +produces the warm springs of this island, and other parts of the world. +(See note on Fucus, Vol. II.) And up these cracks I suppose certain +vapours arise, which either alone, or by meeting with something +descending into them from above, have produced most of the metals; and +several of the materials in which they are bedded. Thus the ponderous +earth, Barytes, of Derbyshire, is found in these cracks, and is +stratified frequently with lead-ore, and frequently surrounds it. This +ponderous earth has been found by Dr. Hoepfner in a granite in +Switzerland, and may have thus been sublimed from immense depths by +great heat, and have obtained its carbonic or vitriolic acid from above. +Annales de Chimie. There is also reason to conclude that something from +above is necessary to the formation of many of the metals: at Hawkstone +in Shropshire, the seat of Sir Richard Hill, there is an elevated rock +of siliceous sand which is coloured green with copper in many places +high in the air; and I have in my possession a specimen of lead formed +in the cavity of an iron nodule, and another of lead amid spar from a +crack of a coal-stratum; all which countenance the modern production of +those metals from descending materials. To which should be added, that +the highest mountains of granite, which have therefore probably never +been covered with marine productions on account of their early +elevation, nor with vegetable or animal matters on account of their +great coldness, contain no metallic ores, whilst the lower ones contain +copper and tin in their cracks or veins, both in Saxony, Silesia, and +Cornwall. Kirwan's Mineral. p. 374. + +The transmutation of one metal into another, though hitherto +undiscovered by the alchymists, does not appear impossible; such +transmutations have been supposed to exist in nature, thus lapis +calaminaris may have been produced from the destruction of lead-ore, as +it is generally found on the top of the veins of lead, where it has been +calcined or united with air, and because masses of lead-ore are often +found intirely inclosed in it. So silver is found mixed in almost all +lead-ores, and sometimes in seperate filaments within the cavities of +lead-ore, as I am informed by Mr. Michell, and is thence probably a +partial transmutation of the lead to silver, the rapid progress of +modern chemistry having shewn the analogy between metallic calces and +acids, may lead to the power of transmuting their bases: a discovery +much to be wished.] + + + "HENCE glows, refulgent Tin! thy chrystal grains, + And tawny Copper shoots her azure veins; + Zinc lines his fretted vault with sable ore, + And dull Galena tessellates the floor; +405 On vermil beds in Idria's mighty caves + The living Silver rolls its ponderous waves; + With gay refractions bright Platina shines, + And studs with squander'd stars his dusky mines; + Long threads of netted gold, and silvery darts, +410 Inlay the Lazuli, and pierce the Quartz;-- + --Whence roof'd with silver beam'd PERU, of old, + And hapless MEXICO was paved with gold. + + "Heavens! on my sight what sanguine colours blaze! + Spain's deathless shame! the crimes of modern days! +415 When Avarice, shrouded in Religion's robe, + Sail'd to the West, and slaughter'd half the globe; + While Superstition, stalking by his side, + Mock'd the loud groans, and lap'd the bloody tide; + For sacred truths announced her frenzied dreams, +420 And turn'd to night the sun's meridian beams.-- + Hear, oh, BRITANNIA! potent Queen of isles, + On whom fair Art, and meek Religion smiles, + Now AFRIC'S coasts thy craftier sons invade + With murder, rapine, theft,--and call it Trade! +425 --The SLAVE, in chains, on supplicating knee, + Spreads his wide arms, and lifts his eyes to Thee; + With hunger pale, with wounds and toil oppress'd, + "ARE WE NOT BRETHREN?" sorrow choaks the rest;-- + --AIR! bear to heaven upon thy azure flood +430 Their innocent cries!--EARTH! cover not their blood! + + VIII. "When Heaven's dread justice smites in crimes o'ergrown + The blood-nursed Tyrant on his purple throne, + GNOMES! YOUR bold forms unnumber'd arms outstretch, + And urge the vengeance o'er the guilty wretch.-- +435 Thus when CAMBYSES led his barbarous hosts + From Persia's rocks to Egypt's trembling coasts, + Defiled each hallowed fane, and sacred wood, + And, drunk with fury, swell'd the Nile with blood; + Waved his proud banner o'er the Theban states, +440 And pour'd destruction through her hundred gates; + In dread divisions march'd the marshal'd bands, + And swarming armies blacken'd all the lands, + By Memphis these to ETHIOP'S sultry plains, + And those to HAMMON'S sand-incircled fanes.-- +445 Slow as they pass'd, the indignant temples frown'd, + Low curses muttering from the vaulted ground; + Long ailes of Cypress waved their deepen'd glooms, + And quivering spectres grinn'd amid the tombs; + Prophetic whispers breathed from S +450 And MEMNON'S lyre with hollow murmurs rung; + Burst from each pyramid expiring groans, + And darker shadows stretch'd their lengthen'd cones.-- + Day after day their deathful rout They steer, + Lust in the van, and rapine in the rear. + + +[_Thus when Cambyses_. l. 435. Cambyses marched one army from Thebes, +after having overturned the temples, ravaged the country, and deluged it +with blood, to subdue Ethiopia; this army almost perished by famine, +insomuch, that they repeatedly slew every tenth man to supply the +remainder with food. He sent another army to plunder the temple of +Jupiter Ammon, which perished overwhelm'd with sand.] + +[_Expiring groans_. l. 451. Mr. Savery or Mr. Volney in their Travels +through Egypt has given a curious description of one of the pyramids, +with the operose method of closing them, and immuring the body, (as they +supposed) for six thousand years. And has endeavoured from thence to +shew, that, when a monarch died, several of his favourite courtiers were +inclosed alive with the mummy in these great masses of stone-work; and +had food and water conveyed to them, as long as they lived, proper +apertures being left for this purpose, and for the admission of air, and +for the exclusion of any thing offensive.] + + +455 "GNOMES! as they march'd, You hid the gathered fruits, + The bladed grass, sweet grains, and mealy roots; + Scared the tired quails, that journey'd o'er their heads, + Retain'd the locusts in their earthy beds; + Bade on your sands no night-born dews distil, +460 Stay'd with vindictive hands the scanty rill.-- + Loud o'er the camp the Fiend of Famine shrieks, + Calls all her brood, and champs her hundred beaks; + O'er ten square leagues her pennons broad expand, + And twilight swims upon the shuddering sand; +465 Perch'd on her crest the Griffin Discord clings, + And Giant Murder rides between her wings; + Blood from each clotted hair, and horny quill, + And showers of tears in blended streams distil; + High-poised in air her spiry neck she bends, +470 Rolls her keen eye, her Dragon-claws extends, + Darts from above, and tears at each fell swoop + With iron fangs the decimated troop. + + "Now o'er their head the whizzing whirlwinds breathe, + And the live desert pants, and heaves beneath; +475 Tinged by the crimson sun, vast columns rise + Of eddying sands, and war amid the skies, + In red arcades the billowy plain surround, + And stalking turrets dance upon the ground. + --Long ranks in vain their shining blades extend, +480 To Demon-Gods their knees unhallow'd bend, + Wheel in wide circle, form in hollow square, + And now they front, and now they fly the war, + Pierce the deaf tempest with lamenting cries, + Press their parch'd lips, and close their blood-shot eyes. +485 --GNOMES! o'er the waste YOU led your myriad powers, + Climb'd on the whirls, and aim'd the flinty showers!-- + Onward resistless rolls the infuriate surge, + Clouds follow clouds, and mountains mountains urge; + Wave over wave the driving desert swims, +490 Bursts o'er their heads, inhumes their struggling limbs; + Man mounts on man, on camels camels rush, + Hosts march o'er hosts, and nations nations crush,-- + Wheeling in air the winged islands fall, + And one great earthy Ocean covers all!-- +495 Then ceased the storm,--NIGHT bow'd his Ethiop brow + To earth, and listen'd to the groans below,-- + Grim HORROR shook,--awhile the living hill + Heaved with convulsive throes,--and all was still! + + +[_And stalking turrets_. l. 478. "At one o'clock we alighted among some +acacia trees at Waadi el Halboub, having gone twenty-one miles. We were +here at once surprised and terrified by a sight surely one of the most +magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert, from W. to +N.W. of us, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different +distances, at times moving with great celerity, at others stalking on +with a majestic slowness; at intervals we thought they were coming in a +very few minutes to overwhelm us; and small quantities of sand did +actually more than once reach us. Again they would retreat so as to be +almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds. There the +tops often separated from the bodies; and these, once disjoined, +dispersed in the air, and did not appear more. Sometimes they were +broken in the middle, as if struck with large cannon-shot. About noon +they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind +being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged along side of us about +the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest +appeared to me at that distance as if it would measure ten feet. They +retired from us with a wind at S.E. leaving an impression upon my mind +to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was +fear, with a considerable deal of wonder and astonishment. It was in +vain to think of flying; the swiftest horse, or fastest sailing ship, +could be of no use to carry us out of this danger; and the full +persuasion of this rivetted me as if to the spot where I stood. + +"The same appearance of moving pillars of sand presented themselves to +us this day in form and disposition like those we had seen at Waadi +Halboub, only they seemed to be more in number and less in size. They +came several times in a direction close upon us, that is, I believe, +within less than two miles. They began immediately after sun rise like a +thick wood and almost darkened the sun. His rays shining through them +for near an hour, gave them an appearance of pillars of fire. Our people +now became desperate, the Greeks shrieked out and said it was the day of +judgment; Ismael pronounced it to be hell; and the Turcorories, that the +world was on fire." Bruce's Travels, Vol. IV. p. 553,-555. + +From this account it would appear, that the eddies of wind were owing to +the long range of broken rocks, which bounded one side of the sandy +desert, and bent the currents of air, which struck against their sides; +and were thus like the eddies in a stream of water, which falls against +oblique obstacles. This explanation is probably the true one, as these +whirl-winds were not attended with rain or lightening like the tornadoes +of the West-Indies.] + + + IX. "GNOMES! whose fine forms, impassive as the air, +500 Shrink with soft sympathy for human care; + Who glide unseen, on printless slippers borne, + Beneath the waving grass, and nodding corn; + Or lay your tiny limbs, when noon-tide warms, + Where shadowy cowslips stretch their golden arms,-- +505 So mark'd on orreries in lucid signs, + Star'd with bright points the mimic zodiac shines; + Borne on fine wires amid the pictured skies + With ivory orbs the planets set and rise; + Round the dwarf earth the pearly moon is roll'd, +510 And the sun twinkling whirls his rays of gold.-- + Call your bright myriads, march your mailed hosts, + With spears and helmets glittering round the coasts; + Thick as the hairs, which rear the Lion's mane, + Or fringe the Boar, that bays the hunter-train; +515 Watch, where proud Surges break their treacherous mounds, + And sweep resistless o'er the cultured grounds; + Such as erewhile, impell'd o'er Belgia's plain, + Roll'd her rich ruins to the insatiate main; + With piles and piers the ruffian waves engage, +520 And bid indignant Ocean stay his rage. + + +[_So mark'd on orreries_. l. 505. The first orrery was constructed by a +Mr. Rowley, a mathematician born at Lichfield; and so named from his +patron the Earl of Orrery. Johnson's Dictionary.] + + + "Where, girt with clouds, the rifted mountain yawns, + And chills with length of shade the gelid lawns, + Climb the rude steeps, the granite-cliffs surround, + Pierce with steel points, with wooden wedges wound; +525 Break into clays the soft volcanic slaggs, + Or melt with acid airs the marble craggs; + Crown the green summits with adventurous flocks, + And charm with novel flowers the wondering rocks. + --So when proud Rome the Afric Warrior braved, +530 And high on Alps his crimson banner waved; + While rocks on rocks their beetling brows oppose + With piny forests, and unfathomed snows; + Onward he march'd, to Latium's velvet ground + With fires and acids burst the obdurate bound, +535 Wide o'er her weeping vales destruction hurl'd, + And shook the rising empire of the world. + + +[_The granite-cliffs._ l. 523. On long exposure to air the granites or +porphories of this country exhibit a ferrugenous crust, the iron being +calcined by the air first becomes visible, and is then washed away from +the external surface, which becomes white or grey, and thus in time +seems to decompose. The marbles seem to decompose by loosing their +carbonic acid, as the outside, which has been long exposed to the air, +does not seem to effervesce so hastily with acids as the parts more +recently broken. The immense quantity of carbonic acid, which exists in +the many provinces of lime-stone, if it was extricated and decomposed +would afford charcoal enough for fuel for ages, or for the production of +new vegetable or animal bodies. The volcanic slaggs on Mount Vesuvius +are said by M. Ferber to be changed into clay by means of the sulphur- +acid, and even pots made of clay and burnt or vitrified are said by him +to be again reducible to ductile clay by the volcanic steams. Ferber's +Travels through Italy, p. 166.] + +[_Wooden wedges wound_. l. 524. It is usual in seperating large mill- +stones from the siliceous sand-rocks in some parts of Derbyshire to bore +horizontal holes under them in a circle, and fill these with pegs made +of dry wood, which gradually swell by the moisture of the earth, and in +a day or two lift up the mill-stone without breaking it.] + +[_With fires and acids_. l. 534. Hannibal was said to erode his way over +the Alps by fire and vinegar. The latter is supposed to allude to the +vinegar and water which was the beverage of his army. In respect to the +former it is not improbable, but where wood was to be had in great +abundance, that fires made round limestone precipices would calcine them +to a considerable depth, the night-dews or mountain-mists would +penetrate these calcined parts and pulverize them by the force of the +steam which the generated heat would produce, the winds would disperse +this lime-powder, and thus by repeated fires a precipice of lime-stone +might be destroyed and a passage opened. It should be added, that +according to Ferber's observations, these Alps consist of lime-stone. +Letters from Italy.] + + + X. "Go, gentle GNOMES! resume your vernal toil, + Seek my chill tribes, which sleep beneath the soil; + On grey-moss banks, green meads, or furrow'd lands +540 Spread the dark mould, white lime, and crumbling sands; + Each bursting bud with healthier juices feed, + Emerging scion, or awaken'd seed. + So, in descending streams, the silver Chyle + Streaks with white clouds the golden floods of bile; +545 Through each nice valve the mingling currents glide, + Join their fine rills, and swell the sanguine tide; + Each countless cell, and viewless fibre seek, + Nerve the strong arm, and tinge the blushing cheek. + + "Oh, watch, where bosom'd in the teeming earth, +550 Green swells the germ, impatient for its birth; + Guard from rapacious worms its tender shoots, + And drive the mining beetle from its roots; + With ceaseless efforts rend the obdurate clay, + And give my vegetable babes to day! +555 --Thus when an Angel-form, in light array'd, + Like HOWARD pierced the prison's noisome shade; + Where chain'd to earth, with eyes to heaven upturn'd, + The kneeling Saint in holy anguish mourn'd;-- + Ray'd from his lucid vest, and halo'd brow +560 O'er the dark roof celestial lustres glow, + "PETER, arise!" with cheering voice He calls, + And sounds seraphic echo round the walls; + Locks, bolts, and chains his potent touch obey, + And pleased he leads the dazzled Sage to day. + +565 XI. "YOU! whose fine fingers fill the organic cells, + With virgin earth, of woods and bones and shells; + Mould with retractile glue their spongy beds, + And stretch and strengthen all their fibre-threads.-- + Late when the mass obeys its changeful doom, +570 And sinks to earth, its cradle and its tomb, + GNOMES! with nice eye the slow solution watch, + With fostering hand the parting atoms catch, + Join in new forms, combine with life and sense, + And guide and guard the transmigrating Ens. + + +[_Mould with retractile glue_. l. 567. The constituent parts of animal +fibres are believed to be earth and gluten. These do not seperate except +by long putrefaction or by fire. The earth then effervesces with acids, +and can only be converted into glass by the greatest force of fire. The +gluten has continued united with the earth of the bones above 2000 years +in Egyptian mummies; but by long exposure to air or moisture it +diffolves and leaves only the earth. Hence bones long buried, when +exposed to the air, absorb moisture and crumble into powder. Phil. +Trans. No. 475. The retractibility or elasticity of the animal fibre +depends on the gluten; and of these fibres are composed the membranes +muscles and bones. Haller. Physiol. Tom. I, p. 2. + +For the chemical decomposition of animal and vegetable bodies see the +ingenious work of Lavoisier, Traité de Chimie, Tom. I. p. 132. who +resolves all their component parts into oxygene, hydrogene, carbone, and +azote, the three former of which belong principally to vegetable and the +last to animal matter.] + +[_The transmigrating Ens_. l. 574, The perpetual circulation of matter +in the growth and dissolution of vegetable and animal bodies seems to +have given Pythagoras his idea of the metempsycosis or transmigration of +spirit; which was afterwards dressed out or ridiculed in variety of +amusing fables. Other philosophers have supposed, that there are two +different materials or essences, which fill the universe. One of these, +which has the power of commencing or producing motion, is called spirit; +the other, which has the power of receiving and of communicating motion, +but not of beginning it, is called matter. The former of these is +supposed to be diffused through all space, filling up the interstices of +the suns and planets, and constituting the gravitations of the sidereal +bodies, the attractions of chemistry, with the spirit of vegetation, and +of animation. The latter occupies comparatively but small space, +constituting the solid parts of the suns and planets, and their +atmospheres. Hence these philosophers have supposed, that both matter +and spirit are equally immortal and unperishable; and that on the +dissolution of vegetable or animal organization, the matter returns to +the general mass of matter; and the spirit to the general mass of +spirit, to enter again into new combinations, according to the original +idea of Pythagoras. + +The small apparent quantity of matter that exists in the universe +compared to that of spirit, and the short time in which the recrements +of animal or vegetable bodies become again vivified in the forms of +vegetable mucor or microscopic insects, seems to have given rise to +another curious fable of antiquity. That Jupiter threw down a large +handful of souls upon the earth, and left them to scramble for the few +bodies which were to be had.] + + +575 "So when on Lebanon's sequester'd hight + The fair ADONIS left the realms of light, + Bow'd his bright locks, and, fated from his birth + To change eternal, mingled with the earth;-- + With darker horror shook the conscious wood, +580 Groan'd the sad gales, and rivers blush'd with blood; + On cypress-boughs the Loves their quivers hung, + Their arrows scatter'd, and their bows unstrung; + And BEAUTY'S GODDESS, bending o'er his bier, + Breathed the soft sigh, and pour'd the tender tear.-- +585 Admiring PROSERPINE through dusky glades + Led the fair phantom to Elysian shades, + Clad with new form, with finer sense combined, + And lit with purer flame the ethereal mind. + --Erewhile, emerging from infernal night, +590 The bright Assurgent rises into light, + Leaves the drear chambers of the insatiate tomb, + And shines and charms with renovated bloom.-- + While wondering Loves the bursting grave surround, + And edge with meeting wings the yawning ground, +595 Stretch their fair necks, and leaning o'er the brink + View the pale regions of the dead, and shrink; + Long with broad eyes ecstatic BEAUTY stands, + Heaves her white bosom, spreads her waxen hands; + Then with loud shriek the panting Youth alarms, +600 "My Life! my Love!" and springs into his arms." + + +[_Adonis_. l. 576. The very antient story of the beautiful Adonis +passing one half of the year with Venus, and the other with Proserpine +alternately, has had variety of interpretations. Some have supposed that +it allegorized the summer and winter solstice; but this seems too +obvious a fact to have needed an hieroglyphic emblem. Others have +believed it to represent the corn, which was supposed to sleep in the +earth during the winter months, and to rise out of it in summer. This +does not accord with the climate of Egypt, where the harvest soon +follows the seed-time. + +It seems more probably to have been a story explaining some hieroglyphic +figures representing the decomposition and resuscitation of animal +matter; a sublime and interesting subject, and which seems to have given +origin to the doctrine of the transmigration, which had probably its +birth also from the hieroglyphic treasures of Egypt. It is remarkable +that the cypress groves in the ancient greek writers, as in Theocritus, +were dedicated to Venus; and afterwards became funereal emblems. Which +was probably occasioned by the Cypress being an accompaniment of Venus +in the annual processions, in which she was supposed to lament over the +funeral of Adonis; a ceremony which obtained over all the eastern world +from great antiquity, and is supposed to be referred to by Ezekiel, who +accuses the idolatrous woman of weeping for Thammus.] + + + The GODDESS ceased,--the delegated throng + O'er the wide plains delighted rush along; + In dusky squadrons, and in shining groups, + Hosts follow hosts, and troops succeed to troops; +605 Scarce bears the bending grass the moving freight, + And nodding florets bow beneath their weight. + So when light clouds on airy pinions sail, + Flit the soft shadows o'er the waving vale; + Shade follows shade, as laughing Zephyrs drive, +610 And all the chequer'd landscape seems alive. + + +[_Zephyrs drive_. l. 609. These lines were originally written thus, + + Shade follows shade by laughing Zephyrs drove, + And all the chequer'd landscape seems to move. + +but were altered on account of the supposed false grammar in using the +word drove for driven, according to the opinion of Dr. Lowth: at the +same time it may be observed, 1. that this is in many cases only an +ellipsis of the letter _n_ at the end of the word; as froze, for frozen; +wove, for woven; spoke, for spoken; and that then the participle +accidentally becomes similar to the past tense: 2. that the language +seems gradually tending to omit the letter _n_ in other kind of words +for the sake of euphony; as housen is become houses; eyne, eyes; thine, +thy, &c. and in common conversation, the words forgot, spoke, froze, +rode, are frequently used for forgotten, spoken, frozen, ridden. 3. It +does not appear that any confusion would follow the indiscriminate use +of the same word for the past tense and the participle passive, since +the auxiliary verb _have_, or the preceding noun or pronoun always +clearly distinguishes them: and lastly, rhime-poetry must lose the use +of many elegant words without this license.] + + + + + _Argument of the Third Canto._ + + +Address to the Nymphs. I. Steam rises from the ocean, floats in clouds, +descends in rain and dew, or is condensed on hills, produces springs, +and rivers, and returns to the sea. So the blood circulates through the +body and returns to the heart. 11. II. 1. Tides, 57. 2. Echinus, +nautilus, pinna, cancer. Grotto of a mermaid. 65. 3. Oil stills the +waves. Coral rocks. Ship-worm, or Teredo. Maelstrome, a whirlpool on the +coast of Norway. 85. III. Rivers from beneath the snows on the Alps. The +Tiber. 103. IV. Overflowing of the Nile from African Monsoons, 129. V. +1. Giesar, a boiling fountain in Iceland, destroyed by inundation, and +consequent earthquake, 145. 2. Warm medicinal springs. Buxton. Duke and +Dutchess of Devonshire. 157. VI. Combination of vital air and +inflammable gas produces water. Which is another source of springs and +rivers. Allegorical loves of Jupiter and Juno productive of vernal +showers. 201. VII. Aquatic Taste. Distant murmur of the sea by night. +Sea-horse. Nereid singing. 261. VIII. The Nymphs of the river Derwent +lament the death of Mrs. French, 297. IX. Inland navigation. Monument +for Mr. Brindley, 341. X. Pumps explained. Child sucking. Mothers +exhorted to nurse their children. Cherub sleeping. 365. XI. Engines for +extinguishing fire. Story of two lovers perishing in the flames. 397. +XII. Charities of Miss Jones, 447. XIII. Marshes drained. Hercules +conquers Achilous. The horn of Plenty. 483. XIV. Showers. Dews. Floating +lands with water. Lacteal system in animals. Caravan drinking. 529. +Departure of the Nymphs like water spiders; like northern nations +skaiting on the ice. 569. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO III. + + + AGAIN the GODDESS speaks!--glad Echo swells + The tuneful tones along her shadowy dells, + Her wrinkling founts with soft vibration shakes, + Curls her deep wells, and rimples all her lakes, + 5 Thrills each wide stream, Britannia's isle that laves, + Her headlong cataracts, and circumfluent waves. + --Thick as the dews, which deck the morning flowers, + Or rain-drops twinkling in the sun-bright showers, + Fair Nymphs, emerging in pellucid bands, + 10 Rise, as she turns, and whiten all the lands. + + I. "YOUR buoyant troops on dimpling ocean tread, + Wafting the moist air from his oozy bed, + AQUATIC NYMPHS!--YOU lead with viewless march + The winged vapours up the aerial arch, + 15 On each broad cloud a thousand sails expand, + And steer the shadowy treasure o'er the land, + Through vernal skies the gathering drops diffuse, + Plunge in soft rains, or sink in silver dews.-- + YOUR lucid bands condense with fingers chill + 20 The blue mist hovering round the gelid hill; + In clay-form'd beds the trickling streams collect, + Strain through white sands, through pebbly veins direct; + Or point in rifted rocks their dubious way, + And in each bubbling fountain rise to day. + +[_The winged vapours_. l. 14. See additional note No. XXV. on +evaporation.] + +[_On each broad cloud_. l. 15. The clouds consist of condensed vapour, +the particles of which are too small separately to overcome the tenacity +of the air, and which therefore do not descend. They are in such small +spheres as to repel each other, that is, they are applied to each other +by such very small surfaces, that the attraction of the particles of +each drop to its own centre is greater than its attraction to the +surface of the drop in its vicinity; every one has observed with what +difficulty small spherules of quicksilver can be made to unite, owing to +the same cause; and it is common to see on riding through shallow water +on a clear day, numbers of very small spheres of water as they are +thrown from the horses feet run along the surface for many yards before +they again unite with it. In many cases these spherules of water, which +compose clouds, are kept from uniting by a surplus of electric fluid; +and fall in violent showers as soon as that is withdrawn from them, as +in thunder storms. See note on Canto I. l. 553. + +If in this state a cloud becomes frozen, it is torn to pieces in its +descent by the friction of the air, and falls in white flakes of snow. +Or these flakes are rounded by being rubbed together by the winds, and +by having their angles thawed off by the warmer air beneath as they +descend; and part of the water produced by these angles thus dissolved +is absorbed into the body of the hailstone, as may be seen by holding a +lump of snow over a candle, and there becomes frozen into ice by the +quantity of cold which the hailstone possesses beneath the freezing +point, or which is produced by its quick evaporation in falling; and +thus hailstones are often found of greater or less density according as +they consist of a greater portion of snow or ice. If hailstones +consisted of the large drops of showers frozen in their descent, they +would consist of pure transparent ice. + +As hail is only produced in summer, and is always attended with storms, +some philosophers have believed that the sudden departure of electricity +from a cloud may effect something yet unknown in this phenomenon; but it +may happen in summer independent of electricity, because the aqueous +vapour is then raised higher in the atmosphere, whence it has further to +fall, and there is warmer air below for it to fall through.] + +[_Or sink in silver dews_. l. 18. During the coldness of the night the +moisture before dissolved in the air is gradually precipitated, and as +it subsides adheres to the bodies it falls upon. Where the attraction of +the body to the particles of water is greater than the attractions of +those particles to each other, it becomes spread upon their surface, or +slides down them in actual contact; as on the broad parts of the blades +of moist grass: where the attraction of the surface to the water is less +than the attraction of the particles of water to each other, the dew +stands in drops; as on the points and edges of grass or gorse, where the +surface presented to the drop being small it attracts it so little as +but just to support it without much changing its globular form: where +there is no attraction between the vegetable surface and the dew drops, +as on cabbage leaves, the drop does not come into contact with the leaf, +but hangs over it repelled, and retains it natural form, composed of the +attraction and pressure of its own parts, and thence looks like +quicksilver, reflecting light from both its surfaces. Nor is this owing +to any oiliness of the leaf, but simply to the polish of its surface, as +a light needle may be laid on water in the same manner without touching +it; for as the attractive powers of polished surfaces are greater when +in actual contact, so the repulsive power is greater before contact.] + +[_The blue mist_. l. 20. Mists are clouds resting on the ground, they +generally come on at the beginning of night, and either fill the moist +vallies, or hang on the summits of hills, according to the degree of +moisture previously dissolved, and the eduction of heat from them. The +air over rivers during the warmth of the day suspends much moisture, and +as the changeful surface of rivers occasions them to cool sooner than +the land at the approach of evening, mists are most frequently seen to +begin over rivers, and to spread themselves over moist grounds, and fill +the vallies, while the mists on the tops of mountains are more properly +clouds, condensed by the coldness of their situation. + +On ascending up the side of a hill from a misty valley, I have observed +a beautiful coloured halo round the moon when a certain thickness of +mist was over me, which ceased to be visible as soon as I emerged out of +it; and well remember admiring with other spectators the shadow of the +three spires of the cathedral church at Lichfield, the moon rising +behind it, apparently broken off, and lying distinctly over our heads as +if horizontally on the surface of the mist, which arose about as high as +the roof of the church. There are some curious remarks on shadows or +reflexions seen on the surface of mists from high mountains in Ulloa's +Voyages. The dry mist of summer 1783, was probably occasioned by +volcanic eruption, as mentioned in note on Chunda, Vol. II. and +therefore more like the atmosphere of smoke which hangs on still days +over great cities. + +There is a dry mist, or rather a diminished transparence of the air, +which according to Mr. Saussure accompanies fair weather, while great +transparence of air indicates rain. Thus when large rivers two miles +broad, such as at Liverpool, appear narrow, it is said to prognosticate +rain; and when wide, fair weather. This want of transparence of the air +in dry weather, may be owing to new combinations or decompositions of +the vapours dissolved in it, but wants further investigation. Essais sur +L'Hygromet, p. 357.] + +[_Round the gelid hill_. l. 20. See additional notes, No. XXVI. on the +origin of springs.] + + + 25 "NYMPHS! YOU then guide, attendant from their source, + The associate rills along their sinuous course; + Float in bright squadrons by the willowy brink, + Or circling slow in limpid eddies sink; + Call from her crystal cave the Naiad-Nymph, + 30 Who hides her fine form in the passing lymph, + And, as below she braids her hyaline hair, + Eyes her soft smiles reflected in the air; + Or sport in groups with River-Boys, that lave + Their silken limbs amid the dashing wave; + 35 Pluck the pale primrose bending from its edge, + Or tittering dance amid the whispering sedge.-- + + "Onward YOU pass, the pine-capt hills divide, + Or feed the golden harvests on their side; + The wide-ribb'd arch with hurrying torrents fill, + 40 Shove the slow barge, or whirl the foaming mill. + OR lead with beckoning hand the sparkling train + Of refluent water to its parent main, + And pleased revisit in their sea-moss vales + Blue Nereid-forms array'd in shining scales, + 45 Shapes, whose broad oar the torpid wave impels, + And Tritons bellowing through their twisted shells. + + "So from the heart the sanguine stream distils, + O'er Beauty's radiant shrine in vermil rills, + Feeds each fine nerve, each slender hair pervades, + 50 The skins bright snow with living purple shades, + Each dimpling cheek with warmer blushes dyes, + Laughs on the lips, and lightens in the eyes. + --Erewhile absorb'd, the vagrant globules swim + From each fair feature, and proportion'd limb, + 55 Join'd in one trunk with deeper tint return + To the warm concave of the vital urn. + + II. 1."AQUATIC MAIDS! YOU sway the mighty realms + Of scale and shell, which Ocean overwhelms; + As Night's pale Queen her rising orb reveals, + 60 And climbs the zenith with refulgent wheels, + Car'd on the foam your glimmering legion rides, + Your little tridents heave the dashing tides, + Urge on the sounding shores their crystal course, + Restrain their fury, or direct their force. + + +[_Car'd on the foam_. l. 61. The phenomena of the tides have been well +investigated and satisfactorily explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Dr. +Halley from the reciprocal gravitations of the earth, moon, and sun. As +the earth and moon move round a centre of motion near the earth's +surface, at the same time that they are proceeding in their annual orbit +round the sun, it follows that the water on the side of the earth +nearest this centre of motion between the earth and moon will be more +attracted by the moon, and the waters on the opposite side of the earth +will be less attracted by the moon, than the central parts of the earth. +Add to this that the centrifugal force of the water on the side of the +earth furthest from the centre of the motion, round which the earth and +moon move, (which, as was said before, is near the surface of the earth) +is greater than that on the opposite side of the earth. From both these +causes it is easy to comprehend that the water will rise on two sides of +the earth, viz. on that nearest to the moon, and its opposite side, and +that it will be flattened in consequence at the quadratures, and thus +produce two tides in every lunar day, which consists of about twenty- +four hours and forty-eight minutes. + +These tides will be also affected by the solar attraction when it +coincides with the lunar one, or opposes it, as at new and full moon, +and will also be much influenced by the opposing shores in every part of +the earth. + +Now as the moon in moving round the centre of gravity between itself and +the earth describes a much larger orbit than the earth describes round +the same centre, it follows that the centrifugal motion on the side of +the moon opposite to the earth must be much greater than the centrifugal +motion of the side of the earth opposite to the moon round the same +centre. And secondly, as the attraction of the earth exerted on the +moon's surface next to the earth is much greater than the attraction of +the moon exerted on the earth's surface, the tides on the lunar sea, (if +such there be,) should be much greater than those of our ocean. Add to +this that as the same face of the moon always is turned to the earth, +the lunar tides must be permanent, and if the solid parts of the moon be +spherical, must always cover the phasis next to us. But as there are +evidently hills and vales and volcanos on this side of the moon, the +consequence is that the moon has no ocean, or that it is frozen.] + + + 65 2."NYMPHS! YOU adorn, in glossy volumes roll'd, + The gaudy conch with azure, green, and gold. + You round Echinus ray his arrowy mail, + Give the keel'd Nautilus his oar and sail; + Firm to his rock with silver cords suspend + 70 The anchor'd Pinna, and his Cancer-friend; + With worm-like beard his toothless lips array, + And teach the unwieldy Sturgeon to betray.-- + Ambush'd in weeds, or sepulcher'd in sands, + In dread repose He waits the scaly bands, + 75 Waves in red spires the living lures, and draws + The unwary plunderers to his circling jaws, + Eyes with grim joy the twinkling shoals beset, + And clasps the quick inextricable net. + You chase the warrior Shark, and cumberous Whale, + 80 And guard the Mermaid in her briny vale; + Feed the live petals of her insect-flowers, + Her shell-wrack gardens, and her sea-fan bowers; + With ores and gems adorn her coral cell, + And drop a pearl in every gaping shell. + + +[_The gaudy conch_. l. 66. The spiral form of many shells seem to have +afforded a more frugal manner of covering the long tail of the fish with +calcareous armour; since a single thin partition between the adjoining +circles of the fish was sufficient to defend both surfaces, and thus +much cretaceous matter is saved; and it is probable that from this +spiral form they are better enabled to feel the vibrations of the +element in which they exist. See note on Canto IV. l. 162. This +cretaceous matter is formed by a mucous secretion from the skin of the +fish, as is seen in crab-fish, and others which annually cast their +shells, and is at first a soft mucous covering, (like that of a hen's +egg, when it is laid a day or two too soon,) and which gradually +hardens. This may also be seen in common shell snails, if a part of +their shell be broken it becomes repaired in a similar manner with +mucus, which by degrees hardens into shell. + +It is probable the calculi or stones found in other animals may have a +similar origin, as they are formed on mucous membranes, as those of the +kidney and bladder, chalk-stones in the gout, and gall-stones; and are +probably owing to the inflammation of the membrane where they are +produced, and vary according to the degree of inflammation of the +membrane which forms them, and the kind of mucous which it naturally +produces. Thus the shelly matter of different shell-fish differs, from +the courser kinds which form the shells of crabs, to the finer kinds +which produces the mother-pearl. + +The beautiful colours of some shells originate from the thinness of the +laminae of which they consist, rather than to any colouring matter, as +is seen in mother-pearl, which reflects different colours according to +the obliquity of the light which falls on it. The beautiful prismatic +colours seen on the Labrodore stone are owing to a similar cause, viz. +the thinness of the laminae of which it consists, and has probably been +formed from mother-pearl shells. + +It is curious that some of the most common fossil shells are not now +known in their recent state, as the cornua ammonis; and on the contrary, +many shells which are very plentiful in their recent state, as limpets, +sea-ears, volutes, cowries, are very rarely found fossil. Da Costa's +Conchology, p. 163. Were all the ammoniae destroyed when the continents +were raised? Or do some genera of animals perish by the increasing power +of their enemies? Or do they still reside at inaccessible depths in the +sea? Or do some animals change their forms gradually and become new +genera?] + +[_Echinus. Nautilus_. l. 67, 68. See additional notes, No. XXVII.] + +[_Pinna. Cancer_. l. 70. See additional notes, No. XXVII.] + +[_With worm-like beard_. l. 71. See additional notes, No. XXVIII.] + +[_Feed the live petals_. l. 82. There is a sea-insect described by Mr. +Huges whose claws or tentacles being disposed in regular circles and +tinged with variety of bright lively colours represent the petals of +some most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers as the carnation, +marigold, and anemone. Philos. Trans. Abridg. Vol. IX. p. 110. The Abbe +Dicquemarre has further elucidated the history of the actinia; and +observed their manner of taking their prey by inclosing it in these +beautiful rays like a net. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXIII. and LXV. and LXVII.] + +[_And drop a pearl_. l. 84. Many are the opinions both of antient and +modern concerning the production of pearls. Mr. Reaumur thinks they are +formed like the hard concretions in many land animals as stones of the +bladder, gallstones, and bezoar, and hence concludes them to be a +disease of the fish, but there seems to be a stricter analogy between +these and the calcareous productions found in crab-fish called crab's +eyes, which are formed near the stomach of the animal, and constitute a +reservoir of calcareous matter against the renovation of the shell, at +which time they are re-dissolved and deposited for that purpose. As the +internal part of the shell of the pearl oyster or muscle consists of +mother-pearl which is a similar material to the pearl and as the animal +has annually occasion to enlarge his shell there is reason to suspect the +loose pearls are similar reservoirs of the pearly matter for that +purpose.] + + + 85 3. "YOUR myriad trains o'er stagnant ocean's tow, + Harness'd with gossamer, the loitering prow; + Or with fine films, suspended o'er the deep, + Of oil effusive lull the waves to sleep. + You stay the flying bark, conceal'd beneath, + 90 Where living rocks of worm-built coral breathe; + Meet fell TEREDO, as he mines the keel + With beaked head, and break his lips of steel; + Turn the broad helm, the fluttering canvas urge + From MAELSTROME'S fierce innavigable surge. + 95 --'Mid the lorn isles of Norway's stormy main, + As sweeps o'er many a league his eddying train, + Vast watery walls in rapid circles spin, + And deep-ingulph'd the Demon dwells within; + Springs o'er the fear-froze crew with Harpy-claws, +100 Down his deep den the whirling vessel draws; + Churns with his bloody mouth the dread repast, + The booming waters murmuring o'er the mast. + + +[_Or with fine films_. l. 87. See additional notes, No. XXIX.] + +[_Where living rocks_. l. 90. The immense and dangerous rocks built by +the swarms of coral infects which rise almost perpendicularly in the +southern ocean like walls are described in Cook's voyages, a point of +one of these rocks broke off and stuck in the hole which it had made in +the bottom of one of his ships, which would otherwise have perished by +the admission of water. The numerous lime-stone rocks which consist of a +congeries of the cells of these animals and which constitute a great +part of the solid earth shew their prodigious multiplication in all ages +of the world. Specimens of these rocks are to be seen in the Lime-works +at Linsel near Newport in Shropshire, in Coal-brook Dale, and in many +parts of the Peak of Derbyshire. The insect has been well described by +M. Peyssonnel, Ellis, and others. Phil. Trans. Vol. XLVII. L. LII. and +LVII.] + +[_Meet fell Teredo_. l. 91. See additional notes, No. XXX.] + +[_Turn the broad helm_. l 93. See additional notes, No. XXXI.] + + + III. "Where with chill frown enormous ALPS alarms + A thousand realms, horizon'd in his arms; +105 While cloudless suns meridian glories shed + From skies of silver round his hoary head, + Tall rocks of ice refract the coloured rays, + And Frost sits throned amid the lambent blaze; + NYMPHS! YOUR thin forms pervade his glittering piles, +110 His roofs of chrystal, and his glasy ailes; + Where in cold caves imprisoned Naiads sleep, + Or chain'd on mossy couches wake and weep; + Where round dark crags indignant waters bend + Through rifted ice, in ivory veins descend, +115 Seek through unfathom'd snows their devious track, + Heave the vast spars, the ribbed granites crack, + Rush into day, in foamy torrents shine, + And swell the imperial Danube or the Rhine.-- + Or feed the murmuring TIBER, as he laves +120 His realms inglorious with diminish'd waves, + Hears his lorn Forum sound with Eunuch-strains, + Sees dancing slaves insult his martial plains; + Parts with chill stream the dim religious bower, + Time-mouldered bastion, and dismantled tower; +125 By alter'd fanes and nameless villas glides, + And classic domes, that tremble on his sides; + Sighs o'er each broken urn, and yawning tomb, + And mourns the fall of LIBERTY and ROME. + + +[_Where round dark craggs_. l. 113. See additional notes, No. XXXII.] + +[_Heave the vast spars_. l. 116. Water in descending down elevated +situations if the outlet for it below is not sufficient for its emission +acts with a force equal to the height of the column, as is seen in an +experimental machine called the philosophical bellows, in which a few +pints of water are made to raise many hundred pounds. To this cause is +to be ascribed many large promontories of ice being occasionally thrown +down from the glaciers; rocks have likewise been thrown from the sides +of mountains by the same cause, and large portions of earth have been +removed many hundred yards from their situations at the foot of +mountains. On inspecting the locomotion of about thirty acres of earth +with a small house near Bilder's Bridge in Shropshire, about twenty +years ago, from the foot of a mountain towards the river, I well +remember it bore all the marks of having been thus lifted up, pushed +away, and as it were crumpled into ridges, by a column of water +contained in the mountain. + +From water being thus confined in high columns between the strata of +mountainous countries it has often happened that when wells or +perforations have been made into the earth, that springs have arisen +much above the surface of the new well. When the new bridge was building +at Dublin Mr. G. Semple found a spring in the bed of the river where he +meant to lay the foundation of a pierre, which, by fixing iron pipes +into it, he raised many feet. Treatise on Building in Water, by G. +Semple. From having observed a valley north-west of St. Alkmond's well +near Derby, at the head of which that spring of water once probably +existed, and by its current formed the valley, (but which in after times +found its way out in its present situation,) I suspect that St. +Alkmond's well might by building round it be raised high enough to +supply many streets in Derby with spring-water which are now only +supplied with river-water. See an account of an artificial spring of +water, Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXV. p. 1. + +In making a well at Sheerness the water rose 300 feet above its source +in the well. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXIV. And at Hartford in Connecticut +there is a well which was dug seventy feet deep before water was found, +then in boring an augur-hole through a rock the water rose so fast as to +make it difficult to keep it dry by pumps till they could blow the hole +larger by gunpowder, which was no sooner accomplished than it filled and +run over, and has been a brook for near a century. Travels through +America. Lond. 1789. Lane.] + + + IV. "Sailing in air, when dark MONSOON inshrouds +130 His tropic mountains in a night of clouds; + Or drawn by whirlwinds from the Line returns, + And showers o'er Afric all his thousand urns; + High o'er his head the beams of SIRIUS glow, + And, Dog of Nile, ANUBIS barks below. +135 NYMPHS! YOU from cliff to cliff attendant guide + In headlong cataracts the impetuous tide; + Or lead o'er wastes of Abyssinian sands + The bright expanse to EGYPT'S shower-less lands. + --Her long canals the sacred waters fill, +140 And edge with silver every peopled hill; + Gigantic SPHINX in circling waves admire; + And MEMNON bending o'er his broken lyre; + O'er furrow'd glebes and green savannas sweep, + And towns and temples laugh amid the deep. + + +[_Dark monsoon inshrouds_. l. 129. When from any peculiar situations of +land in respect to sea the tropic becomes more heated, when the sun is +vertical over it, than the line, the periodical winds called monsoons +are produced, and these are attended by rainy seasons; for as the air at +the tropic is now more heated than at the line it ascends by decrease of +its specific gravity, and floods of air rush in both from the South West +and North East, and these being one warmer than the other the rain is +precipitated by their mixture as observed by Dr. Hutton. See additional +notes, No. XXV. All late travellers have ascribed the rise of the Nile +to the monsoons which deluge Nubia and Abyssinia with rain. The whirling +of the ascending air was even seen by Mr. Bruce in Abyssinia; he says, +"every morning a small cloud began to whirl round, and presently after +the whole heavens became covered with clouds," by this vortex of +ascending air the N.E. winds and the S.W. winds, which flow in to supply +the place of the ascending column, became mixed more rapidly and +deposited their rain in greater abundance. + +Mr. Volney observes that the time of the rising of the Nile commences +about the 19th of June, and that Abyssinia and the adjacent parts of +Africa are deluged with rain in May, June, and July, and produce a mass +of water which is three months in draining off. The Abbe Le Pluche +observes that as Sirius, or the dog-star, rose at the time of the +commencement of the flood its rising was watched by the astronomers, and +notice given of the approach of inundation by hanging the figure of +Anubis, which was that of a man with a dog's head, upon all their +temples. Histoire de Ciel.] + +[Illustration: Fertilization of Egypt.] + +[_Egypt's shower-less lands_. l. 138. There seem to be two situations +which may be conceived to be exempted from rain falling upon them, one +where the constant trade-winds meet beneath the line, for here two +regions of warm air are mixed together, and thence do not seem to have +any cause to precipitate their vapour; and the other is, where the winds +are brought from colder climates and become warmer by their contact with +the earth of a warmer one. Thus Lower Egypt is a flat country warmed by +the sun more than the higher lands of one side of it, and than the +Mediterranean on the other; and hence the winds which blow over it +acquire greater warmth, which ever way they come, than they possessed +before, and in consequence have a tendency to acquire and not to part +with their vapour like the north-east winds of this country. There is +said to be a narrow spot upon the coast of Peru where rain seldom +occurs, at the same time according to Ulloa on the mountainous regions +of the Andes beyond there is almost perpetual rain. For the wind blows +uniformly upon this hot part of the coast of Peru, but no cause of +devaporation occurs till it begins to ascend the mountainous Andes, and +then its own expansion produces cold sufficient to condense its vapour.] + + +145 V. 1. "High in the frozen North where HECCLA glows, + And melts in torrents his coeval snows; + O'er isles and oceans sheds a sanguine light, + Or shoots red stars amid the ebon night; + When, at his base intomb'd, with bellowing sound +150 Fell GIESAR roar'd, and struggling shook the ground; + Pour'd from red nostrils, with her scalding breath, + A boiling deluge o'er the blasted heath; + And, wide in air, in misty volumes hurl'd + Contagious atoms o'er the alarmed world; +155 NYMPHS! YOUR bold myriads broke the infernal spell, + And crush'd the Sorceress in her flinty cell. + +[_Fell Giesar roar'd_. l. 150. The boiling column of water at Giesar in +Iceland was nineteen feet in diameter, and sometimes rose to the height +of ninety-two feet. On cooling it deposited a siliceous matter or +chalcedony forming a bason round its base. The heat of this water before +it rose out of the earth could not be ascertained, as water looses all +its heat above 212 (as soon as it is at liberty to expand) by the +exhalation of a part, but the flinty bason which is deposited from it +shews that water with great degrees of heat will dissolve siliceous +matter. Van Troil's Letters on Iceland. Since the above account in the +year 1780 this part of Iceland has been destroyed by an earthquake or +covered with lava, which was probably effected by the force of aqueous +steam, a greater quantity of water falling on the subterraneous fires +than could escape by the antient outlets and generating an increased +quantity of vapour. For the dispersion of contagious vapours from +volcanos see an account of the Harmattan in the notes on Chunda, Vol. II.] + + + 2. "Where with soft fires in unextinguish'd urns, + Cauldron'd in rock, innocuous Lava burns; + On the bright lake YOUR gelid hands distil +160 In pearly mowers the parsimonious rill; + And, as aloft the curling vapours rise + Through the cleft roof, ambitious for the skies, + In vaulted hills condense the tepid steams, + And pour to HEALTH the medicated streams. +165 --So in green vales amid her mountains bleak + BUXTONIA smiles, the Goddess-Nymyh of Peak; + Deep in warm waves, and pebbly baths she dwells, + And calls HYGEIA to her sainted wells. + + +[_Buxtonia smiles_. l. 166. Some arguments are mentioned in the note on +Fucus Vol. II. to shew that the warm springs of this country do not +arise from the decomposition of pyrites near the surface of the earth, +but that they are produced by steam rising up the fissures of the +mountains from great depths, owing to water falling on subterraneous +fires, and that this steam is condensed between the strata of the +incumbent mountains and collected into springs. For further proofs on +this subject the reader is referred to a Letter from Dr. Darwin in Mr. +Pilkington's View of Derbyshire, Vol I. p. 256.] + + + "Hither in sportive bands bright DEVON leads +170 Graces and Loves from Chatsworth's flowery meads.-- + Charm'd round the NYMPH, they climb the rifted rocks; + And steep in mountain-mist their golden locks; + On venturous step her sparry caves explore, + And light with radiant eyes her realms of ore; +175 --Oft by her bubbling founts, and shadowy domes, + In gay undress the fairy legion roams, + Their dripping palms in playful malice fill, + Or taste with ruby lip the sparkling rill; + Croud round her baths, and, bending o'er the side, +180 Unclasp'd their sandals, and their zones untied, + Dip with gay fear the shuddering foot undress'd, + And quick retract it to the fringed vest; + Or cleave with brandish'd arms the lucid stream, + And sob, their blue eyes twinkling in the steam. +185 --High o'er the chequer'd vault with transient glow + Bright lustres dart, as dash the waves below; + And Echo's sweet responsive voice prolongs + The dulcet tumult of their silver tongues.-- + O'er their flush'd cheeks uncurling tresses flow, +190 And dew-drops glitter on their necks of snow; + Round each fair Nymph her dropping mantle clings, + And Loves emerging shake their showery wings. + + +[_And sob, their blue eyes_. l. 184. The bath at Buxton being of 82 +degrees of heat is called a warm bath, and is so compared with common +spring-water which possesses but 48 degrees of heat, but is nevertheless +a cold bath compared to the heat of the body which is 98. On going into +this bath there is therefore always a chill perceived at the first +immersion, but after having been in it a minute the chill ceases and a +sensation of warmth succeeds though the body continues to be immersed in +the water. The cause of this curious phenomenon is to be looked for in +the laws of animal sensation and not from any properties of heat. When a +person goes from clear day-light into an obscure room for a while it +appears gloomy, which gloom however in a little time ceases, and the +deficiency of light becomes no longer perceived. This is not solely +owing to the enlargement of the iris of the eye, since that is performed +in an instant, but to this law of sensation, that when a less stimulus +is applied (within certain bounds) the sensibility increases. Thus at +going into a bath as much colder than the body as that of Buxton, the +diminution of heat on the skin is at first perceived, but in about a +minute the sensibility to heat increases and the nerves of the skin are +equally excited by the lessened stimulus. The sensation of warmth at +emerging from a cold-bath, and the pain called the hot-ach, after the +hands have been immersed in snow, depend on the same principle, viz. the +increased sensibility of the skin after having been previously exposed +to a stimulus less than usual.] + + + "Here oft her LORD surveys the rude domain, + Fair arts of Greece triumphant in his train; +195 LO! as he steps, the column'd pile ascends, + The blue roof closes, or the crescent bends; + New woods aspiring clothe their hills with green, + Smooth slope the lawns, the grey rock peeps between; + Relenting Nature gives her hand to Taste, +200 And Health and Beauty crown the laughing waste. + + +[_Here oft her Lord_. l. 193. Alluding to the magnificent and beautiful +crescent, and superb stables lately erected at Buxton for the +accomodation of the company by the Duke of Devonshire; and to the +plantations with which he has decorated the surrounding mountains.] + + VI. "NYMPHS! YOUR bright squadrons watch with chemic eyes + The cold-elastic vapours, as they rise; + With playful force arrest them as they pass, + And to _pure_ AIR betroth the _flaming_ GAS. +205 Round their translucent forms at once they fling + Their rapturous arms, with silver bosoms cling; + In fleecy clouds their fluttering wings extend, + Or from the skies in lucid showers descend; + Whence rills and rivers owe their secret birth, +210 And Ocean's hundred arms infold the earth. + + +[_And to pure air_. l. 204. Until very lately water was esteemed a +simple element, nor are all the most celebrated chemists of Europe yet +converts to the new opinion of its decomposition. Mr. Lavoisier and +others of the French school have most ingeniously endeavoured to shew +that water consists of pure air, called by them oxygene, and of +inflammable air, called hydrogene, with as much of the matter of heat, +or calorique, as is necessary to preserve them in the form of gas. Gas +is distinguished from steam by its preserving its elasticity under the +pressure of the atmosphere, and in the greatest degrees of cold yet +known. The history of the progress of this great discovery is detailed +in the Memoires of the Royal Academy for 1781, and the experimental +proofs of it are delivered in Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry. The +results of which are that water consists of eighty-five parts by weight +of oxygene, and fifteen parts by weight of hydrogene, with a sufficient +quantity of Calorique. Not only numerous chemical phenomena, but many +atmospherical and vegetable facts receive clear and beautiful +elucidation from this important analysis. In the atmosphere inflammable +air is probably perpetually uniting with vital air and producing +moisture which descends in dews and showers, while the growth of +vegetables by the assistance of light is perpetually again decomposing +the water they imbibe from the earth, and while they retain the +inflammable air for the formation of oils, wax, honey, resin, &c. they +give up the vital air to replenish the atmosphere.] + + + "So, robed by Beauty's Queen, with softer charms + SATURNIA woo'd the Thunderer to her arms; + O'er her fair limbs a veil of light she spread, + And bound a starry diadem on her head; +215 Long braids of pearl her golden tresses grac'd, + And the charm'd CESTUS sparkled round her waist. + --Raised o'er the woof, by Beauty's hand inwrought, + Breathes the soft Sigh, and glows the enamour'd Thought; + Vows on light wings succeed, and quiver'd Wiles, +220 Assuasive Accents, and seductive Smiles. + --Slow rolls the Cyprian car in purple pride, + And, steer'd by LOVE, ascends admiring Ide; + Climbs the green slopes, the nodding woods pervades, + Burns round the rocks, or gleams amid the shades. +225 --Glad ZEPHYR leads the train, and waves above + The barbed darts, and blazing torch of Love; + Reverts his smiling face, and pausing flings + Soft showers of roses from aurelian wings. + Delighted Fawns, in wreathes of flowers array'd, +230 With tiptoe Wood-Boys beat the chequer'd glade; + Alarmed Naiads, rising into air, + Lift o'er their silver urns their leafy hair; + Each to her oak the bashful Dryads shrink, + And azure eyes are seen through every chink. +235 --LOVE culls a flaming shaft of broadest wing, + And rests the fork upon the quivering string; + Points his arch eye aloft, with fingers strong + Draws to his curled ear the silken thong; + Loud twangs the steel, the golden arrow flies, +240 Trails a long line of lustre through the skies; + "'Tis done!" he shouts, "the mighty Monarch feels!" + And with loud laughter shakes the silver wheels; + Bends o'er the car, and whirling, as it moves, + His loosen'd bowstring, drives the rising doves. +245 --Pierced on his throne the slarting Thunderer turns, + Melts with soft sighs, with kindling rapture burns; + Clasps her fair hand, and eyes in fond amaze + The bright Intruder with enamour'd gaze. + "And leaves my Goddess, like a blooming bride, +250 "The fanes of Argos for the rocks of Ide? + "Her gorgeous palaces, and amaranth bowers, + "For cliff-top'd mountains, and aerial towers?" + He said; and, leading from her ivory seat + The blushing Beauty to his lone retreat, +255 Curtain'd with night the couch imperial shrouds, + And rests the crimson cushions upon clouds.-- + Earth feels the grateful influence from above, + Sighs the soft Air, and Ocean murmurs love; + Etherial Warmth expands his brooding wing, +260 And in still showers descends the genial Spring. + + +[_And steer'd by love_. l. 222. The younger love, or Cupid, the son of +Venus, owes his existence and his attributes to much later times than +the Eros, or divine love, mentioned in Canto I. since the former is no +where mentioned by Homer, though so many apt opportunities of +introducing him occur in the works of that immortal bard. Bacon.] + +[_And in still showers._ l. 260. The allegorical interpretation of the +very antient mythology which supposes Jupiter to represent the superior +part of the atmosphere or ether, and Juno the inferior air, and that the +conjunction of these two produces vernal showers, as alluded to in +Virgil's Georgics, is so analogous to the present important discovery of +the production of water from pure air, or oxygene, and inflammable air, +or hydrogene, (which from its greater levity probably resides over the +former,) that one should be tempted to believe that the very antient +chemists of Egypt had discovered the composition of water, and thus +represented it in their hieroglyphic figures before the invention of +letters. + +In the passage of Virgil Jupiter is called ether, and descends in +prolific showers on the bosom of Juno, whence the spring succeeds and +all nature rejoices. + + Tum pater omnipotens foecundis imbribus Aether + Conjugis in gremium laetae descendit, et omnes + Magnus alit, magno commixtus corpore, faetus. + + Virg. Georg. Lib. II. l. 325.] + + + VII. "NYMPHS OF AQUATIC TASTE! whose placid smile + Breathes sweet enchantment o'er BRITANNIA'S isle; + Whose sportive touch in showers resplendent flings + Her lucid cataracts, and her bubbling springs; +265 Through peopled vales the liquid silver guides, + And swells in bright expanse her freighted tides. + YOU with nice ear, in tiptoe trains, pervade + Dim walks of morn or evening's silent shade; + Join the lone Nightingale, her woods among, +270 And roll your rills symphonious to her song; + Through fount-full dells, and wave-worn valleys move, + And tune their echoing waterfalls to love; + Or catch, attentive to the distant roar, + The pausing murmurs of the dashing shore; +275 Or, as aloud she pours her liquid strain, + Pursue the NEREID on the twilight main. + --Her playful Sea-horse woos her soft commands, + Turns his quick ears, his webbed claws expands, + His watery way with waving volutes wins, +280 Or listening librates on unmoving fins. + The Nymph emerging mounts her scaly seat, + Hangs o'er his glossy sides her silver feet, + With snow-white hands her arching veil detains, + Gives to his slimy lips the slacken'd reins, +285 Lifts to the star of Eve her eye serene, + And chaunts the birth of Beauty's radiant Queen.-- + O'er her fair brow her pearly comb unfurls + Her beryl locks, and parts the waving curls, + Each tangled braid with glistening teeth unbinds +290 And with the floating treasure musks the winds.-- + Thrill'd by the dulcet accents, as she sings, + The rippling wave in widening circles rings; + Night's shadowy forms along the margin gleam + With pointed ears, or dance upon the stream; +295 The Moon transported stays her bright career, + And maddening Stars shoot headlong from the sphere. + + +[_Her playful seahorse._ l. 277. Described form an antique gem.] + + + VIII. "NYMPHS! whose fair eyes with vivid lustres glow + For human weal, and melt at human woe; + Late as YOU floated on your silver shells, +300 Sorrowing and slow by DERWENT'S willowy dells; + Where by tall groves his foamy flood he steers + Through ponderous arches o'er impetuous wears, + By DERBY'S shadowy towers reflective sweeps, + And gothic grandeur chills his dusky deeps; +305 You pearl'd with Pity's drops his velvet sides, + Sigh'd in his gales, and murmur'd in his tides, + Waved o'er his fringed brink a deeper gloom, + And bow'd his alders o'er MILCENA'S tomb. + + +[_O'er Milcena's tomb_. l. 308. In memory of Mrs. French, a lady who to +many other elegant accomplishments added a proficiency in botany and +natural history.] + + + "Oft with sweet voice She led her infant-train, +310 Printing with graceful step his spangled plain, + Explored his twinkling swarms, that swim or fly, + And mark'd his florets with botanic eye.-- + "Sweet bud of Spring! how frail thy transient bloom, + "Fine film," she cried, "of Nature's fairest loom! +315 "Soon Beauty fades upon its damask throne!"-- + --Unconscious of the worm, that mined her own!-- + --Pale are those lips, where soft caresses hung, + Wan the warm cheek, and mute the tender tongue, + Cold rests that feeling heart on Derwent's shore, +320 And those love-lighted eye-balls roll no more! + + --HERE her sad Consort, stealing through the gloom + Of + Hangs in mute anguish o'er the scutcheon'd hearse, + Or graves with trembling style the votive verse. + +325 "Sexton! oh, lay beneath this sacred shrine, + When Time's cold hand shall close my aching eyes, + Oh, gently lay this wearied earth of mine, + Where wrap'd in night my loved MILCENA lies. + + "So shall with purer joy my spirit move, +330 When the last trumpet thrills the caves of Death, + Catch the first whispers of my waking love, + And drink with holy kiss her kindling breath. + + "The spotless Fair, with blush ethereal warm, + Shall hail with sweeter smile returning day, +335 Rise from her marble bed a brighter form, + And win on buoyant step her airy way. + + "Shall bend approved, where beckoning hosts invite, + On clouds of silver her adoring knee, + Approach with Seraphim the throne of light, +340 --And BEAUTY plead with angel-tongue for Me!" + + IX. "YOUR virgin trains on BRINDLEY'S cradle smiled, + And nursed with fairy-love the unletter'd child, + Spread round his pillow all your secret spells, + Pierced all your springs, and open'd all your wells.-- +345 As now on grass, with glossy folds reveal'd, + Glides the bright serpent, now in flowers conceal'd; + Far shine the scales, that gild his sinuous back, + And lucid undulations mark his track; + So with strong arm immortal BRINDLEY leads +350 His long canals, and parts the velvet meads; + Winding in lucid lines, the watery mass + Mines the firm rock, or loads the deep morass, + With rising locks a thousand hills alarms, + Flings o'er a thousand streams its silver arms, +355 Feeds the long vale, the nodding woodland laves, + And Plenty, Arts, and Commerce freight the waves. + --NYMPHS! who erewhile round BRINDLEY'S early bier + On show-white bosoms shower'd the incessant tear, + Adorn his tomb!--oh, raise the marble bust, +360 Proclaim his honours, and protect his dust! + With urns inverted, round the sacred shrine + Their ozier wreaths let weeping Naiads twine; + While on the top MECHANIC GENIUS stands, + Counts the fleet waves, and balances the lands. + + +[_On Brindley's cradle smiled_. l. 341. The life of Mr. Brindley, whose +great abilities in the construction of canal navigation were called +forth by the patronage of the Duke of Bridgwater, may be read in Dr. +Kippis's Biographia Britannica, the excellence of his genius is visible +in every part of this island. He died at Turnhurst in Staffordshire in +1772, and ought to have a monument in the cathedral church at +Lichfield.] + + +365 X. "NYMPHS! YOU first taught to pierce the secret caves + Of humid earth, and lift her ponderous waves; + Bade with quick stroke the sliding piston bear + The viewless columns of incumbent air;-- + Press'd by the incumbent air the floods below, +370 Through opening valves in foaming torrents flow, + Foot after foot with lessen'd impulse move, + And rising seek the vacancy above.-- + So when the Mother, bending o'er his charms, + Clasps her fair nurseling in delighted arms; +375 Throws the thin kerchief from her neck of snow, + And half unveils the pearly orbs below; + With sparkling eye the blameless Plunderer owns + Her soft embraces, and endearing tones, + Seeks the salubrious fount with opening lips, +380 Spreads his inquiring hands, and smiles, and sips. + + +[_Lift her ponderous waves_. l. 366. The invention of the pump is of +very antient date, being ascribed to one Ctesebes an Athenian, whence it +was called by the Latins machina Ctesebiana; but it was long before it +was known that the ascent of the piston lifted the superincumbent column +of the atmosphere, and that then the pressure of the surrounding air on +the surface of the well below forced the water up into the vacuum, and +that on that account in the common lifting pump the water would rise +only about thirty-five feet, as the weight of such a column of water was +in general an equipoise to the surrounding atmosphere. The foamy +appearance of water, when the pressure of the air over it is diminished, +is owing to the expansion and escape of the air previously dissolved by +it, or existing in its pores. When a child first sucks it only presses +or champs the teat, as observed by the great Harvey, but afterwards it +learns to make an incipient vacuum in its mouth, and acts by removing +the pressure of the atmosphere from the nipple, like a pump.] + + + "CONNUBIAL FAIR! whom no fond transport warms + To lull your infant in maternal arms; + Who, bless'd in vain with tumid bosoms, hear + His tender wailings with unfeeling ear; +385 The soothing kiss and milky rill deny + To the sweet pouting lip, and glistening eye!-- + Ah! what avails the cradle's damask roof, + The eider bolster, and embroider'd woof!-- + Oft hears the gilded couch unpity'd plains, +390 And many a tear the tassel'd cushion stains! + No voice so sweet attunes his cares to rest, + So soft no pillow, as his Mother's breast!-- + --Thus charm'd to sweet repose, when twilight hours + Shed their soft influence on celestial bowers, +395 The Cherub, Innocence, with smile divine + Shuts his white wings, and sleeps on Beauty's shrine. + + +[_Ah! what avails_. l. 387. From an elegant little poem of Mr. +Jerningham's intitled Il Latte, exhorting ladies to nurse their own +children.] + + + XI. "From dome to dome when flames infuriate climb, + Sweep the long street, invest the tower sublime; + Gild the tall vanes amid the astonish'd night, +400 And reddening heaven returns the sanguine light; + While with vast strides and bristling hair aloof + Pale Danger glides along the falling roof; + And Giant Terror howling in amaze + Moves his dark limbs across the lurid blaze. +405 NYMPHS! you first taught the gelid wave to rise + Hurl'd in resplendent arches to the skies; + In iron cells condensed the airy spring, + And imp'd the torrent with unfailing wing; + --On the fierce flames the shower impetuous falls, +410 And sudden darkness shrouds the shatter'd walls; + Steam, smoak, and dust in blended volumes roll, + And Night and Silence repossess the Pole.-- + + +[_Hurl'd in resplendent arches_. l. 406. The addition of an air-cell to +machines for raising water to extinguish fire was first introduced by +Mr. Newsham of London, and is now applied to similar engines for washing +wall-trees in gardens, and to all kinds of forcing pumps, and might be +applied with advantage to lifting pumps where the water is brought from +a great distance horizontally. Another kind of machine was invented by +one Greyl, in which a vessel of water was every way dispersed by the +explosion of gun-powder lodging in the centre of it, and lighted by an +adapted match; from this idea Mr. Godfrey proposed a water-bomb of +similar construction. Dr. Hales to prevent the spreading of fire +proposed to cover the floors and stairs of the adjoining houses with +earth; Mr. Hartley proposed to prevent houses from taking fire by +covering the cieling with thin iron-plates, and Lord Mahon by a bed of +coarse mortar or plaister between the cieling and floor above it. May +not this age of chemical science discover some method of injecting or +soaking timber with lime-water and afterwards with vitriolic acid, and +thus fill its pores with alabaster? or of penetrating it with siliceous +matter, by processes similar to those of Bergman and Achard? See +Cronstadt's Mineral. 2d. edit. Vol. I. p. 222.] + + + "Where were ye, NYMPHS! in those disasterous hours, + Which wrap'd in flames AUGUSTA'S sinking towers? +415 Why did ye linger in your wells and groves, + When sad WOODMASON mourn'd her infant loves? + When thy fair Daughters with unheeded screams, + Ill-fated MOLESWORTH! call'd the loitering streams?-- + The trembling Nymph on bloodless fingers hung +420 Eyes from the tottering wall the distant throng, + With ceaseless shrieks her sleeping friends alarms, + Drops with singed hair into her lover's arms.-- + The illumin'd Mother seeks with footsteps fleet, + Where hangs the safe balcony o'er the street, +425 Wrap'd in her sheet her youngest hope suspends, + And panting lowers it to her tiptoe friends; + Again she hurries on affection's wings, + And now a third, and now a fourth, she brings; + Safe all her babes, she smooths her horrent brow, +430 And bursts through bickering flames, unscorch'd, below. + So, by her Son arraign'd, with feet unshod + O'er burning bars indignant Emma trod. + + +[Footnote: _Woodmason, Molesworth_. l. 416. The histories of these +unfortunate families may be seen in the Annual Register, or in the +Gentleman's Magazine.] + + + "E'en on the day when Youth with Beauty wed, + The flames surprized them in their nuptial bed;-- +435 Seen at the opening sash with bosom bare, + With wringing hands, and dark dishevel'd hair, + The blushing Beauty with disorder'd charms + Round her fond lover winds her ivory arms; + Beat, as they clasp, their throbbing hearts with fear, +440 And many a kiss is mix'd with many a tear;-- + Ah me! in vain the labouring engines pour + Round their pale limbs the ineffectual shower!-- + --Then crash'd the floor, while shrinking crouds retire, + And Love and Virtue sunk amid the fire!-- +445 With piercing screams afflicted strangers mourn, + And their white ashes mingle in their urn. + + XII. "PELLUCID FORMS! whose crystal bosoms show + The shine of welfare, or the shade of woe; + Who with soft lips salute returning Spring, +450 And hail the Zephyr quivering on his wing; + Or watch, untired, the wintery clouds, and share + With streaming eyes my vegetable care; + Go, shove the dim mist from the mountain's brow, + Chase the white fog, which floods the vale below; +455 Melt the thick snows, that linger on the lands, + And catch the hailstones in your little hands; + Guard the coy blossom from the pelting shower, + And dash the rimy spangles from the bower; + From each chill leaf the silvery drops repel, +460 And close the timorous floret's golden bell. + + +[_Shove the dim mist_. l. 453. See note on l. 20 of this Canto.] + +[_Catch the hail-stones_. l. 456. See note on l. 15 of this Canto.] + +[_From each chill leaf_. l. 459. The upper side of the leaf is the organ +of vegetable respiration, as explained in the additional notes, No. +XXXVII, hence the leaf is liable to injury from much moisture on this +surface, and is destroyed by being smeared with oil, in these respects +resembling the lungs of animals or the spiracula of insects. To prevent +these injuries some leaves repel the dew-drops from their upper surfaces +as those of cabbages; other vegetables close the upper surfaces of their +leaves together in the night or in wet weather, as the sensitive plant; +others only hang their leaves downwards so as to shoot the wet from +them, as kidney-beans, and many trees. See note on l. 18 of this Canto.] + +[_Golden bell_. l. 460. There are muscles placed about the footstalks of +the leaves or leaflets of many plants, for the purpose of closing their +upper surfaces together, or of bending them down so as to shoot off the +showers or dew-drops, as mentioned in the preceeding note. The claws of +the petals or of the divisions of the calyx of many flowers are +furnished in a similar manner with muscles, which are exerted to open or +close the corol and calyx of the flower as in tragopogon, anemone. This +action of opening and closing the leaves or flowers does not appear to +be produced simply by _irritation_ on the muscles themselves, but by the +connection of those muscles with a _sensitive_ sensorium or brain +existing in each individual bud or flower. 1st. Because many flowers +close from the defect of stimulus, not by the excess of it, as by +darkness, which is the absence of the stimulus of light; or by cold, +which is the absence of the stimulus of heat. Now the defect of heat, or +the absence of food, or of drink, affects our _sensations_, which had +been previously accustomed to a greater quantity of them; but a muscle +cannot be said to be stimulated into action by a defect of stimulus. 2. +Because the muscles around the footstalks of the subdivisions of the +leaves of the sensitive plant are exerted when any injury is offered to +the other extremity of the leaf, and some of the stamens of the flowers +of the class Syngenesia contract themselves when others are irritated. +See note on Chondrilla, Vol. II. of this work. + +From this circumstance the contraction of the muscles of vegetables +seems to depend on a disagreeable _sensation_ in some distant part, and +not on the _irritation_ of the muscles themselves. Thus when a particle +of dust stimulates the ball of the eye, the eye-lids are instantly +closed, and when too much light pains the retina, the muscles of the +iris contract its aperture, and this not by any connection or consent of +the nerves of those parts, but as an effort to prevent or to remove a +disagreeable sensation, which evinces that vegetables are endued with +sensation, or that each bud has a common sensorium, and is furnished +with a brain or a central place where its nerves were connected.] + + + "So should young SYMPATHY, in female form, + Climb the tall rock, spectatress of the storm; + Life's sinking wrecks with secret sighs deplore, + And bleed for others' woes, Herself on shore; +465 To friendless Virtue, gasping on the strand, + Bare her warm heart, her virgin arms expand, + Charm with kind looks, with tender accents cheer, + And pour the sweet consolatory tear; + Grief's cureless wounds with lenient balms asswage, +470 Or prop with firmer staff the steps of Age; + The lifted arm of mute Despair arrest, + And snatch the dagger pointed to his breast; + Or lull to slumber Envy's haggard mien, + And rob her quiver'd shafts with hand unseen. +475 --Sound, NYMPHS OF HELICON! the trump of Fame, + And teach Hibernian echoes JONES'S name; + Bind round her polish'd brow the civic bay, + And drag the fair Philanthropist to day.-- + So from secluded springs, and secret caves, +480 Her Liffy pours his bright meandering waves, + Cools the parch'd vale, the sultry mead divides, + And towns and temples star his shadowy sides. + + +[_Jones's name_. l. 476. A young lady who devotes a great part of an +ample fortune to well chosen acts of secret charity.] + + + XIII. "CALL YOUR light legions, tread the swampy heath, + Pierce with sharp spades the tremulous peat beneath; +485 With colters bright the rushy sward bisect, + And in new veins the gushing rills direct;-- + So flowers shall rise in purple light array'd, + And blossom'd orchards stretch their silver shade; + Admiring glebes their amber ears unfold, +490 And Labour sleep amid the waving gold. + + "Thus when young HERCULES with firm disdain + Braved the soft smiles of Pleasure's harlot train; + To valiant toils his forceful limbs assign'd, + And gave to Virtue all his mighty mind, +495 Fierce ACHELOUS rush'd from mountain-caves, + O'er sad Etolia pour'd his wasteful waves, + O'er lowing vales and bleating pastures roll'd, + Swept her red vineyards, and her glebes of gold, + Mined all her towns, uptore her rooted woods, +500 And Famine danced upon the shining floods. + The youthful Hero seized his curled crest, + And dash'd with lifted club the watery Pest; + With waving arm the billowy tumult quell'd, + And to his course the bellowing Fiend repell'd. + + +[_Fierce Achelous_. l. 495. The river Achelous deluged Etolia, by one of +its branches or arms, which in the antient languages are called horns, +and produced famine throughout a great tract of country, this was +represented in hieroglyphic emblems by the winding course of a serpent +and the roaring of a bull with large horns. Hercules, or the emblem of +strength, strangled the serpent, and tore off one horn from the bull; +that is, he stopped and turned the course of one arm of the river, and +restored plenty to the country. Whence the antient emblem of the horn of +plenty. Dict. par M. Danet.] + + +505 "Then to a Snake the finny Demon turn'd + His lengthen'd form, with scales of silver burn'd; + Lash'd with restless sweep his dragon-train, + And shot meandering o'er the affrighted plain. + The Hero-God, with giant fingers clasp'd +510 Firm round his neck, the hissing monster grasp'd; + With starting eyes, wide throat, and gaping teeth, + Curl his redundant folds, and writhe in death. + + "And now a Bull, amid the flying throng + The grisly Demon foam'd, and roar'd along; +515 With silver hoofs the flowery meadows spurn'd, + Roll'd his red eye, his threatening antlers turn'd. + Dragg'd down to earth, the Warrior's victor-hands + Press'd his deep dewlap on the imprinted sands; + Then with quick bound his bended knee he fix'd +520 High on his neck, the branching horns betwixt, + Strain'd his strong arms, his sinewy shoulders bent, + And from his curled brow the twisted terror rent. + --Pleased Fawns and Nymphs with dancing step applaud, + And hang their chaplets round the resting God; +525 Link their soft hands, and rear with pausing toil + The golden trophy on the furrow'd soil; + Fill with ripe fruits, with wreathed flowers adorn, + And give to PLENTY her prolific horn. + + +[_Dragg'd down to earth_. l. 517. Described from an antique gem.] + + + XIV. "On Spring's fair lap, CERULEAN SISTERS! pour +530 From airy urns the sun-illumined shower, + Feed with the dulcet drops my tender broods, + Mellifluous flowers, and aromatic buds; + Hang from each bending grass and horrent thorn + The tremulous pearl, that glitters to the morn; +535 Or where cold dews their secret channels lave, + And Earth's dark chambers hide the stagnant wave, + O, pierce, YE NYMPHS! her marble veins, and lead + Her gushing fountains to the thirsty mead; + Wide o'er the shining vales, and trickling hills +540 Spread the bright treasure in a thousand rills. + So shall my peopled realms of Leaf and Flower + Exult, inebriate with the genial shower; + Dip their long tresses from the mossy brink, + With tufted roots the glassy currents drink; +545 Shade your cool mansions from meridian beams, + And view their waving honours in your streams. + + +[_Spread the bright treasure_. l. 540. The practice of flooding lands +long in use in China has been but lately introduced into this country. +Besides the supplying water to the herbage in dryer seasons, it seems to +defend it from frost in the early part of the year, and thus doubly +advances the vegetation. The waters which rise from springs passing +through marl or limestone are replete with calcareous earth, and when +thrown over morasses they deposit this earth and incrust or consolidate +the morass. This kind of earth is deposited in great quantity from the +springs at Matlock bath, and supplies the soft porous limestone of which +the houses and walls are there constructed; and has formed the whole +bank for near a mile on that side of the Derwent on which they stand. + +The water of many springs contains much azotic gas, or phlogistic air, +besides carbonic gas, or fixed air, as that of Buxton and Bath; this +being set at liberty may more readily contribute to the production of +nitre by means of the putrescent matters which it is exposed to by being +spread upon the surface of the land; in the same manner as frequently +turning over heaps of manure facilitates the nitrous process by +imprisoning atmospheric air in the interstices of the putrescent +materials. Water arising by land-floods brings along with it much of the +most soluble parts of the manure from the higher lands to the lower +ones. River-water in its clear state and those springs which are called +soft are less beneficial for the purpose of watering lands, as they +contain less earthy or saline matter; and water from dissolving snow +from its slow solution brings but little earth along with it, as may be +seen by the comparative clearness of the water of snow-floods.] + + + "Thus where the veins their confluent branches bend, + And milky eddies with the purple blend; + The Chyle's white trunk, diverging from its source, +550 Seeks through the vital mass its shining course; + O'er each red cell, and tissued membrane spreads + In living net-work all its branching threads; + Maze within maze its tortuous path pursues, + Winds into glands, inextricable clues; +555 Steals through the stomach's velvet sides, and sips + The silver surges with a thousand lips; + Fills each fine pore, pervades each slender hair, + And drinks salubrious dew-drops from the air. + + "Thus when to kneel in Mecca's awful gloom, +560 Or press with pious kiss Medina's tomb, + League after league, through many a lingering day, + Steer the swart Caravans their sultry way; + O'er sandy wastes on gasping camels toil, + Or print with pilgrim-steps the burning soil; +565 If from lone rocks a sparkling rill descend, + O'er the green brink the kneeling nations bend, + Bathe the parch'd lip, and cool the feverish tongue, + And the clear lake reflects the mingled throng." + + The Goddess paused,--the listening bands awhile +570 Still seem to hear, and dwell upon her smile; + Then with soft murmur sweep in lucid trains + Down the green slopes, and o'er the pebbly plains, + To each bright stream on silver sandals glide, + Reflective fountain, and tumultuous tide. + +575 So shoot the Spider-broods at breezy dawn + Their glittering net-work o'er the autumnal lawn; + From blade to blade connect with cordage fine + The unbending grass, and live along the line; + Or bathe unwet their oily forms, and dwell +580 With feet repulsive on the dimpling well. + + So when the North congeals his watery mass, + Piles high his snows, and floors his seas with glass; + While many a Month, unknown to warmer rays, + Marks its slow chronicle by lunar days; +585 Stout youths and ruddy damsels, sportive train, + Leave the white soil, and rush upon the main; + From isle to isle the moon-bright squadrons stray, + And win in easy curves their graceful way; + On step alternate borne, with balance nice +590 Hang o'er the gliding steel, and hiss along the ice. + + + + + _Argument of the Fourth Canto._ + + +Address to the Sylphs. I. Trade-winds. Monsoons. N.E. and S.W. winds. +Land and sea breezes. Irregular winds. 9. II. Production of vital air +from oxygene and light. The marriage of Cupid and Psyche. 25. III. 1. +Syroc. Simoom. Tornado. 63. 2. Fog. Contagion. Story of Thyrsis and +Aegle. Love and Death. 79. IV. 1. Barometer. Air-pump. 127. 2. Air- +balloon of Mongulfier. Death of Rozier. Icarus. 143. V. Discoveries of +Dr. Priestley. Evolutions and combinations of pure air. Rape of +Proserpine. 165. VI. Sea-balloons, or houses constructed to move under +the sea. Death of Mr. Day. Of Mr. Spalding. Of Captain Pierce and his +Daughters. 195. VII. Sylphs of music. Cecelia singing. Cupid with a lyre +riding upon a lion. 233. VIII. Destruction of Senacherib's army by a +pestilential wind. Shadow of Death. 263. IX. 1. Wish to possess the +secret of changing the course of the winds. 305. 2. Monster devouring +air subdued by Mr. Kirwan. 321. X. 1. Seeds suspended in their pods. +Stars discovered by Mr. Herschel. Destruction and resuscitation of all +things. 351. 2. Seeds within seeds, and bulbs within bulbs. Picture on +the retina of the eye. Concentric strata of the earth. The great seed. +381. 3. The root, pith, lobes, plume, calyx, coral, sap, blood, leaves +respire and absorb light. The crocodile in its egg. 409. XI. Opening of +the flower. The petals, style, anthers, prolific dust. Transmutation of +the silkworm. 441. XII. 1. Leaf-buds changed into flower-buds by +wounding the bark, or strangulating a part of the branch. 461. 2. +Ingrafting. Aaron's rod pullulates. 477. XIII. 1. Insects on trees. +Humming-bird alarmed by the spider-like apearance of Cyprepedia. 491. 2. +Diseases of vegetables. Scratch on unnealed glass. 511. XIV. 1. Tender +flowers. Amaryllis, fritillary, erythrina, mimosa, cerea. 523. 2. Vines. +Oranges. Diana's trees. Kew garden. The royal family. 541. XV. Offering +to Hygeia. 587. Departure of the Goddess. 629. + + + + + THE + ECONOMY OF VEGETATION. + + + CANTO IV. + + + As when at noon in Hybla's fragrant bowers + CACALIA opens all her honey'd flowers; + Contending swarms on bending branches cling, + And nations hover on aurelian wing; + 5 So round the GODDESS, ere she speaks, on high + Impatient SYLPHS in gawdy circlets fly; + Quivering in air their painted plumes expand, + And coloured shadows dance upon the land. + + +[_Cacalia opens_. l. 2. The importance of the nectarium or honey-gland +in the vegetable economy is seen from the very complicated apparatus, +which nature has formed in some flowers for the preservation of their +honey from insects, as in the aconites or monkshoods; in other plants +instead of a great apparatus for its protection a greater secretion of +it is produced that thence a part may be spared to the depredation of +insects. The cacalia suaveolens produces so much honey that on some days +it may be smelt at a great distance from the plant. I remember once +counting on one of these plants besides bees of various kinds without +number, above two hundred painted butterflies, which gave it the +beautiful appearance of being covered with additional flowers.] + + + I. "SYLPHS! YOUR light troops the tropic Winds confine, + 10 And guide their streaming arrows to the Line; + While in warm floods ecliptic breezes rise, + And sink with wings benumb'd in colder skies. + You bid Monsoons on Indian seas reside, + And veer, as moves the sun, their airy tide; + 15 While southern gales o'er western oceans roll, + And Eurus steals his ice-winds from the Pole. + Your playful trains, on sultry islands born, + Turn on fantastic toe at eve and morn; + With soft susurrant voice alternate sweep + 20 Earth's green pavilions and encircling deep. + OR in itinerant cohorts, borne sublime + On tides of ether, float from clime to clime; + O'er waving Autumn bend your airy ring, + Or waft the fragrant bosom of the Spring. + + +[_The tropic winds_. l. 9. See additional notes, No. XXXIII.] + + + 25 II. "When Morn, escorted by the dancing Hours, + O'er the bright plains her dewy lustre showers; + Till from her sable chariot Eve serene + Drops the dark curtain o'er the brilliant scene; + You form with chemic hands the airy surge, + 30 Mix with broad vans, with shadowy tridents urge. + SYLPHS! from each sun-bright leaf, that twinkling shakes + O'er Earth's green lap, or shoots amid her lakes, + Your playful bands with simpering lips invite, + And wed the enamour'd OXYGENE to LIGHT.-- + 35 Round their white necks with fingers interwove, + Cling the fond Pair with unabating love; + Hand link'd in hand on buoyant step they rise, + And soar and glisten in unclouded skies. + Whence in bright floods the VITAL AIR expands, + 40 And with concentric spheres involves the lands; + Pervades the swarming seas, and heaving earths, + Where teeming Nature broods her myriad births; + Fills the fine lungs of all that _breathe_ or _bud_, + Warms the new heart, and dyes the gushing blood; + 45 With Life's first spark inspires the organic frame, + And, as it wastes, renews the subtile flame. + + +[_The enamour'd oxygene_. l. 34. The common air of the atmosphere +appears by the analysis of Dr. Priestley and other philosophers to +consist of about three parts of an elastic fluid unfit for respiration +or combustion, called azote by the French school, and about one fourth +of pure vital air fit for the support of animal life and of combustion, +called oxygene. The principal source of the azote is probably from the +decomposition of all vegetable and animal matters by putrefaction and +combustion; the principal source of vital air or oxygene is perhaps from +the decomposition of water in the organs of vegetables by means of the +sun's light. The difficulty of injecting vegetable vessels seems to shew +that their perspirative pores are much less than those of animals, and +that the water which constitutes their perspiration is so divided at the +time of its exclusion that by means of the sun's light it becomes +decomposed, the inflammable air or hydrogene, which is one of its +constituent parts, being retained to form the oil, resin, wax, honey, +&c. of the vegetable economy; and the other part, which united with +light or heat becomes vital air or oxygene gas, rises into the +atmosphere and replenishes it with the food of life. + +Dr. Priestley has evinced by very ingenious experiments that the blood +gives out phlogiston, and receives vital air, or oxygene-gas by the +lungs. And Dr. Crawford has shewn that the blood acquires heat from this +vital air in respiration. There is however still a something more subtil +than heat, which must be obtained in respiration from the vital air, a +something which life can not exist a few minutes without, which seems +necessary to the vegetable as well as to the animal world, and which as +no organized vessels can confine it, requires perpetually to be renewed. +See note on Canto I. l. 401.] + + + "So pure, so soft, with sweet attraction shone + Fair PSYCHE, kneeling at the ethereal throne; + Won with coy smiles the admiring court of Jove, + 50 And warm'd the bosom of unconquer'd LOVE.-- + Beneath a moving shade of fruits and flowers + Onward they march to HYMEN'S sacred bowers; + With lifted torch he lights the festive train, + Sublime, and leads them in his golden chain; + 55 Joins the fond pair, indulgent to their vows, + And hides with mystic veil their blushing brows. + Round their fair forms their mingling arms they fling, + Meet with warm lip, and clasp with rustling wing.-- + --Hence plastic Nature, as Oblivion whelms + 60 Her fading forms, repeoples all her realms; + Soft Joys disport on purple plumes unfurl'd, + And Love and Beauty rule the willing world. + + +[_Fair Psyche_. l. 48. Described from an antient gem on a fine onyx in +possession of the Duke of Marlborough, of which there is a beautiful +print in Bryant's Mythol. Vol II. p. 392. And from another antient gem +of Cupid and Psyche embracing, of which there is a print in Spence's +Polymetis. p. 82.] + +[_Repeoples all her realms_. l. 60. + + Quae mare navigerum et terras frugiferentes + Concelebras; per te quoniam genus omne animantum + Concipitur, visitque exortum lumina folis. Lucret.] + + + III. 1. "SYLPHS! Your bold myriads on the withering heath + Stay the fell SYROC'S suffocative breath; + 65 Arrest SIMOOM in his realms of sand, + The poisoned javelin balanced in his hand;-- + Fierce on blue streams he rides the tainted air, + Points his keen eye, and waves his whistling hair; + While, as he turns, the undulating soil + 70 Rolls in red waves, and billowy deserts boil. + + +[_Arrest Simoom_. l. 65. "At eleven o'clock while we were with great +pleasure contemplating the rugged tops of Chiggre, where we expected to +solace ourselves with plenty of good water, Idris cried out with a loud +voice, "fall upon your faces, for here is the simoom!" I saw from the +S.E. a haze come in colour like the purple part of a rainbow, but not so +compressed or thick; it did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was +about twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of a blush upon +the air, and it moved very rapidly, for I scarce could turn to fall upon +the ground with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its +current plainly upon my face. We all lay flat upon the ground, as if +dead, till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor, or purple haze, +which I saw was indeed passed; but the light air that still blew was of +heat to threaten suffocation. For my part I found distinctly in my +breast, that I had imbibed a part of it; nor was I free of an asthmatic +sensation till I had been some months in Italy." Bruce's Travels. Vol. +IV. p. 557. + +It is difficult to account for the narrow track of this pestilential +wind, which is said not to exceed twenty yards, and for its small +elevation of twelve feet. A whirlwind will pass forwards, and throw down +an avenue of trees by its quick revolution as it passes, but nothing +like a whirling is described as happening in these narrow streams of +air, and whirlwinds ascend to greater heights. There seems but one known +manner in which this channel of air could be effected, and that is by +electricity. + +The volcanic origin of these winds is mentioned in the note on Chunda in +Vol. II. of this work; it must here be added, that Professor Vairo at +Naples found, that during the eruption of Vesuvius perpendicular iron +bars were electric; and others have observed suffocating damps to attend +these eruptions. Ferber's Travels in Italy, p. 133. And lastly, that a +current of air attends the passage of electric matter, as is seen in +presenting an electrized point to the flame of a candle. In Mr. Bruce's +account of this simoom, it was in its course over a quite dry desert of +sand, (and which was in consequence unable to conduct an electric stream +into the earth beneath it,) to some moist rocks at but a few miles +distance; and thence would appear to be a stream of electricity from a +volcano attended with noxious air; and as the bodies of Mr. Bruce and +his attendants were insulated on the sand, they would not be sensible of +their increased electricity, as it passed over them; to which it may be +added, that a sulphurous or suffocating sensation is said to accompany +flames of lightning, and even strong sparks of artificial electricity. +In the above account of the simoom, a great redness in the air is said +to be a certain sign of its approach, which may be occasioned by the +eruption of flame from a distant volcano in these extensive and +impenetrable deserts of sand. See Note on l. 294 of this Canto.] + + + You seize TORNADO by his locks of mist, + Burst his dense clouds, his wheeling spires untwist; + Wide o'er the West when borne on headlong gales, + Dark as meridian night, the Monster sails, + 75 Howls high in air, and shakes his curled brow, + Lashing with serpent-train the waves below, + Whirls his black arm, the forked lightning flings, + And showers a deluge from his demon-wings. + + +[_Tornado's_. l. 71. See additional notes, No. XXXIII.] + + + 2. "SYLPHS! with light shafts YOU pierce the drowsy FOG, + 80 That lingering slumbers on the sedge-wove bog, + With webbed feet o'er midnight meadows creeps, + Or flings his hairy limbs on stagnant deeps. + YOU meet CONTAGION issuing from afar, + And dash the baleful conqueror from his car; + 85 When, Guest of DEATH! from charnel vaults he steals, + And bathes in human gore his armed wheels. + + +[_On stagnant deeps_. l. 82. All contagious miasmata originate either +from animal bodies, as those of the small pox, or from putrid morasses; +these latter produce agues in the colder climates, and malignant fevers +in the warmer ones. The volcanic vapours which cause epidemic coughs, +are to be ranked amongst poisons, rather than amongst the miasmata, +which produce contagious diseases.] + + + "Thus when the PLAGUE, upborne on Belgian air, + Look'd through the mist and shook his clotted hair, + O'er shrinking nations steer'd malignant clouds, + 90 And rain'd destruction on the gasping crouds. + The beauteous AEGLE felt the venom'd dart, + Slow roll'd her eye, and feebly throbb'd her heart; + Each fervid sigh seem'd shorter than the last, + And starting Friendship shunn'd her, as she pass'd. + 95 --With weak unsteady step the fainting Maid + Seeks the cold garden's solitary shade, + Sinks on the pillowy moss her drooping head, + And prints with lifeless limbs her leafy bed. + --On wings of Love her plighted Swain pursues, +100 Shades her from winds, and shelters her from dews, + Extends on tapering poles the canvas roof, + Spreads o'er the straw-wove matt the flaxen woof, + Sweet buds and blossoms on her bolster strows, + And binds his kerchief round her aching brows; +105 Sooths with soft kiss, with tender accents charms, + And clasps the bright Infection in his arms.-- + With pale and languid smiles the grateful Fair + Applauds his virtues, and rewards his care; + Mourns with wet cheek her fair companions fled +110 On timorous step, or number'd with the dead; + Calls to its bosom all its scatter'd rays, + And pours on THYRSIS the collected blaze; + Braves the chill night, caressing and caress'd, + And folds her Hero-lover to her breast.-- +115 Less bold, LEANDER at the dusky hour + Eyed, as he swam, the far love-lighted tower; + Breasted with struggling arms the tossing wave, + And sunk benighted in the watery grave. + Less bold, TOBIAS claim'd the nuptial bed, +120 Where seven fond Lovers by a Fiend had bled; + And drove, instructed by his Angel-Guide, + The enamour'd Demon from the fatal bride.-- + --SYLPHS! while your winnowing pinions fan'd the air, + And shed gay visions o'er the sleeping pair; +125 LOVE round their couch effused his rosy breath, + And with his keener arrows conquer'd DEATH. + + +[_The beauteous Aegle_. l. 91. When the plague raged in Holland in 1636, +a young girl was seized with it, had three carbuncles, and was removed +to a garden, where her lover, who was betrothed to her, attended her as +a nurse, and slept with her as his wife. He remained uninfected, and she +recovered, and was married to him. The story is related by Vinc. +Fabricius in the Misc. Cur. Ann. II. Obs. 188.] + + + IV. 1. "You charm'd, indulgent SYLPHS! their learned toil, + And crown'd with fame your TORRICELL, and BOYLE; + Taught with sweet smiles, responsive to their prayer, +130 The spring and pressure of the viewless air. + --How up exhausted tubes bright currents flow + Of liquid silver from the lake below, + Weigh the long column of the incumbent skies, + And with the changeful moment fall and rise. +135 --How, as in brazen pumps the pistons move, + The membrane-valve sustains the weight above; + Stroke follows stroke, the gelid vapour falls, + And misty dew-drops dim the crystal walls; + Rare and more rare expands the fluid thin, +140 And Silence dwells with Vacancy within.-- + So in the mighty Void with grim delight + Primeval Silence reign'd with ancient Night. + + +[_Torricell and Boyle_. l. 128. The pressure of the atmosphere was +discovered by Torricelli, a disciple of Galileo, who had previously +found that the air had weight. Dr. Hook and M. Du Hamel ascribe the +invention of the air-pump to Mr. Boyle, who however confesses he had +some hints concerning its construction from De Guerick. The vacancy at +the summit of the barometer is termed the Torricellian vacuum, and the +exhausted receiver of an air pump the Boylean vacuum, in honour of these +two philosophers. + +The mist and descending dew which appear at first exhausting the +receiver of an air-pump, are explained in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. +from the cold produced by the expansion of air. For a thermometer placed +in the receiver sinks some degrees, and in a very little time, as soon +as a sufficient quantity of heat can be acquired from the surrounding +bodies, the dew becomes again taken up. See additional notes, No. VII. +Mr. Saussure observed on placing his hygrometer in a receiver of an air- +pump, that though on beginning to exhaust it the air became misty, and +parted with its moisture, yet the hair of his hygrometer contracted, and +the instrument pointed to greater dryness. This unexpected occurrence is +explained by M. Monge (Annales de Chymie, Tom. V.) to depend on the want +of the usual pressure of the atmosphere to force the aqueous particles +into the pores of the hair; and M. Saussure supposes, that his vesicular +vapour requires more time to be redissolved, than is necessary to dry +the hair of his thermometer. Essais sur l'Hygrom. p. 226. but I suspect +there is a less hypothetical way of understanding it; when a colder body +is brought into warm and moist air, (as a bottle of spring-water for +instance,) a steam is quickly collected on its surface; the contrary +occurs when a warmer body is brought into cold and damp air, it +continues free from dew so long as it continues warm; for it warms the +atmosphere around it, and renders it capable of receiving instead of +parting with moisture. The moment the air becomes rarefied in the +receiver of the air-pump it becomes colder, as appears by the +thermometer, and deposits its vapour; but the hair of Mr. Saussure's +hygrometer is now warmer than the air in which it is immersed, and in +consequence becomes dryer than before, by warming the air which +immediately surrounds it, a part of its moisture evaporating along with +its heat.] + + + 2. "SYLPHS! your soft voices, whispering from the skies, + Bade from low earth the bold MONGULFIER rise; +145 Outstretch'd his buoyant ball with airy spring, + And bore the Sage on levity of wing;-- + Where were ye, SYLPHS! when on the ethereal main + Young ROSIERE launch'd, and call'd your aid in vain? + Fair mounts the light balloon, by Zephyr driven, +150 Parts the thin clouds, and sails along the heaven; + Higher and yet higher the expanding bubble flies, + Lights with quick flash, and bursts amid the skies.-- + Headlong He rushes through the affrighted air + With limbs distorted, and dishevel'd hair, +155 Whirls round and round, the flying croud alarms, + And DEATH receives him in his sable arms!-- + So erst with melting wax and loosen'd strings + Sunk hapless ICARUS on unfaithful wings; + His scatter'd plumage danced upon the wave, +160 And sorrowing Mermaids deck'd his watery grave; + O'er his pale corse their pearly sea-flowers shed, + And strew'd with crimson moss his marble bed; + Struck in their coral towers the pausing bell, + And wide in ocean toll'd his echoing knell. + + +[_Young Rosiere launch'd_. l. 148. M. Pilatre du Rosiere with a M. +Romain rose in a balloon from Boulogne in June 1785, and after having +been about a mile high for about half an hour the balloon took fire, and +the two adventurers were dashed to pieces on their fall to the ground. +Mr. Rosiere was a philosopher of great talents and activity, joined with +such urbanity and elegance of manners, as conciliated the affections of +his acquaintance and rendered his misfortune universally lamented. +Annual Register for 1784 and 1785, p. 329.] + +[_And wide in ocean_. l. 164. Denser bodies propagate vibration or sound +better than rarer ones; if two stones be struck together under the +water, they may be heard a mile or two by any one whose head is immersed +at that distance, according to an experiment of Dr. Franklin. If the ear +be applied to one end of a long beam of timber, the stroke of a pin at +the other end becomes sensible; if a poker be suspended in the middle of +a garter, each end of which is pressed against the ear, the least +percussions on the poker give great sounds. And I am informed by laying +the ear on the ground the tread of a horse may be discerned at a great +distance in the night. The organs of hearing belonging to fish are for +this reason much less complicated than of quadrupeds, as the fluid they +are immersed in so much better conveys its vibrations. And it is +probable that some shell-fish which have twisted shells like the cochlea +and semicircular canals of the ears of men and quadrupeds may have no +appropriated organ for perceiving the vibrations of the element they +live in, but may by their spiral form be in a manner all ear.] + + +165 V. "SYLPHS! YOU, retiring to sequester'd bowers, + Where oft your PRIESTLEY woos your airy powers, + On noiseless step or quivering pinion glide, + As sits the Sage with Science by his side; + To his charm'd eye in gay undress appear, +170 Or pour your secrets on his raptured ear. + How nitrous Gas from iron ingots driven + Drinks with red lips the purest breath of heaven; + How, while Conferva from its tender hair + Gives in bright bubbles empyrean air; +175 The crystal floods phlogistic ores calcine, + And the pure ETHER marries with the MINE. + + +[_Where oft your Priestley_. l. 166. The fame of Dr. Priestley is known +in every part of the earth where science has penetrated. His various +discoveries respecting the analysis of the atmosphere, and the +production of variety of new airs or gasses, can only be clearly +understood by reading his Experiments on Airs, (3 vols. octavo, Johnson, +London.) the following are amongst his many discoveries. 1. The +discovery of nitrous and dephlogisticated airs. 2. The exhibition of the +acids and alkalies in the form of air. 3. Ascertaining the purity of +respirable air by nitrous air. 4. The restoration of vitiated air by +vegetation. 5. The influence of light to enable vegetables to yield pure +air. 6. The conversion by means of light of animal and vegetable +substances, that would otherwise become putrid and offensive, into +nourishment of vegetables. 7. The use of respiration by the blood +parting with phlogiston, and imbibing dephlogisticated air. + +The experiments here alluded to are, 1. Concerning the production of +nitrous gas from dissolving iron and many other metals in nitrous acid, +which though first discovered by Dr. Hales (Static. Ess. Vol. I. p. 224) +was fully investigated, and applied to the important purpose of +distinguishing the purity of atmospheric air by Dr. Priestley. When +about two measures of common air and one of nitrous gas are mixed +together a red effervescence takes place, and the two airs occupy about +one fourth less space than was previously occupied by the common air +alone. + +2. Concerning the green substance which grows at the bottom of +reservoirs of water, which Dr. Priestley discovered to yield much pure +air when the sun shone on it. His method of collecting this air is by +placing over the green substance, which he believes to be a vegetable of +the genus conferva, an inverted bell-glass previously filled with water, +which subsides as the air arises; it has since been found that all +vegetables give up pure air from their leaves, when the sun shines upon +them, but not in the night, which may be owing to the sleep of the +plant. + +3. The third refers to the great quantity of pure air contained in the +calces of metals. The calces were long known to weigh much more than the +metallic bodies before calcination, insomuch that 100 pounds of lead +will produce 112 pounds of minium; the ore of manganese, which is always +found near the surface of the earth, is replete with pure air, which is +now used for the purpose of bleaching. Other metals when exposed to the +atmosphere attract the pure air from it, and become calces by its +combination, as zinc, lead, iron; and increase in weight in proportion +to the air, which they imbibe.] + + + "So in Sicilia's ever-blooming shade + When playful PROSERPINE from CERES stray'd, + Led with unwary step her virgin trains +180 O'er Etna's steeps, and Enna's golden plains; + Pluck'd with fair hand the silver-blossom'd bower, + And purpled mead,--herself a fairer flower; + Sudden, unseen amid the twilight glade, + Rush'd gloomy DIS, and seized the trembling maid.-- +185 Her starting damsels sprung from mossy seats, + Dropp'd from their gauzy laps the gather'd sweets, + Clung round the struggling Nymph, with piercing cries, + Pursued the chariot, and invoked the skies;-- + Pleased as he grasps her in his iron arms, +190 Frights with soft sighs, with tender words alarms, + The wheels descending roll'd in smoky rings, + Infernal Cupids flapp'd their demon wings; + Earth with deep yawn received the Fair, amaz'd, + And far in Night celestial Beauty blaz'd. + + +[_When playful Proserpine_. l. 178. The fable of Proserpine's being +seized by Pluto as she was gathering flowers, is explained by Lord Bacon +to signify the combination or marriage of etherial spirit with earthly +materials. Bacon's Works, Vol. V. p. 470. edit. 4to. Lond. 1778. This +allusion is still more curiously exact, from the late discovery of pure +air being given up from vegetables, and that then in its unmixed state +it more readily combines with metallic or inflammable bodies. From these +fables which were probably taken from antient hieroglyphics there is +frequently reason to believe that the Egyptians possessed much chemical +knowledge, which for want of alphabetical writing perished with their +philosophers.] + + +195 VI. "Led by the Sage, Lo! Britain's sons shall guide + Huge SEA-BALLOONS beneath the tossing tide; + The diving castles, roof'd with spheric glass, + Ribb'd with strong oak, and barr'd with bolts of brass, + Buoy'd with pure air shall endless tracks pursue, +200 And PRIESTLEY'S hand the vital flood renew.-- + Then shall BRITANNIA rule the wealthy realms, + Which Ocean's wide insatiate wave o'erwhelms; + Confine in netted bowers his scaly flocks, + Part his blue plains, and people all his rocks. +205 Deep, in warm waves beneath the Line that roll, + Beneath the shadowy ice-isles of the Pole, + Onward, through bright meandering vales, afar, + Obedient Sharks shall trail her sceptred car, + With harness'd necks the pearly flood disturb, +210 Stretch the silk rein, and champ the silver curb; + Pleased round her triumph wondering Tritons play, + And Seamaids hail her on the watery way. + --Oft shall she weep beneath the crystal waves + O'er shipwreck'd lovers weltering in their graves; +215 Mingling in death the Brave and Good behold + With slaves to glory, and with slaves to gold; + Shrin'd in the deep shall DAY and SPALDING mourn, + Each in his treacherous bell, sepulchral urn!-- + Oft o'er thy lovely daughters, hapless PIERCE! +220 Her sighs shall breathe, her sorrows dew their hearse.-- + With brow upturn'd to Heaven, "WE WILL NOT PART!" + He cried, and clasp'd them to his aching heart,-- + --Dash'd in dread conflict on the rocky grounds, + Crash the mock'd masts, the staggering wreck rebounds; +225 Through gaping seams the rushing deluge swims, + Chills their pale bosoms, bathes their shuddering limbs, + Climbs their white shoulders, buoys their streaming hair, + And the last sea-shriek bellows in the air.-- + Each with loud sobs her tender sire caress'd, +230 And gasping strain'd him closer to her breast!-- + --Stretch'd on one bier they sleep beneath the brine, + And their white bones with ivory arms intwine! + + +[_Led by the Sage_. l. 195. Dr. Priestley's discovery of the production +of pure air from such variety of substances will probably soon be +applied to the improvement of the diving bell, as the substances which +contain vital air in immense quantities are of little value as manganese +and minium. See additional notes, No. XXXIII. In every hundred weight of +minium there is combined about twelve pounds of pure air, now as sixty +pounds of water are about a cubic foot, and as air is eight hundred +times lighter than water, five hundred weight of minium will produce +eight hundred cubic feet of air or about six thousand gallons. Now, as +this is at least thrice as pure as atmospheric air, a gallon of it may +be supposed to serve for three minutes respiration for one man. At +present the air can not be set at liberty from minium by vitriolic acid +without the application of some heat, this is however very likely soon +to be discovered, and will then enable adventurers to journey beneath +the ocean in large inverted ships or diving balloons. + +Mr. Boyle relates, that Cornelius Drebelle contrived not only a vessel +to be rowed under water, but also a liquor to be caried in that vessel, +which would supply the want of fresh air. The vessel was made by order +of James I. and carried twelve rowers besides passengers. It was tried +in the river Thames, and one of the persons who was in that submarine +voyage told the particulars of the experiments to a person who related +them to Mr. Boyle. Annual Register for 1774, p. 248.] + +[_Day and Spalding mourn_. l. 217. Mr. Day perished in a diving bell, or +diving boat, of his own construction at Plymouth in June 1774, in which +he was to have continued for a wager twelve hours one hundred feet deep +in water, and probably perished from his not possessing all the +hydrostatic knowledge that was necessary. See note on Ulva, Vol. II. of +this work. See Annual Register for 1774. p. 245. + +Mr. Spalding was professionally ingenious in the art of constructing and +managing the diving bell, and had practised the business many years with +success. He went down accompanied by one of his young men twice to view +the wreck of the Imperial East-Indiaman at the Kish bank in Ireland. On +descending the third time in June, 1783, they remained about an hour +under water, and had two barrels of air sent down to them, but on the +signals from below not being again repeated, after a certain time, they +were drawn up by their assistants and both found dead in the bell. +Annual Register for 1783, p. 206. These two unhappy events may for a +time check the ardor of adventurers in traversing the bottom of the +ocean, but it is probable in another half century it may be safer to +travel under the ocean than over it, since Dr. Priestley's discovery of +procuring pure air in such great abundance from the calces of metals.] + +[_Hapless Pierce!_ l, 219. The Haslewell East-Indiaman, outward bound, +was wrecked off Seacomb in the isle of Purbec on the 6th of January, +1786; when Capt. Pierce, the commander, with two young ladies, his +daughters, and the greatest part of the crew and passengers perished in +the sea. Some of the officers and about seventy seamen escaped with +great difficulty on the rocks, but Capt. Pierce finding it was +impossible to save the lives of the young ladies refused to quit the +ship, and perished with them.] + + + "VII. SYLPHS OF NICE EAR! with beating wings you guide + The fine vibrations of the aerial tide; +235 Join in sweet cadences the measured words, + Or stretch and modulate the trembling cords. + You strung to melody the Grecian lyre, + Breathed the rapt song, and fan'd the thought of fire, + Or brought in combinations, deep and clear, +240 Immortal harmony to HANDEL'S ear.-- + YOU with soft breath attune the vernal gale, + When breezy evening broods the listening vale; + Or wake the loud tumultuous sounds, that dwell + In Echo's many-toned diurnal shell. +245 YOU melt in dulcet chords, when Zephyr rings + The Eolian Harp, and mingle all its strings; + Or trill in air the soft symphonious chime, + When rapt CECILIA lifts her eye sublime, + Swell, as she breathes, her bosoms rising snow, +250 O'er her white teeth in tuneful accents slow, + Through her fair lips on whispering pinions move, + And form the tender sighs, that kindle love! + + "So playful LOVE on Ida's flowery sides + With ribbon-rein the indignant Lion guides; +255 Pleased on his brinded back the lyre he rings, + And shakes delirious rapture from the strings; + Slow as the pausing Monarch stalks along, + Sheaths his retractile claws, and drinks the song; + Soft Nymphs on timid step the triumph view, +260 And listening Fawns with beating hoofs pursue; + With pointed ears the alarmed forest starts, + And Love and Music soften savage hearts. + + +[_Indignant lion guides_. l. 254. Described from an antient gem, +expressive of the combined power of love and music, in the Museum +Florent.] + + + VIII. "SYLPHS! YOUR bold hosts, when Heaven with justice dread + Calls the red tempest round the guilty head, +265 Fierce at his nod assume vindictive forms, + And launch from airy cars the vollied storms.-- + From Ashur's vales when proud SENACHERIB trod, + Pour'd his swoln heart, defied the living GOD, + Urged with incessant shouts his glittering powers; +270 And JUDAH shook through all her massy towers; + Round her sad altars press'd the prostrate crowd, + Hosts beat their breasts, and suppliant chieftains bow'd; + Loud shrieks of matrons thrill'd the troubled air, + And trembling virgins rent their scatter'd hair; +275 High in the midst the kneeling King adored, + Spread the blaspheming scroll before the Lord, + Raised his pale hands, and breathed his pausing sighs, + And fixed on Heaven his dim imploring eyes,-- + "Oh! MIGHTY GOD! amidst thy Seraph-throng +280 "Who sit'st sublime, the Judge of Right and Wrong; + "Thine the wide earth, bright sun, and starry zone, + "That twinkling journey round thy golden throne; + "Thine is the crystal source of life and light, + "And thine the realms of Death's eternal night. +285 "Oh, bend thine ear, thy gracious eye incline, + "Lo! Ashur's King blasphemes thy holy shrine, + "Insults our offerings, and derides our vows,--- + "Oh! strike the diadem from his impious brows, + "Tear from his murderous hand the bloody rod, +290 "And teach the trembling nations, "THOU ART GOD!"-- + --SYLPHS! in what dread array with pennons broad + Onward ye floated o'er the ethereal road, + Call'd each dank steam the reeking marsh exhales, + Contagious vapours, and volcanic gales, +295 Gave the soft South with poisonous breath to blow, + And rolled the dreadful whirlwind on the foe!-- + Hark! o'er the camp the venom'd tempest sings, + Man falls on Man, on buckler buckler rings; + Groan answers groan, to anguish anguish yields, +300 And DEATH'S loud accents shake the tented fields! + --High rears the Fiend his grinning jaws, and wide + Spans the pale nations with colossal stride, + Waves his broad falchion with uplifted hand, + And his vast shadow darkens all the land. + + +[_Volcanic gales_. l. 294. The pestilential winds of the east are +described by various authors under various denominations; as harmattan, +samiel, samium, syrocca, kamsin, seravansum. M. de Beauchamp describes a +remarkable south wind in the deserts about Bagdad, called seravansum, or +poison-wind; it burns the face, impedes respiration, strips the trees of +their leaves, and is said to pass on in a streight line, and often kills +people in six hours. P. Cotte sur la Meteorol. Analytical Review for +February, 1790. M. Volney says, the hot wind or ramsin seems to blow at +the season when the sands of the deserts are the hottest; the air is +then filled with an extreamly subtle dust. Vol. I. p. 61. These winds +blow in all directions from the deserts; in Egypt the most violent +proceed from the S.S.W. at Mecca from the E. at Surat from the N. at +Bassora from the N.W. at Bagdad from the W. and in Syria from the S.E. + +On the south of Syria, he adds, where the Jordan flows is a country of +volcanos; and it is observed that the earthquakes in Syria happen after +their rainy season, which is also conformable to a similar observation +made by Dr. Shaw in Barbary. Travels in Egypt, Vol. I. p. 303. + +These winds seem all to be of volcanic origin, as before mentioned, with +this difference, that the Simoom is attended with a stream of electric +matter; they seem to be in consequence of earthquakes caused by the +monsoon floods, which fall on volcanic fires in Syria, at the same time +that they inundate the Nile.] + + +305 IX. 1. "Ethereal cohorts! Essences of Air! + Make the green children of the Spring your care! + Oh, SYLPHS! disclose in this inquiring age + One GOLDEN SECRET to some favour'd sage; + Grant the charm'd talisman, the chain, that binds, +310 Or guides the changeful pinions of the winds! + --No more shall hoary Boreas, issuing forth + With Eurus, lead the tempests of the North; + Rime the pale Dawn, or veil'd in flaky showers + Chill the sweet bosoms of the smiling Hours. +315 By whispering Auster waked shall Zephyr rise, + Meet with soft kiss, and mingle in the skies, + Fan the gay floret, bend the yellow ear, + And rock the uncurtain'd cradle of the year; + Autumn and Spring in lively union blend, +320 And from the skies the Golden Age descend. + + +[_One golden secret_. l. 308. The suddenness of the change of the wind +from N.E. to S.W. seems to shew that it depends on some minute chemical +cause; which if it was discovered might probably, like other chemical +causes, be governed by human agency; such as blowing up rocks by +gunpowder, or extracting the lightening from the clouds. If this could +be accomplished, it would be the most happy discovery that ever has +happened to these northern latitudes, since in this country the N.E. +winds bring frost, and the S.W. ones are attended with warmth and +moisture; if the inferior currents of air could be kept perpetually from +the S.W. supplied by new productions of air at the line, or by superior +currents flowing in a contrary direction, the vegetation of this country +would be doubled; as in the moist vallies of Africa, which know no +frost; the number of its inhabitants would be increased, and their lives +prolonged; as great abundance of the aged and infirm of mankind, as well +as many birds and animals, are destroyed by severe continued frosts in +this climate.] + + + 2. "Castled on ice, beneath the circling Bear, + A vast CAMELION spits and swallows air; + O'er twelve degrees his ribs gigantic bend, + And many a league his leathern jaws extend; +325 Half-fish, beneath, his scaly volutes spread, + And vegetable plumage crests his head; + Huge fields of air his wrinkled skin receives, + From panting gills, wide lungs, and waving leaves; + Then with dread throes subsides his bloated form, +330 His shriek the thunder, and his sigh the storm. + Oft high in heaven the hissing Demon wins + His towering course, upborne on winnowing fins; + Steers with expanded eye and gaping mouth, + His mass enormous to the affrighted South; +335 Spreads o'er the shuddering Line his shadowy limbs, + And Frost and Famine follow as he swims.-- + SYLPHS! round his cloud-built couch your bands array, + And mould the Monster to your gentle sway; + Charm with soft tones, with tender touches check, +340 Bend to your golden yoke his willing neck, + With silver curb his yielding teeth restrain, + And give to KIRWAN'S hand the silken rein. + --Pleased shall the Sage, the dragon-wings between, + Bend o'er discordant climes his eye serene, +345 With Lapland breezes cool Arabian vales, + And call to Hindostan antarctic gales, + Adorn with wreathed ears Kampschatca's brows, + And scatter roses on Zealandic snows, + Earth's wondering Zones the genial seasons share, +350 And nations hail him "MONARCH OF THE AIR." + + +[_A vast Camelion_. l. 322. See additional notes, No. XXXIII. on the +destruction and reproduction of the atmosphere.] + +[_To Kirwan's hand_. l. 342. Mr. Kirwan has published a valuable +treatise on the temperature of climates, as a step towards investigating +the theory of the winds; and has since written some ingenious papers on +this subject in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Society.] + + + X. 1. "SYLPHS! as you hover on ethereal wing, + Brood the green children of parturient Spring!-- + Where in their bursting cells my Embryons rest, + I charge you guard the vegetable nest; +355 Count with nice eye the myriad SEEDS, that swell + Each vaulted womb of husk, or pod, or shell; + Feed with sweet juices, clothe with downy hair, + Or hang, inshrined, their little orbs in air. + + +[_The myriad seeds_. l. 355. Nature would seem to have been wonderfully +prodigal in the seeds of vegetables, and the spawn of fish; almost any +one plant, if all its seeds should grow to maturity, would in a few +years alone people the terrestrial globe. Mr. Ray asserts that 101 +seeds of tobacco weighed only one grain, and that from one tobacco plant +the seeds thus calculated amounted to 360,000! The seeds of the ferns +are by him supposed to exceed a million on a leaf. As the works of +nature are governed by general laws this exuberant reproduction prevents +the accidental extinction of the species, at the same time that they +serve for food for the higher orders of animation. + +Every seed possesses a reservoir of nutriment designed for the growth of +the future plant, this consists of starch, mucilage, or oil, within the +coat of the seed, or of sugar and subacid pulp in the fruits, which +belongs to it. + +For the preservation of the immature seed nature has used many ingenious +methods; some are wrapped in down, as the seeds of the rose, bean, and +cotton-plant; others are suspended in a large air-vessel, as those of +the bladder-sena, staphylaea, and pea.] + + + "So, late descry'd by HERSCHEL'S piercing sight, +360 Hang the bright squadrons of the twinkling Night; + Ten thousand marshall'd stars, a silver zone, + Effuse their blended lustres round her throne; + Suns call to suns, in lucid clouds conspire, + And light exterior skies with golden fire; +365 Resistless rolls the illimitable sphere, + And one great circle forms the unmeasured year. + --Roll on, YE STARS! exult in youthful prime, + Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time; + Near and more near your beamy cars approach, +370 And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach;-- + Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield, + Frail as your silken sisters of the field! + Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush, + Suns sink on suns, and systems systems crush, +375 Headlong, extinct, to one dark centre fall, + And Death and Night and Chaos mingle all! + --Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm, + Immortal NATURE lifts her changeful form, + Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame, +380 And soars and shines, another and the same. + + +[_And light exterior_. l. 364. I suspect this line is from Dwight's +Conquest of Canaan, a poem written by a very young man, and which +contains much fine versification.] + +[_Near and more near_. l. 369. From the vacant spaces in some parts of +the heavens, and the correspondent clusters of stars in their vicinity, +Mr. Herschel concludes that the nebulae or constellations of fixed stars +are approaching each other, and must finally coalesce in one mass. Phil. +Trans. Vol. LXXV.] + +[_Till o'er the wreck_. l. 377. The story of the phenix rising from its +own ashes with a twinkling star upon its head, seems to have been an +antient hieroglyphic emblem of the destruction and resuscitation of all +things. + +There is a figure of the great Platonic year with a phenix on his hand +on the reverse of a medal of Adrian. Spence's Polym. p. 189.] + + + 2. "Lo! on each SEED within its slender rind + Life's golden threads in endless circles wind; + Maze within maze the lucid webs are roll'd, + And, as they burst, the living flame unfold. +385 The pulpy acorn, ere it swells, contains + The Oak's vast branches in its milky veins; + Each ravel'd bud, fine film, and fibre-line + Traced with nice pencil on the small design. + The young Narcissus, in it's bulb compress'd, +390 Cradles a second nestling on its breast; + In whose fine arms a younger embryon lies, + Folds its thin leaves, and shuts its floret-eyes; + Grain within grain successive harvests dwell, + And boundless forests slumber in a shell. +395 --So yon grey precipice, and ivy'd towers, + Long winding meads, and intermingled bowers, + Green files of poplars, o'er the lake that bow, + And glimmering wheel, which rolls and foams below, + In one bright point with nice distinction lie +400 Plan'd on the moving tablet of the eye. + --So, fold on fold, Earth's wavy plains extend, + And, sphere in sphere, its hidden strata bend;-- + Incumbent Spring her beamy plumes expands + O'er restless oceans, and impatient lands, +405 With genial lustres warms the mighty ball, + And the GREAT SEED evolves, disclosing ALL; + LIFE _buds_ or _breathes_ from Indus to the Poles, + And the vast surface kindles, as it rolls! + + +[_Maze within maze_. l. 383. The elegant appearance on dissection of the +young tulip in the bulb was first observed by Mariotte and is mentioned +in the note on tulipa in Vol.II, and was afterwards noticed by Du Hamel. +Acad. Scien. Lewenhook assures us that in the bud of a currant tree he +could not only discover the ligneous part but even the berries +themselves, appearing like small grapes. Chamb. Dict. art. Bud. Mr. +Baker says he dissected a seed of trembling grass in which a perfect +plant appeared with its root, sending forth two branches, from each of +which several leaves or blades of grass proceeded. Microsc. Vol. I. p. +252. Mr. Bonnet saw four generations of successive plants in the bulb of +a hyacinth. Bonnet Corps Organ. Vol. I. p. 103. Haller's Physiol. Vol. +I. p. 91. In the terminal bud of a horse-chesnut the new flower may be +seen by the naked eye covered with a mucilaginous down, and the same in +the bulb of a narcissus, as I this morning observed in several of them +sent me by Miss ---- for that purpose. Sept. 16. + +Mr. Ferber speaks of the pleasure he received in observing in the buds +of Hepatica and pedicularis hirsuta yet lying hid in the earth, and in +the gems of the shrub daphne mezereon, and at the base of osmunda +lunaria a perfect plant of the future year, discernable in all its parts +a year before it comes forth, and in the seeds of nymphea nelumbo the +leaves of the plant were seen so distinctly that the author found out by +them what plant the seeds belonged to. The same of the seeds of the +tulip tree or liriodendum tulipiferum. Amaen. Aced. Vol. VI.] + +[_And the great seed_. l. 406. Alluding to the [Greek: proton oon], or +first great egg of the antient philosophy, it had a serpent wrapped +round it emblematical of divine wisdom, an image of it was afterwards +preserved and worshipped in the temple of Dioscuri, and supposed to +represent the egg of Leda. See a print of it in Bryant's Mythology. It +was said to have been broken by the horns of the celestial bull, that +is, it was hatched by the warmth of the Spring. See note on Canto I. l. +413.] + +[_And the vast surface_. l. 408. L'Organization, le sentiment, le +movement spontané, la vie, n'existent qu'a la surface de la terre, et +dans le lieux exposes á la lumiére. Traité de Chymie par M. Lavoisier, +Tom. I. p. 202.] + + + 3. "Come, YE SOFT SYLPHS! who sport on Latian land, +410 Come, sweet-lip'd Zephyr, and Favonius bland! + Teach the fine SEED, instinct with life, to shoot + On Earth's cold bosom its descending root; + With Pith elastic stretch its rising stem, + Part the twin Lobes, expand the throbbing Gem; +415 Clasp in your airy arms the aspiring Plume, + Fan with your balmy breath its kindling bloom, + Each widening scale and bursting film unfold, + Swell the green cup, and tint the flower with gold; + While in bright veins the silvery Sap ascends, +420 And refluent blood in milky eddies bends; + While, spread in air, the leaves respiring play, + Or drink the golden quintessence of day. + --So from his shell on Delta's shower-less isle + Bursts into life the Monster of the Nile; +425 First in translucent lymph with cobweb-threads + The Brain's fine floating tissue swells, and spreads; + Nerve after nerve the glistening spine descends, + The red Heart dances, the Aorta bends; + Through each new gland the purple current glides, +430 New veins meandering drink the refluent tides; + Edge over edge expands the hardening scale, + And sheaths his slimy skin in silver mail. + --Erewhile, emerging from the brooding sand, + With Tyger-paw He prints the brineless strand, +435 High on the flood with speckled bosom swims, + Helm'd with broad tail, and oar'd with giant limbs; + Rolls his fierce eye-balls, clasps his iron claws, + And champs with gnashing teeth his massy jaws; + Old Nilus sighs along his cane-crown'd shores, +440 And swarthy Memphis trembles and adores. + + +[_Teach the fine seed_. l. 411. The seeds in their natural state fall on +the surface of the earth, and having absorbed some moisture the root +shoots itself downwards into the earth and the plume rises in air. Thus +each endeavouring to seek its proper pabulum directed by a vegetable +irritability similar to that of the lacteal system and to the lungs in +animals. + +The pith seems to push up or elongate the bud by its elasticity, like +the pith in the callow quills of birds. This medulla Linneus believes to +consist of a bundle of fibres, which diverging breaks through the bark +yet gelatinous producing the buds. + +The lobes are reservoirs of prepared nutriment for the young seed, which +is absorbed by its placental vessels, and converted into sugar, till it +has penetrated with its roots far enough into the earth to extract +sufficient moisture, and has acquired leaves to convert it into +nourishment. In some plants these lobes rise from the earth and supply +the place of leaves, as in kidney-beans, cucumbers, and hence seem to +serve both as a placenta to the foetus, and lungs to the young plant. +During the process of germination the starch of the seed is converted +into sugar, as is seen in the process of malting barley for the purpose +of brewing. And is on this account very similar to the digestion of food +in the stomachs of animals, which converts all their aliment into a +chyle, which consists of mucilage, oil, and sugar; the placentation of +buds will be spoken of hereafter.] + +[_The silvery sap_. l. 419. See additional notes, No. XXXVI.] + +[_Or drink the golden_. l. 422. Linneus having observed the great +influence of light on vegetation, imagined that the leaves of plants +inhaled electric matter from the light with their upper surface. (System +of Vegetables translated, p. 8.) + +The effect of light on plants occasions the actions of the vegetable +muscles of their leaf-stalks, which turn the upper side of the leaf to +the light, and which open their calyxes and chorols, according to the +experiments of Abbe Tessier, who exposed variety of plants in a cavern +to different quantities of light. Hist. de L'Academie Royal. Ann. 1783. +The sleep or vigilance of plants seems owing to the presence or absence +of this stimulus. See note on Nimosa, Vol. II.] + + + XI. "Come, YE SOFT SYLPHS! who fan the Paphian groves, + And bear on sportive wings the callow Loves; + Call with sweet whisper, in each gale that blows, + The slumbering Snow-drop from her long repose; +445 Charm the pale Primrose from her clay-cold bed, + Unveil the bashful Violet's tremulous head; + While from her bud the playful Tulip breaks, + And young Carnations peep with blushing cheeks; + Bid the closed _Petals_ from nocturnal cold +450 The virgin _Style_ in silken curtains fold, + Shake into viewless air the morning dews, + And wave in light their iridescent hues; + While from on high the bursting _Anthers_ trust + To the mild breezes their prolific dust; +455 Or bend in rapture o'er the central Fair, + Love out their hour, and leave their lives in air. + So in his silken sepulchre the Worm, + Warm'd with new life, unfolds his larva-form; + Erewhile aloft in wanton circles moves, +460 And woos on Hymen-wings his velvet loves. + + +[_Love out their hour_. l. 456. The vegetable passion of love is +agreeably seen in the flower of the parnassia, in which the males +alternately approach and recede from the female, and in the flower of +nigella, or devil in the bush, in which the tall females bend down to +their dwarf husbands. But I was this morning surprised to observe, +amongst Sir Brooke Boothby's valuable collection of plants at Ashbourn, +the manifest adultery of several females of the plant Collinsonia, who +had bent themselves into contact with the males of other flowers of the +same plant in their vicinity, neglectful of their own. Sept. 16. See +additional notes, No. XXXVIII.] + +[_Unfolds his larva-form_. l. 458. The flower bursts forth from its +larva, the herb, naked and perfect like a butterfly from its chrysolis; +winged with its corol; wing-sheathed by its calyx; consisting alone of +the organs of reproduction. The males, or stamens, have their anthers +replete with a prolific powder containing the vivifying fovilla: in the +females, or pistils, exists the ovary, terminated by the tubular stigma. +When the anthers burst and shed their bags of dust, the male fovilla is +received by the prolific lymph of the stigma, and produces the seed or +egg, which is nourished in the ovary. System of Vegetables translated +from Linneus by the Lichfield Society, p. 10.] + + + XII. 1. "If prouder branches with exuberance rude + Point their green gems, their barren shoots protrude; + Wound them, ye SYLPHS! with little knives, or bind + A wiry ringlet round the swelling rind; +465 Bisect with chissel fine the root below, + Or bend to earth the inhospitable bough. + So shall each germ with new prolific power + Delay the leaf-bud, and expand the flower; + Closed in the _Style_ the tender pith shall end, +470 The lengthening Wood in circling _Stamens_ bend; + The smoother Rind its soft embroidery spread + In vaulted _Petals_ o'er their fertile bed; + While the rough Bark, in circling mazes roll'd, + Forms the green _Cup_ with many a wrinkled fold; +475 And each small bud-scale spreads its foliage hard, + Firm round the callow germ, a _Floral Guard_. + + +[_Wound them, ye Sylphs!_ l. 463. Mr. Whitmill advised to bind some of +the most vigorous shoots with strong wire, and even some of the large +roots; and Mr. Warner cuts, what he calls a wild worm about the body of +the tree, or scores the bark quite to the wood like a screw with a sharp +knife. Bradley on Gardening, Vol. II. p. 155. Mr. Fitzgerald produced +flowers and fruit on wall trees by cutting off a part of the bark. Phil. +Trans. Ann. 1761. M. Buffon produced the same effect by a straight +bandage put round a branch, Act. Paris, Ann. 1738, and concludes that an +ingrafted branch bears better from its vessels being compressed by the +callous. + +A compleat cylinder of the bark about an inch in height was cut off from +the branch of a pear tree against a wall in Mr. Howard's garden at +Lichfield about five years ago, the circumcised part is now not above +half the diameter of the branch above and below it, yet this branch has +been full of fruit every year since, when the other branches of the tree +bore only sparingly. I lately observed that the leaves of this wounded +branch were smaller and paler, and the fruit less in size, and ripened +sooner than on the other parts of the tree. Another branch has the bark +taken off not quite all round with much the same effect. + +The theory of this curious vegetable fact has been esteemed difficult, +but receives great light from the foregoing account of the individuality +of buds. A flower-bud dies, when it has perfected its seed, like an +annual plant, and hence requires no place on the bark for new roots to +pass downwards; but on the contrary leaf-buds, as they advance into +shoots, form new buds in the axilla of every leaf, which new buds +require new roots to pass down the bark, and thus thicken as well as +elongate the branch, now if a wire or string be tied round the bark, +many of these new roots cannot descend, and thence more of the buds will +be converted into flower-buds. + +It is customary to debark oak-trees in the spring, which are intended to +be felled in the ensuing autumn; because the bark comes off easier at +this season, and the sap-wood, or alburnum, is believed to become harder +and more durable, if the tree remains till the end of summer. The trees +thus stripped of their bark put forth shoots as usual with acorns on the +6th 7th and 8th joint, like vines; but in the branches I examined, the +joints of the debarked trees were much shorter than those of other oak- +trees; the acorns were more numerous; and no new buds were produced +above the joints which bore acorns. From hence it appears that the +branches of debarked oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower- +buds, which last circumstance I suppose must depend on their being +sooner or later debarked in the vernal months. And, secondly, that the +new buds of debarked oak-trees continue to obtain moisture from the +alburnum after the season of the ascent of sap in other vegetables +ceases; which in this unnatural state of the debarked tree may act as +capillary tubes, like the alburnum of the small debarked cylinder of a +pear-tree abovementioned; or may continue to act as placental vessels, +as happens to the animal embryon in cases of superfetation; when the +fetus continues a month or two in the womb beyond its usual time, of +which some instances have been recorded, the placenta continues to +supply perhaps the double office both of nutrition and of respiration.] + +[_And bend to earth_. l. 466. Mr. Hitt in his treatise on fruit trees +observes that if a vigorous branch of a wall tree be bent to the +horizon, or beneath it, it looses its vigour and becomes a bearing +branch. The theory of this I suppose to depend on the difficulty with +which the leaf-shoots can protrude the roots necessary for their new +progeny of buds upwards along the bended branch to the earth contrary to +their natural habits or powers, whence more flower-shoots are produced +which do not require new roots to pass along the bark of the bended +branch, but which let their offspring, the seeds, fall upon the earth +and seek roots for themselves.] + +[_With new prolific power_. l. 467. About Midsummer the new buds are +formed, but it is believed by some of the Linnean school, that these +buds may in their early state be either converted into flower-buds or +leaf-buds according to the vigour of the vegetating branch. Thus if the +upper part of a branch be cut away, the buds near the extremity of the +remaining stem, having a greater proportional supply of nutriment, or +possessing a greater facility of shooting their roots, or absorbent +vessels, down the bark, will become leaf-buds, which might otherwise +have been flower-buds. And the contrary as explained in note on l. 463. +of this Canto.] + +[_Closed in the style_. l. 469. "I conceive the medulla of a plant to +consist of a bundle of nervous fibres, and that the propelling vital +power separates their uppermost extremities. These, diverging, penetrate +the bark, which is now gelatinous, and become multiplied in the new gem, +or leaf-bud. The ascending vessels of the bark being thus divided by the +nervous fibres, which perforate it, and the ascent of its fluids being +thus impeded, the bark is extended into a leaf. But the flower is +produced, when the protrusion of the medulla is greater than the +retention of the including cortical part; whence the substance of the +bark is expanded in the calyx; that of the rind, (or interior bark,) in +the corol; that of the wood in the stamens, that of the medulla in the +pistil. Vegetation thus terminates in the production of new life, the +ultimate medullary and cortical fibres being collected in the seeds." +Linnei Systema Veget. p. 6. edit. 14.] + + + 2. "Where cruder juices swell the leafy vein, + Stint the young germ, the tender blossom stain; + On each lop'd shoot a softer scion bind, +480 Pith press'd to pith, and rind applied to rind, + So shall the trunk with loftier crest ascend, + And wide in air its happier arms extend; + Nurse the new buds, admire the leaves unknown, + And blushing bend with fruitage not its own. + + +[_Nurse the new buds_. l. 483. Mr. Fairchild budded a passion-tree, +whose leaves were spotted with yellow, into one which bears long fruit. +The buds did not take, nevertheless in a fortnight yellow spots began to +shew themselves about three feet above the inoculation, and in a short +time afterwards yellow spots appeared on a shoot which came out of the +ground from another part of the plant. Bradley, Vol. II. p. 129. These +facts are the more curious since from experiments of ingrafting red +currants on black (Ib. Vol. II.) the fruit does not acquire any change +of flavour, and by many other experiments neither colour nor any other +change is produced in the fruit ingrafted on other stocks. + +There is an apple described in Bradley's work which is said to have one +side of it a sweet fruit which boils soft, and the other side a sour +fruit which boils hard, which Mr. Bradley so long ago as the year 1721 +ingeniously ascribes to the farina of one of these apples impregnating +the other, which would seem the more probable if we consider that each +division of an apple is a separate womb, and may therefore have a +separate impregnation like puppies of different kinds in one litter. The +same is said to have occurred in oranges and lemons, and grapes of +different colours.] + + +485 "Thus when in holy triumph Aaron trod, + And offer'd on the shrine his mystic rod; + First a new bark its silken tissue weaves, + New buds emerging widen into leaves; + Fair fruits protrude, enascent flowers expand, +490 And blush and tremble round the living wand. + + XIII. 1. "SYLPHS! on each Oak-bud wound the wormy galls, + With pigmy spears, or crush the venom'd balls; + Fright the green Locust from his foamy bed, + Unweave the Caterpillar's gluey thread; +495 Chase the fierce Earwig, scare the bloated Toad, + Arrest the snail upon his slimy road; + Arm with sharp thorns the Sweet-brier's tender wood, + And dash the Cynips from her damask bud; + Steep in ambrosial dews the Woodbine's bells, +500 And drive the Night-moth from her honey'd cells. + So where the Humming-bird in Chili's bowers + On murmuring pinions robs the pendent flowers; + Seeks, where fine pores their dulcet balm distill, + And sucks the treasure with proboscis-bill; +505 Fair CYPREPEDIA with successful guile + Knits her smooth brow, extinguishes her smile; + A Spiders bloated paunch and jointed arms + Hide her fine form, and mask her blushing charms; + In ambush sly the mimic warrior lies, +510 And on quick wing the panting plunderer flies. + + +[_Fair Cyprepedia_. l. 505. The cyprepedium from South America is +supposed to be of larger size and brighter colours than that from North +America from which this print is taken; it has a large globular nectary +about the size of a pidgeon's egg of a fleshy colour, and an incision or +depression on its upper part, much resembling the body of the large +American spider; this globular nectary is attached to divergent slender +petals not unlike the legs of the same animal. This spider is called by +Linneus Arenea avicularia, with a convex orbicular thorax, the center +transversely excavated, he adds that it catches small birds as well as +insects, and has the venemous bite of a serpent. System Nature, Tom. I. +p. 1034. M. Lonvilliers de Poincy, (Histoire Nat. des Antilles, Cap. +xiv. art. III.) calls it Phalange, and describes the body to be the size +of a pidgeon's egg, with a hollow on its back like a navel, and mentions +its catching the humming-bird in its strong nets. + +The similitude of this flower to this great spider seems to be a +vegetable contrivance to prevent the humming-bird from plundering its +honey. About Matlock in Derbyshire the fly-ophris is produced, the +nectary of which so much resembles the small wall-bee, perhaps the apis +ichneumonea, that it may be easily mistaken for it at a small distance. +It is probable that by this means it may often escape being plundered. +See note on lonicera in the next poem. + +A bird of our own country called a willow-wren (Motacilla) runs up the +stem of the crown-imperial (Frittillaria coronalis) and sips the +pendulous drops within its petals. This species of Motacilla is called +by Ray Regulus non cristatus. White's Hist. of Selborne.] + +[Illustration: _Cypripedium. London, Published Dec'r 1st 1791 by J. +Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard._] + + + 2. "Shield the young Harvest from devouring blight, + The Smut's dark poison, and the Mildew white; + Deep-rooted Mould, and Ergot's horn uncouth, + And break the Canker's desolating tooth. +515 First in one point the festering wound confin'd + Mines unperceived beneath the shrivel'd rin'd; + Then climbs the branches with increasing strength, + Spreads as they spread, and lengthens with their length; + --Thus the slight wound ingraved on glass unneal'd +520 Runs in white lines along the lucid field; + Crack follows crack, to laws elastic just, + And the frail fabric shivers into dust. + + +[_Shield the young harvest_. l. 511. Linneus enumerates but four +diseases of plants; Erysyche, the white mucor or mould, with sessile +tawny heads, with which the leaves are sprinkled, as is frequent on the +hop, humulus, maple, acer, &c. Rubigo, the ferrugineous powder sprinkled +under the leaves frequent in lady's mantle, alchemilla, &c. + +Clavus, when the seeds grow out into larger horns black without, as in +rye. This is called Ergot by the french writers. + +Ustulago, when the fruit instead of seed produces a black powder, as in +barley, oats, &c. To which perhaps the honey-dew ought to have been +added, and the canker, in the former of which the nourishing fluid of +the plant seems to be exsuded by a retrograde motion of the cutaneous +lymphatics, as in the sweating sickness of the last century. The latter +is a phagedenic ulcer of the bark, very destructive to young apple- +trees, and which in cherry-trees is attended with a deposition of gum +arabic, which often terminates in the death of the tree.] + +[_Ergot's horn_. l. 513. There is a disease frequently affects the rye +in France, and sometimes in England in moist seasons, which is called +Ergot, or horn seed; the grain becomes considerably elongated and is +either straight or crooked, containing black meal along with the white, +and appears to be pierced by insects, which were probably the cause of +the disease. Mr. Duhamel ascribes it to this cause, and compares it to +galls on oak-leaves. By the use of this bad grain amongst the poor +diseases have been produced attended with great debility and +mortification of the extremities both in France and England. Dict. +Raison. art. Siegle. Philosop. Transact.] + +[_On glass unneal'd_. l. 519. The glass makers occasionally make what +they call _proofs_, which are cooled hastily, whereas the other glass +vessels are removed from warmer ovens to cooler ones, and suffered to +cool by slow degrees, which is called annealing, or nealing them. If an +unnealed glass be scratched by even a grain of sand falling into it, it +will seem to consider of it for some time, or even a day, and will then +crack into a thousand pieces. + +The same happens to a smooth surfaced lead-ore in Derbyshire, the +workmen having cleared a large face of it scratch it with picks, and in +a few hours many tons of it crack to pieces and fall, with a kind of +explosion. Whitehurst's Theory of Earth. + +Glass dropped into cold water, called Prince Rupert's drops, explode +when a small part of their tails are broken off, more suddenly indeed, +but probably from the same cause. Are the internal particles of these +elastic bodies kept so far from each other by the external crust that +they are nearly in a state of repulsion into which state they are thrown +by their vibrations from any violence applied? Or, like elastic balls in +certain proportions suspended in contact with each other, can motion +once began be increased by their elasticity, till the whole explodes? +And can this power be applied to any mechanical purposes?] + + + XIV. I. "SYLPHS! if with morn destructive Eurus springs, + O, clasp the Harebel with your velvet wings; +525 Screen with thick leaves the Jasmine as it blows, + And shake the white rime from the shuddering Rose; + Whilst Amaryllis turns with graceful ease + Her blushing beauties, and eludes the breeze.-- + SYLPHS! if at noon the Fritillary droops, +530 With drops nectareous hang her nodding cups; + Thin clouds of Gossamer in air display, + And hide the vale's chaste Lily from the ray; + Whilst Erythrina o'er her tender flower + Bends all her leaves, and braves the sultry hour;-- +535 Shield, when cold Hesper sheds his dewy light, + Mimosa's soft sensations from the night; + Fold her thin foilage, close her timid flowers, + And with ambrosial slumbers guard her bowers; + O'er each warm wall while Cerea flings her arms, +540 And wastes on night's dull eye a blaze of charms. + + +[Illustration: _Erythrina Corallodendron. London Published Dec'r 1st by +J. Johnson St. Paul's Church Yard._] + +[_With ambrosial slumbers_. l. 538. Many vegetables during the night do +not seem to respire, but to sleep like the dormant animals and insects +in winter. This appears from the mimosa and many other plants closing +the upper sides of their leaves together in their sleep, and thus +precluding that side of them from both light and air. And from many +flowers closing up the polished or interior side of their petals, which +we have also endeavoured to shew to be a respiratory organ. + +The irritability of plants is abundantly evinced by the absorption and +pulmonary circulation of their juices; their sensibility is shewn by the +approaches of the males to the females, and of the females to the males +in numerous instances; and, as the essential circumstance of sleep +consists in the temporary abolition of voluntary power alone, the sleep +of plants evinces that they possess voluntary power; which also +indisputably appears in many of them by closing their petals or their +leaves during cold, or rain, or darkness, or from mechanic violence.] + + + 2. Round her tall Elm with dewy fingers twine + The gadding tendrils of the adventurous Vine; + From arm to arm in gay festoons suspend + Her fragrant flowers, her graceful foliage bend; +545 Swell with sweet juice her vermil orbs, and feed + Shrined in transparent pulp her pearly seed; + Hang round the Orange all her silver bells, + And guard her fragrance with Hesperian spells; + Bud after bud her polish'd leaves unfold, +550 And load her branches with successive gold. + So the learn'd Alchemist exulting sees + Rise in his bright matrass DIANA'S trees; + Drop after drop, with just delay he pours + The red-fumed acid on Potosi's ores; +555 With sudden flash the fierce bullitions rise, + And wide in air the gas phlogistic flies; + Slow shoot, at length, in many a brilliant mass + Metallic roots across the netted glass; + Branch after branch extend their silver stems, +560 Bud into gold, and blossoms into gems. + + +[_Diana's trees_, l. 552. The chemists and astronomers from the earliest +antiquity have used the same characters to represent the metals and the +planets, which were most probably outlines or abstracts of the original +hieroglyphic figures of Egypt. These afterwards acquired niches in their +temples, and represented Gods as well as metals and planets; whence +silver is called Diana, or the moon, in the books of alchemy. + +The process for making Diana's silver tree is thus described by Lemeri. +Dissolve one ounce of pure silver in acid of nitre very pure and +moderately strong; mix this solution with about twenty ounces of +distilled water; add to this two ounces of mercury, and let it remain at +rest. In about four days there will form upon the mercury a tree of +silver with branches imitating vegetation. + +1. As the mercury has a greater affinity than silver with the nitrous +acid, the silver becomes precipitated; and, being deprived of the +nitrous oxygene by the mercury, sinks down in its metallic form and +lustre. 2. The attraction between silver and mercury, which causes them +readily to amalgamate together, occasions the precipitated silver to +adhere to the surface of the mercury in preference to any other part of +the vessel. 3. The attraction of the particles of the precipitated +silver to each other causes the beginning branches to thicken and +elongate into trees and shrubs rooted on the mercury. For other +circumstances concerning this beautiful experiment see Mr. Keir's +Chemical Dictionary, art. Arbor Dianae; a work perhaps of greater +utility to mankind than the lost Alexandrian Library; the continuation +of which is so eagerly expected by all, who are occupied in the arts, or +attached to the sciences.] + + + So sits enthron'd in vegetable pride + Imperial KEW by Thames's glittering side; + Obedient sails from realms unfurrow'd bring + For her the unnam'd progeny of spring; +565 Attendant Nymphs her dulcet mandates hear, + And nurse in fostering arms the tender year, + Plant the young bulb, inhume the living seed, + Prop the weak stem, the erring tendril lead; + Or fan in glass-built fanes the stranger flowers +570 With milder gales, and steep with warmer showers. + Delighted Thames through tropic umbrage glides, + And flowers antarctic, bending o'er his tides; + Drinks the new tints, the sweets unknown inhales, + And calls the sons of science to his vales. +575 In one bright point admiring Nature eyes + The fruits and foliage of discordant skies, + Twines the gay floret with the fragrant bough, + And bends the wreath round GEORGE'S royal brow. + --Sometimes retiring, from the public weal +580 One tranquil hour the ROYAL PARTNERS steal; + Through glades exotic pass with step sublime, + Or mark the growths of Britain's happier clime; + With beauty blossom'd, and with virtue blaz'd, + Mark the fair Scions, that themselves have rais'd; +585 Sweet blooms the Rose, the towering Oak expands, + The Grace and Guard of Britain's golden lands. + + XV. SYLPHS! who, round earth on purple pinions borne, + Attend the radiant chariot of the morn; + Lead the gay hours along the ethereal hight, +590 And on each dun meridian shower the light; + SYLPHS! who from realms of equatorial day + To climes, that shudder in the polar ray, + From zone to zone pursue on shifting wing, + The bright perennial journey of the spring; +595 Bring my rich Balms from Mecca's hallow'd glades, + Sweet flowers, that glitter in Arabia's shades; + Fruits, whose fair forms in bright succession glow + Gilding the Banks of Arno, or of Po; + Each leaf, whose fragrant steam with ruby lip +600 Gay China's nymphs from pictur'd vases sip; + Each spicy rind, which sultry India boasts, + Scenting the night-air round her breezy coasts; + Roots whose bold stems in bleak Siberia blow, + And gem with many a tint the eternal snow; +605 Barks, whose broad umbrage high in ether waves + O'er Ande's steeps, and hides his golden caves; + --And, where yon oak extends his dusky shoots + Wide o'er the rill, that bubbles from his roots; + Beneath whose arms, protected from the storm +610 A turf-built altar rears it's rustic form; + SYLPHS! with religious hands fresh garlands twine, + And deck with lavish pomp HYGEIA'S shrine. + + "Call with loud voice the Sisterhood, that dwell + On floating cloud, wide wave, or bubbling well; +615 Stamp with charm'd foot, convoke the alarmed Gnomes + From golden beds, and adamantine domes; + Each from her sphere with beckoning arm invite, + Curl'd with red flame, the Vestal Forms of light. + Close all your spotted wings, in lucid ranks +620 Press with your bending knees the crowded banks, + Cross your meek arms, incline your wreathed brows, + And win the Goddess with unwearied vows. + + "Oh, wave, HYGEIA! o'er BRITANNIA'S throne + Thy serpent-wand, and mark it for thy own; +625 Lead round her breezy coasts thy guardian trains, + Her nodding forests, and her waving plains; + Shed o'er her peopled realms thy beamy smile, + And with thy airy temple crown her isle!" + + The GODDESS ceased,--and calling from afar +630 The wandering Zephyrs, joins them to her car; + Mounts with light bound, and graceful, as she bends, + Whirls the long lash, the flexile rein extends; + On whispering wheels the silver axle slides, + Climbs into air, and cleaves the crystal tides; +635 Burst from its pearly chains, her amber hair + Streams o'er her ivory shoulders, buoy'd in air; + Swells her white veil, with ruby clasp confined + Round her fair brow, and undulates behind; + The lessening coursers rise in spiral rings, +640 Pierce the slow-sailing clouds, and stretch their shadowy wings. + + + + + CONTENTS + + OF + + THE NOTES. + + + CANTO I. + + +Rosicrucian machinery. 73 + +All bodies are immersed in the matter of heat. Particles of bodies do +not touch each other. 97 + +Gradual progress of the formation of the earth, and of plants and +animals. Monstrous births 101 + +Fixed stars approach towards each other, they were projected from chaos +by explosion, and the planets projected from them 105 + +An atmosphere of inflammable air above the common atmosphere principally +about the poles 123 + +Twilight fifty miles high. Wants further observations 126 + +Immediate cause of volcanos from steam and other vapours. They prevent +greater earthquakes 152 + +Conductors of heat. Cold on the tops of mountains 176 + +Phosphorescent light in the evening from all bodies 177 + +Phosphoric light from calcined shells. Bolognian stone. Experiments of +Beccari and Wilson 182 + +Ignis fatuus doubtful 189 + +Electric Eel. Its electric organs. Compared to the electric Leyden phial +202 + +Discovery of fire. Tools of steel. Forests subdued. Quantity of food +increased by cookery 212 + +Medusa originally an hieroglyphic of divine wisdom 218 + +Cause of explosions from combined heat. Heat given out from air in +respiration. Oxygene looses less heat when converted into nitrous acid +than in any other of its combinations 226 + +Sparks from the collision of flints are electric. From the collision of +flint and steel are from the combustion of the steel 229 + +Gunpowder described by Bacon. Its power. Should be lighted in the +centre. A new kind of it. Levels the weak and strong 242 + +Steam-engine invented by Savery. Improved by Newcomen. Perfected by Watt +and Boulton 254 + +Divine benevolence. The parts of nature not of equal excellence 278 + +Mr. Boulton's steam-engine for the purpose of coining would save many +lives from the executioner 281 + +Labours of Hercules of great antiquity. Pillars of Hercules. Surface of +the Mediteranean lower than the Atlantic. Abyla and Calpe. Flood of +Deucalion 297 + +Accumulation of electricity not from friction 335 + +Mr. Bennet's sensible electrometer 345 + +Halo of saints is pictorial language 358 + +We have a sense adapted to perceive heat but not electricity 365 + +Paralytic limbs move by electric influence 367 + +Death of Professor Richman by electricity 373 + +Lightning drawn from the clouds. How to be safe in thunder storms 383 + +Animal heat from air in respiration. Perpetual necessity of respiration. +Spirit of animation perpetually renewed 401 + +Cupid rises from the egg of night. Mrs. Cosway's painting of this +subject 413 + +Western-winds. Their origin. Warmer than south-winds. Produce a thaw +430 + +Water expands in freezing. Destroys succulent plants, not resinous ones. +Trees in valleys more liable to injury. Fig-trees bent to the ground in +winter 439 + +Buds and bulbs are the winter cradle of the plant. Defended from frost +and from insects. Tulip produces one flower-bulb and several leaf-bulbs, +and perishes. 460 + +Matter of heat is different from light. Vegetables blanched by exclusion +of light. Turn the upper surface of their leaves to the light. Water +decomposed as it escapes from their pores. Hence vegetables purify air +in the day time only. 462 + +Electricity forwards the growth of plants. Silk-worms electrised spin +sooner. Water decomposed in vegetables, and by electricity 463 + +Sympathetic inks which appear by heat, and disappear in the cold. Made +from cobalt 487 + +Star in Cassiope's chair 515 + +Ice-islands 100 fathoms deep. Sea-ice more difficult of solution. Ice +evaporates producing great cold. Ice-islands increase. Should be +navigated into southern climates. Some ice-islands have floated +southwards 60 miles long. Steam attending them in warm climates 529 + +Monsoon cools the sands of Abyssinia 547 + +Ascending vapours are electrised plus, as appears from an experiment of +Mr. Bennet. Electricity supports vapour in clouds. Thunder showers from +combination of inflammable and vital airs 553 + + + + + CANTO II. + + +Solar volcanos analogous to terrestrial and lunar ones. Spots of the sun +are excavations 14 + +Spherical form of the earth. Ocean from condensed vapour. Character of +Mr. Whitehurst 17 + +Granite the oldest part of the earth. Then limestone. And lastly, clay, +iron, coal, sandstone. Three great concentric divisions of the globe +35 + +Formation of primeval islands before the production of the moon. +Paradise. The Golden Age. Rain-bow. Water of the sea originally fresh +36 + +Venus rising from the sea an hieroglyphic emblem of the production of +the earth beneath the ocean 47 + +First great volcanos in the central parts of the earth. From steam, +inflammable gas, and vital air. Present volcanos like mole-hills 68 + +Moon has little or no atmosphere. Its ocean is frozen. Is not yet +inhabited, but may be in time 82 + +Earth's axis changed by the ascent of the moon. Its diurnal motion +retarded. One great tide 84 + +Limestone produced from shells. Spars with double refractions. Marble. +Chalk 93 + +Antient statues of Hercules. Antinous. Apollo. Venus. Designs of +Roubiliac. Monument of General Wade. Statues of Mrs. Damer 101 + +Morasses rest on limestone. Of immense extent 116 + +Salts from animal and vegetable bodies decompose each other, except +marine salt. Salt mines in Poland. Timber does not decay in them. Rock- +salt produced by evaporation from sea-water. Fossil shells in salt +mines. Salt in hollow pyramids. In cubes. Sea-water contains about one- +thirtieth of salt 119 + +Nitre, native in Bengal and Italy. Nitrous gas combined with vital air +produces red clouds, and the two airs occupy less space than one of them +before, and give out heat. Oxygene and azote produce nitrous acid 143 + +Iron from decomposed vegetables. Chalybeat springs. Fern-leaves in +nodules of iron. Concentric spheres of iron nodules owing to polarity, +like iron-filings arranged by a magnet. Great strata of the earth owing +to their polarity 183 + +Hardness of steel for tools. Gave superiority to the European nations. +Welding of steel. Its magnetism. Uses of gold 192 + +Artificial magnets improved by Savery and Dr. Knight, perfected by Mr. +Michel. How produced. Polarity owing to the earth's rotatory motion. The +electric fluid, and the matter of heat, and magnetism gravitate on each +other. Magnetism being the lightest is found nearest the axis of the +motion. Electricity produces northern lights by its centrifugal motion +193 + +Acids from vegetable recrements. Flint has its acid from the new world. +Its base in part from the old world, and in part from the new. Precious +stones 215 + +Diamond. Its great refraction of light. Its volatibility by heat. If an +inflammable body. 228 + +Fires of the new world from fermentation. Whence sulphur and bitumen by +sublimation, the clay, coal, and flint remaining 275 + +Colours not distinguishable in the enamel-kiln, till a bit of dry wood +is introduced 283 + +Etrurian pottery prior to the foundations of Rome. Excelled in fine +forms, and in a non-vitreous encaustic painting, which was lost till +restored by Mr. Wedgwood. Still influences the taste of the inhabitants +291 + +Mr. Wedgwood's cameo of a slave in chains, and of Hope 315 + +Basso-relievos of two or more colours not made by the antients. Invented +by Mr. Wedgwood 342 + +Petroleum and naptha have been sublimed. Whence jet and amber. They +absorb air. Attract straws when rubbed. Electricity from electron the +greek name for amber 353 + +Clefts in granite rocks in which metals are found. Iron and manganese +found in all vegetables. Manganese in limestone. Warm springs from steam +rising up the clefts of granite and limestone. Ponderous earth in +limestone clefts and in granite. Copper, lead, iron, from descending +materials. High mountains of granite contain no ores near their summits. +Transmutation of metals. Of lead into calamy. Into silver 398 + +Armies of Cambytes destroyed by famine, and by sand-storms 435 + +Whirling turrets of sand described and explained 478 + +Granite shews iron as it decomposes. Marble decomposes. Immense quantity +of charcoal exists in limestone. Volcanic slags decompose, and become +clay 523 + +Millstones raised by wooden pegs 524 + +Hannibal made a passage by fire over the Alps 534 + +Passed tense of many words twofold, as driven or drove, spoken or spoke. +A poetic licence 609 + + + + + CANTO III. + + +Clouds consist of aqueous spheres, which do not easily unite, like +globules of quicksilver, as may be seen in riding through water. Owing +to electricity. Snow. Hailstones rounded by attrition and dissolution of +their angles. Not from frozen drops of water 15 + +Dew on points and edges of grass, or hangs over cabbage-leaves, needle +floats on water 18 + +Mists over rivers and on mountains. Halo round the moon. Shadow of a +church-steeple upon a mist. Dry mist, or want of transparency of the +air, a sign of fair-weather 20 + +Tides on both sides of the earth. Moon's tides should be much greater +than the earth's tides. The ocean of the moon is frozen 61 + +Spiral form of shells saves calcareous matter. Serves them as an organ +of hearing. Calcareous matter produced from inflamed membranes. Colours +of shells, labradore-stone from mother-pearl. Fossil shells not now +found recent 66 + +Sea-insects like flowers. Actinia 82 + +Production of pearls, not a disease of the fish. Crab's eyes. Reservoirs +of pearly matter 84 + +Rocks of coral in the south-sea. Coralloid limestone at Linsel, and +Coalbrook Dale 90 + +Rocks thrown from mountains, ice from glaciers, and portions of earth, +or morasses, removed by columns of water. Earth-motion in Shropshire. +Water of wells rising above the level of the ground. St. Alkmond's well +near Derby might be raised many yards, so as to serve the town. Well at +Sheerness, and at Hartford in Connecticut 116 + +Moonsoons attended with rain Overflowing of the Nile. Vortex of +ascending air. Rising of the Dogstar announces the floods of the Nile. +Anubis hung out upon their temples 129 + +Situations exempt from rain. At the Line in Lower Egypt. On the coast of +Peru 138 + +Giesar, a boiling fountain in Iceland. Water with great degrees of heat +dissolves siliceous matter. Earthquake from steam 150 + +Warm springs not from decomposed pyrites. From steam rising up fissures +from great depths 166 + +Buxton bath possesses 82 degrees of heat. Is improperly called a warm +bath. A chill at immersion, and then a sensation of warmth, like the eye +in an obscure room owing to increased sensibility of the skin 184 + +Water compounded of pure air and inflammable air with as much matter of +heat as preserves it fluid. Perpetually decomposed by vegetables in the +sun's light, and recomposed in the atmosphere 204 + +Mythological interpretation of Jupiter and Juno designed as an emblem of +the composition of water from two airs 260 + +Death of Mrs. French 308 + +Tomb of Mr. Brindley 341 + +Invention of the pump. The piston lifts the atmosphere above it. The +surrounding atmosphere presses up the water into the vacuum. Manner in +which a child sucks 366 + +Air-cell in engines for extinguishing fire. Water dispersed by the +explosion of Gunpowder. Houses preserved from fire by earth on the +floors, by a second ceiling of iron-plates or coarse mortar. Wood +impregnated with alabaster or flint 406 + +Muscular actions and sensations of plants 460 + +River Achelous. Horn of Plenty 495 + +Flooding lands defends them from vernal frosts. Some springs deposit +calcareous earth. Some contain azotic gas, which contributes to produce +nitre. Snow water less serviceable 540 + + + + + CANTO IV. + + +Cacalia produces much honey, that a part may be taken by insects without +injury 2 + +Analysis of common air. Source of azote. Of Oxygene. Water decomposed by +vegetable pores and the sun's light. Blood gives out phlogiston and +receives vital air. Acquires heat and the vivifying principle 34 + +Cupid and Psyche 48 + +Simoom, a pestilential wind. Described. Owing to volcanic electricity. +Not a whirlwind 65 + +Contagion either animal or vegetable 82 + +Thyrsis escapes the Plague 91 + +Barometer and air-pump, Dew on exhausting the receiver though the +hygrometer points to dryness. Rare air will dissolve or acquire more +heat, and more moisture, and more electricity 128 + +Sound propagated best by dense bodies, as wood, and water, and earth. +Fish in spiral shells all ear 164 + +Discoveries of Dr. Priestley. Green vegetable matter. Pure air contained +in the calces of metals, as minium, manganese, calamy, ochre 166 + +Fable of Proserpine an antient chemical emblem 178 + +Diving balloons supplied with pure air from minium. Account of one by +Mr. Boyle 195 + +Mr. Day. Mr. Spalding 217 + +Captain Pierce and his daughters 219 + +Pestilential winds of volcanic origin. Jordan flows through a country of +volcanos 294 + +Change of wind owing to small causes. If the wind could be governed, the +products of the earth would be doubled, and its number of inhabitants +increased 308 + +Mr. Kirwan's treatise on temperature of climates 342 + +Seeds of plants. Spawn of fish. Nutriment lodged in seeds. Their +preservation in their seed-vessels 355 + +Fixed stars approach each other 369 + +Fable of the Phoenix 377 + +Plants visible within bulbs, and buds, and seeds 383 + +Great Egg of Night 406 + +Seeds shoot into the ground. Pith. Seed-lobes. Starch converted into +sugar. Like animal chyle 411 + +Light occasions the actions of vegetable muscles. Keeps them awake +422 + +Vegetable love in Parnassia, Nigella. Vegetable adultery in Collinsonia +456 + +Strong vegetable shoots and roots bound with wire, in part debarked, +whence leaf-buds converted into flower-buds. Theory of this curious fact +463 + +Branches bent to the horizon bear more fruit 466 + +Engrafting of a spotted passion-flower produced spots upon the stock. +Apple soft on one side and hard on the other 483 + +Cyprepedium assumes the form of a large spider to affright the humming- +bird. Fly-ophris. Willow-wren sucks the honey of the crown-imperial +505 + +Diseases of plants four kinds. Honey-dew 511 + +Ergot a disease of rye 513 + +Glass unannealed. Its cracks owing to elasticity. One kind of lead-ore +cracks into pieces. Prince Rupert's drops. Elastic balls 519 + +Sleep of plants. Their irritability, sensibility, and voluntary motions +538 + + + + + ADDITIONAL NOTES. + + + NOTE I.--METEORS. + + + _Etherial Forms! you chase the shooting stars, + Or yoke the vollied lightnings to your cars._ + + CANTO I. l. 115. + + +There seem to be three concentric strata of our incumbent atmosphere; in +which, or between them, are produced four kinds of meteors; lightning, +shooting stars, fire-balls, and northern lights. First, the lower region +of air, or that which is dense enough to resist by the adhesion of its +particles the descent of condensed vapour, or clouds, which may extend +from one to three or four miles high. In this region the common +lightning is produced from the accumulation or defect of electric matter +in those floating fields of vapour either in respect to each other, or +in respect to the earth beneath them, or the dissolved vapour above +them, which is constantly varying both with the change of the form of +the clouds, which thus evolve a greater or less surface; and also with +their ever-changing degree of condensation. As the lightning is thus +produced in dense air, it proceeds but a short course on account of the +greater resistance which it encounters, is attended with a loud +explosion, and appears with a red light. + +2. The second region of the atmosphere I suppose to be that which has +too little tenacity to support condensed vapour or clouds; but which yet +contains invisible vapour, or water in aerial solution. This aerial +solution of water differs from that dissolved in the matter of heat, as +it is supported by its adhesion to the particles of air, and is not +precipitated by cold. In this stratum it seems probable that the meteors +called shooting stars are produced; and that they consist of electric +sparks, or lightning, passing from one region to another of these +invisible fields of aero-aqueous solution. The height of these shooting +stars has not yet been ascertained by sufficient observation; Dr. +Blagden thinks their situation is lower down in the atmosphere than that +of fireballs, which he conjectures from their swift apparent motion, and +ascribes their smallness to the more minute division of the electric +matter of which they are supposed to consist, owing to the greater +resistance of the denser medium through which they pass, than that in +which the fire-balls exist. Mr. Brydone observed that the shooting stars +appeared to him to be as high in the atmosphere, when he was near the +summit of mount Etna, as they do when observed from the plain. Phil. +Tran. Vol. LXIII. + +As the stratum of air, in which shooting stars are supposed to exist is +much rarer than that in which lightning resides, and yet much denser +than that in which fire-balls are produced, they will be attracted at a +greater distance than the former, and at a less than the latter. From +this rarity of the air so small a sound will be produced by their +explosion, as not to reach the lower parts of the atmosphere; their +quantity of light from their greater distance being small, is never seen +through dense air at all, and thence does not appear red, like lightning +or fire balls. There are no apparent clouds to emit or to attract them, +because the constituent parts of these aero-aqueous regions may possess +an abundance or deficiency of electric matter and yet be in perfect +reciprocal solution. And lastly their apparent train of light is +probably owing only to a continuance of their impression on the eye; as +when a fire-stick is whirled in the dark it gives the appearance of a +compleat circle of fire: for these white trains of shooting stars +quickly vanish, and do not seem to set any thing on fire in their +passage, as seems to happen in the transit of fire-balls. + +3. The second region or stratum of air terminates I suppose where the +twilight ceases to be refracted, that is, where the air is 3000 times +rarer than at the surface of the earth; and where it seems probable that +the common air ends, and is surrounded by an atmosphere of inflammable +gas tenfold rarer than itself. In this region I believe fire-balls +sometimes to pass, and at other times the northern lights to exist. One +of these fire-balls or draco volans, was observed by Dr. Pringle and +many others on Nov. 26, 1758, which was afterwards estimated to have +been a mile and a half in circumference, to have been about one hundred +miles high, and to have moved towards the north with a velocity of near +thirty miles in a second of time. This meteor had a real tail many miles +long, which threw off sparks in its course, and the whole exploded with +a sound like distant thunder. Philos. Trans. Vol. LI. + +Dr. Blagden has related the history of another large meteor, or fire- +ball, which was seen the 18th of August, 1783, with many ingenious +observations and conjectures. This was estimated to be between 60 and 70 +miles high, and to travel 1000 miles at the rate of about twenty miles +in a second. This fire-ball had likewise a real train of light left +behind it in its passage, which varied in colour; and in some part of +its course gave off sparks or explosions where it had been brightest; +and a dusky red streak remained visible perhaps a minute. Philos. Trans. +Vol. LXXIV. + +These fire-balls differ from lightning, and from shooting stars in many +remarkable circumstances; as their very great bulk, being a mile and a +half in diameter; their travelling 1000 miles nearly horizontally; their +throwing off sparks in their passage; and changing colours from bright +blue to dusky red; and leaving a train of fire behind them, continuing +about a minute. They differ from the northern lights in not being +diffused, but passing from one point of the heavens to another in a +defined line; and this in a region above the crepuscular atmosphere, +where the air is 3000 tines rarer than at the surface of the earth. +There has not yet been even a conjecture which can account for these +appearances!--One I shall therefore hazard; which, if it does not +inform, may amuse the reader. + +In the note on l. 123, it was shewn that there is probably a supernatant +stratum of inflammable gas or hydrogene, over the common atmosphere; and +whose density at the surface where they meet, must be at least ten times +less than that upon which it swims; like chemical ether floating upon +water, and perhaps without any real contact. 1. In this region, where +the aerial atmosphere terminates and the inflammable one begins, the +quantity of tenacity or resistance must be almost inconceivable; in +which a ball of electricity might pass 1000 miles with greater ease than +through a thousandth part of an inch of glass. 2. Such a ball of +electricity passing between inflammable and common air would set fire to +them in a line as it patted along; which would differ in colour +according to the greater proportionate commixture of the two airs; and +from the same cause there might occur greater degrees of inflammation, +or branches of fire, in some parts of its course. + +As these fire-balls travel in a defined line, it is pretty evident from +the known laws of electricity, that they must be attracted; and as they +are a mile or more in diameter, they must be emitted from a large +surface of electric matter; because large nobs give larger sparks, less +diffused, and more brightly luminous, than less ones or points, and +resist more forceably the emission of the electric matter. What is there +in nature can attract them at so great a distance as 1000 miles, and so +forceably as to detach an electric spark of a mile diameter? Can +volcanos at the time of their eruptions have this effect, as they are +generally attended with lightning? Future observations must discover +these secret operations of nature! As a stream of common air is carried +along with the passage of electric aura from one body to another; it is +easy to conceive, that the common air and the inflammable air between +which the fire-ball is supposed to pass, will be partially intermixed by +being thus agitated, and so far as it becomes intermixed it will take +fire, and produce the linear flame and branching sparks above described. +In this circumstance of their being attracted, and thence passing in a +defined line, the fire-balls seem to differ from the coruscations of the +aurora borealis, or northern lights, which probably take place in the +same region of the atmosphere; where the common air exists in extreme +tenuity, and is covered by a still rarer sphere of inflammable gas, ten +times lighter than itself. + +As the electric streams, which constitute these northern lights, seem to +be repelled or radiated from an accumulation of that fluid in the north, +and not attracted like the fireballs; this accounts for the diffusion of +their light, as well as the silence of their passage; while their +variety of colours, and the permanency of them, and even the breadth of +them in different places, may depend on their setting on fire the +mixture of inflammable and common air through which they pass; as seems +to happen in the transit of the fire-balls. + +It was observed by Dr. Priestley that the electric shock taken through +inflammable air was red, in common air it is blueish; to these +circumstances perhaps some of the colours of the northern lights may +bear analogy; though the density of the medium through which light is +seen must principally vary its colour, as is well explained by Mr. +Morgan. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXV. Hence lightning is red when seen through +a dark cloud, or near the horizon; because the more refrangible rays +cannot permeate so dense a medium. But the shooting stars consist of +white light, as they are generally seen on clear nights, and nearly +vertical: in other situations their light is probably too faint to come +to us. But as in some remarkable appearances of the northern lights, as +in March, 1716, all the prismatic colours were seen quickly to succeed +each other, these appear to have been owing to real combustion; as the +density of the interposed medium could not be supposed to change so +frequently; and therefore these colours must have been owing to +different degrees of heat according to Mr. Morgan's theory of +combustion. In Smith's Optics, p. 69. the prismatic colours, and optical +deceptions of the northern lights are described by Mr. Cotes. + +The Torricellian vacuum, if perfectly free from air, is said by Mr. +Morgan and others to be a perfect non-conductor. This circumstance +therefore would preclude the electric streams from rising above the +atmosphere. But as Mr. Morgan did not try to pass an electric shock +through a vacuum, and as air, or something containing air, surrounding +the transit of electricity may be necessary to the production of light, +the conclusion may perhaps still be dubious. If however the streams of +the northern lights were supposed to rise above our atmosphere, they +would only be visible at each extremity of their course; where they +emerge from, or are again immerged into the atmosphere; but not in their +journey through the vacuum; for the absence of electric light in a +vacuum is sufficiently proved by the common experiment of shaking a +barometer in the dark; the electricity, produced by the friction of the +mercury in the glass at its top, is luminous if the barometer has a +little air in it; but there is no light if the vacuum be complete. + +The aurora borealis, or northern dawn, is very ingeniously accounted for +by Dr. Franklin on principles of electricity. He premises the following +electric phenomena: 1. that all new fallen snow has much positive +electricity standing on its surface. 2. That about twelve degrees of +latitude round the poles are covered with a crust of eternal ice, which +is impervious to the electric fluid. 3. That the dense part of the +atmosphere rises but a few miles high; and that in the rarer parts of it +the electric fluid will pass to almost any distance. + +Hence he supposes there must be a great accumulation of positive +electric matter on the fresh fallen snow in the polar regions; which, +not being able to pass through the crust of ice into the earth, must +rise into the rare air of the upper parts of our atmosphere, which will +the least resist its passage; and passing towards the equator descend +again into the denser atmosphere, and thence into the earth in silent +streams. And that many of the appearances attending these lights are +optical deceptions, owing to the situation of the eye that beholds them; +which makes all ascending parallel lines appear to converge to a point. + +The idea, above explained in note on l. 123, of the existence of a +sphere of inflammable gas over the aerial atmosphere would much favour +this theory of Dr. Franklin; because in that case the dense aerial +atmosphere would rise a much less height in the polar regions, +diminishing almost to nothing at the pole itself; and thus give an +easier passage to the ascent of the electric fluid. And from the great +difference in the specific gravity of the two airs, and the velocity of +the earth's rotation, there must be a place between the poles and the +equator, where the superior atmosphere of inflammable gas would +terminate; which would account for these streams of the aurora borealis +not appearing near the equator; add to this that it is probable the +electric fluid may be heavier than the magnetic one; and will thence by +the rotation of the earth's surface ascend over the magnetic one by its +centrifugal force; and may thus be induced to rise through the thin +stratum of aerial atmosphere over the poles. See note on Canto II. l. +193. I shall have occasion again to mention this great accumulation of +inflammable air over the poles; and to conjecture that these northern +lights may be produced by the union of inflammable with common air, +without the assistance of the electric spark to throw them into +combustion. + +The antiquity of the appearance of northern lights has been doubted; as +none were recorded in our annals since the remarkable one on Nov. 14, +1574, till another remarkable one on March 6, 1716, and the three +following nights, which were seen at the same time in Ireland, Russia, +and Poland, extending near 30 degrees of longitude and from about the +50th degree of latitude over almost all the north of Europe. There is +however reason to believe them of remote antiquity though inaccurately +described; thus the following curious passage from the Book of +Maccabees, (B. II. c. v.) is such a description of them, as might +probably be given by an ignorant and alarmed people. "Through all the +city, for the space of almost forty days, there were seen horsemen +running in the air, in cloth of gold, and armed with lances, like a band +of soldiers; and troops of horsemen in array encountering and running +one against another, with shaking of shields and multitude of pikes, and +drawing of swords, and casting of darts, and glittering of golden +ornaments and harness." + + + + + NOTE II.--PRIMARY COLOURS. + + + _Cling round the aerial bow with prisms bright, + And pleased untwist the sevenfold threads of light._ + + CANTO I. l. 117. + + +The manner in which the rainbow is produced was in some measure +understood before Sir Isaac Newton had discovered his theory of colours. +The first person who expressly shewed the rainbow to be formed by the +reflection of the sunbeams from drops of falling rain was Antonio de +Dominis. This was afterwards more fully and distinctly explained by Des +Cartes. But what caused the diversity of its colours was not then +understood; it was reserved for the immortal Newton to discover that the +rays of light consisted of seven combined colours of different +refrangibility, which could be seperated at pleasure by a wedge of +glass. Pemberton's View of Newton. + +Sir Isaac Newton discovered that the prismatic spectrum was composed of +seven colours in the following proportions, violet 80, indigo 40, blue +60, green 60, yellow 48, orange 27, red 45. If all these colours be +painted on a circular card in the proportions above mentioned, and the +card be rapidly whirled on its center, they produce in the eye the +sensation of white. And any one of these colours may be imitated by +painting a card with the two colours which are contiguous to it, in the +same proportions as in the spectrum, and whirling them in the same +manner. My ingenious friend, Mr. Galton of Birmingham, ascertained in +this manner by a set of experiments the following propositions; the +truth of which he had preconceived from the above data. + +1. Any colour in the prismatic spectrum may be imitated by a mixture of +the two colours contiguous to it. + +2. If any three successive colours in the prismatic spectrum are mixed, +they compose only the second or middlemost colour. + +3. If any four succesive colours in the prismatic spectrum be mixed, a +tint similar to a mixture of the second and third colours will be +produced, but not precisely the same, because they are not in the same +proportion. + +4. If beginning with any colour in the circular spectrum, you take of +the second colour a quantity equal to the first, second, and third; and +add to that the fifth colour, equal in quantity to the fourth, fifth, +and sixth; and with these combine the seventh colour in the proportion +it exists in the spectrum, white will be produced. Because the first, +second, and third, compose only the second; and the fourth, fifth, and +sixth, compose only the fifth; therefore if the seventh be added, the +same effect is produced, as if all the seven were employed. + +5. Beginning with any colour in the circular spectrum, if you take a +tint composed of a certain proportion of the second and third, (equal in +quantity to the first, second, third, and fourth,) and add to this the +sixth colour equal in quantity to the fifth, sixth, and seventh, white +will be produced. + +From these curious experiments of Mr. Galton many phenomena in the +chemical changes of colours may probably become better understood; +especially if, as I suppose, the same theory must apply to transmitted +colours, as to reflected ones. Thus it is well known, that if the glass +of mangonese, which is a tint probably composed of violet and indigo, be +mixed in a certain proportion with the glass of lead, which is yellow; +that the mixture becomes transparent. Now from Mr. Galton's experiments +it appears, that in reflected colours such a mixture would produce +white, that is, the same as if all the colours were reflected. And +therefore in transmitted colours the same circumstances must produce +transparency, that is, the same as if all the colours were transmitted. +For the particles, which constitute the glass of mangonese will transmit +red, violet, indigo, and blue; and those of the glass of lead will +transmit orange, yellow, and green; hence all the primary colours by a +mixture of these glasses become transmitted, that is, the glass becomes +transparent. + +Mr. Galton has further observed that five successive prismatic colours +may be combined in such proportions as to produce but one colour, a +circumstance which might be of consequence in the art of painting. For +if you begin at any part of the circular spectrum above described, and +take the first, second, and third colours in the proportions in which +they exist in the spectrum; these will compose only the second colour +equal in quantity to the first, second, and third; add to these the +third, fourth, and fifth in the proportion they exist in the spectrum, +and these will produce the fourth colour equal in quantity to the third, +fourth, and fifth. Consequently this is precisely the same thing, as +mixing the second and fourth colours only; which mixture would only +produce the third colour. Therefore if you combine the first, second, +fourth, and fifth in the proportions in which they exist in the +spectrum, with double the quantity of the third colour, this third +colour will be produced. It is probable that many of the unexpected +changes in mixing colours on a painter's easle, as well as in more fluid +chemical mixtures, may depend on these principles rather than on a new +arrangement or combination of their minute particles. + +Mr. Galton further observes, that white may universally be produced by +the combination of one prismatic colour, and a tint intermediate to two +others. Which tint may be distinguished by a name compounded of the two +colours, to which it is intermediate. Thus white is produced by a +mixture of red with blue-green. Of orange with indigo-blue. Of Yellow +with violet-indigo. Of green with red-violet. Of blue with Orange-red. +Of indigo with yellow-orange. Of violet with green-yellow. Which he +further remarks exactly coincides with the theory and facts mentioned by +Dr. Robert Darwin of Shrewsbury in his account of ocular spectra; who +has shewn that when one of these contrasted colours has been long +viewed, a spectrum or appearance of the other becomes visible in the +fatigued eye. Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVI. for the year 1786. + +These experiments of Mr. Galton might much assist the copper-plate +printers of callicoes and papers in colours; as three colours or more +might be produced by two copper-plates. Thus suppose some yellow figures +were put on by the first plate, and upon some parts of these yellow +figures and on other parts of the ground blue was laid on by another +copper-plate. The three colours of yellow, blue, and green might be +produced; as green leaves with yellow and blue flowers. + + + + + NOTE III.--COLOURED CLOUDS. + + + _Eve's silken couch with gorgeous tints adorn, + Or fire the arrowy throne of rising morn._ + + CANTO I. l. 119. + + +The rays from the rising and setting sun are refracted by our spherical +atmosphere, hence the most refrangible rays, as the violet, indigo, and +blue are reflected in greater quantities from the morning and evening +skies; and the least refrangible ones, as red and orange, are last seen +about the setting sun. Hence Mr. Beguelin observed that the shadow of +his finger on his pocket-book was much bluer in the morning and evening, +when the shadow was about eight times as long as the body from which it +was projected. Mr. Melville observes, that the blue rays being more +refrangible are bent down in the evenings by our atmosphere, while the +red and orange being less refrangible continue to pass on and tinge the +morning and evening clouds with their colours. See Priestley's History +of Light and Colours, p. 440. But as the particles of air, like those of +water, are themselves blue, a blue shadow may be seen at all times of +the day, though much more beautifully in the mornings and evenings, or +by means of a candle in the middle of the day. For if a shadow on a +piece of white paper is produced by placing your finger between the +paper and a candle in the day light, the shadow will appear very blue; +the yellow light of the candle upon the other parts of the paper +apparently deepens the blue by its contrast; these colours being +opposite to each other, as explained in note II. + +Colours are produced from clouds or mists by refraction, as well as by +reflection. In riding in the night over an unequal country I observed a +very beautiful coloured halo round the moon, whenever I was covered with +a few feet of mist, as I ascended from the vallies; which ceased to +appear when I rose above the mist. This I suppose was owing to the +thinness of the stratum of mist, in which I was immersed; had it been +thicker, the colours refracted by the small drops, of which a fog +consists, would not have passed through it down to my eye. + +There is a bright spot seen on the cornea of the eye, when we face a +window, which is much attended to by portrait painters; this is the +light reflected from the spherical surface of the polished cornea, and +brought to a focus; if the observer is placed in this focus, he sees the +image of the window; if he is placed before or behind the focus, he only +sees a luminous spot, which is more luminous and of less extent, the +nearer he approaches to the focus. The luminous appearance of the eyes +of animals in the dusky corners of a room, or in holes in the earth, may +arise in some instances from the same principle; viz. the reflection of +the light from the spherical cornea; which will be coloured red or blue +in some degree by the morning, evening, or meridian light; or by the +objects from which that light is previously reflected. In the cavern at +Colebrook Dale, where the mineral tar exsudes, the eyes of the horse, +which was drawing a cart from within towards the mouth of it, appeared +like two balls of phosphorus, when he was above 100 yards off, and for a +long time before any other part of the animal was visible. In this case +I suspect the luminous appearance to have been owing to the light, which +had entered the eye, being reflected from the back surface of the +vitreous humour, and thence emerging again in parallel rays from the +animals eye, as it does from the back surface of the drops of the +rainbow, and from the water-drops which lie, perhaps without contact, on +cabbage-leaves, and have the brilliancy of quicksilver. This accounts +for this luminous appearance being best seen in those animals which have +large apertures in their iris, as in cats and horses, and is the only +part visible in obscure places, because this is a better reflecting +surface than any other part of the animal. If any of these emergent rays +from the animals eye can be supposed to have been reflected from the +choroid coat through the semi-transparent retina, this would account for +the coloured glare of the eyes of dogs or cats and rabits in dark +corners. + + + + + NOTE IV.--COMETS. + + + _Alarm with comet-blaze the sapphire plain, + The wan stars glimmering through its silver train._ + + CANTO I. l. 133. + + +There have been many theories invented to account for the tails of +comets. Sir Isaac Newton thinks that they consist of rare vapours raised +from the nucleus of the comet, and so rarefied by the sun's heat as to +have their general gravitation diminished, and that they in consequence +ascend opposite to the sun, and from thence reflect the rays of light. +Dr. Halley compares the light of the tails of comets to the streams of +the aurora borealis, and other electric effluvia. Philos. Trans. No. +347. + +Dr. Hamilton observes that the light of small stars are seen +undiminished through both the light of the tails of comets, and of the +aurora borealis, and has further illustrated their electric analogy, and +adds that the tails of comets consist of a lucid self-shining substance +which has not the power of refracting or reflecting the rays of light. +Essays. + +The tail of the comet of 1744 at one time appeared to extend above 16 +degrees from its body, and must have thence been above twenty three +millions of miles long. And the comet of 1680, according to the +calculations of Dr. Halley on November the 11th, was not above one semi- +diameter of the earth, or less than 4000 miles to the northward of the +way of the earth; at which time had the earth been in that part of its +orbit, what might have been the consequence! no one would probably have +survived to have registered the tremendous effects. + +The comet of 1531, 1607, and 1682 having returned in the year 1759, +according to Dr. Halley's prediction in the Philos. Trans. for 1705, +there seems no reason to doubt that all the other comets will return +after their proper periods. Astronomers have in general acquiesced in +the conjecture of Dr. Halley, that the comets of 1532, and 1661 are one +and the same comet, from the similarity of the elements of their orbits, +and were therefore induced to expect its return to its perihelium 1789. +As this comet is liable to be disturbed in its ascent from the sun by +the planets Jupiter and Saturn, Dr. Maskelyne expected its return to its +perihelium in the beginning of the year 1789, or the latter end of the +year 1788, and certainly sometime before the 27th of April, 1789, which +prediction has not been fulfilled. Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXVI. + + + + + NOTE V.--SUN'S RAYS. + + + _Or give the sun's phlogistic orb to roll._ + + CANTO I. l. 136. + + +The dispute among philosophers about phlogiston is not concerning the +existence of an inflammable principle, but rather whether there be one +or more inflammable principles. The disciples of Stahl, which till +lately included the whole chemical world, believed in the identity of +phlogiston in all bodies which would flame or calcine. The disciples of +Lavoisier pay homage to a plurality of phlogistons under the various +names of charcoal, sulphur, metals, &c. Whatever will unite with _pure_ +air, and thence compose an acid, is esteemed in this ingenious theory to +be a different kind of phlogistic or inflammable body. At the same time +there remains a doubt whether these inflammable bodies, as metals, +sulphur, charcoal, &c. may not be compounded of the same phlogiston +along with some other material yet undiscovered, and thus an unity of +phlogiston exist, as in the theory of Stahl, though very differently +applied in the explication of chemical phenomena. + +Some modern philosophers are of opinion that the sun is the great +fountain from which the earth and other planets derive all the +phlogiston which they possess; and that this is formed by the +combination of the solar rays with all opake bodies, but particularly +with the leaves of vegetables, which they suppose to be organs adapted +to absorb them. And that as animals receive their nourishment from +vegetables they also obtain in a secondary manner their phlogiston from +the sun. And lastly as great masses of the mineral kingdom, which have +been found in the thin crust of the earth which human labour has +penetrated, have evidently been formed from the recrements of animal and +vegetable bodies, these also are supposed thus to have derived their +phlogiston from the sun. + +Another opinion concerning the sun's rays is, that they are not luminous +till they arrive at our atmosphere; and that there uniting with some +part of the air they produce combustion, and light is emitted, and that +an etherial acid, yet undiscovered, is formed from this combustion. + +The more probable opinion is perhaps, that the sun is a phlogistic mass +of matter, whose surface is in a state of combustion, which like other +burning bodies emits light with immense velocity in all directions; that +these rays of light act upon all opake bodies, and combining with them +either displace or produce their elementary heat, and become chemically +combined with the phlogistic part of them; for light is given out when +phlogistic bodies unite with the oxygenous principle of the air, as in +combustion, or in the reduction of metallic calxes; thus in presenting +to the flame of a candle a letter-wafer, (if it be coloured with red- +lead,) at the time the red-lead becomes a metallic drop, a flash of +light is perceived. Dr. Alexander Wilson very ingeniously endeavours to +prove that the sun is only in a state of combustion on its surface, and +that the dark spots seen on the disk are excavations or caverns through +the luminous crust, some of which are 4000 miles in diameter. Phil. +Trans. 1774. Of this I shall have occasion to speak again. + + + + + NOTE VI.--CENTRAL FIRES. + + + _Round her still centre tread the burning soil, + And watch the billowy Lavas, as they boil._ + + CANTO I. l. 139. + + +M. de Mairan in a paper published in the Histoire de l'Academie de +Sciences, 1765, has endeavoured to shew that the earth receives but a +small part of the heat which it possesses, from the sun's rays, but is +principally heated by fires within itself. He thinks the sun is the +cause of the vicissitudes of our seasons of summer and winter by a very +small quantity of heat in addition to that already residing in the +earth, which by emanations from the centre to the circumference renders +the surface habitable, and without which, though the sun was constantly +to illuminate two thirds of the globe at once, with a heat equal to that +at the equator, it would soon become a mass of solid ice. His reasonings +and calculations on this subject are too long and too intricate to be +inserted here, but are equally curious and ingenious and carry much +conviction along with them. + +The opinion that the center of the earth consists of a large mass of +burning lava, has been espoused by Boyle, Boerhave, and many other +philosophers. Some of whom considering its supposed effects on +vegetation and the formation of minerals have called it a second sun. +There are many arguments in support of this opinion, 1. Because the +power of the sun does not extend much beyond ten feet deep into the +earth, all below being in winter and summer always of the same degree of +heat, viz. 48, which being much warmer than the mildest frost, is +supposed to be sustained by some internal distant fire. Add to this +however that from experiments made some years ago by Dr. Franklin the +spring-water at Philadelphia appeared to be of 52° of heat, which seems +further to confirm this opinion, since the climates in North America are +supposed to be colder than those of Europe under similar degrees of +latitude. 2. Mr. De Luc in going 1359 feet perpendicular into the mines +of Hartz on July the 5th, 1778, on a very fine day found the air at the +bottom a little warmer than at the top of the shaft. Phil. Trans. Vol. +LXIX. p. 488. In the mines in Hungary, which are 500 cubits deep, the +heat becomes very troublesome when the miners get below 480 feet depth. +_Morinus de Locis subter_. p. 131. But as some other deep mines as +mentioned by Mr. Kirwan are said to possess but the common heat of the +earth; and as the crust of the globe thus penetrated by human labour is +so thin compared with the whole, no certain deduction can be made from +these facts on either side of the question. 3. The warm-springs in many +parts of the earth at great distance from any Volcanos seem to originate +from the condensation of vapours arising from water which is boiled by +subterraneous fires, and cooled again in their passage through a certain +length of the colder soil; for the theory of chemical solution will not +explain the equality of their heat at all seasons and through so many +centuries. See note on Fucus in Vol. II. See a letter on this subject in +Mr. Pilkinton's View of Derbyshire from Dr. Darwin. 4. From the +situations of volcanos which are always found upon the summit of the +highest mountains. For as these mountains have been lifted up and lose +several of their uppermost strata as they rise, the lowest strata of the +earth yet known appear at the tops of the highest hills; and the beds of +the Volcanos upon these hills must in consequence belong to the lowest +strata of the earth, consisting perhaps of granite or basaltes, which +were produced before the existance of animal or vegetable bodies, and +might constitute the original nucleus of the earth, which I have +supposed to have been projected from the sun, hence the volcanos +themselves appear to be spiracula or chimneys belonging to great central +fires. It is probably owing to the escape of the elastic vapours from +these spiracula that the modern earthquakes are of such small extent +compared with those of remote antiquity, of which the vestiges remain +all over the globe. 5. The great size and height of the continents, and +the great size and depth of the South-sea, Atlantic, and other oceans, +evince that the first earthquakes, which produced these immense changes +in the globe, must have been occasioned by central fires. 6. The very +distant and expeditious communication of the shocks of some great +earthquakes. The earthquake at Lisbon in 1755 was perceived in Scotland, +in the Peak of Derbyshire, and in many other distant parts of Europe. +The percussions of it travelled with about the velocity of sound, viz. +about thirteen miles in a minute. The earthquake in 1693 extended 2600 +leagues. (Goldsmith's History.) These phenomena are easily explained if +the central parts of the earth consist of a fluid lava, as a percussion +on one part of such a fluid mass would be felt on other parts of its +confining vault, like a stroke on a fluid contained in a bladder, which +however gentle on one side is perceptible to the hand placed on the +other; and the velocity with which such a concussion would travel would +be that of sound, or thirteen miles in a minute. For further information +on this part of the subject the reader is referred to Mr. Michell's +excellent Treatise on Earthquakes in the Philos. Trans. Vol. LI. 7. That +there is a cavity at the center of the earth is made probable by the +late experiments on the attraction of mountains by Mr. Maskerlyne, who +supposed from other considerations that the density of the earth near +the surface should be five times less than its mean density. Phil. +Trans. Vol. LXV. p. 498. But found from the attraction of the mountain +Schehallien, that it is probable, the mean density of the earth is but +double that of the hill. Ibid. p. 532. Hence if the first supposition be +well founded there would appear to be a cavity at the centre of +considerable magnitude, from whence the immense beds and mountains of +lava, toadstone, basaltes, granite, &c. have been protruded. 8. The +variation of the compass can only be accounted for by supposing the +central parts of the earth to consist of a fluid mass, and that part of +this fluid is iron, which requiring a greater degree of heat to bring it +into fusion than glass or other metals, remains a solid, and the vis +inertiae of this fluid mass with the iron in it, occasions it to perform +fewer revolutions than the crust of solid earth over it, and thus it is +gradually left behind, and the place where the floating iron resides is +pointed to by the direct or retrograde motions of the magnetic needle. +This seems to have been nearly the opinion of Dr. Halley and Mr. Euler. + + + + + NOTE VII.--ELEMENTARY HEAT. + + + _Or sphere on sphere in widening waves expand, + And glad with genial warmth the incumbent land._ + + CANTO I. l. 143. + + +A certain quantity of heat seems to be combined with all bodies besides +the sensible quantity which gravitates like the electric fluid amongst +them. This combined heat or latent heat of Dr. Black, when set at +liberty by fermentation, inflammation, crystallization, freezing, or +other chemical attractions producing new _combinations_, passes as a +fluid element into the surrounding bodies. And by thawing, diffusion of +neutral salts in water, melting, and other chemical _solutions_, a +portion of heat is attracted from the bodies in vicinity and enters into +or becomes combined with the new solutions. + +Hence a _combination_ of metals with acids, of essential oils and acids, +of alcohol and water, of acids and water, give out heat; whilst a +_solution_ of snow in water or in acids, and of neutral salts in water, +attract heat from the surrounding bodies. So the acid of nitre mixed +with oil of cloves unites with it and produces a most violent flame; the +same acid of nitre poured on snow instantly dissolves it and produces +the greatest degree of cold yet known, by which at Petersburgh +quicksilver was first frozen in 1760. + +Water may be cooled below 32º without being frozen, if it be placed on a +solid floor and secured from agitation, but when thus cooled below the +freezing point the least agitation turns part of it suddenly into ice, +and when this sudden freezing takes place a thermometer placed in it +instantly rises as some heat is given out in the act of congelation, and +the ice is thus left with the same _sensible_ degree of cold as the +water had possessed before it was agitated, but is nevertheless now +combined with less _latent_ heat. + +A cubic inch of water thus cooled down to 32° mixed with an equal +quantity of boiling water at 212° will cool it to the middle number +between these two, or to 122. But a cubic inch of ice whose sensible +cold also is but 32, mixed with an equal quantity of boiling water, will +cool it six times as much as the cubic inch of cold water +above-mentioned, as the ice not only gains its share of the sensible or +gravitating heat of the boiling water but attracts to itself also and +combines with the quantity of latent heat which it had lost at the time +of its congelation. + +So boiling water will acquire but 212° of heat under the common pressure +of the atmosphere, but the steam raised from it by its expansion or by +its solution in the atmosphere combines with and carries away a +prodigious quantity of heat which it again parts with on its +condensation; as is seen in common distillation where the large quantity +of water in the worm-tub is so soon heated. Hence the evaporation of +ether on a thermometer soon sinks the mercury below freezing, and hence +a warmth of the air in winter frequently succeeds a shower. + +When the matter of heat or calorique is set at liberty from its +combinations, as by inflammation, it passes into the surrounding bodies, +which possess different capacities of acquiring their share of the loose +or sensible heat; thus a pint measure of cold water at 48° mixed with a +pint of boiling water at 212° will cool it to the degree between these +two numbers, or to 154°, but it requires two pint measures of +quicksilver at 48° of heat to cool one pint of water as above. These and +other curious experiments are adduced by Dr. Black to evince the +existance of combined or latent heat in bodies, as has been explained by +some of his pupils, and well illustrated by Dr. Crawford. The world has +long been in expectation of an account of his discoveries on this +subject by the celebrated author himself. + +As this doctrine of elementary heat in its fluid and combined state is +not yet universally received, I shall here add two arguments in support +of it drawn from different sources, viz. from the heat given out or +absorbed by the mechanical condensation or expansion of the air, and +perhaps of other bodies, and from the analogy of the various phenomena +of heat with those of electricity. + +I. If a thermometer be placed in the receiver of an air-pump, and the +air hastily exhausted, the thermometer will sink some degrees, and the +glass become steamy; the same occurs in hastily admitting a part of the +air again. This I suppose to be produced by the expansion of part of the +air, both during the exhaustion and re-admission of it; and that the air +so expanded becomes capable of attracting from the bodies in its +vicinity a part of their heat, hence the vapours contained in it and the +glass receiver are for a time colder and the steam is precipitated. That +the air thus parts with its moisture from the cold occasioned by its +rarefaction and not simply by the rarefaction itself is evident, because +in a minute or two the same rarefied air will again take up the dew +deposited on the receiver; and because water will evaporate sooner in +rare than in dense air. + +There is a curious phenomenon similar to this observed in the fountain +of Hiero constructed on a large scale at the Chemnicensian mines in +Hungary. In this machine the air in a large vessel is compressed by a +column of water 260 feet high, a stop-cock is then opened, and as the +air issues out with great vehemence, and thus becomes immediately +greatly expanded, so much cold is produced that the moisture from this +stream of air is precipitated in the form of snow, and ice is formed +adhering to the nosel of the cock. This remarkable circumstance is +described at large with a plate of the machine in Philos. Trans. Vol. +LII. for 1761. + +The following experiment is related by Dr. Darwin in the Philos. Trans. +Vol. LXXVIII. Having charged an air-gun as forcibly as he well could the +air-cell and syringe became exceedingly hot, much more so than could be +ascribed to the friction in working it; it was then left about half an +hour to cool down to the temperature of the air, and a thermometer +having been previously fixed against a wall, the air was discharged in a +continual stream on its bulb, and it sunk many degrees. From these three +experiments of the steam in the exhausted receiver being deposited and +re-absorbed, when a part of the air is exhausted or re-admitted, and the +snow produced by the fountain of Hiero, and the extraordinary heat given +out in charging, and the cold produced in discharging an air-gun, there +is reason to conclude that when air is mechanically compressed the +elementary fluid heat is pressed out of it, and that when it is +mechanically expanded the same fluid heat is re-absorbed from the common +mass. + +It is probable all other bodies as well as air attract heat from their +neighbours when they are mechanically expanded, and give it out when +they are mechanically condensed. Thus when a vibration of the particles +of hard bodies is excited by friction or by percussion, these particles +mutually recede from and approach each other reciprocally; at the times +of their recession from each other, the body becomes enlarged in bulk, +and is then in a condition to attract heat from those in its vicinity +with great and sudden power; at the times of their approach to each +other this heat is again given out, but the bodies in contact having in +the mean while received the heat they had thus lost, from other bodies +behind them, do not so suddenly or so forcibly re-absorb the heat again +from the body in vibration; hence it remains on its surface like the +electric fluid on a rubbed glass globe, and for the same reason, because +there is no good conductor to take it up again. Hence at every vibration +more and more heat is acquired and stands loose upon the surface; as in +filing metals or rubbing glass tubes; and thus a smith with a few +strokes on a nail on his anvil can make it hot enough to light a +brimstone-match; and hence in striking flint and steel together heat +enough is produced to vitrify the parts thus strucken off, the quantity +of which heat is again probably increased by the new chemical +combination. + +II. The analogy between the phenomena of the electric fluid and of heat +furnishes another argument in support of the existence of heat as a +gravitating fluid. 1. They are both accumulated by friction on the +excited body. 2. They are propagated easily or with difficalty along the +same classes of bodies; with ease by metals, with less ease by water; +and with difficulty by resins, bees-wax, silk, air, and glass. Thus +glass canes or canes of sealing-wax may be melted by a blow-pipe or a +candle within a quarter of an inch of the fingers which hold them, +without any inconvenient heat, while a pin or other metallic substance +applyed to the flame of a candle so readily conducts the heat as +immediately to burn the fingers. Hence clothes of silk keep the body +warmer than clothes of linen of equal thickness, by confining the heat +upon the body. And hence plains are so much warmer than the summits of +mountains by the greater density of the air confining the acquired heat +upon them. 3. They both give out light in their passage through air, +perhaps not in their passage through a vacuum. 4. They both of them fuse +or vitrify metals. 5. Bodies after being electrized if they are +mechanically extended will receive a greater quantity of electricity, as +in Dr. Franklin's experiment of the chain in the tankard; the same seems +true in respect to heat as explained above. 6. Both heat and electricity +contribute to suspend steam in the atmosphere by producing or increasing +the repulsion of its particles. 7. They both gravitate, when they have +been accumulated, till they find their equilibrium. + +If we add to the above the many chemical experiments which receive an +easy and elegant explanation from the supposed matter of heat, as +employed in the works of Bergman and Lavoisier, I think we may +reasonably allow of its existence as an element, occasionally combined +with other bodies, and occasionally existing as a fluid, like the +electric fluid gravitating amongst them, and that hence it may be +propagated from the central fires of the earth to the whole mass, and +contribute to preserve the mean heat of the earth, which in this country +is about 48 degrees but variable from the greater or less effect of the +sun's heat in different climates, so well explained in Mr. Kirwan's +Treatise on the Temperature of different Latitudes. 1787, Elmsly. +London. + + + + + NOTE VIII.--MEMNON'S LYRE. + + + _So to the sacred Sun in Memnon's fane + Spontaneous concords quired the matin strain._ + + CANTO I. l. 183. + + +The gigantic statue of Memnon in his temple at Thebes had a lyre in his +hands, which many credible writers assure us, sounded when the rising +sun shone upon it. Some philosophers have supposed that the sun's light +possesses a mechanical impulse, and that the sounds abovementioned might +be thence produced. Mr. Michell constructed a very tender horizontal +balance, as related by Dr. Priestley in his history of light and +colours, for this purpose, but some experiments with this balance which +I saw made by the late Dr. Powel, who threw the focus of a large +reflector on one extremity of it, were not conclusive either way, as the +copper leaf of the balance approached in one experiment and receded in +another. + +There are however methods by which either a rotative or alternating +motion may be produced by very moderate degrees of heat. If a straight +glass tube, such as are used for barometers, be suspended horizontally +before a fire, like a roasting spit, it will revolve by intervals; for +as glass is a bad conductor of heat the side next the fire becomes +heated sooner than the opposite side, and the tube becomes bent into a +bow with the external part of the curve towards the fire, this curve +then falls down and produces a fourth part of a revolution of the glass +tube, which thus revolves with intermediate pauses. + +Another alternating motion I have seen produced by suspending a glass +tube about eight inches long with bulbs at each end on a centre like a +scale beam. This curious machine is filled about one third part with +purest spirit of wine, the other two thirds being a vacuum, and is +called a pulse-glass, if it be placed in a box before the fire, so that +either bulb, as it rises, may become shaded from the fire, and exposed +to it when it descends, an alternate libration of it is produced. For +spirit of wine in vacuo emits steam by a very small degree of heat, and +this steam forces the spirit beneath it up into the upper bulb, which +therefore descends. It is probable such a machine on a larger scale +might be of use to open the doors or windows of hot-houses or mellon- +frames, when the air within them should become too much heated, or might +be employed in more important mechanical purposes. + +On travelling through a hot summer's day in a chaise with a box covered +with leather on the fore-axle-tree, I observed, as the sun shone upon +the black leather, the box began to open its lid, which at noon rose +above a foot, and could not without great force be pressed down; and +which gradually closed again as the sun declined in the evening. This I +suppose might with still greater facility be applied to the purpose of +opening melon-frames or the sashes of hot-houses. + +The statue of Memnon was overthrown and sawed in two by Cambyses to +discover its internal structure, and is said still to exist. See +Savary's Letters on Egypt. The truncated statue is said for many +centuries to have saluted the rising sun with chearful tones, and the +setting sun with melancholy ones. + + + + + NOTE IX.--LUMINOUS INSECTS. + + + _Star of the earth, and diamond of the night._ + + CANTO I. l. 196. + + +There are eighteen species of Lampyris or glow-worm, according to +Linneus, some of which are found in almost every part of the world. In +many of the species the females have no wings, and are supposed to be +discovered by the winged males by their shining in the night. They +become much more lucid when they put themselves in motion, which would +seem to indicate that their light is owing to their respiration; in +which process it is probable phosphoric acid is produced by the +combination of vital air with some part of the blood, and that light is +given out through their transparent bodies by this slow internal +combustion. + +There is a fire-fly of the beetle-kind described in the Dict. Raisonné +under the name of Acudia, which is said to be two inches long, and +inhabits the West-Indies and South America; the natives use them instead +of candles, putting from one to three of them under a glass. Madam +Merian says, that at Surinam the light of this fly is so great, that she +saw sufficiently well by one of them to paint and finish one of the +figures of them in her work on insects. The largest and oldest of them +are said to become four inches long, and to shine like a shooting star +as they fly, and are thence called Lantern-bearers. The use of this +light to the insect itself seems to be that it may not fly against +objects in the night; by which contrivance these insects are enabled to +procure their sustenance either by night or day, as their wants may +require, or their numerous enemies permit them; whereas some of our +beetles have eyes adapted only to the night, and if they happen to come +abroad too soon in the evening are so dazzled that they fly against +every thing in their way. See note on Phosphorus, No. X. + +In some seas, as particularly about the coast of Malabar, as a ship +floats along, it seems during the night to be surrounded with fire, and +to leave a long tract of light behind it. Whenever the sea is gently +agitated it seems converted into little stars, every drop as it breaks +emits light, like bodies electrified in the dark. Mr. Bomare says, that +when he was at the port of Cettes in Languedoc, and bathing with a +companion in the sea after a very hot day, they both appeared covered +with fire after every immersion, and that laying his wet hand on the arm +of his companion, who had not then dipped himself, the exact mark of his +hand and fingers was seen in characters of fire. As numerous microscopic +insects are found in this shining water, its light has been generally +ascribed to them, though it seems probable that fish-slime in hot +countries may become in such a state of incipient putrefaction as to +give light, especially when by agitation it is more exposed to the air; +otherwise it is not easy to explain why agitation should be necessary to +produce this marine light. See note on Phosphorus No. X. + + + + + NOTE X.--PHOSPHORUS. + + + _Or mark in shining letters Kunckel's name + In the pale phosphor's self-consuming flame._ + + CANTO I. l. 231. + + +Kunckel, a native of Hamburgh, was the first who discovered to the world +the process for producing phosphorus; though Brandt and Boyle were +likewise said to have previously had the art of making it. It was +obtained from sal microcosmicum by evaporation in the form of an acid, +but has since been found in other animal substances, as in the ashes of +bones, and even in some vegetables, as in wheat flour. Keir's chemical +Dict. This phosphoric acid is like all other acids united with vital +air, and requires to be treated with charcoal or phlogiston to deprive +it of this air, it then becomes a kind of animal sulphur, but of so +inflammable a nature, that on the access of air it takes fire +spontaneously, and as it burns becomes again united with vital air, and +re-assumes its form of phosphoric acid. + +As animal respiration seems to be a kind of slow combustion, in which it +is probable that phosphoric acid is produced by the union of phosphorus +with the vital air, so it is also probable that phosphoric acid is +produced in the excretory or respiratory vessels of luminous insects, as +the glow-worm and fire-fly, and some marine insects. From the same +principle I suppose the light from putrid fish, as from the heads of +hadocks, and from putrid veal, and from rotten wood in a certain state +of their putrefaction, is produced, and phosphorus thus slowly combined +with air is changed into phosphoric acid. The light from the Bolognian +stone, and from calcined shells, and from white paper, and linen after +having been exposed for a time to the sun's light, seem to produce +either the phosphoric or some other kind of acid from the sulphurous or +phlogistic matter which they contain. See note on Beccari's shells. l. +180. + +There is another process seems similar to this slow combustion, and that +is _bleaching_. By the warmth and light of the sun the water sprinkled +upon linen or cotton cloth seems to be decomposed, (if we credit the +theory of M. Lavoisier,) and a part of the vital air thus set at liberty +and uncombined and not being in its elastic form, more easily dissolves +the colouring or phlogistic matter of the cloth, and produces a new +acid, which is itself colourless, or is washed out of the cloth by +water. The new process of bleaching confirms a part of this theory, for +by uniting much vital air to marine acid by distilling it from +manganese, on dipping the cloth to be bleached in water repleat with +this super-aerated marine acid, the colouring matter disappears +immediately, sooner indeed in cotton than in linen. See note XXXIV. + +There is another process which I suspect bears analogy to these above- +mentioned, and that is the rancidity of animal fat, as of bacon; if +bacon be hung up in a warm kitchen, with much salt adhering on the +outside of it, the fat part of it soon becomes yellow and rancid; if it +be washed with much cold water after it has imbibed the salt, and just +before it is hung up, I am well informed, that it will not become +rancid, or in very slight degrees. In the former case I imagine the salt +on the surface of the bacon attracts water during the cold of the night, +which is evaporated during the day, and that in this evaporation a part +of the water becomes decomposed, as in bleaching, and its vital air +uniting with greater facility in its unelastic state with the animal +fat, produces an acid, perhaps of the phosphoric kind, which being of a +fixed nature lies upon the bacon, giving it the yellow colour and rancid +taste. It is remarkable that the super-aerated marine acid does not +bleach living animal substances, at least it did not whiten a part of my +hand which I for some minutes exposed to it. + + + + + NOTE XI.--STEAM-ENGINE. + + + _Quick moves the balanced beam, of giant-birth, + Wields his large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth._ + + CANTO I. l. 261. + + +The expansive force of steam was known in some degree to the antients, +Hero of Alexandria describes an application of it to produce a rotative +motion by the re-action of steam issuing from a sphere mounted upon an +axis, through two small tubes bent into tangents, and issuing from the +opposite sides of the equatorial diameter of the sphere, the sphere was +supplied with steam by a pipe communicating with a pan of boiling water, +and entering the sphere at one of its poles. + +A french writer about the year 1630 describes a method of raising water +to the upper part of a house by filling a chamber with steam, and +suffering it to condense of itself, but it seems to have been mere +theory, as his method was scarcely practicable as he describes it. In +1655 the Marquis of Worcester mentions a method of raising water by fire +in his Century of Inventions, but he seems only to have availed himself +of the expansive force and not to have known the advantages arising from +condensing the steam by an injection of cold water. This latter and most +important improvement seems to have been made by Capt. Savery sometime +prior to 1698, for in that year his patent for the use of that invention +was confirmed by act of parliament. This gentleman appears to have been +the first who reduced the machine to practice and exhibited it in an +useful form. This method consisted only in expelling the air from a +vessel by steam and condensing the steam by an injection of cold water, +which making a vacuum, the pressure of the atmosphere forced the water +to ascend into the steam-vessel through a pipe of 24 to 26 feet high, +and by the admission of dense steam from the boiler, forcing the water +in the steam-vessel to ascend to the height desired. This construction +was defective because it required very strong vessels to resist the +force of the steam, and because an enormous quantity of steam was +condensed by coming in contact with the cold water in the steam-vessel. + +About or soon after that time M. Papin attempted a steam-engine on +similar principles but rather more defective in its construction. + +The next improvement was made very soon afterwards by Messrs. Newcomen +and Cawley of Dartmouth, it consisted in employing for the steam-vessel +a hollow cylinder, shut at bottom and open at top, furnished with a +piston sliding easily up and down in it, and made tight by oakum or +hemp, and covered with water. This piston is suspended by chains from +one end of a beam, moveable upon an axis in the middle of its length, to +the other end of this beam are suspended the pump-rods. + +The danger of bursting the vessels was avoided in this machine, as +however high the water was to be raised it was not necessary to increase +the density of the steam but only to enlarge the diameter of the +cylinder. + +Another advantage was, that the cylinder not being made so cold as in +Savary's method, much less steam was lost in filling it after each +condensation. + +The machine however still remained imperfect, for the cold water thrown +into the cylinder acquired heat from the steam it condensed, and being +in a vessel exhausted of air it produced steam itself, which in part +resisted the action of the atmosphere on the piston; were this remedied +by throwing in more cold water the destruction of steam in the next +filling of the cylinder would be proportionally increased. It has +therefore in practice been found adviseable not to load these engines +with columns of water weighing more than seven pounds for each square +inch of the area of the piston. The bulk of water when converted into +steam remained unknown until Mr. J. Watt, then of Glasgow, in 1764, +determined it to be about 1800 times more rare than water. It soon +occurred to Mr. Watt that a perfect engine would be that in which no +steam should be condensed in filling the cylinder, and in which the +steam should be so perfectly cooled as to produce nearly a perfect +vacuum. + +Mr. Watt having ascertained the degree of heat in which water boiled in +vacuo, and under progressive degrees of pressure, and instructed by Dr. +Black's discovery of latent heat, having calculated the quantity of cold +water necessary to condense certain quantities of steam so far as to +produce the exhaustion required, he made a communication from the +cylinder to a cold vessel previously exhausted of air and water, into +which the steam rushed by its elasticity, and became immediately +condensed. He then adapted a cover to the cylinder and admitted steam +above the piston to press it down instead of air, and instead of +applying water he used oil or grease to fill the pores of the oakum and +to lubricate the cylinder. + +He next applied a pump to extract the injection water, the condensed +steam, and the air, from the condensing vessel, every stroke of the +engine. + +To prevent the cooling of the cylinder by the contact of the external +air, he surrounded it with a case containing steam, which he again +protected by a covering of matters which conduct heat slowly. + +This construction presented an easy means of regulating the power of the +engine, for the steam being the acting power, as the pipe which admits +it from the boiler is more or less opened, a greater or smaller quantity +can enter during the time of a stroke, and consequently the engine can +act with exactly the necessary degree of energy. + +Mr. Watt gained a patent for his engine in 1768, but the further +persecution of his designs were delayed by other avocations till 1775, +when in conjunction with Mr. Boulton of Soho near Birmingham, numerous +experiments were made on a large scale by their united ingenuity, and +great improvements added to the machinery, and an act of parliament +obtained for the prolongation of their patent for twenty-five years, +they have since that time drained many of the deep mines in Cornwall, +which but for the happy union of such genius must immediately have +ceased to work. One of these engines works a pump of eighteen inches +diameter, and upwards of 100 fathom or 600 feet high, at the rate of ten +to twelve strokes of seven feet long each, in a minute, and that with +one fifth part of the coals which a common engine would have taken to do +the same work. The power of this engine may be easier comprehended by +saying that it raised a weight equal to 81000 pounds 80 feet high in a +minute, which is equal to the combined action of 200 good horses. In +Newcomen's engine this would have required a cylinder of the enormous +diameter of 120 inches or ten feet, but as in this engine of Mr. Watt +and Mr. Boulton the steam acts, and a vacuum is made, alternately above +and below the piston, the power exerted is double to what the same +cylinder would otherways produce, and is further augmented by an +inequality in the length of the two ends of the lever. + +These gentlemen have also by other contrivances applied their engines to +the turning of mills for almost every purpose, of which that great pile +of machinery the Albion Mill is a well known instance. Forges, slitting +mills, and other great works are erected where nature has furnished no +running water, and future times may boast that this grand and useful +engine was invented and perfected in our own country. + +Since the above article went to the press the Albion Mill is no more; it +is supposed to have been set on fire by interested or malicious +incendaries, and is burnt to the ground. Whence London has lost the +credit and the advantage of possessing the most powerful machine in the +world! + + + + + NOTE XII.--FROST. + + + _In phalanx firm the fiend of Frost assail._ + + CANTO I. l. 439. + + +The cause of the expansion of water during its conversion into ice is +not yet well ascertained, it was supposed to have been owing to the air +being set at liberty in the act of congelation which was before +dissolved in the water, and the many air bubbles in ice were thought to +countenance this opinion. But the great force with which ice expands +during its congelation, so as to burst iron bombs and coehorns, +according to the experiments of Major Williams at Quebec, invalidates +this idea of the cause of it, and may sometime be brought into use as a +means of breaking rocks in mining, or projecting cannon-balls, or for +other mechanical purposes, if the means of producing congelation should +ever be discovered to be as easy as the means of producing combustion. + +Mr. de Mairan attributes the increase of bulk of frozen water to the +different arrangement of the particles of it in crystallization, as they +are constantly joined at an angle of 60 degrees; and must by this +disposition he thinks occupy a greater volume than if they were +parallel. He found the augmentation of the water during freezing to +amount to one-fourteenth, one-eighteenth, one-nineteenth, and when the +water was previously purged of air to only one-twenty-second part. He +adds that a piece of ice, which was at first only one-fourteenth part +specifically lighter than water, on being exposed some days to the frost +became one-twelfth lighter than water. Hence he thinks ice by being +exposed to greater cold still increases in volume, and to this +attributes the bursting of ice in ponds and on the glaciers. See Lewis's +Commerce of Arts, p. 257. and the note on Muschus in the other volume of +this work. + +This expansion of ice well accounts for the greater mischief done by +vernal frosts attended with moisture, (as by hoar-frosts,) than by the +dry frosts called black frosts. Mr. Lawrence in a letter to Mr. Bradley +complains that the dale-mist attended with a frost on may-day had +destroyed all his tender fruits; though there was a sharper frost the +night before without a mist, that did him no injury; and adds, that a +garden not a stone's throw from his own on a higher situation, being +above the dale-mist, had received no damage. Bradley, Vol. II. p. 232. + +Mr. Hunter by very curious experiments discovered that the living +principle in fish, in vegetables, and even in eggs and seeds, possesses +a power of resisting congelation. Phil. Trans. There can be no doubt but +that the exertions of animals to avoid the pain of cold may produce in +them a greater quantity of heat, at least for a time, but that +vegetables, eggs, or seeds, should possess such a quality is truly +wonderful. Others have imagined that animals possess a power of +preventing themselves from becoming much warmer than 98 degrees of heat, +when immersed in an atmosphere above that degree of heat. It is true +that the increased exhalation from their bodies will in some measure +cool them, as much heat is carried off by the evaporation of fluids, but +this is a chemical not an animal process. The experiments made by those +who continued many minutes in the air of a room heated so much above any +natural atmospheric heat, do not seem conclusive, as they remained in it +a less time than would have been necessary to have heated a mass of beef +of the same magnitude, and the circulation of the blood in living +animals, by perpetually bringing new supplies of fluid to the skin, +would prevent the external surface from becoming hot much sooner than +the whole mass. And thirdly, there appears no power of animal bodies to +produce cold in diseases, as in scarlet fever, in which the increased +action of the vessels of the skin produces heat and contributes to +exhaust the animal power already too much weakened. + +It has been thought by many that frosts meliorate the ground, and that +they are in general salubrious to mankind. In respect to the former it +is now well known that ice or snow contain no nitrous particles, and +though frost by enlarging the bulk of moist clay leaves it softer for a +time after the thaw, yet as soon as the water exhales, the clay becomes +as hard as before, being pressed together by the incumbent atmosphere, +and by its self-attraction, called _setting_ by the potters. Add to this +that on the coasts of Africa, where frost is unknown, the fertility of +the soil is almost beyond our conceptions of it. In respect to the +general salubrity of frosty seasons the bills of mortality are an +evidence in the negative, as in long frosts many weakly and old people +perish from debility occasioned by the cold, and many classes of birds +and other wild animals are benumbed by the cold or destroyed by the +consequent scarcity of food, and many tender vegetables perish from the +degree of cold. + +I do not think it should be objected to this doctrine that there are +moist days attended with a brisk cold wind when no visible ice appears, +and which are yet more disagreeable and destructive than frosty weather. +For on these days the cold moisture, which is deposited on the skin is +there evaporated and thus produces a degree of cold perhaps greater than +the milder frosts. Whence even in such days both the disagreeable +sensations and insalubrious effects belong to the cause abovementioned, +viz. the intensity of the cold. Add to this that in these cold moist +days as we pass along or as the wind blows upon us, a new sheet of cold +water is as it were perpetually applied to us and hangs upon our bodies, +now as water is 800 times denser than air and is a much better conductor +of heat, we are starved with cold like those who go into a cold bath, +both by the great number of particles in contact with the skin and their +greater facility of receiving our heat. + +It may nevertheless be true that snows of long duration in our winters +may be less injurious to vegetation than great rains and shorter frosts, +for two reasons. 1. Because great rains carry down many thousand pounds +worth of the best part of the manure off the lands into the sea, whereas +snow dissolves more gradually and thence carries away less from the +land; any one may distinguish a snow-flood from a rain-flood by the +transparency of the water. Hence hills or fields with considerable +inclination of surface should be ploughed horizontally that the furrows +may stay the water from showers till it deposits its mud. 2. Snow +protects vegetables from the severity of the frost, since it is always +in a state of thaw where it is in contact with the earth; as the earth's +heat is about 48° and the heat of thawing snow is 32° the vegetables +between them are kept in a degree of heat about 40, by which many of +them are preserved. See note on Muschus, Vol. II. of this work. + + + + + NOTE XIII.--ELECTRICITY + + + _Cold from each point cerulean lustres gleam._ + + CANTO I. l. 339. + + + ELECTRIC POINTS. + +There was an idle dispute whether knobs or points were preferable on the +top of conductors for the defence of houses. The design of these +conductors is to permit the electric matter accumulated in the clouds to +pass through them into the earth in a smaller continued stream as the +cloud approaches, before it comes to what is termed striking distance; +now as it is well known that accumulated electricity will pass to points +at a much greater distance than it will to knobs there can be no doubt +of their preference; and it would seem that the finer the point and the +less liable to become rusty the better, as it would take off the +lightening while it was still at a greater distance, and by that means +preserve a greater extent of building; the very extremity of the point +should be of pure silver or gold, and might be branched into a kind of +brush, since one small point can not be supposed to receive so great a +quantity as a thicker bar might conduct into the earth. + +If an insulated metallic ball is armed with a point, like a needle, +projecting from one part of it, the electric fluid will be seen in the +dark to pass off from this point, so long as the ball is kept supplied +with electricity. The reason of this is not difficult to comprehend, +every part of the electric atmosphere which surrounds the insulated ball +is attracted to that ball by a large surface of it, whereas the electric +atmosphere which is near the extremity of the needle is attracted to it +by only a single point, in consequence the particles of electric matter +near the surface of the ball approach towards it and push off by their +greater gravitation the particles of electric matter over the point of +the needle in a continued stream. + +Something like this happens in respect to the diffusion of oil on water +from a pointed cork, an experiment which was many years ago shewn me by +Dr. Franklin; he cut a piece of cork about the size of a letter-wafer +and left on one edge of it a point about a sixth of an inch in length +projecting as a tangent to the circumference. This was dipped in oil and +thrown on a pond of water and continued to revolve as the oil left the +point for a great many minutes. The oil descends from the floating cork +upon the water being diffused upon it without friction and perhaps +without contact; but its going off at the point so forcibly as to make +the cork revolve in a contrary direction seems analogous to the +departure of the electric fluid from points. + +Can any thing similar to either of these happen in respect to the +earth's atmosphere and give occasion to the breezes on the tops of +mountains, which may be considered as points on the earths +circumference? + + + FAIRY-RINGS. + +There is a phenomenon supposed to be electric which is yet unaccounted +for, I mean the Fairy-rings, as they are called, so often seen on the +grass. The numerous flashes of lightning which occur every summer are, I +believe, generally discharged on the earth, and but seldom (if ever) +from one cloud to another. Moist trees are the most frequent conductors +of these flashes of lightning, and I am informed by purchasers of wood +that innumerable trees are thus cracked and injured. At other times +larger parts or prominences of clouds gradually sinking as they move +along, are discharged on the moisture parts of grassy plains. Now this +knob or corner of a cloud in being attracted by the earth will become +nearly cylindrical, as loose wool would do when drawn out into a thread, +and will strike the earth with a stream of electricity perhaps two or +ten yards in diameter. Now as a stream of electricity displaces the air +it passes through, it is plain no part of the grass can be burnt by it, +but just the external ring of this cylinder where the grass can have +access to the air, since without air nothing can be calcined. This earth +after having been so calcined becomes a richer soil, and either funguses +or a bluer grass for many years mark the place. That lightning displaces +the air in its passage is evinced by the loud crack that succeeds it, +which is owing to the sides of the aerial vacuum clapping together when +the lightning is withdrawn. That nothing will calcine without air is now +well understood from the acids produced in the burning of phlogistic +substances, and may be agreeably seen by suspending a paper on an iron +prong and putting it into the centre of the blaze of an iron-furnace; it +may be held there some seconds and may be again withdrawn without its +being burnt, if it be passed quickly into the flame and out again +through the external part of it which is in contact with the air. I know +some circles of many yards diameter of this kind near Foremark in +Derbyshire which annually produce large white funguses and stronger +grass, and have done so, I am informed, above thirty years. This +increased fertility of the ground by calcination or charring, and its +continuing to operate so many years is well worth the attention of the +farmer, and shews the use of paring and burning new turf in agriculture, +which produces its effect not so much by the ashes of the vegetable +fibres as by charring the soil which adheres to them. + +These situations, whether from eminence or from moisture, which were +proper once to attract and discharge a thunder-cloud, are more liable +again to experience the same. Hence many fairy-rings are often seen near +each other either without intersecting each other, as I saw this summer +in a garden in Nottinghamshire, or intersecting each other as described +on Arthur's seat near Edinburgh in the Edinb. Trans. Vol. II. p. 3. + + + + + NOTE XIV.--BUDS AND BULBS. + + + _Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd + In buds imprison'd, or in bulbs intomb'd._ + + CANTO I. l. 459. + + +A tree is properly speaking a family or swarm of buds, each bud being an +individual plant, for if one of these buds be torn or cut out and +planted in the earth with a glass cup inverted over it to prevent its +exhalation from being at first greater than its power of absorption, it +will produce a tree similar to its parent; each bud has a leaf, which is +its lungs, appropriated to it, and the bark of the tree is a congeries +of the roots of these individual buds, whence old hollow trees are often +seen to have some branches flourish with vigour after the internal wood +is almost intirely decayed and vanished. According to this idea Linneus +has observed that trees and shrubs are roots above ground, for if a tree +be inverted leaves will grow from the root-part and roots from the +trunk-part. Phil. Bot p. 39. Hence it appears that vegetables have two +methods of propagating themselves, the oviparous as by seeds, and the +viviparous as by their buds and bulbs, and that the individual plants, +whether from seeds or buds or bulbs, are all annual productions like +many kinds of insects as the silk-worm, the parent perishing in the +autumn after having produced an embryon, which lies in a torpid state +during the winter, and is matured in the succeeding summer. Hence +Linneus names buds and bulbs the winter-cradles of the plant or +hybernacula, and might have given the same term to seeds. In warm +climates few plants produce buds, as the vegetable life can be +compleated in one summer, and hence the hybernacle is not wanted; in +cold climates also some plants do not produce buds, as philadelphus, +frangula, viburnum, ivy, heath, wood-nightshade, rue, geranium. + +The bulbs of plants are another kind of winter-cradle, or hybernacle, +adhering to the descending trunk, and are found in the perennial +herbaceous plants which are too tender to bear the cold of the winter. +The production of these subterraneous winter lodges, is not yet perhaps +clearly understood, they have been distributed by Linneus according to +their forms into scaly, solid, coated, and jointed bulbs, which however +does not elucidate their manner of production. As the buds of trees may +be truly esteemed individual annual plants, their roots constituting the +bark of the tree, it follows that these roots (viz. of each individual +bud) spread themselves over the last years bark, making a new bark over +the old one, and thence descending cover with a new bark the old roots +also in the same manner. A similar circumstance I suppose to happen in +some herbaceous plants, that is, a new bark is annually produced over +the old root, and thus for some years at least the old root or caudex +increases in size and puts up new stems. As these roots increase in size +the central part I suppose changes like the internal wood of a tree and +does not possess any vegetable life, and therefore gives out no fibres +or rootlets, and hence appears bitten off, as in valerian, plantain, and +devil's-bit. And this decay of the central part of the root I suppose +has given occasion to the belief of the root-fibres drawing down the +bulb so much insisted on by Mr. Milne in his Botanical Dictionary, Art. +Bulb. + +From the observations and drawings of various kinds of bulbous roots at +different times of their growth, sent me by a young lady of nice +observation, it appears probable that all bulbous roots properly so +called perish annually in this climate: Bradley, Miller, and the Author +of Spectacle de la Nature, observe that the tulip annually renews its +bulb, for the stalk of the old flower is found under the old dry coat +but on the outside of the new bulb. This large new bulb is the flowering +bulb, but besides this there are other small new bulbs produced between +the coats of this large one but from the same caudex, (or circle from +which the root-fibres spring;) these small bulbs are leaf-bearing bulbs, +and renew themselves annually with increasing size till they bear +flowers. + +Miss ---- favoured me with the following curious experiment: She took a +small tulip-root out of the earth when the green leaves were +sufficiently high to show the flower, and placed it in a glass of water; +the leaves and flower soon withered and the bulb became wrinkled and +soft, but put out one small side bulb and three bulbs beneath descending +an inch into the water by long processes from the caudex, the old bulb +in some weeks intirely decayed; on dissecting this monster, the middle +descending bulb was found by its process to adhere to the caudex and to +the old flower-stem, and the side ones were separated from the flower- +stem by a few shrivelled coats but adhered to the caudex. Whence she +concludes that these last were off-sets or leaf-bulbs which should have +been seen between the coats of the new flower-bulb if it had been left +to grow in the earth, and that the middle one would have been the new +flower-bulb. In some years (perhaps in wet seasons) the florists are +said to lose many of their tulip-roots by a similar process, the new +leaf-bulbs being produced beneath the old ones by an elongation of the +caudex without any new flower-bulbs. + +By repeated dissections she observes that the leaf-bulbs or off-sets of +tulip, crocus, gladiolus, fritillary, are renewed in the same manner as +the flowering-bulbs, contrary to the opinion of many writers; this new +leaf-bulb is formed on the inside of the coats from whence the leaves +grow, and is more or less advanced in size as the outer coats and leaves +are more or less shrivelled. In examining tulip, iris, hyacinth, hare- +bell, the new bulb was invariably found _between_ the flower-stem and +the base of the innermost leaf of those roots which had flowered, and +_inclosed_ by the base of the innermost leaf in those roots which had +not flowered, in both cases adhering to the caudex or fleshy circle from +which the root-fibres spring. + +Hence it is probable that the bulbs of hyacinths are renewed annually, +but that this is performed from the caudex within the old bulb, the +outer coat of which does not so shrivel as in crocus and fritillary and +hence this change is not so apparent. But I believe as soon as the +flower is advanced the new bulbs may be seen on dissection, nor does the +annual increase of the size of the root of cyclamen and of aletris +capensis militate against this annual renewal of them, since the leaf- +bulbs or off-sets, as described above, are increased in size as they are +annually renewed. See note on orchis, and on anthoxanthum, in Vol. II. +of this work. + + + + + NOTE XV.--SOLAR VOLCANOS. + + + _From the deep craters of his realms of fire + The whirling sun this ponderous planet hurld_. + + CANTO II. l. 14. + + +Dr. Alexander Wilson, Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow, published a +paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1774, demonstrating that the +spots in the sun's disk are real cavities, excavations through the +luminous material, which covers the other parts of the sun's surface. +One of these cavities he found to be about 4000 miles deep and many +times as wide. Some objections were made to this doctrine by M. De la +Laude in the Memoirs of the French Academy for the year 1776, which +however have been ably answered by Professor Wilson in reply in the +Philos. Trans. for 1783. Keil observes, in his Astronomical Lectures, p. +44, "We frequently see spots in the sun which are larger and broader not +only than Europe or Africa, but which even equal, if they do not exceed, +the surface of the whole terraqueous globe." Now that these cavities are +made in the sun's body by a process of nature similar to our earthquakes +does not seem improbable on several accounts. 1. Because from this +discovery of Dr. Wilson it appears that the internal parts of the sun +are not in a state of inflammation or of ejecting light, like the +external part or luminous ocean which covers it; and hence that a +greater degree of heat or inflammation and consequent expansion or +explosion may occasionally be produced in its internal or dark nucleus. +2. Because the solar spots or cavities are frequently increased or +diminished in size. 3. New ones are often produced. 4. And old ones +vanish. 5. Because there are brighter or more luminous parts of the +sun's disk, called faculae by Scheiner and Hevelius, which would seem to +be volcanos in the sun, or, as Dr. Wilson calls them, "eructations of +matter more luminous than that which covers the sun's surface." 6. To +which may be added that all the planets added together with their +satellites do not amount to more than one six hundred and fiftieth part +of the mass of the sun according to Sir Isaac Newton. + +Now if it could be supposed that the planets were originally thrown out +of the sun by larger sun-quakes than those frequent ones which occasion +these spots or excavations above-mentioned, what would happen? 1. +According to the observations and opinion of Mr. Herschel the sun itself +and all its planets are moving forwards round some other centre with an +unknown velocity, which may be of opake matter corresponding with the +very antient and general idea of a chaos. Whence if a ponderous planet, +as Saturn, could be supposed to be projected from the sun by an +explosion, the motion of the sun itself might be at the same time +disturbed in such a manner as to prevent the planet from falling again +into it. 2. As the sun revolves round its own axis its form must be that +of an oblate spheroid like the earth, and therefore a body projected +from its surface perpendicularly upwards from that surface would not +rise perpendicularly from the sun's centre, unless it happened to be +projected exactly from either of its poles or from its equator. Whence +it may not be necessary that a planet if thus projected from the sun by +explosion should again fall into the sun. 3. They would part from the +sun's surface with the velocity with which that surface was moving, and +with the velocity acquired by the explosion, and would therefore move +round the sun in the same direction in which the sun rotates on its +axis, and perform eliptic orbits. 4. All the planets would move the same +way round the sun, from this first motion acquired at leaving its +surface, but their orbits would be inclined to each other according to +the distance of the part, where they were thrown out, from the sun's +equator. Hence those which were ejected near the sun's equator would +have orbits but little inclined to each other, as the primary planets; +the plain of all whose orbits are inclined but seven degrees and a half +from each other. Others which were ejected near the sun's poles would +have much more eccentric orbits, as they would partake so much less of +the sun's rotatory motion at the time they parted from his surface, and +would therefore be carried further from the sun by the velocity they had +gained by the explosion which ejected them, and become comets. 5. They +would all obey the same laws of motion in their revolutions round the +sun; this has been determined by astronomers, who have demonstrated that +they move through equal areas in equal times. 6. As their annual periods +would depend on the height they rose by the explosion, these would +differ in them all. 7. As their diurnal revolutions would depend on one +side of the exploded matter adhering more than the other at the time it +was torn off by the explosion, these would also differ in the different +planets, and not bear any proportion to their annual periods. Now as all +these circumstances coincide with the known laws of the planetary +system, they serve to strengthen this conjecture. + +This coincidence of such a variety of circumstances induced M. de Buffon +to suppose that the planets were all struck off from the sun's surface +by the impact of a large comet, such as approached so near the sun's +disk, and with such amazing velocity, in the year 1680, and is expected +to return in 2255. But Mr. Buffon did not recollect that these comets +themselves are only planets with more eccentric orbits, and that +therefore it must be asked, what had previously struck off these comets +from the sun's body? 2. That if all these planets were struck off from +the sun at the same time, they must have been so near as to have +attracted each other and have formed one mass: 3. That we shall want new +causes for separating the secondary planets from the primary ones, and +must therefore look out for some other agent, as it does not appear how +the impulse of a comet could have made one planet roll round another at +the time they both of them were driven off from the surface of the sun. + +If it should be asked, why new planets are not frequently ejected from +the sun? it may be answered, that after many large earthquakes many +vents are left for the elastic vapours to escape, and hence, by the +present appearance of the surface of our earth, earthquakes prodigiously +larger than any recorded in history have existed; the same circumstances +may have affected the sun, on whose surface there are appearances of +volcanos, as described above. Add to this, that some of the comets, and +even the georgium sidus, may, for ought we know to the contrary, have +been emitted from the sun in more modern days, and have been diverted +from their course, and thus prevented from returning into the sun, by +their approach to some of the older planets, which is somewhat +countenanced by the opinion several philosophers have maintained, that +the quantity of matter of the sun has decreased. Dr. Halley observed, +that by comparing the proportion which the periodical time of the moon +bore to that of the sun in former times, with the proportion between +them at present, that the moon is found to be somewhat accelerated in +respect to the sun. Pemberton's View of Sir Isaac Newton, p. 247. And so +large is the body of this mighty luminary, that all the planets thus +thrown out of it would make scarcely any perceptible diminution of it, +as mentioned above. The cavity mentioned above, as measured by Dr. +Wilson of 4000 miles in depth, not penetrating an hundredth part of the +sun's semi-diameter; and yet, as its width was many times greater than +its depth, was large enough to contain a greater body than our +terrestrial world. + +I do not mean to conceal, that from the laws of gravity unfolded by Sir +Isaac Newton, supposing the sun to be a sphere and to have no +progressive motion, and not liable itself to be disturbed by the +supposed projection of the planets from it, that such planets must +return into the sun. The late Rev. William Ludlam, of Leicester, whose +genius never met with reward equal to its merits, in a letter to me, +dated January, 1787, after having shewn, as mentioned above, that +planets so projected from the sun would return to it, adds, "That a body +as large as the moon so projected, would disturb the motion of the earth +in its orbit, is certain; but the calculation of such disturbing forces +is difficult. The body in some circumstances might become a satellite, +and both move round their common centre of gravity, and that centre be +carried in an annual orbit round the sun." + +There are other circumstances which might have concurred at the time of +such supposed explosions, which would render this idea not impossible. +1. The planets might be thrown out of the sun at the time the sun itself +was rising from chaos, and be attracted by other suns in their vicinity +rising at the same time out of chaos, which would prevent them from +returning into the sun. 2. The new planet in its course or ascent from +the sun, might explode and eject a satellite, or perhaps more than one, +and thus by its course being affected might not return into the sun. 3. +If more planets were ejected at the same time from the sun, they might +attract and disturb each others course at the time they left the body of +the sun, or very soon afterwards, when they would be so much nearer each +other. + + + + + NOTE XVI.--CALCAREOUS EARTH. + + + _While Ocean wrap'd it in his azure robe_. + + CANTO II. l. 34. + + +From having observed that many of the highest mountains of the world +consist of lime-stone replete with shells, and that these mountains bear +the marks of having been lifted up by subterraneous fires from the +interior parts of the globe; and as lime-stone replete with shells is +found at the bottom of many of our deepest mines some philosophers have +concluded that the nucleus of the earth was for many ages covered with +water which was peopled with its adapted animals; that the shells and +bones of these animals in a long series of time produced solid strata in +the ocean surrounding the original nucleus. + +These strata consist of the accumulated exuviae of shell-fish, the +animals perished age after age but their shells remained, and in +progression of time produced the amazing quantities of lime-stone which +almost cover the earth. Other marine animals called coralloids raised +walls and even mountains by the congeries of their calcareous +habitations, these perpendicular corralline rocks make some parts of the +Southern Ocean highly dangerous, as appears in the journals of Capt. +Cook. From contemplating the immense strata of lime-stone, both in +respect to their extent and thickness, formed from these shells of +animals, philosophers have been led to conclude that much of the water +of the sea has been converted into calcareous earth by passing through +their organs of digestion. The formation of calcareous earth seems more +particularly to be an animal process as the formation of clay belongs to +the vegetable economy; thus the shells of crabs and other testaceous +fish are annually reproduced from the mucous membrane beneath them; the +shells of eggs are first a mucous membrane, and the calculi of the +kidneys and those found in all other parts of our system which sometimes +contain calcareous earth, seem to originate from inflamed membranes; the +bones themselves consist of calcareous earth united with the phosphoric +or animal acid, which may be separated by dissolving the ashes of +calcined bones in the nitrous acid; the various secretions of animals, +as their saliva and urine, abound likewise with calcareous earth, as +appears by the incrustations about the teeth and the sediments of urine. +It is probable that animal mucus is a previous process towards the +formation of calcareous earth; and that all the calcareous earth in the +world which is seen in lime-stones, marbles, spars, alabasters, marls, +(which make up the greatest part of the earth's crust, as far as it has +yet been penetrated,) have been formed originally by animal and +vegetable bodies from the mass of water, and that by these means the +solid part of the terraqueous globe has perpetually been in an +increasing state and the water perpetually in a decreasing one. + +After the mountains of shells and other recrements of aquatic animals +were elevated above the water the upper heaps of them were gradually +dissolved by rains and dews and oozing through were either perfectly +crystallized in smaller cavities and formed calcareous spar, or were +imperfectly crystallized on the roofs of larger cavities and produced +stalactes; or mixing with other undissolved shells beneath them formed +marbles, which were more or less crystallized and more or less pure; or +lastly, after being dissolved, the water was exhaled from them in such a +manner that the external parts became solid, and forming an arch +prevented the internal parts from approaching each other so near as to +become solid, and thus chalk was produced. I have specimens of chalk +formed at the root of several stalactites, and in their central parts; +and of other stalactites which are hollow like quills from a similar +cause, viz. from the external part of the stalactite hardening first by +its evaporation, and thus either attracting the internal dissolved +particles to the crust, or preventing them from approaching each other +so as to form a solid body. Of these I saw many hanging from the arched +roof of a cellar under the high street in Edinburgh. + +If this dissolved limestone met with vitriolic acid it was converted +into alabaster, parting at the same time with its fixable air. If it met +with the fluor acid it became fluor; if with the siliceous acid, flint; +and when mixed with clay and sand, or either of them, acquires the name +of marl. And under one or other of these forms composes a great part of +the solid globe of the earth. + +Another mode in which limestone appears is in the form of round +granulated particles, but slightly cohering together; of this kind a bed +extends over Lincoln heath, perhaps twenty miles long by ten wide. The +form of this calcareous sand, its angles having been rubbed off, and the +flatness of its bed, evinces that that part of the country was so formed +under water, the particles of sand having thus been rounded, like all +other rounded pebbles. This round form of calcareous sand and of other +larger pebbles is produced under water, partly by their being more or +less soluble in water, and hence the angular parts become dissolved, +first, by their exposing a larger surface to the action of the +menstruum, and secondly, from their attrition against each other by the +streams or tides, for a great length of time, successively as they were +collected, and perhaps when some of them had not acquired their hardest +state. + +This calcareous sand has generally been called ketton-stone and believed +to resemble the spawn of fish, it has acquired a form so much rounder +than siliceous sand from its being of so much softer a texture and also +much more soluble in water. There are other soft calcareous stones +called tupha which are deposited from water on mosses, as at Matlock, +from which moss it is probable the water may receive something which +induces it the readier to part with its earth. + +In some lime-stones the living animals seem to have been buried as well +as their shells during some great convulsion of nature, these shells +contain a black coaly substance within them, in others some phlogiston +or volatile alcali from the bodies of the dead animals remains mixed +with the stone, which is then called liver-stone as it emits a +sulphurous smell on being struck, and there is a stratum about six +inches thick extends a considerable way over the iron ore at Wingerworth +near Chesterfield in Derbyshire which seems evidently to have been +formed from the shells of fresh-water muscles. + +There is however another source of calcareous earth besides the aquatic +one above described and that is from the recrements of land animals and +vegetables as found in marls, which consist of various mixtures of +calcareous earth, sand, and clay, all of them perhaps principally from +vegetable origin. + +Dr. Hutton is of opinion that the rocks of marble have been softened by +fire into a fluid mass, which he thinks under immense pressure might be +done without the escape of their carbonic acid or fixed air. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. If this ingenious idea be allowed it might account for +the purity of some white marbles, as during their fluid state there +might be time for their partial impurities, whether from the bodies of +the animals which produced the shells or from other extraneous matter, +either to sublime to the uppermost part of the stratum or to subside to +the lowermost part of it. As a confirmation of this theory of Dr. +Hutton's it may be added that some calcareous stones are found mixed +with lime, and have thence lost a part of their fixed air or carbonic +gas, as the bath-stone, and on that account hardens on being exposed to +the air, and mixed with sulphur produces calcareous liver of sulphur. +Falconer on Bath-water. Vol. I. p. 156. and p. 257. Mr. Monnet found +lime in powder in the mountains of Auvergne, and suspected it of +volcanic origin. Kirwan's Min. p. 22. + + + + + NOTE XVII.--MORASSES. + + + _Gnomes! you then taught transuding dews to pass + Through time-fallen woods, and root-inwove morass_. + + CANTO II. l. 115. + + +Where woods have repeatedly grown and perished morasses are in process +of time produced, and by their long roots fill up the interstices till +the whole becomes for many yards deep a mass of vegetation. This fact is +curiously verified by an account given many years ago by the Earl of +Cromartie, of which the following is a short abstract. + +In the year 1651 the EARL OF CROMARTIE being then nineteen years of age +saw a plain in the parish of Lockburn covered over with a firm standing +wood, which was so old that not only the trees had no green leaves upon +them but the bark was totally thrown off, which he was there informed by +the old countrymen was the universal manner in which fir-woods +terminated, and that in twenty or thirty years the trees would cast +themselves up by the roots. About fifteen years after he had occasion to +travel the same way and observed that there was not a tree nor the +appearance of a root of any of them; but in their place the whole plain +where the wood stood was covered with a flat green moss or morass, and +on asking the country people what was become of the wood he was informed +that no one had been at the trouble to carry it away, but that it had +all been overturned by the wind, that the trees lay thick over each +other, and that the moss or bog had overgrown the whole timber, which +they added was occasioned by the moisture which came down from the high +hills above it and stagnated upon the plain, and that nobody could yet +pass over it, which however his Lordship was so incautious as to attempt +and slipt up to the arm-pits. Before the year 1699 that whole piece of +ground was become a solid moss wherein the peasants then dug turf or +peat, which however was not yet of the best sort. Philos. Trans. No. +330. Abridg. Vol. V. p. 272. + +Morasses in great length of time undergo variety of changes, first by +elutriation, and afterwards by fermentation, and the consequent heat. 1. +By water perpetually oozing through them the most soluble parts are +first washed away, as the essential salts, these together with the salts +from animal recrements are carried down the rivers into the sea, where +all of them seem to decompose each other except the marine salt. Hence +the ashes of peat contain little or no vegetable alcali and are not used +in the countries, where peat constitutes the fuel of the lower people, +for the purpose of washing linen. The second thing which is always seen +oozing from morasses is iron in solution, which produces chalybeate +springs, from whence depositions of ochre and variety of iron ores. The +third elutriation seems to consist of vegetable acid, which by means +unknown appears to be converted into all other acids. 1. Into marine and +nitrous acids as mentioned above. 2. Into vitriolic acid which is found +in some morasses so plentifully as to preserve the bodies of animals +from putrefaction which have been buried in them, and this acid carried +away by rain and dews and meeting with calcareous earth produces gypsum +or alabaster, with clay it produces alum, and deprived of its vital air +produces sulphur. 3. Fluor acid which being washed away and meeting with +calcareous earth produces fluor or cubic spar. 4. The siliceous acid +which seems to have been disseminated in great quantity either by +solution in water or by solution in air, and appears to have produced +the sand in the sea uniting with calcareous earth previously dissolved +in that element, from which were afterwards formed some of the grit- +stone rocks by means of a siliceous or calcareous cement. By its union +with the calcareous earth of the morass other strata of siliceous sand +have been produced; and by the mixture of this with clay and lime arose +the beds of marl. + +In other circumstances, probably where less moisture has prevailed, +morasses seem to have undergone a fermentation, as other vegetable +matter, new hay for instance is liable to do from the great quantity of +sugar it contains. From the great heat thus produced in the lower parts +of immense beds of morass the phlogistic part, or oil, or asphaltum, +becomes distilled, and rising into higher strata becomes again condensed +forming coal-beds of greater or less purity according to their greater +or less quantity of inflammable matter; at the same time the clay beds +become purer or less so, as the phlogistic part is more or less +completely exhaled from them. Though coal and clay are frequently +produced in this manner, yet I have no doubt, but that they are likewise +often produced by elutriation; in situations on declivities the clay is +washed away down into the valleys, and the phlogistic part or coal left +behind; this circumstance is seen in many valleys near the beds of +rivers, which are covered recently by a whitish impure clay, called +water-clay. See note XIX. XX. and XXIII. + +LORD CROMARTIE has furnished another curious observation on morasses in +the paper above referred to. In a moss near the town of Eglin in Murray, +though there is no river or water which communicates with the moss, yet +for three or four feet of depth in the moss there are little shell-fish +resembling oysters with living fish in them in great quantities, though +no such fish are found in the adjacent rivers, nor even in the water +pits in the moss, but only in the solid substance of the moss. This +curious fact not only accounts for the shells sometimes found on the +surface of coals, and in the clay above them; but also for a thin +stratum of shells which sometimes exists over iron-ore. + + + + + NOTE XVIII.--IRON. + + + _Cold waves, immerged, the glowing mass congeal, + And turn to adamant the hissing Steel._ + + CANTO II. l. 191. + + +As iron is formed near the surface of the earth, it becomes exposed to +streams of water and of air more than most other metallic bodies, and +thence becomes combined with oxygene, or vital air, and appears very +frequently in its calciform state, as in variety of ochres. Manganese, +and zinc, and sometimes lead, are also found near the surface of the +earth, and on that account become combined with vital air and are +exhibited in their calciform state. + +The avidity with which iron unites with oxygene, or vital air, in which +process much heat is given out from the combining materials, is shewn by +a curious experiment of M. Ingenhouz. A fine iron wire twisted spirally +is fixed to a cork, on the point of the spire is fixed a match made of +agaric dipped in solution of nitre; the match is then ignited, and the +wire with the cork put immediately into a bottle full of vital air, the +match first burns vividly, and the iron soon takes fire and consumes +with brilliant sparks till it is reduced to small brittle globules, +gaining an addition of about one third of its weight by its union, with +vital air. Annales de Chymie. Traité de Chimie, per Lavoisier, c. iii. + + + STEEL. + +It is probably owing to a total deprivation of vital air which it holds +with so great avidity, that iron on being kept many hours or days in +ignited charcoal becomes converted into steel, and thence acquires the +faculty of being welded when red hot long before it melts, and also the +power of becoming hard when immersed in cold water; both which I suppose +depend on the same cause, that is, on its being a worse conductor of +heat than other metals; and hence the surface both acquires heat much +sooner, and loses it much sooner, than the internal parts of it, in this +circumstance resembling glass. + +When steel is made very hot, and suddenly immerged in very cold water, +and moved about in it, the surface of the steel becomes cooled first, +and thus producing a kind of case or arch over the internal part, +prevents that internal part from contracting quite so much as it +otherwise would do, whence it becomes brittler and harder, like the +glass-drops called Prince Rupert's drops, which are made by dropping +melted glass into cold water. This idea is countenanced by the +circumstance that hardened steel is specifically lighter than steel +which is more gradually cooled. (Nicholson's Chemistry, p. 313.) Why the +brittleness and hardness of steel or glass should keep pace or be +companions to each other may be difficult to conceive. + +When a steel spring is forcibly bent till it break, it requires less +power to bend it through the first inch than the second, and less +through the second than the third; the same I suppose to happen if a +wire be distended till it break by hanging weights to it; this shews +that the particles may be forced from each other to a small distance by +less power, than is necessary to make them recede to a greater distance; +in this circumstance perhaps the attraction of cohesion differs from +that of gravitation, which exerts its power inversely as the squares of +the distance. Hence it appears that if the innermost particles of a +steel bar, by cooling the external surface first, are kept from +approaching each other so nearly as they otherwise would do, that they +become in the situation of the particles on the convex side of a bent +spring, and can not be forced further from each other except by a +greater power than would have been necessary to have made them recede +thus far. And secondly, that if they be forced a little further from +each other they separate; this may be exemplified by laying two magnetic +needles parallel to each other, the contrary poles together, then +drawing them longitudinally from each other, they will slide with small +force till they begin to separate, and will then require a stronger +force to really separate them. Hence it appears, that hardness and +brittleness depend on the same circumstance, that the particles are +removed to a greater distance from each other and thus resist any power +more forcibly which is applied to displace them further, this +constitutes hardness. And secondly, if they are displaced by such +applied force they immediately separate, and this constitutes +brittleness. + +Steel may be thus rendered too brittle for many purposes, on which +account artists have means of softening it again, by exposing it to +certain degrees of heat, for the construction of different kinds of +tools, which is called tempering it. Some artists plunge large tools in +very cold water as soon as they are compleatly ignited, and moving it +about, take it out as soon as it ceases to be luminous beneath the +water; it is then rubbed quickly with a file or on sand to clean the +surface, the heat which the metal still retains soon begins to produce a +succession of colours; if a hard temper be required, the piece is dipped +again and stirred about in cold water as soon as the yellow tinge +appears, if it be cooled when the purple tinge appears it becomes fit +for gravers' tools used in working upon metals; if cooled while blue it +is proper for springs. Nicholson's Chemistry, p. 313. Keir's Chemical +Dictionary. + + + MODERN PRODUCTION OF IRON. + +The recent production of iron is evinced from the chalybeate waters +which flow from morasses which lie upon gravel-beds, and which must +therefore have produced iron after those gravel-beds were raised out of +the sea. On the south side of the road between Cheadle and Okeymoor in +Staffordshire, yellow stains of iron are seen to penetrate the gravel +from a thin morass on its surface. There is a fissure eight or ten feet +wide, in a gravel-bed on the eastern side of the hollow road ascending +the hill about a mile from Trentham in Staffordshire, leading toward +Drayton in Shropshire, which fissure is filled up with nodules of iron- +ore. A bank of sods is now raised against this fissure to prevent the +loose iron nodules from falling into the turnpike road, and thus this +natural curiosity is at present concealed from travellers. A similar +fissure in a bed of marl, and filled up with iron nodules and with some +large pieces of flint, is seen on the eastern side of the hollow road +ascending the hill from the turnpike house about a mile from Derby in +the road towards Burton. And another such fissure filled with iron +nodes, appears about half a mile from Newton-Solney in Derbyshire, in +the road to Burton, near the summit of the hill. These collections of +iron and of flint must have been produced posterior to the elevation of +all those hills, and were thence evidently of vegetable or animal +origin. To which should be added, that iron is found in general in beds +either near the surface of the earth, or stratified with clay coals or +argillaceous grit, which are themselves productions of the modern world, +that is, from the recrements of vegetables and air-breathing animals. + +Not only iron but manganese, calamy, and even copper and lead appear in +some instances to have been of recent production. Iron and manganese are +detected in all vegetable productions, and it is probable other metallic +bodies might be found to exist in vegetable or animal matters, if we had +tests to detect them in very minute quantities. Manganese and calamy are +found in beds like iron near the surface of the earth, and in a +calciform state, which countenances their modern production. The recent +production of calamy, one of the ores of zinc, appears from its +frequently incrusting calcareous spar in its descent from the surface of +the earth into the uppermost fissures of the limestone mountains of +Derbyshire. That the calamy has been carried by its solution or +diffusion in water into these cavities, and not by its ascent from below +in form of steam, is evinced from its not only forming a crust over the +dogtooth spar, but by its afterwards dissolving or destroying the sparry +crystal. I have specimens of calamy in the form of dogtooth spar, two +inches high, which are hollow, and stand half an inch above the +diminished sparry crystal on which they were formed, like a sheath a +great deal too big for it; this seems to shew, that this process was +carried on in water, otherwise after the calamy had incrusted its spar, +and dissolved its surface, so as to form a hollow cavern over it, it +could not act further upon it except by the interposition of some +medium. As these spars and calamy are formed in the fissures of +mountains they must both have been formed after the elevation of those +mountains. + +In respect to the recent production of copper, it was before observed in +note on Canto II. l. 394, that the summit of the grit-stone mountain at +Hawkstone in Shropshire, is tinged with copper, which from the +appearance of the blue stains seems to have descended to the parts of +the rock beneath. I have a calciform ore of copper consisting of the +hollow crusts of cubic cells, which has evidently been formed on +crystals of fluor, which it has eroded in the same manner as the calamy +erodes the calcareous crystals, from whence may be deduced in the same +manner, the aqueous solution or diffusion, as well as the recent +production of this calciform ore of copper. + +Lead in small quantities is sometimes found in the fissures of coal- +beds, which fissures are previously covered with spar; and sometimes in +nodules of iron-ore. Of the former I have a specimen from near Caulk in +Derbyshire, and of the latter from Colebrook Dale in Shropshire. Though +all these facts shew that some metallic bodies are formed from vegetable +or animal recrements, as iron, and perhaps manganese and calamy, all +which are found near the surface of the earth; yet as the other metals +are found only in fissures of rocks, which penetrate to unknown depths, +they may be wholly or in part produced by ascending steams from +subterraneous fires, as mentioned in note on Canto II. l. 398. + + + + SEPTARIA OF IRON-STONE. + +Over some lime works at Walsall in Staffordshire, I observed some years +ago a stratum of iron earth about six inches thick, full of very large +cavities; these cavities were evidently produced when the material +passed from a semifluid state into a solid one; as the frit of the +potters, or a mixture of clay and water is liable to crack in drying; +which is owing to the further contraction of the internal part, after +the crust is become hard. These hollows are liable to receive extraneous +matter, as I believe gypsum, and sometimes spar, and even lead; a +curious specimen of the last was presented to me by Mr. Darby of +Colebrook Dale, which contains in its cavity some ounces of lead-ore. +But there are other septaria of iron-stone which seem to have had a very +different origin, their cavities having been formed in cooling or +congealing from an ignited state, as is ingeniously deduced by Dr. +Hutton from their internal structure. Edinb. Transact. Vol. I. p. 246. +The volcanic origin of these curious septaria appears to me to be +further evinced from their form and the places where they are found. +They consist of oblate spheroids and are found in many parts of the +earth totally detached from the beds in which they lie, as at East +Lothian in Scotland. Two of these, which now lie before me, were found +with many others immersed in argillaceous shale or shiver, surrounded by +broken limestone mountains at Bradbourn near Ashbourn in Derbyshire, and +were presented to me by Mr. Buxton, a gentleman of that town. One of +these is about fifteen inches in its equatorial diameter, and about six +inches in its polar one, and contains beautiful star-like septaria +incrusted and in part filled with calcareous spar. The other is about +eight inches in its equatorial diameter, and about four inches in its +polar diameter, and is quite solid, but shews on its internal surface +marks of different colours, as if a beginning separation had taken +place. Now as these septaria contain fifty per cent, of iron, according +to Dr. Hutton, they would soften or melt into a semifluid globule by +subterraneous fire by less heat than the limestone in their vicinity; +and if they were ejected through a hole or fissure would gain a circular +motion along with their progressive one by their greater friction or +adhesion to one side of the hole. This whirling motion would produce the +oblate spheroidical form which they possess, and which as far as I know +can not in any other way be accounted for. They would then harden in the +air as they rose into the colder parts of the atmosphere; and as they +descended into so soft a material as shale or shiver, their forms would +not be injured in their fall; and their presence in materials so +different from themselves becomes accounted for. + +About the tropics of the large septarium above mentioned, are circular +eminent lines, such as might have been left if it had been coarsely +turned in a lathe. These lines seem to consist of a fluid matter, which +seems to have exsuded in circular zones, as their edges appear blunted +or retracted; and the septarium seems to have split easier in such +sections parallel to its equator. Now as the crust would first begin to +cool and harden after its ejection in a semifluid state, and the +equatorial diameter would become gradually enlarged as it rose in the +air; the internal parts being softer would slide beneath the polar +crust, which might crack and permit part of the semifluid to exsude, and +it is probable the adhesion would thus become less in sections parallel +to the equator. Which further confirms this idea of the production of +these curious septaria. A new-cast cannon ball red-hot with its crust +only solid, if it were shot into the air would probably burst in its +passage; as it would consist of a more fluid material than these +septaria; and thus by discharging a shower of liquid iron would produce +more dreadful combustion, if used in war, than could be effected by a +ball, which had been cooled and was heated again: since in the latter +case the ball could not have its internal parts made hotter than the +crust of it, without first loosing its form. + + + + + NOTE XIX.--FLINT. + + + _Transmute to glittering flints her chalky lands, + Or sink on Ocean's bed in countless sands._ + + CANTO II. l. 217. + + + 1. SILICEOUS ROCKS. + +The great masses of siliceous sand which lie in rocks upon the beds of +limestone, or which are stratified with clay, coal, and iron-ore, are +evidently produced in the decomposition of vegetable or animal matters, +as explained in the note on morasses. Hence the impressions of vegetable +roots and even whole trees are often found in sand-stone, as well as in +coals and iron-ore. In these sand-rocks both the siliceous acid and the +calcareous base seem to be produced from the materials of the morass; +for though the presence of a siliceous acid and of a calcareous base +have not yet been separately exhibited from flints, yet from the analogy +of flint to fluor, and gypsum, and marble, and from the conversion of +the latter into flint, there can be little doubt of their existence. + +These siliceous sand-rocks are either held together by a siliceous +cement, or have a greater or less portion of clay in them, which in some +acts as a cement to the siliceous crystals, but in others is in such +great abundance that in burning them they become an imperfect porcelain +and are then used to repair the roads, as at Chesterfield in Derbyshire; +these are called argillaceous grit by Mr. Kirwan. In other places a +calcareous matter cements the crystals together; and in other places the +siliceous crystals lie in loose strata under the marl in the form of +white sand; as at Normington about a mile from Derby. + +The lowest beds of siliceous sand-stone produced from morasses seem to +obtain their acid from the morass, and their calcareous base from the +limestone on which it rests; These beds possess a siliceous cement, and +from their greater purity and hardness are used for course grinding- +stones and scyth stones, and are situated on the edges of limestone +countries, having lost the other strata of coals, or clay, or iron, +which were originally produced above them. Such are the sand-rocks +incumbent on limestone near Matlock in Derbyshire. As these siliceous +sand-rocks contain no marine productions scattered amongst them, they +appear to have been elevated, torn to pieces, and many fragments of them +scattered over the adjacent country by explosions, from fires within the +morass from which they have been formed; and which dissipated every +thing inflammable above and beneath them, except some stains of iron, +with which they are in some places spotted. If these sand-rocks had been +accumulated beneath the sea, and elevated along with the beds of +limestone on which they rest, some vestiges of marine shells either in +their siliceous or calcareous state must have been discerned amongst +them. + + + 2. SILICEOUS TREES. + +In many of these sand-rocks are found the impressions of vegetable +roots, which seem to have been the most unchangeable parts of the plant, +as shells and shark's teeth are found in chalk-beds from their being the +most unchangeable parts of the animal. In other instances the wood +itself is penetrated, and whole trees converted into flint; specimens of +which I have by me, from near Coventry, and from a gravel-pit in +Shropshire near Child's Archal in the road to Drayton. Other polished +specimens of vegetable flints abound in the cabinets of the curious, +which evidently shew the concentric circles of woody fibres, and their +interstices filled with whiter siliceous matter, with the branching off +of the knots when cut horizontally, and the parallel lines of wood when +cut longitudinally, with uncommon beauty and variety. Of these I possess +some beautiful specimens, which were presented to me by the Earl of +Uxbridge. + +The colours of these siliceous vegetables are generally brown, from the +iron, I suppose, or manganese, which induced them to crystallize or to +fuse more easily. Some of the cracks of the wood in drying are filled +with white flint or calcedony, and others of them remain hollow, lined +with innumerable small crystals tinged with iron, which I suppose had a +share in converting their calcareous matter into siliceous crystals, +because the crystals called Peak-diamonds are always found bedded in an +ochreous earth; and those called Bristol-stones are situated on +limestone coloured with iron. Mr. F. French presented me with a +congeries of siliceous crystals, which he gathered on the crater (as he +supposes) of an extinguished volcano at Cromach Water in Cumberland. The +crystals are about an inch high in the shape of dogtooth or calcareous +spar, covered with a dark ferruginous matter. The bed on which they rest +is about an inch in thickness, and is stained with iron on its +undersurface. This curious fossil shews the transmutation of calcareous +earth into siliceous, as much as the siliceous shells which abound in +the cabinets of the curious. There may sometime be discovered in this +age of science, a method of thus impregnating wood with liquid flint, +which would produce pillars for the support, and tiles for the covering +of houses, which would be uninflammable and endure as long as the earth +beneath them. + +That some siliceous productions have been in a fluid state without much +heat at the time of their formation appears from the vegetable flints +above described not having quite lost their organized appearance; from +shells, and coralloids, and entrochi being converted into flint without +loosing their form; from the bason of calcedony round Giesar in Iceland; +and from the experiment of Mr. Bergman, who obtained thirteen regular +formed crystals by suffering the powder of quartz to remain in a vessel +with fluor acid for two years; these crystals were about the size of +small peas, and were not so hard as quartz. Opusc. de Terrâ Siliceâ, p. +33. Mr. Achard procured both calcareous and siliceous crystals, one from +calcareous earth, and the other from the earth of alum, both dissolved +in water impregnated with fixed air; the water filtrating very slowly +through a porous bottom of baked clay. See Journal de Physique, for +January, 1778. + + + 3. AGATES, ONYXES, SCOTS-PEBBLES. + +In small cavities of these sand-rocks, I am informed, the beautiful +siliceous nodules are found which are called Scot's-pebbles; and which +on being cut in different directions take the names of agates, onyxes, +sardonyxes, &c. according to the colours of the lines or strata which +they exhibit. Some of the nodules are hollow and filled with crystals, +others have a nucleus of less compact siliceous matter which is +generally white, surrounded with many concentric strata coloured with +iron, and other alternate strata of white agate or calcedony, sometimes +to the number of thirty. + +I think these nodules bear evident marks of their having been in perfect +fusion by either heat alone, or by water and heat, under great pressure, +according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton; but I do not imagine, +that they were injected into cavities from materials from without, but +that some vegetables or parts of vegetables containing more iron or +manganese than others, facilitated the compleat fusion, thus destroying +the vestiges of vegetable organization, which were conspicuous in the +siliceous trees above mentioned. Some of these nodules being hollow and +lined with crystals, and others containing a nucleus of white siliceous +matter of a looser texture, shew they were composed of the materials +then existing in the cavity; which consisting before of loose sand, must +take up less space when fused into a solid mass. + +These siliceous nodules resemble the nodules of iron-stone mentioned in +note on Canto II. l. 183, in respect to their possessing a great number +of concentric spheres coloured generally with iron, but they differ in +this circumstance, that the concentric spheres generally obey the form +of the external crust, and in their not possessing a chalybeate nucleus. +The stalactites formed on the roofs of caverns are often coloured in +concentric strata, by their coats being spread over each other at +different times; and some of them, as the cupreous ones, possess great +beauty from this formation; but as these are necessarily more or less of +a cylindrical or conic form, the nodules or globular flints above +described cannot have been constructed in this manner. To what law of +nature then is to be referred the production of such numerous concentric +spheres? I suspect to the law of congelation. + +When salt and water are exposed to severe frosty air, the salt is said +to be precipitated as the water freezes; that is, as the heat, in which +it was dissolved, is withdrawn; where the experiment is tried in a bowl +or bason, this may be true, as the surface freezes first, and the salt +is found at the bottom. But in a fluid exposed in a thin phial, I found +by experiment, that the extraneous matter previously dissolved by the +heat in the mixture was not simply set at liberty to subside, but was +detruded or pushed backward as the ice was produced. The experiment was +this: about two ounces of a solution of blue vitriol were accidentally +frozen in a thin phial, the glass was cracked and fallen to pieces, the +ice was dissolved, and I found a pillar of blue vitriol standing erect +on the bottom of the broken bottle. Nor is this power of congelation +more extraordinary, than that by its powerful and sudden expansion it +should burst iron shells and coehorns, or throw out the plugs with which +the water was secured in them above one hundred and thirty yards, +according to the experiments at Quebec by Major Williams. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. II. p. 23. + +In some siliceous nodules which now lie before me, the external crust +for about the tenth of an inch consists of white agate, in others it is +much thinner, and in some much thicker; corresponding with this crust +there are from twenty to thirty superincumbent strata, of alternately +darker and lighter colour; whence it appears, that the external crust as +it cooled or froze, propelled from it the iron or manganese which was +dissolved in it; this receded till it had formed an arch or vault strong +enough to resist its further protrusion; then the next inner sphere or +stratum as it cooled or froze, propelled forwards its colouring matter +in the same manner, till another arch or sphere produced sufficient +resistance to this frigoriscent expulsion. Some of them have detruded +their colouring matter quite to the centre, the rings continuing to +become darker as they are nearer it; in others the chalybeate arch seems +to have stopped half an inch from the centre, and become thicker by +having attracted to itself the irony matter from the white nucleus, +owing probably to its cooling less precipitately in the central parts +than at the surface of the pebble. + +A similar detrusion of a marly matter in circular arches or vaults +obtains in the salt mines in Cheshire; from whence Dr. Hutton very +ingeniously concludes, that the salt must have been liquified by heat; +which would seem to be much confirmed by the above theory. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. p. 244. + +I cannot conclude this account of Scots-pebbles without observing that +some of them on being sawed longitudinally asunder, seem still to +possess some vestiges of the cylindrical organization of vegetables; +others possess a nucleus of white agate much resembling some bulbous +roots with their concentric coats, or the knots in elm-roots or crab- +trees; some of these I suppose were formed in the manner above +explained, during the congelation of masses of melted flint and iron; +others may have been formed from a vegetable nucleus, and retain some +vestiges of the organization of the plant. + + + 4. SAND OF THE SEA. + +The great abundance of siliceous sand at the bottom of the ocean may in +part be washed down from the siliceous rocks above described, but in +general I suppose it derives its acid only from the vegetable and animal +matter of morasses, which is carried down by floods or by the +atmosphere, and becomes united in the sea with its calcareous base from +shells and coralloids, and thus assumes its crystalline form at the +bottom of the ocean, and is there intermixed with gravel or other +matters washed from the mountains in its vicinity. + + + 5. CHERT, OR PETROSILEX. + +The rocks of marble are often alternately intermixed with strata of +chert, or coarse flint, and this in beds from one to three feet thick, +as at Ham and Matlock, or of less than the tenth of an inch in +thickness, as a mile or two from Bakewell in the road to Buxton. It is +difficult to conceive in what manner ten or twenty strata of either +limestone or flint, of different shades of white and black, could be +laid quite regularly over each other from sediments or precipitations +from the sea; it appears to me much easier to comprehend, by supposing +with Dr. Hutton, that both the solid rocks of marble and the flint had +been fused by great heat, (or by heat and water,) under immense +pressure; by its cooling or congealing the colouring matter might be +detruded, and form parallel or curvilinean strata, as above explained. + +The colouring matter both of limestone and flint was probably owing to +the flesh of peculiar animals, as well as the siliceous acid, which +converted some of the limestone into flint; or to some strata of shell- +fish having been overwhelmed when alive with new materials, while others +dying in their natural situations would lose their fleshy parts, either +by its putrid solution in the water or by its being eaten by other sea- +insects. I have some calcareous fossil shells which contain a black +coaly matter in them, which was evidently the body of the animal, and +others of the same kind filled with spar instead of it. The Labradore +stone has I suppose its colours from the nacre or mother-pearl shells, +from which it was probably produced. And there is a stratum of +calcareous matter about six or eight inches thick at Wingerworth in +Derbyshire over the iron-beds, which is replete with shells of fresh- +water muscles, and evidently obtains its dark colour from them, as +mentioned in note XVI. Many nodules of flint resemble in colour as well +as in form the shell of the echinus or sea-urchin; others resemble some +coralloids both in form and colour; and M. Arduini found in the Monte de +Pancrasio, red flints branching like corals, from whence they seem to +have obtained both their form and their colour. Ferber's Travels in +Italy, p. 42. + + + 6. NODULES OF FLINT IN CHALK-BEDS. + +As the nodules of flint found in chalk-beds possess no marks of having +been rounded by attrition or solution, I conclude that they have gained +their form as well as their dark colour from the flesh of the shell-fish +from which they had their origin; but which have been so compleatly +fused by heat, or heat and water, as to obliterate all vestiges of the +shell, in the same manner as the nodules of agate and onyx were produced +from parts of vegetables, but which had been so completely fused as to +obliterate all marks of their organization, or as many iron-nodules have +obtained their form and origin from peculiar vegetables. + +Some nodules in chalk-beds consist of shells of echini filled up with +chalk, the animal having been dissolved away by putrescence in water, or +eaten by other sea-insects; other shells of echini, in which I suppose +the animal's body remained, are converted into flint but still retain +the form of the shell. Others, I suppose as above, being more completely +fused, have become flint coloured by the animal flesh, but without the +exact form either of the flesh or shell of the animal. Many of these are +hollow within and lined with crystals, like the Scot's-pebbles above +described; but as the colouring matter of animal bodies differs but +little from each other compared with those of vegetables, these flints +vary less in their colours than those above mentioned. At the same time +as they cooled in concentric spheres like the Scot's-pebbles, they often +possess faint rings of colours, and always break in conchoide forms +like them. + +This idea of the production of nodules of flint in chalk-beds is +countenanced from the iron which generally appears as these flints +become decomposed by the air; which by uniting with the iron in their +composition reduces it from a vitrescent state to that of calx, and thus +renders it visible. And secondly, by there being no appearance in chalk- +beds of a string or pipe of siliceous matter connecting one nodule with +another, which must have happened if the siliceous matter, or its acid, +had been injected from without according to the idea of Dr. Hutton. And +thirdly, because many of them have very large cavities at their centres, +which should not have happened had they been formed by the injection of +a material from without. + +When shells or chalk are thus converted from calcareous to siliceous +matter by the flesh of the animal, the new flint being heavier than the +shell or chalk occupies less space than the materials it was produced +from; this is the cause of frequent cavities within them, where the +whole mass has not been completely fused and pressed together. In +Derbyshire there are masses of coralloid and other shells which have +become siliceous, and are thus left with large vacuities sometimes +within and sometimes on the outside of the remaining form of the shell, +like the French millstones, and I suppose might serve the same purpose; +the gravel of the Derwent is full of specimens of this kind. + +Since writing the above I have received a very ingenious account of +chalk-beds from Dr. MENISH of Chelmsford. He distinguishes chalk-beds +into three kinds; such as have been raised from the sea with little +disturbance of their strata, as the cliffs of Dover and Margate, which +he terms _intire_ chalk. Another state of chalk is where it has suffered +much derangement, as the banks of the Thames at Gravesend and Dartford. +And a third state where fragments of chalk have been rounded by water, +which he terms _alluvial_ chalk. In the first of these situations of +chalk he observes, that the flint lies in strata horizontally, generally +in distinct nodules, but that he has observed two instances of solid +plates or strata of flint, from an inch to two inches in thickness, +interposed between the chalk-beds; one of these is in a chalk-bank by +the road side at Berkhamstead, the other in a bank on the road from +Chatham leading to Canterbury. Dr. Menish has further observed, that +many of the echini are crushed in their form, and yet filled with flint, +which has taken the form of the crushed shell, and that though many +flint nodules are hollow, yet that in some echini the siliceum seems to +have enlarged, as it passed from a fluid to a solid state, as it swells +out in a protuberance at the mouth and anus of the shell, and that +though these shells are so filled with flint yet that in many places the +shell itself remains calcareous. These strata of nodules and plates of +flint seem to countenance their origin from the flesh of a stratum of +animals which perished by some natural violence, and were buried in +their shells. + + + 7. ANGLES OF SILICEOUS SAND. + +In many rocks of siliceous sand the particles retain their angular form, +and in some beds of loose sand, of which there is one of considerable +purity a few yards beneath the marl at Normington about a mile south of +Derby. Other siliceous sands have had their angles rounded off, like the +pebbles in gravel-beds. These seem to owe their globular form to two +causes; one to their attrition against each other, when they may for +centuries have lain at the bottom of the sea, or of rivers; where they +may have been progressively accumulated, and thus progressively at the +same time rubbed upon each other by the dashing of the water, and where +they would be more easily rolled over each other by their gravity being +so much less than in air. This is evidently now going on in the river +Derwent, for though there are no limestone rocks for ten or fifteen +miles above Derby, yet a great part of the river-gravel at Derby +consists of limestone nodules, whose angles are quite worn off in their +descent down the stream. + +There is however another cause which must have contributed to round the +angles both of calcareous and siliceous fragments; and that is, their +solubility in water; calcareous earth is perpetually found suspended in +the waters which pass over it; and the earth of flints was observed by +Bergman to be contained in water in the proportion of one grain to a +gallon. Kirwan's Mineralogy, p. 107. In boiling water, however, it is +soluble in much greater proportion, as appears from the siliceous earth +sublimed in the distillation of fluor acid in glass vessels; and from +the basons of calcedony which surrounded the jets of hot water near +mount Heccla in Iceland. Troil on Iceland. It is probable most siliceous +sands or pebbles have at some ages of the world been long exposed to +aqueous steams raised by subterranean fires. And if fragments of stone +were long immersed in a fluid menstrum, their angular parts would be +first dissolved, on account of their greater surface. + +Many beds of siliceous gravel are cemented together by a siliceous +cement, and are called breccia; as the plumb-pudding stones of +Hartfordshire, and the walls of a subterraneous temple excavated by Mr. +Curzon, at Hagley near Rugely in Staffordfshire; these may have been +exposed to great heat as they were immersed in water; which water under +great pressure of superincumbent materials may have been rendered red- +hot, as in Papin's digester; and have thus possessed powers of solution +with which we are unacquainted. + + + 8. BASALTES AND GRANITES. + +Another source of siliceous stones is from the granite, or basaltes, or +porphyries, which are of different hardnesses according to the materials +of their composition, or to the fire they have undergone; such are the +stones of Arthur's-hill near Edinburgh, of the Giant's Causway in +Ireland, and of Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire; the uppermost +stratum of which last seems to have been cracked either by its +elevation, or by its hastily cooling after ignition by the contact of +dews or snows, and thus breaks into angular fragments, such as the +streets of London are paved with; or have had their angles rounded by +attrition or by partial solution; and have thus formed the common paving +stones or bowlers; as well as the gravel, which is often rolled into +strata amid the siliceous sand-beds, which are either formed or +collected in the sea. + +In what manner such a mass of crystallized matter as the Giant's Causway +and similar columns of basaltes, could have been raised without other +volcanic appearances, may be a matter not easy to comprehend; but there +is another power in nature besides that of expansile vapour which may +have raised some materials which have previously been in igneous or +aqueous solution; and that is the act of congelation. When the water in +the experiments above related of Major Williams had by congelation +thrown out the plugs from the bomb-shells, a column of ice rose from the +hole of the bomb six or eight inches high. Other bodies I suspect +increase in bulk which crystallize in cooling, as iron and type-metal. I +remember pouring eight or ten pounds of melted brimstone into a pot to +cool and was surprized to see after a little time a part of the fluid +beneath break a hole in the congealed crust above it, and gradually rise +into a promontory several inches high; the basaltes has many marks of +fusion and of crystallization and may thence, as well as many other +kinds of rocks, as of spar, marble, petrosilex, jasper, &c. have been +raised by the power of congelation, a power whose quantity has not yet +been ascertained, and perhaps greater and more universal than that of +vapours expanded by heat. These basaltic columns rise sometimes out of +mountains of granite itself, as mentioned by Dr. Beddoes, (Phil. +Transact. Vol. LXXX.) and as they seem to consist of similar materials +more completely fused, there is still greater reason to believe them to +have been elevated in the cooling or crystallization of the mass. See +note XXIV. + + + + + NOTE XX.--CLAY. + + + _Whence ductile Clays in wide expansion spread, + Soft as the Cygnet's down, their snow-white bed._ + + CANTO II. l. 277. + + +The philosophers, who have attended to the formation of the earth, have +acknowledged two great agents in producing the various changes which the +terraqueous globe has undergone, and these are water and fire. Some of +them have perhaps ascribed too much to one of these great agents of +nature, and some to the other. They have generally agreed that the +stratification of materials could only be produced from sediments or +precipitations, which were previously mixed or dissolved in the sea; and +that whatever effects were produced by fire were performed afterwards. + +There is however great difficulty in accounting for the universal +stratification of the solid globe of the earth in this manner, since +many of the materials, which appear in strata, could not have been +suspended in water; as the nodules of flint in chalk-beds, the extensive +beds of shells, and lastly the strata of coal, clay, sand, and iron-ore, +which in most coal-countries lie from five to seven times alternately +stratified over each other, and none of them are soluble in water. Add +to this if a solution of them or a mixture of them in water could be +supposed, the cause of that solution must cease before a precipitation +could commence. + +1. The great masses of lava, under the various names of granite, +porphyry, toadstone, moor-stone, rag, and slate, which constitute the +old world, may have acquired the stratification, which some of them +appear to possess, by their having been formed by successive eruptions +of a fluid mass, which at different periods of antient time arose from +volcanic shafts and covered each other, the surface of the interior mass +of lava would cool and become solid before the superincumbent stratum +was poured over it; to the same cause may be ascribed their different +compositions and textures, which are scarcely the same in any two parts +of the world. + +2. The stratifications of the great masses of limestone, which were +produced from sea-shells, seem to have been formed by the different +times at which the innumerable shells were produced and deposited. A +colony of echini, or madrepores, or cornua ammonis, lived and perished +in one period of time; in another a new colony of either similar or +different shells lived and died over the former ones, producing a +stratum of more recent shell over a stratum of others which had began to +petrify or to become marble; and thus from unknown depths to what are +now the summits of mountains the limestone is disposed in strata of +varying solidity and colour. These have afterwards undergone variety of +changes by their solution and deposition from the water in which they +were immersed, or from having been exposed to great heat under great +pressure, according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton. Edinb. +Transact. Vol. I. See Note XVI. + +3. In most of the coal-countries of this island there are from five to +seven beds of coal stratified with an equal number of beds, though of +much greater thickness, of clay and sandstone, and occasionally of iron- +ores. In what manner to account for the stratification of these +materials seems to be a problem of greater difficulty. Philosophers have +generally supposed that they have been arranged by the currents of the +sea; but considering their insolubility in water, and their almost +similar specific gravity, an accumulation of them in such distinct beds +from this cause is altogether inconceiveable, though some coal-countries +bear marks of having been at some time immersed beneath the waves and +raised again by subterranean fires. + +The higher and lower parts of morasses were necessarily produced at +different periods of time, see Note XVII. and would thus originally be +formed in strata of different ages. For when an old wood perished, and +produced a morass, many centuries would elapse before another wood could +grow and perish again upon the same ground, which would thus produce a +new stratum of morass over the other, differing indeed principally in +its age, and perhaps, as the timber might be different, in the +proportions of its component parts. + +Now if we suppose the lowermost stratum of a morass become ignited, like +fermenting hay, (after whatever could be carried away by solution in +water was gone,) what would happen? Certainly the inflammable part, the +oil, sulphur, or bitumen, would burn away, and be evaporated in air; and +the fixed parts would be left, as clay, lime, and iron; while some of +the calcareous earth would join with the siliceous acid, and produce +sand, or with the argillaceous earth, and produce marl. Thence after +many centuries another bed would take fire, but with less degree of +ignition, and with a greater body of morass over it, what then would +happen? The bitumen and sulphur would rise and might become condensed +under an impervious stratum, which might not be ignited, and there form +coal of different purities according to its degree of fluidity, which +would permit some of the clay to subside through it into the place from +which it was sublimed. + +Some centuries afterwards another similar process might take place, and +either thicken the coal-bed, or produce a new clay-bed, or marl, or +sand, or deposit iron upon it, according to the concomitant +circumstances above mentioned. + +I do not mean to contend that a few masses of some materials may not +have been rolled together by currents, when the mountains were much more +elevated than at present, and in consequence the rivers broader and more +rapid, and the storms of rain and wind greater both in quantity and +force. Some gravel-beds may have been thus washed from the mountains; +and some white clay washed from morasses into valleys beneath them; and +some ochres of iron dissolved and again deposited by water; and some +calcareous depositions from water, (as the bank for instance on which +stand the houses at Matlock-bath;) but these are of small extent or +consequence compared to the primitive rocks of granite or porpyhry which +form the nucleus of the earth, or to the immense strata of limestone +which crust over the greatest part of this granite or porphyry; or +lastly to the very extensive beds of clay, marl, sandstone, coal, and +iron, which were probably for many millions of years the only parts of +our continents and islands, which were then elevated above the level of +the sea, and which on that account became covered with vegetation, and +thence acquired their later or superincumbent strata, which constitute, +what some have termed, the new world. + +There is another source of clay, and that of the finest kind, from +decomposed granite, this is of a snowy white and mixed with mining +particles of mica, of this kind is an earth from the country of +Cherokees. Other kinds are from less pure lavas; Mr. Ferber asserts that +the sulphurous steams from Mount Vesuvius convert the lava into clay. + +"The lavas of the antient Solfatara volcano have been undoubtedly of a +vitreous nature, and these appear at present argillaceous. Some +fragments of this lava are but half or at one side changed into clay, +which either is viscid or ductile, or hard and stoney. Clays by fire are +deprived of their coherent quality, which cannot be restored to them by +pulverization, nor by humectation. But the sulphureous Solfatara steams +restore it, as may be easily observed on the broken pots wherein they +gather the sal ammoniac; though very well baked and burnt at Naples they +are mollified again by the acid steams into a viscid clay which keeps +the former fire-burnt colour." Travels in Italy, p. 156. + + + + + NOTE XXI.--ENAMELS. + + + _Smear'd her huge dragons with metallic hues, + With golden purples, and cobaltic blues;_ + + CANTO II. l. 287. + + +The fine bright purples or rose colours which we see on china cups are +not producible with any other material except gold, manganese indeed +gives a purple but of a very different kind. + +In Europe the application of gold to these purposes appears to be of +modern invention. Cassius's discovery of the precipitate of gold by tin, +and the use of that precipitate for colouring glass and enamels, are now +generally known, but though the precipitate with tin be more successful +in producing the ruby glass, or the colourless glass which becomes red +by subsequent ignition, the tin probably contributing to prevent the +gold from separating, (which it is very liable to do during the fusion; +yet, for enamels, the precipitates made by alcaline salts answer equally +well, and give a finer red, the colour produced by the tin precipitate +being a bluish purple, but with the others a rose red. I am informed +that some of our best artists prefer aurum fulminans, mixing it, before +it has become dry, with the white composition or enamel flux; when once +it is divided by the other matter, it is ground with great safety, and +without the least danger of explosion, whether moist or dry. The colour +is remarkably improved and brought forth by long grinding, which +accordingly makes an essential circumstance in the process. + +The precipitates of gold, and the colcothar or other red preparations of +iron, are called _tender_ colours. The heat must be no greater than is +just sufficient to make the enamel run upon the piece, for if greater, +the colours will be destroyed or changed to a different kind. When the +vitreous matter has just become fluid it seems as if the coloured +metallic calx remained barely _intermixed_ with it, like a coloured +powder of exquisite tenuity suspended in water: but by stronger fire the +calx is _dissolved_, and metallic colours are altered by _solution_ in +glass as well as in acids or alcalies. + +The Saxon mines have till very lately almost exclusively supplied the +rest of Europe with cobalt, or rather with its preparations, zaffre and +smalt, for the exportation of the ore itself is there a capital crime. +Hungary, Spain, Sweden, and some other parts of the continent, are now +said to afford cobalts equal to the Saxon, and specimens have been +discovered in our own island, both in Cornwall and in Scotland; but +hitherto in no great quantity. + +Calces of cobalt and of copper differ very materially from those above +mentioned in their application for colouring enamels. In those the calx +has previously acquired the intended colour, a colour which bears a red +heat without injury, and all that remains is to fix it on the piece by a +vitreous flux. But the blue colour of cobalt, and the green or bluish +green of copper, are _produced_ by vitrification, that is, by _solution_ +in the glass, and a strong fire is necessary for their perfection. These +calces therefore, when mixed with the enamel flux, are melted in +crucibles, once or oftener, and the deep coloured opake glass, thence +resulting, is ground into unpalpable powder, and used for enamel. One +part of either of these calces is put to ten, sixteen, or twenty parts +of the flux, according to the depth of colour required. The heat of the +enamel kiln is only a full red, such as is marked on Mr. Wedgwood's +thermometer 6 degrees. It is therefore necessary that the flux be so +adjusted as to melt in that low heat. The usual materials are flint, or +flint-glass, with a due proportion of red-led, or borax, or both, and +sometimes a little tin calx to give opacity. + +_Ka-o-lin_ is the name given by the Chinese to their porcelain clay, and +_pe-tun-tse_ to the other ingredient in their China ware. Specimens of +both these have been brought into England, and found to agree in quality +with some of our own materials. Kaolin is the very same with the clay +called in Cornwall [Transcriber's note: word missing] and the petuntse +is a granite similar to the Cornish moorstone. There are differences, +both in the Chinese petuntses, and the English moorstones; all of them +contain micaceous and quartzy particles, in greater or less quantity, +along with feltspat, which last is the essential ingredient for the +porcelain manufactory. The only injurious material commonly found in +them is iron, which discolours the ware in proportion to its quantity, +and which our moorstones are perhaps more frequently tainted with than +the Chinese. Very fine porcelain has been made from English materials +but the nature of the manufacture renders the process precarious and the +profit hazardous; for the semivitrification, which constitutes +porcelain, is necessarily accompanied with a degree of softness, or +semifusion, so that the vessels are liable to have their forms altered +in the kiln, or to run together with any accidental augmentations of the +fire. + + + + + NOTE XXII.--PORTLAND VASE. + + + _Or bid Mortality rejoice or mourn + O'er the fine forms of Portland's mystic urn._ + + CANTO II. l. 319. + + +The celebrated funereal vase, long in possession of the Barberini +family, and lately purchased by the Duke of Portland for a thousand +guineas, is about ten inches high and six in diameter in the broadest +part. The figures are of most exquisite workmanship in bas relief of +white opake glass, raised on a ground of deep blue glass, which appears +black except when held against the light. Mr. Wedgwood is of opinion +from many circumstances that the figures have been made by cutting away +the external crust of white opake glass, in the manner the finest +cameo's have been produced, and that it must thence have been the labour +of a great many years. Some antiquarians have placed the time of its +production many centuries before the christian aera; as sculpture was +said to have been declining in respect to its excellence in the time of +Alexander the Great. See an account of the Barberini or Portland vase by +M. D'Hancarville, and by Mr. Wedgwood. + +Many opinions and conjectures have been published concerning the figures +on this celebrated vase. Having carefully examined one of Mr. Wedgwood's +beautiful copies of this wonderful production of art, I shall add one +more conjecture to the number. + +Mr. Wedgwood has well observed that it does not seem probable that the +Portland vase was purposely made for the ashes of any particular person +deceased, because many years must have been necessary for its +production. Hence it may be concluded, that the subject of its +embellishments is not private history but of a general nature. This +subject appears to me to be well chosen, and the story to be finely +told; and that it represents what in antient times engaged the attention +of philosophers, poets, and heroes, I mean a part of the Eleusinian +mysteries. + +These mysteries were invented in Aegypt, and afterwards transferred to +Greece, and flourished more particularly at Athens, which was at the +same time the seat of the fine arts. They consisted of scenical +exhibitions representing and inculcating the expectation of a future +life after death, and on this account were encouraged by the government, +insomuch that the Athenian laws punished a discovery of their secrets +with death. Dr. Warburton has with great learning and ingenuity shewn +that the descent of Aeneas into hell, described in the Sixth Book of +Virgil, is a poetical account of the representations of the future state +in the Eleusinian mysteries. Divine Legation, Vol. I. p. 210. + +And though some writers have differed in opinion from Dr. Warburton on +this subject, because Virgil has introduced some of his own heroes into +the Elysian fields, as Deiphobus, Palinurus, and Dido, in the same +manner as Homer had done before him, yet it is agreed that the received +notions about a future state were exhibited in these mysteries, and as +these poets described those received notions, they may be said, as far +as these religious doctrines were concerned, to have described the +mysteries. + +Now as these were emblematic exhibitions they must have been as well +adapted to the purposes of sculpture as of poetry, which indeed does not +seem to have been uncommon, since one compartment of figures in the +sheild of Aeneas represented the regions of Tartarus. Aen. Lib. X. The +procession of torches, which according to M. De St. Croix was exhibited +in these mysteries, is still to be seen in basso relievo, discovered by +Spon and Wheler. Memoires sur le Mysteres par De St. Croix. 1784. And it +is very probable that the beautiful gem representing the marriage of +Cupid and Psyche, as described by Apuleus, was originally descriptive of +another part of the exhibitions in these mysteries, though afterwards it +became a common subject of antient art. See Divine Legat. Vol. I. p. +323. What subject could have been imagined so sublime for the ornaments +of a funereal urn as the mortality of all things and their +resuscitation? Where could the designer be supplied with emblems for +this purpose, before the Christian era, but from the Eleusinian +mysteries? + +1. The exhibitions of the mysteries were of two kinds, those which the +people were permitted to see, and those which were only shewn to the +initiated. Concerning the latter, Aristides calls them "the most +shocking and most ravishing representations." And Stoboeus asserts that +the initiation into the grand mysteries exactly resembles death. Divine +Legat. Vol. I. p. 280, and p. 272. And Virgil in his entrance to the +shades below, amongst other things of terrible form, mentions death. +Aen. VI. This part of the exhibition seems to be represented in one of +the compartments of the Portland vase. + +Three figures of exquisite workmanship are placed by the side of a +ruined column whose capital is fallen off, and lies at their feet with +other disjointed stones, they sit on loose piles of stone beneath a +tree, which has not the leaves of any evergreen of this climate, but may +be supposed to be an elm, which Virgil places near the entrance of the +infernal regions, and adds, that a dream was believed to dwell under +every leaf of it. Aen. VI. l. 281. In the midst of this group reclines a +female figure in a dying attitude, in which extreme languor is +beautifully represented, in her hand is an inverted torch, an antient +emblem of extinguished life, the elbow of the same arm resting on a +stone supports her as she sinks, while the other hand is raised and +thrown over her drooping head, in some measure sustaining it and gives +with great art the idea of fainting lassitude. On the right of her sits +a man, and on the left a woman, both supporting themselves on their +arms, as people are liable to do when they are thinking intensely. They +have their backs towards the dying figure, yet with their faces turned +towards her, as if seriously contemplating her situation, but without +stretching out their hands to assist her. + +This central figure then appears to me to be an hieroglyphic or +Eleusinian emblem of MORTAL LIFE, that is, the lethum, or death, +mentioned by Virgil amongst the terrible things exhibited at the +beginning of the mysteries. The inverted torch shews the figure to be +emblematic, if it had been designed to represent a real person in the +act of dying there had been no necessity for the expiring torch, as the +dying figure alone would have been sufficiently intelligible;--it would +have been as absurd as to have put an inverted torch into the hand of a +real person at the time of his expiring. Besides if this figure had +represented a real dying person would not the other figures, or one of +them at least, have stretched out a hand to support her, to have eased +her fall among loose stones, or to have smoothed her pillow? These +circumstances evince that the figure is an emblem, and therefore could +not be a representation of the private history of any particular family +or event. + +The man and woman on each side of the dying figure must be considered as +emblems, both from their similarity of situation and dress to the middle +figure, and their being grouped along with it. These I think are +hieroglyphic or Eleusinian emblems of HUMANKIND, with their backs toward +the dying figure of MORTAL LIFE, unwilling to associate with her, yet +turning back their serious and attentive countenances, curious indeed to +behold, yet sorry to contemplate their latter end. These figures bring +strongly to one's mind the Adam and Eve of sacred writ, whom some have +supposed to have been allegorical or hieroglyphic persons of Aegyptian +origin, but of more antient date, amongst whom I think is Dr. Warburton. +According to this opinion Adam and Eve were the names of two +hieroglyphic figures representing the early state of mankind; Abel was +the name of an hieroglyphic figure representing the age of pasturage, +and Cain the name of another hieroglyphic symbol representing the age of +agriculture, at which time the uses of iron were discovered. And as the +people who cultivated the earth and built houses would increase in +numbers much faster by their greater production of food, they would +readily conquer or destroy the people who were sustained by pasturage, +which was typified by Cain slaying Abel. + +2. On the other compartment of this celebrated vase is exhibited an +emblem of immortality, the representation of which was well known to +constitute a very principal part of the shews at the Eleusinian +mysteries, as Dr. Warburton has proved by variety of authority. The +habitation of spirits or ghosts after death was supposed by the antients +to be placed beneath the earth, where Pluto reigned, and dispensed +rewards or punishments. Hence the first figure in this group is of the +MANES or GHOST, who having passed through an open portal is descending +into a dusky region, pointing his toe with timid and unsteady step, +feeling as it were his way in the gloom. This portal Aeneas enters, +which is described by Virgil,--patet atri janua ditis, Aen. VI. l. 126; +as well as the easy descent,--facilis descensus Averni. Ib. The darkness +at the entrance to the shades is humorously described by Lucian. Div. +Legat. Vol. I. p. 241. And the horror of the gates of hell was in the +time of Homer become a proverb; Achilles says to Ulysses, "I hate a liar +worse than the gates of hell;" the same expression is used in Isaiah, +ch. xxxviii. v. 10. The MANES or GHOST appears lingering and fearful, +and wishes to drag after him a part of his mortal garment, which however +adheres to the side of the portal through which he has passed. The +beauty of this allegory would have been expressed by Mr. Pope, by "We +feel the ruling passion strong in death." + +A little lower down in the group the manes or ghost is received by a +beautiful female, a symbol of IMMORTAL LIFE. This is evinced by her +fondling between her knees a large and playful serpent, which from its +annually renewing its external skin has from great antiquity, even as +early as the fable of Prometheus, been esteemed an emblem of renovated +youth. The story of the serpent acquiring immortal life from the ass of +Prometheus, who carried it on his back, is told in Bacon's Works, Vol. +V. p. 462. Quarto edit. Lond. 1778. For a similar purpose a serpent was +wrapped round the large hieroglyphic egg in the temple of Dioscuri, as +an emblem of the renewal of life from a state of death. Bryant's +Mythology, Vol II. p. 359. sec. edit. On this account also the serpent +was an attendant on Aesculapius, which seems to have been the name of +the hieroglyphic figure of medicine. This serpent shews this figure to +be an emblem, as the torch shewed the central figure of the other +compartment to be an emblem, hence they agreeably correspond, and +explain each other, one representing MORTAL LIFE, and the other IMMORTAL +LIFE. + +This emblematic figure of immortal life sits down with her feet towards +the figure of Pluto, but, turning back her face towards the timid ghost, +she stretches forth her hand, and taking hold of his elbow, supports his +tottering steps, as well as encourages him to advance, both which +circumstances are thus with wonderful ingenuity brought to the eye. At +the same time the spirit loosely lays his hand upon her arm, as one +walking in the dark would naturally do for the greater certainty of +following his conductress, while the general part of the symbol of +IMMORTAL LIFE, being turned toward the figure of Pluto, shews that she +is leading the phantom to his realms. + +In the Pamphili gardens at Rome, Perseus in assisting Andromeda to +descend from the rock takes hold of her elbow to steady or support her +step, and she lays her hand loosely on his arm as in this figure. Admir. +Roman. Antiq. + +The figure of PLUTO can not be mistaken, as is agreed by most of the +writers who have mentioned this vase; his grisley beard, and his having +one foot buried in the earth, denotes the infernal monarch. He is placed +at the lowest part of the group, and resting his chin on his hand, and +his arm upon his knee, receives the stranger-spirit with inquisitive +attention; it was before observed that when people think attentively +they naturally rest their bodies in some easy attitude, that more animal +power may be employed on the thinking faculty. In this group of figures +there is great art shewn in giving an idea of a descending plain, viz. +from earth to Elysium, and yet all the figures are in reality on an +horizontal one. This wonderful deception is produced first by the +descending step of the manes or ghost; secondly, by the arm of the +sitting figure of immortal life being raised up to receive him as he +descends; and lastly, by Pluto having one foot sunk into the earth. + +There is yet another figure which is concerned in conducing the manes or +ghost to the realms of Pluto, and this is LOVE. He precedes the +descending spirit on expanded wings, lights him with his torch, and +turning back his beautiful countenance beckons him to advance. The +antient God of love was of much higher dignity than the modern Cupid. He +was the first that came out of the great egg of night, (Hesiod. Theog. +V. CXX. Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. p. 348.) and is said to possess the +keys of the sky, sea, and earth. As he therefore led the way into this +life, he seems to constitute proper emblem for leading the way to a +future life. See Bacon's works. Vol. I. p. 568. and Vol. III. p. 582. +Quarto edit. + +The introduction of love into this part of the mysteries requires a +little further explanation. The Psyche of the Aegyptians was one of +their most favourite emblems, and represented the soul, or a future +life; it was originally no other than the aurelia, or butterfly, but in +after times was represented by a lovely female child with the beautiful +wings of that insect. The aurelia, after its first stage as an eruca or +caterpillar, lies for a season in a manner dead, and is inclosed in a +sort of coffin, in this state of darkness it remains all the winter, but +at the return of spring it bursts its bonds and comes out with new life, +and in the most beautiful attire. The Aegyptians thought this a very +proper picture of the soul of man, and of the immortality to which it +aspired. But as this was all owing to divine Love, of which EROS was an +emblem, we find this person frequently introduced as a concomitant of +the soul in general or Psyche. (Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. p. 386.) EROS, +or divine Love, is for the same reason a proper attendant on the manes +or soul after death, and much contributes to tell the story, that is, to +shew that a soul or manes is designed by the descending figure. From +this figure of Love M. D'Hancarville imagines that Orpheus and Eurydice +are typified under the figure of the manes and immortal life as above +described. It may be sufficient to answer, first, that Orpheus is always +represented with a lyre, of which there are prints of four different +gems in Spence's Polymetis, and Virgil so describes him, Aen. VI. +cytharâ fretus. And secondly, that it is absurd to suppose that Eurydice +was fondling and playing with a serpent that had slain her. Add to this +that Love seems to have been an inhabitant of the infernal regions, as +exhibited in the mysteries, for Claudian, who treats more openly of the +Eleusinian mysteries, when they were held in less veneration, invokes +the deities to disclose to him their secrets, and amongst other things +by what torch Love softens Pluto. + + Dii, quibus in numerum, &c. + Vos mihi sacrarum penetralia pandite rerum, + Et vestri secreta poli, quâ lampade Ditem + Flexit amor. + +In this compartment there are two trees, whose branches spread over the +figures, one of them has smoother leaves like some evergreens, and might +thence be supposed to have some allusion to immortality, but they may +perhaps have been designed only as ornaments, or to relieve the figures, +or because it was in groves, where these mysteries were originally +celebrated. Thus Homer speaks of the woods of Proserpine, and mentions +many trees in Tartarus, as presenting their fruits to Tantalus; Virgil +speaks of the pleasant groves of Elysium; and in Spence's Polymetis +there are prints of two antient gems, one of Orpheus charming Cerberus +with his lyre, and the other of Hercules binding him in a cord, each of +them standing by a tree. Polymet. p. 284. As however these trees have +all different foliage so clearly marked by the artist, they may have had +specific meanings in the exhibitions of the mysteries, which have not +reached posterity, of this kind seem to have been the tree of knowledge +of good and evil, and the tree of life, in sacred writ, both which must +have been emblematic or allegorical. The masks, hanging to the handles +of the vase, seem to indicate that there is a concealed meaning in the +figures besides their general appearance. And the priestess at the +bottom, which I come now to describe, seems to shew this concealed +meaning to be of the sacred or Eleusinian kind. + +3. The figure on the bottom of the vase is on a larger scale than the +others, and less finely finished, and less elevated, and as this bottom +part was afterwards cemented to the upper part, it might be executed by +another artist for the sake of expedition, but there seems no reason to +suppose that it was not originally designed for the upper part of it as +some have conjectured. As the mysteries of Ceres were celebrated by +female priests, for Porphyrius says the antients called the priestesses +of Ceres, Melissai, or bees, which were emblems of chastity. Div. Leg. +Vol. I. p. 235. And as, in his Satire against the sex, Juvenal says, +that few women are worthy to be priestesses of Ceres. Sat. VI. the +figure at the bottom of the vase would seem to represent a PRIESTESS or +HIEROPHANT, whose office it was to introduce the initiated, and point +out to them, and explain the exhibitions in the mysteries, and to +exclude the uninitiated, calling out to them, "Far, far retire, ye +profane!" and to guard the secrets of the temple. Thus the introductory +hymn sung by the hierophant, according to Eusebius, begins, "I will +declare a secret to the initiated, but let the doors be shut against the +profane." Div. Leg. Vol. I. p. 177. The priestess or hierophant appears +in this figure with a close hood, and dressed in linen, which fits close +about her; except a light cloak, which flutters in the wind. Wool, as +taken from slaughtered animals, was esteemed profane by the priests of +Aegypt, who were always dressed in linen. Apuleus, p. 64. Div. Leg. Vol. +I. p. 318. Thus Eli made for Samuel a linen ephod. Samuel i. 3. + +Secrecy was the foundation on which all mysteries rested, when publicly +known they ceased to be mysteries; hence a discovery of them was not +only punished with death by the Athenian law; but in other countries a +disgrace attended the breach of a solemn oath. The priestess in the +figure before us has her finger pointing to her lips as an emblem of +silence. There is a figure of Harpocrates, who was of Aegyptian origin, +the same as Orus, with the lotus on his head, and with his finger +pointing to his lips not pressed upon them, in Bryant's Mythol. Vol. II. +p. 398, and another female figure standing on a lotus, as if just risen +from the Nile, with her finger in the same attitude, these seem to have +been representations or emblems of male and female priests of the secret +mysteries. As these sort of emblems were frequently changed by artists +for their more elegant exhibition, it is possible the foliage over the +head of this figure may bear some analogy to the lotus above mentioned. + +This figure of secrecy seems to be here placed, with great ingenuity, as +a caution to the initiated, who might understand the meaning of the +emblems round the vase, not to divulge it. And this circumstance seems +to account for there being no written explanation extant, and no +tradition concerning these beautiful figures handed down to us along +with them. + +Another explanation of this figure at the bottom of the vase would seem +to confirm the idea that the basso relievos round its sides are +representations of a part of the mysteries, I mean that it is the head +of ATIS. Lucian says that Atis was a young man of Phrygia, of uncommon +beauty, that he dedicated a temple in Syria to Rhea, or Cybele, and +first taught her mysteries to the Lydians, Phrygians, and Samothracians, +which mysteries he brought from India. He was afterwards made an eunuch +by Rhea, and lived like a woman, and assumed a feminine habit, and in +that garb went over the world teaching her ceremonies and mysteries. +Dict. par M. Danet, art. Atis. As this figure is covered with clothes, +while those on the sides of the vase are naked, and has a Phrygian cap +on the head, and as the form and features are so soft, that it is +difficult to say whether it be a male or female figure, there is reason +to conclude, 1. that it has reference to some particular person of some +particular country; 2. that this person is Atis, the first great +hierophant, or teacher of mysteries, to whom M. De la Chausse says the +figure itself bears a resemblance. Museo. Capitol. Tom. IV. p. 402. + +In the Museum Etruscum, Vol. I. plate 96, there is the head of Atis with +feminine features, clothed with a Phrygian cap, and rising from very +broad foliage, placed on a kind of term supported by the paw of a lion. +Goreus in his explanation of the figure says that it is placed on a +lion's foot because that animal was sacred to Cybele, and that it rises +from very broad leaves because after he became an eunuch he determined +to dwell in the groves. Thus the foliage, as well as the cap and +feminine features, confirm the idea of this figure at the bottom of the +vase representing the head of Atis the first great hierophant, and that +the figures on the sides of the vase are emblems from the antient +mysteries. + +I beg leave to add that it does not appear to have been uncommon amongst +the antients to put allegorical figures on funeral vases. In the +Pamphili palace at Rome there is an elaborate representation of Life and +of Death, on an antient sarcophagus. In the first Prometheus is +represented making man, and Minerva is placing a butterfly, or the soul, +upon his head. In the other compartment Love extinguishes his torch in +the bosom of the dying figure, and is receiving the butterfly, or +Psyche, from him, with a great number of complicated emblematic figures +grouped in very bad taste. Admir. Roman. Antiq. + + + + + NOTE XXIII.--COAL + + + _Whence sable Coal his massy couch extends, + And stars of gold the sparkling Pyrite blends._ + + CANTO II. l. 349. + + +To elucidate the formation of coal-beds I shall here describe a fountain +of fossil tar, or petroleum, discovered lately near Colebrook Dale in +Shropshire, the particulars of which were sent me by Dr. Robert Darwin +of Shrewsbury. + +About a mile and a half below the celebrated iron-bridge, constructed by +the late Mr. DARBY near Colebrook Dale, on the east side of the river +Severn, as the workmen in October 1786 were making a subterranean canal +into the mountain, for the more easy acquisition and conveyance of the +coals which lie under it, they found an oozing of liquid bitumen, or +petroleum; and as they proceeded further cut through small cavities of +different sizes from which the bitumen issued. From ten to fifteen +barrels of this fossil tar, each barrel containing thirty-two gallons, +were at first collected in a day, which has since however gradually +diminished in quantity, so that at present the product is about seven +barrels in fourteen days. + +The mountain, into which this canal enters, consists of siliceous sand, +in which however a few marine productions, apparently in their recent +state, have been found, and are now in the possession of Mr. WILLIAM +REYNOLDS of Ketly Bank. About three hundred yards from the entrance into +the mountain, and about twenty-eight yards below the surface of it, the +tar is found oozing from the sand-rock above into the top and sides of +the canal. + +Beneath the level of this canal a shaft has been sunk through a grey +argillaceous substance, called in this country clunch, which is said to +be a pretty certain indication of coal; beneath this lies a stratum of +coal, about two or three inches thick, of an inferior kind, yielding +little flame in burning, and leaving much ashes; below this is a rock of +a harder texture; and beneath this are found coals of an excellent +quality; for the purpose of procuring which with greater facility the +canal, or horizontal aperture, is now making into the mountain. July, +1788. + +Beneath these coals in some places is found salt water, in other parts +of the adjacent country there are beds of iron-stone, which also contain +some bitumen in a less fluid state, and which are about on a level with +the new canal, into which the fossil tar oozes, as above described. + +There are many interesting circumstances attending the situation and +accompaniments of this fountain of fossil tar, tending to develop the +manner of its production. 1. As the canal passing into the mountain runs +over the beds of coals, and under the reservoir of petroleum, it appears +that a _natural distillation_ of this fossil in the bowels of the earth +must have taken place at some early period of the world, similar to the +artificial distillation of coal, which has many years been carried on in +this place on a smaller scale above ground. When this reservoir of +petroleum was cut into, the slowness of its exsudation into the canal +was not only owing to its viscidity, but to the pressure of the +atmosphere, or to the necessity there was that air should at the same +time insinuate itself into the small cavities from which the petroleum +descended. The existence of such a distillation at some antient time is +confirmed by the thin stratum of coal beneath the canal, (which covers +the hard rock,) having been deprived of its fossil oil, so as to burn +without flame, and thus to have become a natural coak, or fossil +charcoal, while the petroleum distilled from it is found in the cavities +of the rock above it. + +There are appearances in other places, which favour this idea of the +natural distillation of petroleum, thus at Matlock in Derbyshire a hard +bitumen is found adhering to the spar in the clefts of the lime-rocks in +the form of round drops about the size of peas; which could perhaps only +be deposited there in that form by sublimation. + +2. The second deduction, which offers itself, is, that these beds of +coal have been _exposed to a considerable degree of heat_, since the +petroleum above could not be separated, as far as we know, by any other +means, and that the good quality of the coals beneath the hard rock was +owing to the impermeability of this rock to the bituminous vapour, and +to its pressure being too great to permit its being removed by the +elasticity of that vapour. Thus from the degree of heat, the degree of +pressure, and the permeability of the superincumbent strata, many of the +phenomena attending coal-beds receive an easy explanation, which much +accords with the ingenious theory of the earth by Dr. Hutton, Trans. of +Edinb. Vol. I. + +In some coal works the fusion of the strata of coal has been so slight, +that there remains the appearance of ligneus fibres, and the impression +of leaves, as at Bovey near Exeter, and even seeds of vegetables, of +which I have had specimens from the collieries near Polesworth in +Warwickshire. In some, where the heat was not very intense and the +incumbent stratum not permeable to vapour, the fossil oil has only risen +to the upper part of the coal-bed, and has rendered that much more +inflammable than the lower parts of it, as in the collieries near +Beaudesert, the seat of the EARL OF UXBRIDGE in Staffordshire, where the +upper stratum is a perfect cannel, or candle-coal, and the lower one of +an inferior quality. Over the coal-beds near Sir H. HARPUR'S house in +Derbyshire a thin lamina of asphaltum is found in some places near the +surface of the earth, which would seem to be from a distillation of +petroleum from the coals below, the more fluid part of which had in +process of time exhaled, or been consolidated by its absorption of air. +In other coal-works the upper part of the stratum is of a worse kind +than the lower one, as at Alfreton and Denbigh in Derbyshire, owing to +the supercumbent stratum having permitted the exhalation of a great part +of the petroleum; whilst at Widdrington in Northumberland there is first +a seam of coal about six inches thick of no value, which lies under +about four fathom of clay, beneath this is a white freestone, then a +hard stone, which the workmen there call a whin, then two fathoms of +clay, then another white stone, and under that a vein of coals three +feet nine inches thick, of a similar nature to the Newcastle coal. Phil. +Trans. Abridg. Vol. VI. plate II. p. 192. The similitude between the +circumstances of this colliery, and of the coal beneath the fountain of +tar above described, renders it highly probable that this upper thin +seam of coal has suffered a similar distillation, and that the +inflammable part of it had either been received into the clay above in +the form of sulphur, which when burnt in the open air would produce +alum; or had been dissipated for want of a receiver, where it could be +condensed. The former opinion is perhaps in this case more probable as +in some other coal-beds, of which I have procured accounts, the surface +of the coal beneath clunch or clay is of an inferior quality, as at West +Hallum in Nottinghamshire. The clunch probably from hence acquires its +inflammable part, which on calcination becomes vitriolic acid. I +gathered pieces of clunch converted partially into alum at a colliery +near Bilston, where the ground was still on fire a few years ago. + +The heat, which has thus pervaded the beds of morass, seems to have been +the effect of the fermentation of their vegetable materials; as new hay +sometimes takes fire even in such very small masses from the sugar it +contains, and seems hence not to have been attended with any expulsion +of lava, like the deeper craters of volcanos situated in beds of +granite. + +3. The marine shells found in the loose sand-rock above this reservoir +of petroleum, and the coal-beds beneath it, together with the existence +of sea-salt beneath these coals, prove that these coal beds have been +_at the bottom of the sea_, during some remote period of time, and were +afterwards raised into their present situation by subterraneous +expansions of vapour. This doctrine is further supported by the marks of +violence, which some coal-beds received at the time they were raised out +of the sea, as in the collieries at Mendip in Somersetshire. In these +there are seven strata of coals, equitant upon each other, with beds of +clay and stone intervening; amongst which clay are found shells and fern +branches. In one part of this hill the strata are disjoined, and a +quantity of heterogeneous substances fill up the chasm which disjoins +them, on one side of this chasm the seven strata of coal are seen +corresponding in respect to their reciprocal thickness and goodness with +the seven strata on the other side of the cavity, except that they have +been elevated several yards higher. Phil. Trans. No. 360. abridg. Vol. +V. p. 237. + +The cracks in the coal-bed near Ticknall in Derbyshire, and in the sand- +stone rock over it, in both of which specimens of lead-ore and spar are +found, confirm this opinion of their having been forcibly raised up by +subterraneous fires. Over the colliery at Brown-hills near Lichfield, +there is a stratum of gravel on the surface of the ground; which may be +adduced as another proof to shew that those coals had some time been +beneath the sea, or the bed of a river. Nevertheless, these arguments +only apply to the collieries above mentioned, which are few compared +with those which bear no marks of having been immersed in the sea. + +On the other hand the production of coals from morasses, as described in +note XX. is evinced from the vegetable matters frequently found in them, +and in the strata over them; as fern-leaves in nodules of iron-ore, and +from the bog-shells or fresh water muscles sometimes found over them, of +both which I have what I believe to be specimens; and is further proved +from some parts of these beds being only in part transformed to coal; +and the other part still retaining not only the form, but some of the +properties of wood; specimens of which are not unfrequent in the +cabinets of the curious, procured from Loch Neigh in Ireland, from Bovey +near Exeter, and other places; and from a famous cavern called the +Temple of the Devil, near the town of Altorf in Franconia, at the foot +of a mountain covered with pine and savine, in which are found large +coals resembling trees of ebony; which are so far mineralized as to be +heavy and compact; and so to effloresce with pyrites in some parts as to +crumble to pieces; yet from other parts white ashes are produced on +calcination, from which _fixed alcali_ is procured; which evinces their +vegetable origin. (Dict. Raisonné, art. Charbon.) To these may be added +another argument from the oil which is distilled from coals, and which +is analogous to vegetable oil, and does not exist in any bodies truly +mineral. Keir's Chemical Dictionary, art. Bitumen. + +Whence it would appear, that though most collieries with their attendant +strata of clay, sand-stone, and iron, were formed on the places where +the vegetables grew, from which they had their origin; yet that other +collections of vegetable matter were washed down from eminences by +currents of waters into the beds of rivers, or the neighbouring seas, +and were there accumulated at different periods of time, and underwent a +great degree of heat from their fermentation, in the same manner as +those beds of morass which had continued on the plains where they were +produced. And that by this fermentation many of them had been raised +from the ocean with sand and sea-shells over them; and others from the +beds of rivers with accumulations of gravel upon them. + +4. For the purpose of bringing this history of the products of morasses +more distinctly to the eye of the reader, I shall here subjoin two or +three accounts of sinking or boring for coals, out of above twenty which +I have procured from various places, though the terms are not very +intelligible, being the language of the overseers of coal-works. + +1. _Whitfield mine_ near the Pottery in Staffordshire. Soil 1 foot. +brick-clay 3 feet. shale 4. metal which is hard brown and falls in the +weather 42. coal 3. warrant clay 6. brown gritstone 36. coal 31/2. warrant +clay 31/2. bass and metal 531/2. hardstone 4. shaly bass 11/2. coal 4. +warrant clay, depth unknown. in all about 55 yards. + +2. _Coal-mine at Alfreton_ in Derbyshire. Soil and clay 7 feet. +fragments of stone 9. bind 13. stone 6. bind 34. stone 5. bind 2. stone +2. bind 10. coal 11/2. bind 11/2. stone 37. bind 7. soft coal 3. bind 3. +stone 20. bind 16. coal 71/2. in all about 61 yards. + +3. _A basset coal-mine at Woolarton_ in Nottinghamshire. Sand and gravel +6 feet. bind 21. stone 10. smut or effete coal 1. clunch 4. bind 21. +stone 18. bind 18. stone-bind 15. soft coal 2. clunch and bind 21. coal +7. in all about 48 yards. + +4. _Coal-mine at West-Hallam_ in Nottinghamshire. Soil and clay 7 feet. +bind 48. smut 11/2. clunch 4. bind 3. stone 2. bind 1. stone 1. bind 3. +stone 1. bind 16. shale 2. bind 12. shale 3. clunch, stone, and a bed of +cank 54. soft coal 4. clay and dun 1. soft coal 41/2. clunch and bind 21. +coal 1. broad bind 26. hard coal 6. in all about 74 yards. + +As these strata generally lie inclined, I suppose parallel with the +limestone on which they rest, the upper edges of them all come out to +day, which is termed bassetting; when the whole mass was ignited by its +fermentation, it is probable that the inflammable part of some strata +might thus more easily escape than of others in the form of vapour; as +dews are known to slide between such strata in the production of +springs; which accounts for some coal-beds being so much worse than +others. See note XX. + +From this account of the production of coals from morasses it would +appear, that coal-beds are not to be expected beneath masses of lime- +stone. Nevertheless I have been lately informed by my friend Mr. Michell +of Thornhill, who I hope will soon favour the public with his geological +investigations, that the beds of chalk are the uppermost of all the +limestones; and that they rest on the granulated limestone, called +ketton-stone; which I suppose is similar to that which covers the whole +country from Leadenham to Sleaford, and from Sleaford to Lincoln; and +that, thirdly, coal-delphs are frequently found beneath these two +uppermost beds of limestone. + +Now as the beds of chalk and of granulated limestone may have been +formed by alluviation, on or beneath the shores of the sea, or in +vallies of the land; it would seem, that some coal countries, which in +the great commotions of the earth had been sunk beneath the water, were +thus covered with alluvial limestone, as well as others with alluvial +basaltes, or common gravel-beds. Very extensive plains which now consist +of alluvial materials, were in the early times covered with water; which +has since diminished as the solid parts of the earth have increased. For +the solid parts of the earth consisting chiefly of animal and vegetable +recrements must have originally been formed or produced from the water +by animal and vegetable processes; and as the solid parts of the earth +may be supposed to be thrice as heavy as water, it follows that thrice +the quantity of water must have vanished compared with the quantity of +earth thus produced. This may account for many immense beds of alluvial +materials, as gravel, rounded sand granulated limestone, and chalk, +covering such extensive plains as Lincoln-heath, having become dry +without the supposition of their having been again elevated from the +ocean. At the same time we acquire the knowledge of one of the uses or +final causes of the organized world, not indeed very flattering to our +vanity, that it converts water into earth, forming islands and +continents by its recrements or exuviae. + + + + + NOTE XXIV.--GRANITE. + + + _Climb the rude steeps, the Granite-cliffs surround._ + + CANTO II. l. 523. + + +The lowest stratum of the earth which human labour has arrived to, is +granite; and of this likewise consists the highest mountains of the +world. It is known under variety of names according to some difference +in its appearance or composition, but is now generally considered by +philosophers as a species of lava; if it contains quartz, feltspat, and +mica in distinct crystals, it is called granite; which is found in +Cornwall in rocks; and in loose stones in the gravel near Drayton in +Shropshire, in the road towards Newcastle. If these parts of the +composition be less distinct, or if only two of them be visible to the +eye, it is termed porphyry, trap, whinstone, moorstone, slate. And if it +appears in a regular angular form, it is called basaltes. The affinity +of these bodies has lately been further well established by Dr. Beddoes +in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXXX. + +These are all esteemed to have been volcanic productions that have +undergone different degrees of heat; it is well known that in Papin's +digester water may be made red hot by confinement, and will then +dissolve many bodies which otherwise are little or not at all acted upon +by it. From hence it may be conceived, that under immense pressure of +superincumbent materials, and by great heat, these masses of lava may +have undergone a kind of aqueous solution, without any tendency to +vitrification, and might thence have a power of crystallization, whence +all the varieties above mentioned from the different proportion of the +materials, or the different degrees of heat they may have undergone in +this aqueous solution. And that the uniformity of the mixture of the +original earths, as of lime, argil, silex, magnesia, and barytes, which +they contain, was owing to their boiling together a longer or shorter +time before their elevation into mountains. See note XIX. art. 8. + +The seat of volcanos seems to be principally, if not entirely, in these +strata of granite; as many of them are situated on granite mountains, +and throw up from time to time sheets of lava which run down over the +proceeding strata from the same origin; and in this they seem to differ +from the heat which has separated the clay, coal, and sand in morasses, +which would appear to have risen from a kind of fermentation, and thus +to have pervaded the whole mass without any expuition of lava. + +[Illustration: _Section of the Earth. A sketch of a supposed Section of +the Earth in respect to the disposition of the Strata over each other +without regard to their proportions or number. London Published Dec'r +1st 1791 by J. Johnson St Paul's Church Yard._] + +All the lavas from Vesuvius contain one fourth part of iron, (Kirwan's +Min.) and all the five primitive earths, viz. calcareous, argillaceous, +siliceous, barytic, and magnesian earths, which are also evidently +produced now daily from the recrements of animal and vegetable bodies. +What is to be thence concluded? Has the granite stratum in very antient +times been produced like the present calcareous and siliceous masses, +according to the ingenious theory of Dr. Hutton, who says new continents +are now forming at the bottom of the sea to rise in their turn, and that +thus the terraqueous globe has been, and will be, eternal? Or shall we +suppose that this internal heated mass of granite, which forms the +nucleus of the earth, was a part of the body of the sun before it was +separated by an explosion? Or was the sun originally a planet, inhabited +like ours, and a satellite to some other greater sun, which has long +been extinguished by diffusion of its light, and around which the +present sun continues to revolve, according to a conjecture of the +celebrated Mr. Herschell, and which conveys to the mind a most sublime +idea of the progressive and increasing excellence of the works of the +Creator of all things? + +For the more easy comprehension of the facts and conjectures concerning +the situation and production of the various strata of the earth, I shall +here subjoin a supposed section of the globe, but without any attempt to +give the proportions of the parts, or the number of them, but only their +respective situation over each other, and a geological recapitulation. + + + GEOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. + +1. The earth was projected along with the other primary planets from the +sun, which is supposed to be on fire only on its surface, emitting light +without much internal heat like a ball of burning camphor. + +2. The rotation of the earth round its axis was occasioned by its +greater friction or adhesion to one side of the cavity from which it was +ejected; and from this rotation it acquired its spheroidical form. As it +cooled in its ascent from the sun its nucleus became harder; and its +attendant vapours were condensed, forming the ocean. + +3. The masses or mountains of granite, porphery, basalt, and stones of +similar structure, were a part of the original nucleus of the earth; or +consist of volcanic productions since formed. + +4. On this nucleus of granite and basaltes, thus covered by the ocean, +were formed the calcareous beds of limestone, marble, chalk, spar, from +the exuviae of marine animals; with the flints, or chertz, which +accompany them. And were stratified by their having been formed at +different and very distant periods of time. + +5. The whole terraqueous globe was burst by central fires; islands and +continents were raised, consisting of granite or lava in some parts, and +of limestone in others; and great vallies were sunk, into which the +ocean retired. + +6. During these central earthquakes the moon was ejected from the earth, +causing new tides; and the earth's axis suffered some change in its +inclination, and its rotatory motion was retarded. + +7. On some parts of these islands and continents of granite or limestone +were gradually produced extensive morasses from the recrements of +vegetables and of land animals; and from these morasses, heated by +fermentation, were produced clay, marle, sandstone, coal, iron, (with +the bases of variety of acids;) all which were stratified by their +having been formed at different, and very distant periods of time. + +8. In the elevation of the mountains very numerous and deep fissures +necessarily were produced. In these fissures many of the metals are +formed partly from descending materials, and partly from ascending ones +raised in vapour by subterraneous fires. In the fissures of granite or +porphery quartz is formed; in the fissures of limestone calcareous spar +is produced. + +9. During these first great volcanic fires it is probable the atmosphere +was either produced, or much increased; a process which is perhaps now +going on in the moon; Mr. Herschell having discovered a volcanic crater +three miles broad burning on her disk. + +10. The summits of the new mountains were cracked into innumerable +lozenges by the cold dews or snows falling upon them when red hot. From +these summits, which were then twice as high as at present, cubes and +lozenges of granite, and basalt, and quartz in some countries, and of +marble and flints in others, descended gradually into the valleys, and +were rolled together in the beds of rivers, (which were then so large as +to occupy the whole valleys, which they now only intersect;) and +produced the great beds of gravel, of which many valleys consist. + +11. In several parts of the earth's surface subsequent earthquakes, from +the fermentation of morasses, have at different periods of time deranged +the position of the matters above described. Hence the gravel, which was +before in the beds of rivers, has in some places been raised into +mountains, along with clay and coal strata which were formed from +morasses and washed down from eminences into the beds of rivers or the +neighbouring seas, and in part raised again with gravel or marine shells +over them; but this has only obtained in few places compared with the +general distribution of such materials. Hence there seem to have existed +two sources of earthquakes, which have occurred at great distance of +time from each other; one from the granite beds in the central parts of +the earth, and the other from the morasses on its surface. All the +subsequent earthquakes and volcanos of modern days compared with these +are of small extent and insignificant effect. + +12. Besides the argillaceous sand-stone produced from morasses, which is +stratified with clay, and coal, and iron, other great beds of siliceous +sand have been formed in the sea by the combination of an unknown acid +from morasses, and the calcareous matters of the ocean. + +13. The warm waters which are found in many countries, are owing to +steam arising from great depths through the fissures of limestone or +lava, elevated by subterranean fires, and condensed between the strata +of the hills over them; and not from any decomposition of pyrites or +manganese near the surface of the earth. + +14. The columns of basaltes have been raised by the congelation or +expansion of granite beds in the act of cooling from their semi-vitreous +fusion. + + + + + NOTE XXV.--EVAPORATION. + + + _Aquatic nymphs! you lead with viewless march + The winged vapour up the aerial arch._ + + CANTO III. l. 13. + + +I. The atmosphere will dissolve a certain quantity of moisture as a +chemical menstruum, even when it is much below the freezing point, as +appears from the diminution of ice suspended in frosty air, but a much +greater quantity of water is evaporated and suspended in the air by +means of heat, which is perhaps the universal cause of fluidity, for +water is known to boil with less heat in vacuo, which is a proof that it +will evaporate faster in vacuo, and that the air therefore rather +hinders than promotes its evaporation in higher degrees of heat. The +quick evaporation occasioned in vacuo by a small degree of heat is +agreeably seen in what is termed a pulse-glass, which consists of an +exhausted tube of glass with a bulb at each end of it and with about two +thirds of the cavity filled with alcohol, in which the spirit is +instantly seen to boil by the heat of the finger-end applied on a bubble +of steam in the lower bulb, and is condensed again in the upper bulb by +the least conceivable comparative coldness. + +2. Another circumstance evincing that heat is the principal cause of +evaporation is that at the time of water being converted into steam, a +great quantity of heat is taken away from the neighbouring bodies. If a +thermometer be repeatedly dipped in ether, or in rectified spirit of +wine, and exposed to a blast of air, to expedite the evaporation by +perpetually removing the saturated air from it, the thermometer will +presently sink below freezing. This warmth, taken from the ambient +bodies at the time of evaporation by the steam, is again given out when +the steam is condensed into water. Hence the water in a worm-tub during +distillation so soon becomes hot; and hence the warmth accompanying the +descent of rain in cold weather. + +3. The third circumstance, shewing that heat is the principal cause of +evaporation, is, that some of the steam becomes again condensed when any +part of the heat is withdrawn. Thus when warmer south-west winds replete +with moisture succeed the colder north-east winds all bodies that are +dense and substantial, as stone walls, brick floors, &c. absorb some of +the heat from the passing air, and its moisture becomes precipitated on +them, while the north-east winds become warmer on their arrival in this +latitude, and are thence disposed to take up more moisture, and are +termed drying winds. + +4. Heat seems to be the principal cause of the solution of many other +bodies, as common salt, or blue vitriol dissolved in water, which when +exposed to severe cold are precipitated, or carried, to the part of the +water last frozen; this I observed in a phial filled with a solution of +blue vitriol which was frozen; the phial was burst, the ice thawed, and +a blue column of cupreous vitriol was left standing upright on the +bottom of the broken glass, as described in note XIX. + +II. Hence water may either be dissolved in air, and may then be called +an aerial solution of water; or it may be dissolved in the fluid matter +of heat, according to the theory of M. Lavoisier, and may then be called +steam. In the former case it is probable there are many other vapours +which may precipitate it, as marine acid gas, or fluor acid gas. So +alcaline gas and acid gas dissolved in air precipitate each other, +nitrous gas precipitates vital air from its azote, and inflammable gas +mixed with vital air ignited by an electric spark either produces or +precipitates the water in both of them. Are there any subtle exhalations +occasionally diffused in the atmosphere which may thus cause rain? + +1. But as water is perhaps many hundred times more soluble in the fluid +matter of heat than in air, I suppose the eduction of this heat, by +whatever means it is occasioned, is the principal cause of devaporation. +Thus if a region of air is brought from a warmer climate, as the S.W. +winds, it becomes cooled by its contact with the earth in this latitude, +and parts with so much of its moisture as was dissolved in the quantity +of calorique, or heat, which it now looses, but retains that part which +was suspended by its attraction to the particles of air, or by aerial +solution, even in the most severe frosts. + +2. A second immediate cause of rain is a stream of N.E. wind descending +from a superior current of air, and mixing with the warmer S.W. wind +below; or the reverse of this, viz. a superior current of S.W. wind +mixing with an inferior one of N.E. wind; in both these cases the whole +heaven becomes instantly clouded, and the moisture contained in the S.W. +current is precipitated. This cause of devaporation has been ingeniously +explained by Dr. Hutton in the Transact. of Edinburgh, Vol. I, and seems +to arise from this circumstance; the particles of air of the N.E. wind +educe part of the heat from the S.W. wind, and therefore the water which +was dissolved by that quantity of _heat_ is precipitated; all the other +part of the water, which was suspended by its attraction to the +particles of air, or dissolved in the remainder of the heat, continues +unprecipitated. + +3. A third method by which a region of air becomes cooled, and in +consequence deposits much of its moisture, is from the mechanical +expansion of air, when part of the pressure is taken off. In this case +the expanded air becomes capable of receiving or attracting more of the +matter of heat into its interstices, and the vapour, which was +previously dissolved in this heat, is deposited, as is seen in the +receiver of an air-pump, which becomes dewy, as the air within becomes +expanded by the eduction of part of it. See note VII. Hence when the +mercury in the barometer sinks without a change of the wind the air +generally becomes colder. See note VII. on Elementary Heat. And it is +probably from the varying pressure of the incumbent air that in summer +days small black clouds are often thus suddenly produced, and again soon +vanish. See a paper in Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVIII. intitled Frigorific +Experiments on the Mechanical Expansion of Air. + +4. Another portion of atmospheric water may possibly be held in solution +by the electric fluid, since in thunder storms a precipitation of the +water seems to be either the cause or the consequence of the eduction of +the electricity. But it appears more probable that the water is +condensed into clouds by the eduction of its heat, and that then the +surplus of electricity prevents their coalescence into larger drops, +which immediately succeeds the departure of the lightning. + +5. The immediate cause why the barometer sinks before rain is, first, +because a region of warm air, brought to us in the place of the cold air +which it had displaced, must weigh lighter, both specifically and +absolutely, if the height of the warm atmosphere be supposed to be equal +to that of the preceeding cold one. And secondly, after the drops of +rain begin to fall in any column of air, that column becomes lighter, +the falling drops only adding to the pressure of the air in proportion +to the resistance which they meet with in passing through that fluid. + +If we could suppose water to be dissolved in air without heat, or in +very low degrees of heat, I suppose the air would become heavier, as +happens in many chemical solutions, but if water dissolved in the matter +of heat, or calorique, be mixed with an aerial solution of water, there +can be no doubt but an atmosphere consisting of such a mixture must +become lighter in proportion to the quantity of calorique. On the same +circumstance depends the visible vapour produced from the breath of +animals in cold weather, or from a boiling kettle; the particles of cold +air, with which it is mixed, steal a part of its heat, and become +themselves raised in temperature, whence part of the water is +precipitated in visible vapour, which, if in great quantity sinks to the +ground; if in small quantity, and the surrounding air is not previously +saturated, it spreads itself till it becomes again dissolved. + + + + + NOTE XXVI.--SPRINGS + + + _Your lucid bands condense with fingers chill + The blue mist hovering round the gelid hill_. + + CANTO III. l. 19. + + +The surface of the earth consists of strata many of which were formed +originally beneath the sea, the mountains were afterwards forced up by +subterraneous fires, as appears from the fissures in the rocks of which +they consist, the quantity of volcanic productions all over the world, +and the numerous remains of craters of volcanos in mountainous +countries. Hence the strata which compose the sides of mountains lie +slanting downwards, and one or two or more of the external strata not +reaching to the summit when the mountain was raised up, the second or +third stratum or a more inferior one is there exposed to day; this may +be well represented by forceably thrusting a blunt instrument through +several sheets of paper, a bur will stand up with the lowermost sheet +standing highest in the center of it. On this uppermost stratum, which +is colder as it is more elevated, the dews are condensed in large +quantities; and sliding down pass under the first or second or third +stratum which compose the sides of the hill; and either form a morass +below, or a weeping rock, by oozing out in numerous places, or many of +these less currents meeting together burst out in a more copious rill. + +The summits of mountains are much colder than the plains in their +vicinity, owing to several causes; 1. Their being in a manner insulated +or cut off from the common heat of the earth, which is always of 48 +degrees, and perpetually counteracts the effects of external cold +beneath that degree. 2. From their surfaces being larger in proportion +to their solid contents, and hence their heat more expeditiously carried +away by the ever-moving atmosphere. 3. The increasing rarity of the air +as the mountain rises. All those bodies which conduct electricity well +or ill, conduct the matter of heat likewise well or ill. See note VII. +Atmospheric air is a bad conductor of electricity and thence confines it +on the body where it is accumulated, but when it is made very rare, as +in the exhausted receiver, the electric aura passes away immediately to +any distance. The same circumstance probably happens in respect to heat, +which is thus kept by the denser air on the plains from escaping, but is +dissipated on the hills where the air is thinner. 4. As the currents of +air rise up the sides of mountains they become mechanically rarefied, +the pressure of the incumbent column lessening as they ascend. Hence the +expanding air absorbs heat from the mountain as it ascends, as explained +in note VII. 5. There is another, and perhaps more powerful cause, I +suspect, which may occasion the great cold on mountains, and in the +higher parts of the atmosphere, and which has not yet been attended to; +I mean that the fluid matter of heat may probably gravitate round the +earth, and form an atmosphere on its surface, mixed with the aerial +atmosphere, which may diminish or become rarer, as it recedes from the +earth's surface, in a greater proportion than the air diminishes. + +6. The great condensation of moisture on the summits of hills has +another cause, which is the dashing of moving clouds against them, in +misty days this is often seen to have great effect on plains, where an +eminent tree by obstructing the mist as it moves along shall have a much +greater quantity of moisture drop from its leaves than falls at the same +time on the ground in its vicinity. Mr. White, in his History of +Selborne gives an account of a large tree so situated, from which a +stream flowed during a moving mist so as to fill the cart-ruts in a lane +otherwise not very moist, and ingeniously adds, that trees planted about +ponds of stagnant water contribute much by these means to supply the +reservoir. The spherules which constitute a mist or cloud are kept from +uniting by so small a power that a little agitation against the leaves +of a tree, or the greater attraction of a flat moist surface, condenses +or precipitates them. + +If a leaf has its surface moistened and particles of water separate from +each other as in a mist be brought near the moistened surface of a leaf, +each particle will be attracted more by that plain surface of water on +the leaf than it can be by the surrounding particles of the mist, +because globules only attract each other in one point, whereas a plain +attracts a globule by a greater extent of its surface. + +The common cold springs are thus formed on elevated grounds by the +condensed vapours, and hence are stronger when the nights are cold after +hot days in spring, than even in the wet days of winter. For the warm +atmosphere during the day has dissolved much more water than it can +support in solution during the cold of the night, which is thus +deposited in large quantities on the hills, and yet so gradually as to +soak in between the strata of them, rather than to slide off over their +surfaces like showers of rain. The common heat of the internal parts of +the earth is ascertained by springs which arise from strata of earth too +deep to be affected by the heat of summer or the frosts of winter. Those +in this country are of 48 degrees of heat, those about Philidelphia were +said by Dr. Franklin to be 52; whether this variation is to be accounted +for by the difference of the sun's heat on that country, according to +the ingenious theory of Mr. Kirwan, or to the vicinity of subterranean +fires is not yet, I think, decided. There are however subterraneous +streams of water not exactly produced in this manner, as streams issuing +from fissures in the earth, communicating with the craters of old +volcanoes; in the Peak of Derbyshire are many hollows, called swallows, +where the land floods sink into the earth, and come out at some miles +distant, as at Ilam near Ashborne. See note on Fica, Vol. II. + +Other streams of cold water arise from beneath the snow on the Alps and +Andes, and other high mountains, which is perpetualy thawing at its +under surface by the common heat of the earth, and gives rise to large +rivers. For the origin of warm springs see note on Fucus, Vol. II. + + + + + NOTE XXVII.--SHELL FISH. + + + _You round Echinus ray his arrowy mail, + Give the keel'd Nautilus his oar and sail. + Firm to his rock with silver cords suspend + The anchored Pinna, and his Cancer-friend_. + + CANTO III. l. 67. + + +The armour of the Echinus, or Sea-hedge Hog, consists generally of +moveable spines; (_Linnei System. Nat._ Vol. I. p. 1102.) and in that +respect resembles the armour of the land animal of the same name. The +irregular protuberances on other sea-shells, as on some species of the +Purpura, and Murex, serve them as a fortification against the attacks of +their enemies. + +It is said that this animal foresees tempestuous weather, and sinking to +the bottom of the sea adheres firmly to sea-plants, or other bodies by +means of a substance which resembles the horns of snails. Above twelve +hundred of these fillets have been counted by which this animal fixes +itself; and when afloat, it contracts these fillets between the bases of +its points, the number of which often amounts to two thousand. Dict +raisonne. art. Oursin. de mer. + +There is a kind of Nautilus, called by Linneus, Argonauta, whose shell +has but one cell; of this animal Pliny affirms, that having exonerated +its shell by throwing out the water, it swims upon the surface, +extending a web of wonderful tenuity, and bending back two of its arms +and rowing with the rest, makes a sail, and at length receiving the +water dives again. Plin. IX. 29. Linneus adds to his description of this +animal, that like the Crab Diogenes or Bernhard, it occupies a house +not its own, as it is not connected to its shell, and is therefore +foreign to it; who could have given credit to this if it had not been +attested by so many who have with their own eyes seen this argonaut in +the act of sailing? Syst. Nat p. 1161. + +The Nautilus, properly so named by Linneus, has a shell consisting of +many chambers, of which cups are made in the East with beautiful +painting and carving on the mother-pearl. The animal is said to inhabit +only the uppermost or open chamber, which is larger than the rest; and +that the rest remain empty except that the pipe, or siphunculus, which +communicates from one to the other of them is filled with an appendage +of the animal like a gut or string. Mr. Hook in his Philos. Exper. p. +306, imagines this to be a dilatable or compressible tube, like the air- +bladders of fish, and that by contracting or permitting it to expand, it +renders its shell boyant or the contrary. See Note on Ulva, Vol. II. + +The Pinna, or Sea-wing, is contained in a two-valve shell, weighing +sometimes fifteen pounds, and emits a beard of fine long glossy silk- +like fibres, by which it is suspended to the rocks twenty or thirty feet +beneath the surface of the sea. In this situation it is so successfully +attacked by the eight-footed Polypus, that the species perhaps could not +exist but for the exertions of the Cancer Pinnotheris, who lives in the +same shell as a guard and companion. Amoen. Academ. Vol. II. p. 48. Lin. +Syst. Nat. Vol. I. p. 1159, and p. 1040. + +The Pinnotheris, or Pinnophylax, is a small crab naked like Bernard the +Hermit, but is furnished with good eyes, and lives in the same shell +with the Pinna; when they want food the Pinna opens its shell, and sends +its faithful ally to forage; but if the Cancer sees the Polypus, he +returns suddenly to the arms of his blind hostess, who by closing the +shell avoids the fury of her enemy; otherwise, when it has procured a +booty, it brings it to the opening of the shell, where it is admitted, +and they divide the prey. This was observed by Haslequist in his voyage +to Palestine. + +The Byssus of the antients, according to Aristotle, was the beard of the +Pinna above mentioned, but seems to have been used by other writers +indiscriminately for any spun material, which was esteemed finer or more +valuable than wool. Reaumur says the threads of this Byssus are not less +fine or less beautiful than the silk, as it is spun by the silk-worm; +the Pinna on the coasts of Italy and Provence (where it is fished up by +iron-hooks fixed on long poles) is called the silk-worm of the sea. The +stockings and gloves manufactured from it, are of exquisite fineness, +but too warm for common wear, and are thence esteemed useful in +rhumatism and gout. Dict. raisonné art. Pinne-marine. The warmth of the +Byssus, like that of silk, is probably owing to their being bad +conductors of heat, as well as of electricity. When these fibres are +broken by violence, this animal as well as the muscle has the power to +reproduce them like the common spiders, as was observed by M. Adanson. +As raw silk, and raw cobwebs, when swallowed, are liable to produce +great sickness (as I am informed) it is probable the part of muscles, +which sometimes disagrees with the people who eat them, may be this +silky web, by which they attach themselves to stones. The large kind of +Pinna contains some mother-pearl of a reddish tinge, according to M. +d'Argenville. The substance sold under the name of Indian weed, and used +at the bottom of fish-lines, is probably a production of this kind; +which however is scarcely to be distinguished by the eye from the +tendons of a rat's tail, after they have been separated by putrefaction +in water, and well cleaned and rubbed; a production, which I was once +shewn as a great curiosity; it had the uppermost bone of the tail +adhering to it, and was said to have been used as an ornament in a +lady's hair. + + + + + NOTE XXVIII.--STURGEON. + + + _With worm-like hard his toothless lips array, + And teach the unweildy Sturgeon to betray._ + + CANTO III. l. 71. + + +The Sturgeon, _Acipenser, Strurio._ Lin. Syst. Nat. Vol. I. p. 403. is a +fish of great curiosity as well as of great importance; his mouth is +placed under the head, without teeth, like the opening of a purse, which +he has the power to push suddenly out or retract. Before this mouth +under the beak or nose hang four tendrils some inches long, and which so +resemble earth-worms that at first sight they may be mistaken for them. +This clumsy toothless fish is supposed by this contrivance to keep +himself in good condition, the solidity of his flesh evidently shewing +him to be a fish of prey. He is said to hide his large body amongst the +weeds near the sea-coast, or at the mouths of large rivers, only +exposing his cirrhi or tendrils, which small fish or sea-insects +mistaking for real worms approach for plunder, and are sucked into the +jaws of their enemy. He has been supposed by some to root into the soil +at the bottom of the sea or rivers; but the cirrhi, or tendrills +abovementioned, which hang from his snout over his mouth, must +themselves be very inconvenient for this purpose, and as it has no jaws +it evidently lives by suction, and during its residence in the sea a +quantity of sea-insects are found in its stomach. + +The flesh was so valued in the time of the Emperor Severus, that it was +brought to table by servants with coronets on their heads, and preceded +by music, which might give rise to its being in our country presented by +the Lord Mayor to the King. At present it is caught in the Danube, and +the Walga, the Don, and other large rivers for various purposes. The +skin makes the best covering for carriages; isinglass is prepared from +parts of the skin; cavear from the spawn; and the flesh is pickled or +salted, and sent all over Europe. + + + + + NOTE XXIX.--OIL ON WATER. + + + _Who with fine films, suspended o'er the deep, + Of Oil effusive lull the waves to sleep._ + + CANTO III. l. 87. + + +There is reason to believe that when oil is poured upon water, the two +surfaces do not touch each other, but that the oil is suspended over the +water by their mutual repulsion. This seems to be rendered probable by +the following experiment: if one drop of oil be droped on a bason of +water, it will immediately diffuse itself over the whole, for there +being no friction between the two surfaces, there is nothing to prevent +its spreading itself by the gravity of the upper part of it, except its +own tenacity, into a pellicle of the greatest tenuity. But if a second +drop of oil be put upon the former, it does not spread itself, but +remains in the form of a drop, as the other already occupied the whole +surface of the bason, and there is friction in oil passing over oil, +though none in oil passing over water. + +Hence when oil is diffused on the surface of water gentle breezes have +no influence in raising waves upon it; for a small quantity of oil will +cover a very great surface of water, (I suppose a spoonful will diffuse +itself over some acres) and the wind blowing upon this carries it +gradually forwards; and there being no friction between the two surfaces +the water is not affected. On which account oil has no effect in +stilling the agitation of the water after the wind ceases, as was found +by the experiments of Dr. Franklin. + +This circumstance lately brought into notice by Dr. Franklin had been +mentioned by Pliny, and is said to be in use by the divers for pearls, +who in windy weather take down with them a little oil in their mouths, +which they occasionally give out when the inequality of the supernatant +waves prevents them from seeing sufficiently distinctly for their +purpose. + +The wonderful tenuity with which oil can be spread upon water is evinced +by a few drops projected from a bridge, where the eye is properly placed +over it, passing through all the prismatic colours as it diffuses +itself. And also from another curious experiment of Dr. Franklin's: he +cut a piece of cork to about the size of a letter-wafer, leaving a point +standing off like a tangent at one edge of the circle. This piece of +cork was then dipped in oil and thrown into a large pond of water, and +as the oil flowed off at the point, the cork-wafer continued to revolve +in a contrary direction for several minutes. The oil flowing off all +that time at the pointed tangent in coloured streams. In a small pond of +water this experiment does not so well succeed, as the circulation of +the cork stops as soon as the water becomes covered with the pellicle of +oil. See Additional Note, No. XIII. and Note on Fucus, Vol. II. + +The ease with which oil and water slide over each other is agreeably +seen if a phial be about half filled with equal parts of oil and water, +and made to oscillate suspended by a string, the upper surface of the +oil and the lower one of the water will always keep smooth; but the +agitation of the surfaces where the oil and water meet, is curious; for +their specific gravities being not very different, and their friction on +each other nothing, the highest side of the water, as the phial descends +in its oscillation, having acquired a greater momentum than the lowest +side (from its having descended further) would rise the highest on the +ascending side of the oscillation, and thence pushes the then uppermost +part of the water amongst the oil. + + + + + NOTE XXX.--SHIP-WORM. + + + _Meet fell Teredo, as he mines the keel + With beaked head, and break his lips of steel._ + + CANTO III. l. 91. + + +The Teredo, or ship-worm, has two calcareous jaws, hemispherical, flat +before, and angular behind. The shell is taper, winding, penetrating +ships and submarine wood, and was brought from India into Europe, Linnei +System. Nat. p. 1267. The Tarieres, or sea-worms, attack and erode ships +with such fury, and in such numbers, as often greatly to endanger them. +It is said that our vessels have not known this new enemy above fifty +years, that they were brought from the sea about the Antilles to our +parts of the ocean, where they have increased prodigiously. They bore +their passage in the direction of the fibres of the wood, which is their +nourishment, and cannot return or pass obliquely, and thence when they +come to a knot in the wood, or when two of them meet together with their +stony mouths, they perish for want of food. + +In the years 1731 and 1732 the United Provinces were under a dreadful +alarm concerning these insects, which had made great depredation on the +piles which support the banks of Zeland, but it was happily discovered a +few years afterwards that these insects had totally abandoned that +island, (Dict Raisonné, art, Vers Rongeurs,) which might have been +occasioned by their not being able to live in that latitude when the +winter was rather severer than usual. + + + + + NOTE XXXI.--MAELSTROM. + + + _Turn the broad helm, the fluttering canvas urge + From Maelstrom's fierce innavigable surge._ + + CANTO III. l. 93. + + +On the coast of Norway there is an extensive vortex, or eddy, which lies +between the islands of Moskoe and Moskenas, and is called Moskoestrom, +or Maelstrom; it occupies some leagues in circumference, and is said to +be very dangerous and often destructive to vessels navigating these +seas. It is not easy to understand the existence of a constant +descending stream without supposing it must pass through a subterranean +cavity to some other part of the earth or ocean which may lie beneath +its level; as the Mediterranean seems to lie beneath the level of the +Atlantic ocean, which therefore constantly flows into it through the +Straits; and the waters of the Gulph of Mexico lie much above the level +of the sea about the Floridas and further northward, which gives rise to +the Gulph-stream, as described in note on Cassia in Vol. II. + +The Maelstrom is said to be still twice in about twenty-four hours when +the tide is up, and most violent at the opposite times of the day. This +is not difficult to account for, since when so much water is brought +over the subterraneous passage, if such exists, as compleatly to fill it +and stand many feet above it, less disturbance must appear on the +surface. The Maelstrom is described in the Memoires of the Swedish +Academy of Sciences, and Pontoppiden's Hist. of Norway, and in Universal +Museum for 1763, p. 131. + +The reason why eddies of water become hollow in the middle is because +the water immediately over the centre of the well, or cavity, falls +faster, having less friction to oppose its descent, than the water over +the circumference or edges of the well. The circular motion or gyration +of eddies depends on the obliquity of the course of the stream, or to +the friction or opposition to it being greater on one side of the well +than the other; I have observed in water passing through a hole in the +bottom of a trough, which was always kept full, the gyration of the +stream might be turned either way by increasing the opposition of one +side of the eddy with ones finger, or by turning the spout, through +which the water was introduced, a little more obliquely to the hole on +one side or on the other. Lighter bodies are liable to be retained long +in eddies of water, while those rather heavier than water are soon +thrown out beyond the circumference by their acquired momentum becoming +greater than that of the water. Thus if equal portions of oil and water +be put into a phial, and by means of a string be whirled in a circle +round the hand, the water will always keep at the greater distance from +the centre, whence in the eddies formed in rivers during a flood a +person who endeavours to keep above water or to swim is liable to be +detained in them, but on suffering himself to sink or dive he is said +readily to escape. This circulation of water in descending through a +hole in a vessel Dr. Franklin has ingeniously applied to the explanation +of hurricanes or eddies of air. + + + + + NOTE XXXII.--GLACIERS. + + + _While round dark crags imprison'd waters bend + Through rifted ice, in ivory veins descend._ + + CANTO III. l. 113. + + +The common heat of the interior parts of the earth being always 48 +degrees, both in winter and summer, the snow which lies in contact with +it is always in a thawing state; Hence in ice-houses the external parts +of the collection of ice is perpetually thawing and thus preserves the +internal part of it; so that it is necessary to lay up many tons for the +preservation of one ton. Hence in Italy considerable rivers have their +source from beneath the eternal glaciers, or mountains of snow and ice. + +In our country when the air in the course of a frost continues a day or +two at very near 32 degrees, the common heat of the earth thaws the ice +on its surface, while the thermometer remains at the freezing point. +This circumstance is often observable in the rimy mornings of spring; +the thermometer shall continue at the freezing point, yet all the rime +will vanish, except that which happens to lie on a bridge, a board, or +on a cake of cow-dung, which being thus as it were insulated or cut off +from so free a communication with the common heat of the earth by means +of the air under the bridge, or wood, or dung, which are bad conductors +of heat, continues some time longer unthawed. Hence when the ground is +covered thick with snow, though the frost continues, and the sun does +not shine, yet the snow is observed to decrease very sensibly. For the +common heat of the earth melts the under surface of it, and the upper +one evaporates by its solution in the air. The great evaporation of ice +was observed by Mr. Boyle, which experiment I repeated some time ago. +Having suspended a piece of ice by a wire and weighed it with care +without touching it with my hand, I hung it out the whole of a clear +frosty night, and found in the morning it had lost nearly a fifth of its +weight. Mr. N. Wallerius has since observed that ice at the time of its +congelation evaporates faster than water in its fluid form; which may be +accounted for from the heat given out at the instant of freezing; +(Saussure's Essais sur Hygromet. p. 249.) but this effect is only +momentary. + +Thus the vegetables that are covered with snow are seldom injured; +since, as they lie between the thawing snow, which has 32 degrees of +heat, and the covered earth which has 48, they are preserved in a degree +of heat between these; viz. in 40 degrees of heat. Whence the moss on +which the rein-deer feed in the northern latitudes vegetates beneath the +snow; (See note on Muschus, Vol. II.) and hence many Lapland and Alpine +plants perished through cold in the botanic garden at Upsal, for in +their native situations, though the cold is much more intense, yet at +its very commencement they are covered deep with snow, which remains +till late in the spring. For this fact see Amaenit. Academ. Vol. I. No. +48. In our climate such plants do well covered with dried fern, under +which they will grow, and even flower, till the severe vernal frosts +cease. For the increase of glaciers see Note on Canto I. l. 529. + + + + + NOTE XXXIII.--WINDS. + + + _While southern gales o'er western oceans roll, + And Eurus steals his ice-winds from the pole._ + + CANTO IV. l. 15. + + +The theory of the winds is yet very imperfect, in part perhaps owing to +the want of observations sufficiently numerous of the exact times and +places where they begin and cease to blow, but chiefly to our yet +imperfect knowledge of the means by which great regions of air are +either suddenly produced or suddenly destroyed. + +The air is perpetually subject to increase or diminution from its +combination with other bodies, or its evolution from them. The vital +part of the air, called oxygene, is continually produced in this climate +from the perspiration of vegetables in the sunshine, and probably from +the action of light on clouds or on water in the tropical climates, +where the sun has greater power, and may exert some yet unknown laws of +luminous combination. Another part of the atmosphere, which is called +azote, is perpetually set at liberty from animal and vegetable bodies by +putrefaction or combustion, from many springs of water, from volatile +alcali, and probably from fixed alcali, of which there is an exhaustless +source in the water of the ocean. Both these component parts of the air +are perpetually again diminished by their contact with the soil, which +covers the surface of the earth, producing nitre. The oxygene is +diminished in the production of all acids, of which the carbonic and +muriatic exist in great abundance. The azote is diminished in the growth +of animal bodies, of which it constitutes an important part, and in its +combinations with many other natural productions. + +They are both probably diminished in immense quantities by uniting with +the inflammable air, which arises from the mud of rivers and lakes at +some seasons, when the atmosphere is light: the oxygene of the air +producing water, and the azote producing volatile alcali by their +combinations with this inflammable air. At other seasons of the year +these principles may again change their combinations, and the +atmospheric air be reproduced. + +Mr. Lavoisier found that one pound of charcoal in burning consumed two +pounds nine ounces of vital air, or oxygene. The consumption of vital +air in the process of making red lead may readily be reduced to +calculation; a small barrel contains about twelve hundred weight of this +commodity, 1200 pounds of lead by calcination absorb about 144 pounds of +vital air; now as a cubic foot of water weighs 1000 averdupois ounces, +and as vital air is above 800 times lighter than water, it follows that +every barrel of red lead contains nearly 2000 cubic feet of vital air. +If this can be performed in miniature in a small oven, what may not be +done in the immense elaboratories of nature! + +These great elaboratories of nature include almost all her fossil as +well as her animal and vegetable productions. Dr. Priestley obtained air +of greater or less purity, both vital and azotic, from almost all the +fossil substances he subjected to experiment. Four ounce-weight of lava +from Iceland heated in an earthen retort yielded twenty ounce-measures +of air. + + 4 ounce-weight of lava gave 20 ounce measures of air. + 7 ............... basaltes .... 104 ...................... + 2 ............... toadstone .... 40 ...................... + 11/2 ............... granite .... 20 ...................... + 1 ............... elvain .... 30 ...................... + 7 ............... gypsum .... 230 ...................... + 4 ............... blue slate .... 230 ...................... + 4 ............... clay .... 20 ...................... + 4 ............... limestone-spar .... 830 ...................... + 5 ............... limestone .... 1160 ...................... + 3 ............... chalk .... 630 ...................... + 31/2 ............... white iron-ore .... 560 ...................... + 4 ............... dark iron-ore .... 410 ...................... + 1/2 ............... molybdena .... 25 ...................... + 1/2 ............... stream tin .... 20 ...................... + 2 ............... steatites .... 40 ...................... + 2 ............... barytes .... 26 ...................... + 2 ............... black wad .... 80 ...................... + 4 ............... sand stone .... 75 ...................... + 3 ............... coal .... 700 ...................... + +In this account the fixed air was previously extracted from the +limestones by acids, and the heat applied was much less than was +necessary to extract all the air from the bodies employed. Add to this +the known quantities of air which are combined with the calciform ores, +as the ochres of iron, manganese, calamy, grey ore of lead, and some +idea may be formed of the great production of air in volcanic eruptions, +as mentioned in note on Chunda, Vol. II. and of the perpetual +absorptions and evolutions of whole oceans of air from every part of the +earth. + +But there would seem to be an officina aeris, a shop where air is both +manufactured and destroyed in the greatest abundance within the polar +circles, as will hereafter be spoken of. Can this be effected by some +yet unknown law of the congelation of aqueous or saline fluids, which +may set at liberty their combined heat, and convert a part both of the +acid and alcali of sea-water into their component airs? Or on the +contrary can the electricity of the northern lights convert inflammable +air and oxygene into water, whilst the great degree of cold at the poles +unites the azote with some other base? Another officina aeris, or +manufacture of air, would seem to exist within the tropics or at the +line, though in a much less quantity than at the poles, owing perhaps to +the action of the sun's light on the moisture suspended in the air, as +will also be spoken of hereafter; but in all other parts of the earth +these absorptions and evolutions of air in a greater or less degree are +perpetually going on in inconceivable abundance; increased probably, and +diminished at different seasons of the year by the approach or +retrocession of the sun's light; future discoveries must elucidate this +part of the subject. To this should be added that as heat and +electricity, and perhaps magnetism, are known to displace air, that it +is not impossible but that the increased or diminished quantities of +these fluids diffused in the atmosphere may increase its weight a well +as its bulk; since their specific attractions or affinities to matter +are very strong, they probably also possess general gravitation to the +earth; a subject which wants further investigation. See Note XXVI. + + + SOUTH-WEST WINDS. + +The velocity of the surface of the earth in moving round its axis +diminishes from the equator to the poles. Whence if a region of air in +this country should be suddenly removed a few degrees towards the north +it must constitute a western wind, because from the velocity it had +previously acquired in this climate by its friction with the earth it +would for a time move quicker than the surface of the country it was +removed to; the contrary must ensue when a region of air is transported +from this country a few degrees southward, because the velocity it had +acquired in this climate would be less than that of the earth's surface +where it was removed to, whence it would appear to constitute a wind +from the east, while in reality the eminent parts of the earth would be +carried against the too slow air. But if this transportation of air from +south to north be performed gradually, the motion of the wind will blow +in the diagonal between south and west. And on the contrary if a region +of air be gradually removed from north to south it would also blow +diagonally between the north and east, from whence we may safely +conclude that all our winds in this country which blow from the north or +east, or any point between them, consist of regions of air brought from +the north; and that all our winds blowing from the south or west, or +from any point between them, are regions of air brought from the south. + +It frequently happens during the vernal months that after a north-east +wind has passed over us for several weeks, during which time the +barometer has flood at above 301/2 inches, it becomes suddenly succeeded +by a south-west wind, which also continues several weeks, and the +barometer sinks to nearly 281/2 inches. Now as two inches of the mercury +in the barometer balance one-fifteenth part of the whole atmosphere, an +important question here presents itself, _what is become of all this +air_. + +1. This great quantity of air can not be carried in a superior current +towards the line, while the inferior current slows towards the poles, +because then it would equally affect the barometer, which should not +therefore subside from 301/2 inches to 281/2 for six weeks together. + +2. It cannot be owing to the air having lost all the moisture which was +previously dissolved in it, because these warm south-west winds are +replete with moisture, and the cold north-east winds, which weigh up the +mercury in the barometer to 31 inches, consist of dry air. + +3. It can not be carried over the polar regions and be accumulated on +the meridian, opposite to us in its passage towards the line, as such an +accumulation would equal one-fifteenth of the whole atmosphere, and can +not be supposed to remain in that situation for six weeks together. + +4. It can not depend on the existence of tides in the atmosphere, since +it must then correspond to lunar periods. Nor to accumulations of air +from the specific levity of the upper regions of the atmosphere, since +its degree of fluidity must correspond with its tenuity, and +consequently such great mountains of air can not be supposed to exist +for so many weeks together as the south west winds sometimes continue. + +5. It remains therefore that there must be at this time a great and +sudden absorption of air in the polar circle by some unknown operation +of nature, and that the south wind runs in to supply the deficiency. Now +as this south wind consists of air brought from a part of the earth's +surface which moves faster than it does in this climate it must have at +the same time a direction from the west by retaining part of the +velocity it had previously acquired. These south-west winds coming from +a warmer country, and becoming colder by their contact with the earth of +this climate, and by their expansion, (so great a part of the +superincumbent atmosphere having vanished,) precipitate their moisture; +and as they continue for several weeks to be absorbed in the polar +circle would seem to receive a perpetual supply from the tropical +regions, especially over the line, as will hereafter be spoken of. + +It may sometimes happen that a north-east wind having passed over us may +be bent down and driven back before it has acquired any heat from the +climate, and may thus for a few hours or a day have a south-west +direction, and from its descending from a higher region of the +atmosphere may possess a greater degree of cold than an inferior north +east current of air. + +The extreme cold of Jan. 13, 1709, at Paris came on with a gentle south +wind, and was diminished when the wind changed to the north, which is +accounted for by Mr. Homberg from a reflux of air which had been flowing +for some time from the north. Chemical Essays by R. Watson, Vol. V. p. +182. + +It may happen that a north-east current may for a day or two pass over +us and produce incessant rain by mixing with the inferior south-west +current; but this as well as the former is of short duration, as its +friction will soon carry the inferior current along with it, and dry or +frosty weather will then succeed. + + + NORTH-EAST WINDS. + +The north-east winds of this country consist of regions of air from the +north, travelling sometimes at the rate of about a mile in two minutes +during the vernal months for several weeks together from the polar +regions toward the south, the mercury in the barometer standing above +30. These winds consist of air greatly cooled by the evaporation of the +ice and snow over which it passes, and as they become warmer by their +contact with the earth of this climate are capable of dissolving more +moisture as they pass along, and are thence attended with frosts in +winter and with dry hot weather in summer. + +1. This great quantity of air can not be supplied by superior currents +passing in a contrary direction from south to north, because such +currents must as they arise into the atmosphere a mile or two high +become exposed to so great cold as to occasion them to deposit their +moisture, which would fall through the inferior current upon the earth +in some part of their passage. + +2. The whole atmosphere must have increased in quantity, because it +appears by the barometer that there exists one-fifteenth part more air +over us for many weeks together, which could not be thus accumulated by +difference of temperature in respect to heat, or by any aerostatic laws +at present known, or by any lunar influence. + +From whence it would appear that immense masses of air were set at +liberty from their combinations with solid bodies, along with a +sufficient quantity of combined heat, within the polar circle, or in +some region to the north of us; and that they thus perpetually increase +the quantity of the atmosphere; and that this is again at certain times +re-absorbed, or enters into new combinations at the line or tropical +regions. By which wonderful contrivance the atmosphere is perpetually +renewed and rendered fit for the support of animal and vegetable life. + + + SOUTH-EAST WINDS. + +The south-east winds of this country consist of air from the north which +had passed by us, or over us, and before it had obtained the velocity of +the earth's surface in this climate had been driven back, owing to a +deficiency of air now commencing at the polar regions. Hence these are +generally dry or freezing winds, and if they succeed north-east winds +should prognosticate a change of wind from north-east to south-west; the +barometer is generally about 30. They are sometimes attended with cloudy +weather, or rain, owing to their having acquired an increased degree of +warmth and moisture before they became retrograde; or to their being +mixed with air from the south. + +2. Sometimes these south-east winds consist of a vertical eddy of north- +east air, without any mixture of south-west air; in that case the +barometer continues above 30, and the weather is dry or frosty for four +or five days together. + +It should here be observed, that air being an elastic fluid must be more +liable to eddies than water, and that these eddies must extend into +cylinders or vortexes of greater diameter, and that if a vertical eddy +of north-east air be of small diameter or has passed but a little way to +the south of us before its return, it will not have gained the velocity +of the earth's surface to the south of us, and will in consequence +become a south-east wind.--But if the vertical eddy be of large +diameter, or has passed much to the south of us, it will have acquired +velocity from its friction with the earth's surface to the south of us, +and will in consequence on its return become a south-west wind, +producing great cold. + + + NORTH-WEST WINDS. + +There seem to be three sources of the north-west winds of this +hemisphere of the earth. 1. When a portion of southern air, which was +passing over us, is driven back by accumulation of new air in the polar +regions. In this case I suppose they are generally moist or rainy winds, +with the barometer under 30, and if the wind had previously been in the +south-west, it would seem to prognosticate a change to the north-east. + +2. If a current of north wind is passing over us but a few miles high, +without any easterly direction; and is bent down upon us, it must +immediately possess a westerly direction, because it will now move +faster than the surface of the earth where it arrives; and thus becomes +changed from a north-east to a north-west wind. This descent of a north- +east current of air producing a north-west wind may continue some days +with clear or freezing weather, as it may be simply owing to a vertical +eddy of north-east air, as will be spoken of below. It may otherwise be +forced down by a current of south-west wind passing over it, and in this +case it will be attended with rain for a few days by the mixture of the +two airs of different degrees of heat; and will prognosticate a change +of wind from north-east to south-west if the wind was previously in the +north-east quarter. + +3. On the eastern coast of North America the north-west winds bring +frost, as the north-east winds do in this country, as appears from +variety of testimony. This seems to happen from a vertical spiral eddy +made in the atmosphere between the shore and the ridge of mountains +which form the spine or back-bone of that continent. If a current of +water runs along the hypothenuse of a triangle an eddy will be made in +the included angle, which will turn round like a water-wheel as the +stream passes in contact with one edge of it. The same must happen when +a sheet of air flowing along from the north-east rises from the shore in +a straight line to the summit of the Apalachian mountains, a part of the +stream of north-east air will flow over the mountains, another part will +revert and circulate spirally between the summit of the country and the +eastern shore, continuing to move toward the south; and thus be changed +from a north-east to a north-west wind. + +This vertical spiral eddy having been in contact with the cold summits +of these mountains, and descending from higher parts of the atmosphere +will lose part of its heat, and thus constitute one cause of the greater +coldness of the eastern sides of North America than of the European +shores opposite to them, which is said to be equal to twelve degrees of +north latitude, which is a wonderful fact, not otherwise easy to be +explained, since the heat of the springs at Philadelphia is said to be +50, which is greater than the medium heat of the earth in this country. + +The existence of vertical eddies, or great cylinders of air rolling on +the surface of the earth, is agreeable to the observations of the +constructors of windmills; who on this idea place the area of the sails +leaning backwards, inclined to the horizon; and believe that then they +have greater power than when they are placed quite perpendicularly. The +same kind of rolling cylinders of water obtain in rivers owing to the +friction of the water against the earth at their bottoms; as is known by +bodies having been observed to float upon their surfaces quicker than +when immersed to a certain depth. These vertical eddies of air probably +exist all over the earth's surface, but particularly at the bottom or +sides of mountains; and more so probably in the course of the south-west +than of the north-east winds; because the former fall from an eminence, +as it were, on a part of the earth where there is a deficiency of the +quantity of air; as is shewn by the sinking of the barometer: whereas +the latter are pushed or squeezed forward by an addition to the +atmosphere behind them, as appears by the rising of the barometer. + + + TRADE-WINDS. + +A column of heated air becomes lighter than before, and will therefore +ascend, by the pressure of the cold air which surrounds it, like a cork +in water, or like heated smoke in a chimney. + +Now as the sun passes twice over the equator for once over either +tropic, the equator has not time to become cool; and on this account it +is in general hotter at the line than at the tropics; and therefore the +air over the line, except in some few instances hereafter to be +mentioned, continues to ascend at all seasons of the year, pressed +upwards by regions of air brought from the tropics. + +This air thus brought from the tropics to the equator, would constitute +a north wind on one side of the equator, and a south wind on the other; +but as the surface of the earth at the equator moves quicker than the +surface of the earth at the tropics, it is evident that a region of air +brought from either tropic to the equator, and which had previously only +acquired the velocity of the earth's surface at the tropics, will now +move too slow for the earth's surface at the equator, and will thence +appear to move in a direction contrary to the motion of the earth. Hence +the trade-winds, though they consist of regions of air brought from the +north on one side of the line, and from the south on the other, will +appear to have the diagonal direction of north-east and south-west +winds. + +Now it is commonly believed that there are superior currents of air +passing over these north-east and south-west currents in a contrary +direction, and which descending near the tropics produce vertical +whirlpools of air. An important question here again presents itself, +_What becomes of the moisture which this heated air ought to deposit, as +it cools in the upper regions of the atmosphere in its journey to the +tropics?_ It has been shewn by Dr. Priestley and Mr. Ingenhouz that the +green matter at the bottom of cisterns, and the fresh leaves of plants +immersed in water, give out considerable quantities of vital air in the +sun-shine; that is, the perspirable matter of plants (which is water +much divided in its egress from their minute pores) becomes decomposed +by the sun's light, and converted into two kinds of air, the vital and +inflammable airs. The moisture contained or dissolved in the ascending +heated air at the line must exist in great tenuity; and by being exposed +to the great light of the sun in that climate, the water may be +decomposed, and the new airs spread on the atmosphere from the line to +the poles. + +1. From there being no constant deposition of rains in the usual course +of the trade-winds, it would appear that the water rising at the line is +decomposed in its ascent. + +2. From the observations of M. Bougner on the mountain Pinchinca, one of +the Cordelieres immediately under the line, there appears to be no +condensible vapour above three or four miles high. Now though the +atmosphere at that height may be cold to a very considerable degree; yet +its total deprivation of condensible vapour would seem to shew, that its +water was decomposed; as there are no experiments to evince that any +degree of cold hitherto known has been able to deprive air of its +moisture; and great abundance of snow is deposited from the air that +flows to the polar regions, though it is exposed to no greater degrees +of cold in its journey thither than probably exists at four miles height +in the atmosphere at the line. + +3. The hygrometer of Mr. Sauffure also pointed to dryness as he ascended +into rarer air; the single hair of which it was constructed, contracting +from deficiency of moisture. Essais sur l'Hygromet. p. 143. + +From these observations it appears either that rare and cold air +requires more moisture to saturate it than dense air; or that the +moisture becomes decomposed and converted into air, as it ascends into +these cold and rare regions of the atmosphere. + +4. There seems some analogy between the circumstance of air being +produced or generated in the cold parts of the atmosphere both at the +line and at the poles. + + + MONSOONS AND TORNADOES. + +1. In the Arabian and Indian seas are winds, which blow six months one +way, and six months the other, and are called Monsoons; by the +accidental dispositions of land and sea it happens, that in some places +the air near the tropic is supposed to become warmer when the sun is +vertical over it, than at the line. The air in these places +consequently ascends pressed upon one side by the north-east regions of +air, and on the other side by the south-west regions of air. For as the +air brought from the south has previously obtained the velocity of the +earth's surface at the line, it moves faster than the earth's surface +near the tropic where it now arrives, and becomes a south-west wind, +while the air from the north becomes a north-east wind as before +explained. These two winds do not so quietly join and ascend as the +north-east and south-east winds, which meet at the line with equal +warmth and velocity and form the trade-winds; but as they meet in +contrary directions before they ascend, and cannot be supposed +accurately to balance each other, a rotatory motion will be produced as +they ascend like water falling through a hole, and an horizontal or +spiral eddy is the consequence; these eddies are more or less rapid, and +are called Tornadoes in their most violent state, raising water from the +ocean in the west or sand from the deserts of the east, in less violent +degrees they only mix together the two currents of north-east and south- +west air, and produce by this means incessant rains, as the air of the +north-east acquires some of the heat from the south-west wind, as +explained in Note XXV. This circumstance of the eddies produced by the +monsoon-winds was seen by Mr. Bruce in Abyssinia; he relates that for +many successive mornings at the commencement of the rainy monsoon, he +observed a cloud of apparently small dimensions whirling round with +great rapidity, and in few minutes the heavens became covered with dark +clouds with consequent great rains. See Note on Canto III. l. 129. + +2. But it is not only at the place where the air ascends at the northern +extremity of the rainy monsoon, and where it forms tornadoes, as +observed above by Mr. Bruce, but over a great tract of country several +degrees in length in certain parts as in the Arabian sea, a perpetual +rain for several months descends, similar to what happens for weeks +together in our own climate in a less degree during the south-west +winds. Another important question presents itself here, _if the climate +to which this south-west wind arrives, it not colder than that it comes +from, why should it deposit its moisture during its whole journey? if it +be a colder climate, why does it come thither?_ The tornadoes of air +above described can extend but a little way, and it is not easy to +conceive that a superior cold current of air can mix with an inferior +one, and thus produce showers over ten degrees of country, since at +about three miles high there is perpetual frost; and what can induce +these narrow and shallow currents to flow over each other so many +hundred miles? + +Though the earth at the northren extremity of this monsoon may be more +heated by certain circumstances of situation than at the line, yet it +seems probable that the intermediate country between that and the line, +may continue colder than the line (as in other parts of the earth) and +hence that the air coming from the line to supply this ascent or +destruction of air at the northern extremity of the monsoon will be +cooled all the way in its approach, and in consequence deposit its +water. It seems probable that at the northern extremity of this monsoon, +where the tornadoes or hurricanes exist, that the air not only ascends +but is in part converted into water, or otherwise diminished in +quantity, as no account is given of the existence of any superior +currents of it. + +As the south-west winds are always attended with a light atmosphere, an +incipient vacancy, or a great diminution of air must have taken place to +the northward of them in all parts of the earth wherever they exist, and +a deposition of their moisture succeeds their being cooled by the +climate they arrive at, and not by a contrary current of cold air over +them, since in that case the barometer would not sink. They may thus in +our own country be termed monsoons without very regular periods. + +3. Another cause of TORNADOES independent of the monsoons is ingeniously +explained by Dr. Franklin, when in the tropical countries a stratum of +inferior air becomes so heated by its contact with the warm earth, that +its expansion is increased more than is equivalent to the pressure of +the stratum of air over it; or when the superior stratum becomes more +condensed by cold than the inferior one by pressure, the upper region +will descend and the lower one ascend. In this situation if one part of +the atmosphere be hotter from some fortuitous circumstances, or, has +less pressure over it, the lower stratum will begin to ascend at this +part, and resemble water falling through a hole as mentioned above. If +the lower region of air was going forwards with considerable velocity, +it will gain an eddy by riling up this hole in the incumbent heavy air, +so that the whirlpool or tornado has not only its progressive velocity, +but its circular one also, which thus lifts up or overturns every thing +within its spiral whirl. By the weaker whirlwinds in this country the +trees are sometimes thrown down in a line of only twenty or forty yards +in breadth, making a kind of avenue through a country. In the West +Indies the sea rises like a cone in the whirl, and is met by black +clouds produced by the cold upper air and the warm lower air being +rapidly mixed; whence are produced the great and sudden rains called +water-spouts; while the upper and lower airs exchange their plus or +minus electricity in perpetual lightenings. + + + LAND AND SEA-BREEZES. + +The sea being a transparent mass is less heated at its surface by the +sun's rays than the land, and its continual change of surface +contributes to preserve a greater uniformity in the heat of the air +which hangs over it. Hence the surface of the tropical islands is more +heated during the day than the sea that surrounds them, and cools more +in the night by its greater elevation: whence in the afternoon when the +lands of the tropical islands have been much heated by the sun, the air +over them ascends pressed upwards by the cooler air of the incircling +ocean, in the morning again the land becoming cooled more than the sea, +the air over it descends by its increased gravity, and blows over the +ocean near its shores. + + + CONCLUSION. + +1. There are various irregular winds besides those above described, +which consist of horizontal or vertical eddies of air owing to the +inequality of the earth's surface, or the juxtaposition of the sea. +Other irregular winds have their origin from increased evaporation of +water, or its sudden devaporation and descent in showers; others from +the partial expansion and condensation of air by heat and cold; by the +accumulation or defect of electric fluid, or to the air's new production +or absorption occasioned by local causes not yet discovered. See Notes +VII. and XXV. + +2. There seem to exist only two original winds: one consisting of air +brought from the north, and the other of air brought from the south. The +former of these winds has also generally an apparent direction from the +east, and the latter from the west, arising from the different +velocities of the earth's surface. All the other winds above described +are deflections or retrogressions of some parts of these currents of air +from the north or south. + +3. One fifteenth part of the atmosphere is occasionally destroyed, and +occasionally reproduced by unknown causes. These causes are brought into +immediate activity over a great part of the surface of the earth at +nearly the same time, but always act more powerful to the northward than +to the southward of any given place; and would hence seem to have their +principal effect in the polar circles, existing nevertheless though with +less power toward the tropics or at the line. + +For when the north-east wind blows the barometer rises, sometimes from +281/2 inches to 301/2, which shews a great new generation of air in the +north; and when the south-west wind blows the barometer sinks as much, +which shews a great destruction of air in the north. But as the north- +east winds sometimes continue for five or six weeks, the newly-generated +air must be destroyed at those times in the warmer climates to the south +of us, or circulate in superior currents, which has been shewn to be +improbable from its not depositing its water. And as the south-west +winds sometimes continue for some weeks, there must be a generation of +air to the south at those times, or superior currents, which last has +been shewn to be improbable. + +4. The north-east winds being generated about the poles are pushed +forwards towards the tropics or line, by the pressure from behind, and +hence they become warmer, as explained in Note VII. as well as by their +coming into contact with a warmer part of the earth which contributes to +make these winds greedily absorb moisture in their passage. On the +contrary, the south-west winds, as the atmosphere is suddenly diminished +in the polar regions, are drawn as it were into an incipient vacancy, +and become therefore expanded in their passage, and thus generate cold, +as explained in Note VII. and are thus induced to part with their +moisture, as well as by their contact with a colder part of the earth's +surface. Add to this, that the difference in the sound of the north-east +and south-west winds may depend on the former being pushed forwards by a +pressure behind, and the latter falling as it were into a partial or +incipient vacancy before; whence the former becomes more condensed, and +the latter more rarefied as it passes. There is a whistle, termed a +lark-call, which consists of a hollow cylinder of tin-plate, closed at +each end, about half an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch high, +with opposite holes about the size of a goose-quill through the centre +of each end; if this lark-whistle be held between the lips the sound of +it is manifestly different when the breath is forceably blown through it +from within outwards, and when it is sucked from without inwards. +Perhaps this might be worthy the attention of organ-builders. + +5. A stop is put to this new generation of air, when about a fifteenth +of the whole is produced, by its increasing pressure; and a similar +boundary is fixed to its absorption or destruction by the decrease of +atmospheric pressure. As water requires more heat to convert it into +vapour under a heavy atmosphere than under a light one, so in letting +off the water from muddy fish-ponds great quantities of air-bubbles are +seen to ascend from the bottom, which were previously confined there by +the pressure of the water. Similar bubbles of inflammable air are seen +to arise from lakes in many seasons of the year, when the atmosphere +suddenly becomes light. + +6. The increased absorptions and evolutions of air must, like its simple +expansions, depend much on the presence or absence of heat and light, +and will hence, in respect to the times and places of its production and +destruction, be governed by the approach or retrocession of the sun, and +on the temperature, in regard to heat, of various latitudes, and parts +of the same latitude, so well explained by Mr. Kirwan. + +7. Though the immediate cause of the destruction or reproduction of +great masses of air at certain times, when the wind changes from north +to south, or from south to north can not yet be ascertained; yet as +there appears greater difficulty in accounting for this change of wind +for any other known causes, we may still suspect that there exists in +the arctic and antarctic circles a BEAR or DRAGON yet unknown to +philosophers, which at times suddenly drinks up, and as suddenly at +other times vomits out one-fifteenth part of the atmosphere: and hope +that this or some future age will learn how to govern and domesticate a +monster which might be rendered of such important service to mankind. + + + INSTRUMENTS. + +If along with the usual registers of the weather observations were made +on the winds in many parts of the earth with the three following +instruments, which might be constructed at no great expence, some useful +information might be acquired. + +1. To mark the hour when the wind changes from north-east to south-west, +and the contrary. This might be managed by making a communication from +the vane of a weathercock to a clock; in such a manner, that if the vane +mould revolve quite round, a tooth on its revolving axis should stop the +clock, or put back a small bolt on the edge of a wheel revolving once in +twenty-four hours. + +2. To discover whether in a year more air passed from north to south, or +the contrary. This might be effected by placing a windmill-sail of +copper about nine inches diameter in a hollow cylinder about six inches +long, open at both ends, and fixed on an eminent situation exactly north +and south. Thence only a part of the north-east and south-west currents +would affect the sail so as to turn it; and if its revolutions were +counted by an adapted machinery, as the sail would turn one way with the +north currents of air, and the contrary one with the south currents, the +advance of the counting finger either way would shew which wind had +prevailed most at the end of the year. + +3. To discover the rolling cylinders of air, the vane of a weathercock +might be so suspended as to dip or rise vertically, as well as to have +its horizontal rotation. + + + RECAPITULATION. + +NORTH-EAST WINDS consist of air flowing from the north, where it seems +to be occasionally produced; has an apparent direction from the east +owing to its not having acquired in its journey the increasing velocity +of the earth's surface; these winds are analogous to the trade-winds +between the tropics, and frequently continue in the vernal months for +four and six weeks together, with a high barometer, and fair or frosty +weather. 2. They sometimes consist of south-west air, which had passed +by us or over us, driven back by a new accumulation of air in the north, +These continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain. See Note +XXV. + +SOUTH-WEST WIND consists of air flowing from the south, and seems +occasionally absorbed at its arrival to the more northern latitudes. It +has a real direction from the west owing to its not having lost in its +journey the greater velocity it had acquired from the earth's surface +from whence it came. These winds are analogous to the monsoons between +the tropics, and frequently continue for four or six weeks together, +with a low barometer and rainy weather. 2. They sometimes consist of +north-east air, which had passed by us or over us, which becomes +retrograde by a commencing deficiency of air in the north. These winds +continue but a day or two, attended with severer frost with a sinking +barometer; their cold being increased by their expansion, as they +return, into an incipient vacancy. + +NORTH-WEST WINDS consist, first, of south-west winds, which have passed +over us, bent down and driven back towards the south by newly generated +northern air. They continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain +or clouds. 2. They consist of north-east winds bent down from the higher +parts of the atmosphere, and having there acquired a greater velocity +than, the earth's surface; are frosty or fair. 3. They consist of north- +east winds formed into a vertical spiral eddy, as on the eastern coasts +of North America, and bring severe frost. + +SOUTH-EAST WINDS consist, first, of north-east winds become retrograde, +continue for a day or two, frosty or fair, sinking barometer. 2. They +consist of north-east winds formed into a vertical eddy not a spiral +one, frost or fair. + +NORTH WINDS consist, first, of air flowing slowly from the north, so +that they acquire the velocity of the earth's surface as they approach, +are fair or frosty, seldom occur. 2. They consist of retrograde south +winds; these continue but a day or two, are preceded by south-west +winds; and are generally succeeded by north-east winds, cloudy or rainy, +barometer rising. + +SOUTH WINDS consist, first, of air flowing slowly from the south, +loosing their previous western velocity by the friction of the earth's +surface as they approach, moist, seldom occur, 2. They consist of +retrograde north winds; these continue but a day or two, are preceded by +north-east winds, and generally succeeded by south-west winds, colder, +barometer sinking. + +EAST WINDS consist of air brought hastily from the north, and not +impelled farther southward, owing to a sudden beginning absorption of +air in the northern regions, very cold, barometer high, generally +succeeded by south-west wind. + +WEST WINDS consist of air brought hastily from the south, and checked +from proceeding further to the north by a beginning production of air in +the northern regions, warm and moist, generally succeeded by north-east +wind. 2. They consist of air bent down from the higher regions of the +atmosphere, if this air be from the south, and brought hastily it +becomes a wind of great velocity, moving perhaps 60 miles an hour, is +warm and rainy; if it consists of northern air bent down it is of less +velocity and colder. + + + _Application of the preceding Theory to Some Extracts + from a Journal of the Weather._ + +_Dec. 1, 1790._ The barometer sunk suddenly, and the wind, which had +been some days north-east with frost, changed to south-east with an +incessant though moderate fall of snow. A part of the northern air, +which had passed by us I suppose, now became retrograde before it had +acquired the velocity of the earth's surface to the south of us, and +being attended by some of the southern air in its journey, the moisture +of the latter became condensed and frozen by its mixture mith the +former. + +_Dec. 2, 3._ The wind changed to north-west and thawed the snow. A part +of the southern air, which had passed by us or over us, with the +retrograde northern air above described, was now in its turn driven +back, before it had lost the velocity of the surface of the earth to the +south of us, and consequently became a north-west wind; and not having +lost the warmth it brought from the south produced a thaw. + +_Dec. 4, 5._ Wind changed to north-east with frost and a rising +barometer. The air from the north continuing to blow, after it had +driven back the southern air as above described, became a north-east +wind, having less velocity than the surface of the earth in this +climate, and produced frost from its coldness. + +_Dec. 6, 7._ Wind now changed to the south-west with incessant rain and +a sinking barometer. From unknown causes I suppose the quantity of air +to be diminished in the polar regions, and the southern air cooled by +the earth's surface, which was previously frozen, deposits its moisture +for a day or two; afterwards the wind continued south-west without rain, +as the surface of the earth became warmer. + +_March 18, 1785._ There has been a long frost; a few days ago the +barometer sunk to 291/2, and the frost became more severe. Because the air +being expanded by a part of the pressure being taken off became colder. +This day the mercury rose to 30, and the frost ceased, the wind +continuing as before between north and east. _March 19._ Mercury above +30, weather still milder, no frost, wind north-east. _March 20._ The +same, for the mercury rising shews that the air becomes more compressed +by the weight above, and in consequence gives out warmth. + +_April 4, 5._ Frost, wind north-east, the wind changed in the middle of +the day to the north-west without rain, and has done so for three or +four days, becoming again north-east at night. For the sun now giving +greater degrees of heat, the air ascends as the sun passes the zenith, +and is supplied below by the air on the western side as well as on the +eastern side of the zenith during the hot part of the day; whence for a +few hours, on the approach of the hot part of the day, the air acquires +a westerly direction in this longitude. If the north-west wind had been +caused by a retrograde motion of some southern air, which had passed +over us, it would have been attended with rain or clouds. + +_April 10._ It rained all day yesterday, the wind north-west, this +morning there was a sharp frost. The evaporation of the moisture, (which +fell yesterday) occasioned by the continuance of the wind, produced so +much cold as to freeze the dew. + +_May 12._ Frequent showers with a current of colder wind preceding every +shower. The sinking of the rain or cloud pressed away the air from +beneath it in its descent, which having been for a time shaded from the +sun by the floating cloud, became cooled in some degree. + +_June 20._ The barometer sunk, the wind became south-west, and the whole +heaven was instantly covered with clouds. A part of the incumbent +atmosphere having vanished, as appeared by the sinking of the barometer, +the remainder became expanded by its elasticity, and thence attracted +some of the matter of heat from the vapour intermixed with it, and thus +in a few minutes a total devaporation took place, as in exhausting the +receiver of an air-pump. See note XXV. At the place where the air is +destroyed, currents both from the north and south flow in to supply the +deficiency, (for it has been shewn that there are no other proper winds +but these two) and the mixture of these winds produces so sudden +condensation of the moisture, both by the coldness of the northern air +and the expansion of both of them, that lightning is given out, and an +incipient tornado takes place; whence thunder is said frequently to +approach against the wind. + +_August 28, 1732._ Barometer was at 31, and _Dec. 30_, in the same year, +it was at 28 2-tenths. Medical Essays, Edinburgh, Vol. II. p. 7. It +appears from these journals that the mercury at Edinburgh varies +sometimes nearly three inches, or one tenth of the whole atmosphere. +From the journals kept by the Royal Society at London it appears seldom +to vary more than two inches, or one-fifteenth of the whole atmosphere. +The quantity of the variation is said still to decrease nearer the line, +and to increase in the more northern latitudes; which much confirms the +idea that there exists at certain times a great destruction or +production of air within the polar circle. + +_July 2, 1732._ The westerly winds in the journal in the Medical Essays, +Vol. II. above referred to, are frequently marked with the number three +to shew their greater velocity, whereas the easterly winds seldom +approach to the number two. The greater velocity of the westerly winds +than the easterly ones is well known I believe in every climate of the +world; which may be thus explained from the theory above delivered. 1. +When the air is still, the higher parts of the atmosphere move quicker +than those parts which touch the earth, because they are at a greater +distance from the axis of motion. 2. The part of the atmosphere where +the north or south wind comes from is higher than the part of it where +it comes to, hence the more elevated parts of the atmosphere continue to +descend towards the earth as either of those winds approach. 3. When +southern air is brought to us it possesses a westerly direction also, +owing to the velocity it had previously acquired from the earth's +surface; and if it consists of air from the higher parts of the +atmosphere descending nearer the earth, this westerly velocity becomes +increased. But when northern air is brought to us, it possesses an +apparent easterly direction also, owing to the velocity which it had +previously acquired from the earth's surface being less than that of the +earth's surface in this latitude; now if the north-east wind consists of +air descending from higher parts of the atmosphere, this deficiency of +velocity will be less, in consequence of the same cause, viz. The higher +parts of the atmosphere descending, as the wind approaches, increases +the real velocity of the western winds, and decreases the apparent +velocity of the eastern ones. + +_October 22._ Wind changed from south-east to south-west. There is a +popular prognostication that if the wind changes from the north towards +the south passing through the east, it is more likely to continue in the +south, than if it passes through the west, which may be thus accounted +for. If the north-east wind changes to a north-west wind, it shews +either that a part of the northern air descends upon us in a spiral +eddy, or that a superior current of southern air is driven back; but if +a north-east wind be changed into a south-east wind it shews that the +northern air is become retrograde, and that in a day or two, as soon as +that part of it has passed, which has not gained the velocity of the +earth's surface in this latitude, it will become a south wind for a few +hours, and then a south-west wind. + +The writer of this imperfect sketch of anemology wishes it may incite +some person of greater leizure and ability to attend to this subject, +and by comparing the various meteorological journals and observations +already published, to construct a more accurate and methodical treatise +on this interesting branch of philosophy. + + + + + NOTE XXXIV.--VEGETABLE PERSPIRATION. + + + _And wed the enamoured Oxygene to Light._ + + CANTO IV. l. 34. + + +When points or hairs are put into spring-water, as in the experiments of +Sir B. Thompson, (Philos. Trans. Vol. LXXVII.) and exposed to the light +of the sun, much air, which loosely adhered to the water, rises in +bubbles, as explained in note on Fucus, Vol. II. A still greater +quantity of air, and of a purer kind, is emitted by Dr. Priestley's +green matter, and by vegetable leaves growing in water in the sun-shine, +according to Mr. Ingenhouze's experiments; both which I suspect to be +owing to a decomposition of the water perspired by the plant, for the +edge of a capillary tube of great tenuity may be considered as a circle +of points, and as the oxygene, or principle of vital air, may be +expanded into a gas by the sun's light; the hydrogene or inflammable air +may be detained in the pores of the vegetable. + +Hence plants growing in the shade are white, and become green by being +exposed to the sun's light; for their natural colour being blue, the +addition of hydrogene adds yellow to this blue, and _tans_ them green. I +suppose a similar circumstance takes place in animal bodies; their +perspirable matter as it escapes in the sun-shine becomes decomposed by +the edges of their pores as in vegetables, though in less quantity, as +their perspiration is less, and by the hydrogene being retained the skin +becomes _tanned_ yellow. In proof of this it must be observed that both +vegetable and animal substances become bleached white by the sun-beams +when they are dead, as cabbage-stalks, bones, ivory, tallow, bees-wax, +linen and cotton cloth; and hence I suppose the copper-coloured natives +of sunny countries might become etiolated or blanched by being kept from +their infancy in the dark, or removed for a few generations to more +northerly climates. + +It is probable that on a sunny morning much pure air becomes separated +from the dew by means of the points of vegetables on which it adheres, +and much inflammable air imbibed by the vegetable, or combined with it; +and by the sun's light thus decomposing water the effects of it in +bleaching linen seems to depend (as described in Note X.): the water is +decomposed by the light at the ends or points of the cotton or thread, +and the vital air unites with the phlogistic or colouring matters of the +cloth, and produces a new acid, which is either itself colourless or +washes out, at the same time the inflammable part of the water escapes. +Hence there seems a reason why cotton bleaches so much sooner than +linen, viz. because its fibres are three or four times shorter, and +therefore protrude so many more points, which seem to facilitate the +liberation of the vital air from the inflammable part of the water. + +Bee's wax becomes bleached by exposure to the sun and dews in a similar +manner as metals become calcined or rusty, viz. by the water on their +surface being decomposed; and hence the inflammable material which +caused the colour becomes united with vital air forming a new acid, and +is washed away. + +Oil close stopped in a phial not full, and exposed long to the sun's +light, becomes bleached, as I suppose, by the decomposition of the water +it contains; the inflammable air rising above the surface, and the vital +air uniting with the colouring matter of the oil. For it is remarkable, +that by shutting up a phial of bleached oil in a dark drawer, it in a +little time becomes coloured again. + +The following experiment shews the power of light in separating vital +air from another basis, viz. from azote. Mr. Scheel inverted a glass +vessel filled with colourless nitrous acid into another glass containing +the same acid, and on exposing them to the sun's light, the inverted +glass became partly filled with pure air, and the acid at the same time +became coloured. Scheel in Crell's Annal. 1786. But if the vessel of +colourless nitrous acid be quite full and stopped, so that no space is +left for the air produced to expand itself into, no change of colour +takes place. Priestley's Exp. VI. p. 344. See Keir's very excellent +Chemical Dictionary, p. 99. new edition. + +A sun-flower three feet and half high according to the experiment of Dr. +Hales, perspired two pints in one day (Vegetable Statics.) which is many +times as much in proportion to its surface, as is perspired from the +surface and lungs of animal bodies; it follows that the vital air +liberated from the surfaces of plants by the sunshine must much exceed +the quantity of it absorbed by their respiration, and that hence they +improve the air in which they live during the light part of the day, and +thus blanched vegetables will sooner become _tanned into green_ by the +sun's light, than etiolated animal bodies will become _tanned yellow_ by +the same means. + +It is hence evident, that the curious discovery of Dr. Priestley, that +his green vegetable matter and other aquatic plants gave out vital air +when the sun shone upon them, and the leaves of other plants did the +same when immersed in water, as observed by Mr. Ingenhouze, refer to the +perspiration of vegetables not to their respiration. Because Dr. +Priestley observed the pure air to come from both sides of the leaves +and even from the stalks of a water-flag, whereas one side of the leaf +only serves the office of lungs, and certainly not the stalks. Exper. on +Air, Vol. III. And thus in respect to the circumstance in which plants +and animals seemed the furtherest removed from each other, I mean in +their supposed mode of respiration, by which one was believed to purify +the air which the other had injured, they seem to differ only in degree, +and the analogy between them remains unbroken. + +Plants are said by many writers to grow much faster in the night than in +the day; as is particularly observable in seedlings at their rising out +of the ground. This probably is a consequence of their sleep rather than +of the absence of light; and in this I suppose they also resemble animal +bodies. + + + + + NOTE XXXV.--VEGETABLE PLACENTATION. + + + _While in bright veins the silvery sap ascends. + + CANTO IV. l. 419. + + +As buds are the viviparous offspring of vegetables, it becomes necessary +that they should be furnished with placental vessels for their +nourishment, till they acquire lungs or leaves for the purpose of +elaborating the common juices of the earth into nutriment. These vessels +exist in bulbs and in seeds, and supply the young plant with a sweet +juice till it acquires leaves, as is seen in converting barley into +malt, and appears from the sweet taste of onions and potatoes, when they +begin to grow. + +The placental vessels belonging to the buds of trees are placed about +the roots of most, as the vine; so many roots are furnished with sweet +or mealy matter as fern-root, bryony, carrot, turnip, potatoe, or in the +alburnum or sap-wood as in those trees which produce manna, which is +deposited about the month of August, or in the joints of sugar cane, and +grasses; early in the spring the absorbent mouths of these vessels drink +up moisture from the earth, with a saccharine matter lodged for that +purpose during the preceding autumn, and push this nutritive fluid up +the vessels of the alburnum to every individual bud, as is evinced by +the experiments of Dr. Hales, and of Mr. Walker in the Edinburgh +Philosophical Transact. The former observed that the sap from the stump +of a vine, which he had cut off in the beginning of April, arose twenty- +one feet high in tubes affixed to it for that purpose, but in a few +weeks it ceased to bleed at all, and Dr. Walker marked the progress of +the ascending sap, and found likewise that as soon as the leaves became +expanded the sap ceased to rise; the ascending juice of some trees is so +copious and so sweet during the sap-season that it is used to make wine, +as the birch, betula, and sycamore, acer pseudo-platinus, and +particularly the palm. + +During this ascent of the sap-juice each individual leaf-bud expands its +new leaves, and shoots down new roots, covering by their intertexture +the old bark with a new one; and as soon as these new roots (or bark) +are capable of absorbing sufficient juices from the earth for the +support of each bud, and the new leaves are capable of performing their +office of exposing these juices to the influence of the air; the +placental vessels cease to act, coalesce, and are transformed from sap- +wood, or alburnum, into inert wood; serving only for the support of the +new tree, which grows over them. + +Thus from the pith of the new bud of the horse-chesnut five vessels pass +out through the circle of the placental vessels above described, and +carry with them a minuter circle of those vessels; these five bundles of +vessels unite after their exit, and form the footstalk or petiole of the +new five-fingered leaf, to be spoken of hereafter. This structure is +well seen by cutting off a leaf of the horse-chesnut (Aesculus +Hippocastanum) in September before it falls, as the buds of this tree +are so large that the flower may be seen in them with the naked eye. + +After a time, perhaps about midsummer, another bundle of vessels passes +from the pith through the alburnum or sap-vessels in the bosom of each +leaf, and unites by the new bark with the leaf, which becomes either a +flower-bud or a leaf-bud to be expanded in the ensuing spring, for which +purpose an apparatus of placental vessels are produced with proper +nutriment during the progress of the summer and autumn, and thus the +vegetable becomes annually increased, ten thousand buds often existing +on one tree, according to the estimate of Linneus. Phil. Bot. + +The vascular connection of vegetable buds with the leaves in whose +bosoms they are formed is confirmed by the following experiment, (Oct. +20, 1781.) On the extremity of a young bud of the Mimosa (sensitive +plant) a small drop of acid of vitriol was put by means of a pen, and, +after a few seconds, the leaf in whose axilla it dwelt closed and opened +no more, though the drop of vitriolic acid was so small as apparently +only to injure the summit of the bud. Does not this seem to shew that +the leaf and its bud have connecting vessels though they arise at +different times and from different parts of the medulla or pith? And, as +it exists previously to it, that the leaf is the parent of the bud? + +This placentation of vegetable buds is clearly evinced from the +sweetness of the rising sap, and from its ceasing to rise as soon as the +leaves are expanded, and thus compleats the analogy between buds and +bulbs. Nor need we wonder at the length of the umbilical cords of buds +since that must correspond with their situation on the tree, in the same +manner as their lymphatics and arteries are proportionally elongated. + +It does not appear probable that any umbilical artery attends these +placental absorbents, since, as there seems to be no system of veins in +vegetables to bring back the blood from the extremities of their +arteries, (except their pulmonary veins,) there could not be any +vegetable fluids to be returned to their placenta, which in vegetables +seems to be simply an organ for nutrition, whereas the placenta of the +animal foetus seems likewise to serve as a respiratory organ like the +gills of fishes. + + + + + NOTE XXXVI--VEGETABLE CIRCULATION. + + + _And refluent blood in milky eddies bends._ + + CANTO IV. l. 420. + + +The individuality of vegetable buds was spoken of before, and is +confirmed by the method of raising all kinds of trees by Mr. Barnes. +(Method of propagating Fruit Trees. 1759. Lond. Baldwin.) He cut a +branch into as many pieces as there were buds or leaves upon it, and +wiping the two wounded ends dry he quickly applied to each a cement, +previously warmed a little, which consisted principally of pitch, and +planted them in the earth. The use of this cement I suppose to consist +in its preventing the bud from bleeding to death, though the author +ascribes it to its antisceptic quality. + +These buds of plants, which are thus each an individual vegetable, in +many circumstances resemble individual animals, but as animal bodies are +detached from the earth, and move from place to place in search of food, +and take that food at considerable intervals of time, and prepare it for +their nourishiment within their own bodies after it is taken, it is +evident they must require many organs and powers which are not necessary +to a stationary bud. As vegetables are immoveably fixed to the soil from +whence they draw their nourishment ready prepared, and this uniformly +not at returning intervals, it follows that in examining their anatome +we are not to look for muscles of locomotion, as arms and legs; nor for +organs to receive and prepare their nourishment, as a stomach and +bowels; nor for a reservoir for it after it is prepared, as a general +system of veins, which in locomotive animals contains and returns the +superfluous blood which is left after the various organs of secretion +have been supplied, by which contrivance they are enabled to live a long +time without new supplies of food. + +The parts which we may expert to find in the anatome of vegetables +correspondent to those in the animal economy are, 1. A system of +absorbent vessels to imbibe the moisture of the earth similar to the +lacteal vessels, as in the roots of plants; and another system of +absorbents similar to the lymphatics of animal bodies, opening its +mouths on the internal cells and external surfaces of vegetables; and a +third system of absorbent vessels correspondent with those of the +placentation of the animal foetus. 2. A pulmonary system correspondent +to the lungs or gills of quadrupeds and fish, by which the fluid +absorbed by the lacteals and lymphatics may be exposed to the influence +of the air, this is done by the green leaves of plants, those in the air +resembling lungs, and those in the water resembling gills; and by the +petals of flowers. 3. Arterial systems to convey the fluid thus +elaborated to the various glands of the vegetable for the purposes of +its growth, nutrition, and various secretions. 4. The various glands +which separate from the vegetable blood the honey, wax, gum, resin, +starch, sugar, essential oil, &c. 5. The organs adapted for their +propagation or reproduction. 6. Muscles to perform several motions of +their parts. + +I. The existence of that branch of the absorbent vessels of vegetables +which resembles the lacteals of animal bodies, and imbibes their +nutriment from the moist earth, is evinced by their growth so long as +moisture is applied to their roots, and their quickly withering when it +is withdrawn. + +Besides these absorbents in the roots of plants there are others which +open their mouths on the external surfaces of the bark and leaves, and +on the internal surfaces of all the cells, and between the bark and the +alburnum or sap-wood; the existence of these is shewn, because a leaf +plucked off and laid with its under side on water will not wither so +soon as if left in the dry air,--the same if the bark alone of a branch +which is separated from a tree be kept moist with water,--and lastly, by +moistening the alburnum or sap-wood alone of a branch detached from a +tree it will not so soon wither as if left in the dry air. By the +following experiment these vessels were agreeably visible by a common +magnifying glass, I placed in the summer of 1781 the footstalks of some +large fig-leaves about an inch deep in a decoction of madder, (rubia +tinctorum,) and others in a decoction of logwood, (haematoxylum +campechense,) along with some sprigs cut off from a plant of picris, +these plants were chosen because their blood is white, after some hours, +and on the next day, on taking out either of these and cutting off from +its bottom about a quarter of an inch of the stalk an internal circle of +red points appeared, which were the ends of absorbent vessels coloured +red with the decoction, while an external ring of arteries was seen to +bleed out hastily a milky juice, and at once evinced both the absorbent +and arterial system. These absorbent vessels have been called by Grew, +and Malphigi, and some other philosophers, bronchi, and erroneously +supposed to be air-vessels. It is probable that these vessels, when cut +through, may effuse their fluids, and receive air, their sides being too +stiff to collapse; since dry wood emits air-bubles in the exhausted +receiver in the same manner as moist wood. + +The structure of these vegetable absorbents consists of a spiral line, +and not of a vessel interrupted with valves like the animal lymphatics, +since on breaking almost any tender leaf and drawing out some of the +fibres which adhere longest this spiral structure becomes visible even +to the naked eye, and distinctly so by the use of a common lens. See +Grew, Plate 51. + +In such a structure it is easy to conceive how a vermicular or +peristaltic motion of the vessel beginning at the lowest part of it, +each spiral ring successively contracting itself till it fills up the +tube, must forcibly push forwards its contents, as from the roots of +vines in the bleeding season; and if this vermicular motion should begin +at the upper end of the vessel it is as easy to see how it must carry +its contained fluid in a contrary direction. The retrograde motion of +the vegetable absorbent vessels is shewn by cutting a forked branch from +a tree, and immersing a part of one of the forks in water, which will +for many days prevent the other from withering; or it is shewn by +planting a willow branch with the wrong end upwards. This structure in +some degree obtains in the esophagus or throat of cows, who by similar +means convey their food first downwards and afterward upwards by a +retrograde motion of the annular muscles or cartilages for the purpose +of a second mastication of it. + +II. The fluids thus drank up by the vegetable absorbent vessels from the +earth, or from the atmosphere, or from their own cells and interfaces, +are carried to the foot-stalk of every leaf, where the absorbents +belonging to each leaf unite into branches, forming so many pulmonary +arteries, and are thence dispersed to the extremities of the leaf, as +may be seen in cutting away slice after slice the footstalk of a horse- +chesnut in September before the leaf falls. There is then a compleat +circulation in the leaf; a pulmonary vein receiving the blood from the +extremities of each artery on the upper side of the leaf, and joining +again in the footstalk of the leaf these veins produce so many arteries, +or aortas, which disperse the new blood over the new bark, elongating +its vessels, or producing its secretions; but as a reservoir of blood +could not be wanted by a vegetable bud which takes in its nutriment at +all times, I imagine there is no venous system, no veins properly so +called, which receive the blood which was to spare, and return it into +the pulmonary or arterial system. + +The want of a system of veins was countenanced by the following +experiment; I cut off several stems of tall spurge, (Euphorbia +helioscopia) in autumn, about the centre of the plant, and observed +tenfold the quantity of milky juice ooze from the upper than from the +lower extremity, which could hardly have happened if there had been a +venous system of vessels to return the blood from the roots to the +leaves. + +Thus the vegetable circulation, complete in the lungs, but probably in +the other part of the system deficient in respect to a system of +returning veins, is carried forwards without a heart, like the +circulation through the livers of animals where the blood brought from +the intestines and mesentery by one vein is dispersed through the liver +by the vena portarum, which assumes the office of an artery. See Note +XXXVII. + +At the same time so minute are the vessels in the intertexture of the +barks of plants, which belong to each individual bud, that a general +circulation may possibly exist, though we have not yet been able to +discover the venous part of it. + +There is however another part of the circulation of vegetable juices +visible to the naked eye, and that is in the corol or petals of flowers, +in which a part of the blood of the plant is exposed to the influence of +the air and light in the same manner as in the foliage, as will be +mentioned more at large in Notes XXXVII and XXXIX. + +These circulations of their respective fluids seem to be carried on in +the vessels of plants precisely as in animal bodies by their +irritability to the stimulus of their adapted fluids, and not by any +mechanical or chemical attraction, for their absorbent vessels propel +the juice upwards, which they drink up from the earth, with great +violence; I suppose with much greater than is exerted by the lacteals of +animals, probably owing to the greater minuteness of these vessels in +vegetables and the greater rigidity of their coats. Dr. Hales in the +spring season cut off a vine near the ground, and by fixing tubes on the +remaining stump of it, found the sap to rise twenty-one feet in the tube +by the propulsive power of these absorbents of the roots of it. Veget. +Stat. p. 102. Such a power can not be produced by capillary attraction, +as that could only raise a fluid nearly to the upper edge of the +attracting cylinder, but not enable it to flow over that edge, and much +less to rise 21 feet above it. What then can this power be owing to? +Doubtless to the living activity of the absorbent vessels, and to their +increased vivacity from the influence of the warmth of the spring +succeeding the winter's cold, and their thence greater susceptibility to +irritation from the juices which they absorb, resembling in all +circumstances the action of the living vessels of animals. + + + + + NOTE XXXVII--VEGETABLE RESPIRATION. + + _While spread in air the leaves respiring play._ + + CANTO IV. l. 421. + + +I. There have been various opinions concerning the use of the leaves of +plants in the vegetable oeconomy. Some have contended that they are +perspiratory organs; this does not seem probable from an experiment of +Dr. Hales, Veg. Stat. p. 30. He found by cutting off branches of trees +with apples on them, and taking off the leaves, that an apple exhaled +about as much as two leaves, the surfaces of which were nearly equal to +the apple; whence it would appear that apples have as good a claim to be +termed perspiratory organs as leaves. Others have believed them +excretory organs of excrementious juices; but as the vapour exhaled from +vegetables has no taste, this idea is no more probable than the other; +add to this that in moist weather, they do not appear to perspire or +exhale at all. + +The internal surface of the lungs or air-vessels in men, are said to be +equal to the external surface of the whole body, or about fifteen square +feet; on this surface the blood is exposed to the influence of the +respired air through the medium however of a thin pellicle; by this +exposure to the air it has its colour changed from deep red to bright +scarlet, and acquires something so necessary to the existence of life, +that we can live scarcely a minute without this wonderful process. + +The analogy between the leaves of plants and the lungs or gills of +animals seems to embrace so many circumstances, that we can scarcely +withhold our assent to their performing similar offices. + +I. The great surface of the leaves compared to that of the trunk and +branches of trees is such, that it would seem to be an organ well +adapted for the purpose of exposing the vegetable juices to the +influence of the air; this however we shall see afterwards is probably +performed only by their upper surfaces, yet even in this case the +surface of the leaves in general bear a greater proportion to the +surface of the tree, than the lungs of animals to their external +surfaces. + +2. In the lungs of animal, the blood after having been exposed to the +air in the extremities of pulmonary artery, is changed in colour from +deep red to bright scarlet, and certainly in some of its essential +properties; it is then collected by the pulmonary vein and returned to +the heart. To shew a similarity of circumstance in the leaves of plants +the following experiment was made, June 24, 1781: A stalk with leaves +and seed-vessels of large spurge (Euphorbia helioscopia) had been +several days placed in a decoction of madder (Rubia tinctorum) so that +the lower part of the stem, and two of the undermost leaves were +immersed in it. After having washed the immersed leaves in clear water, +I could readily discern the colour of the madder passing along the +middle rib of each leaf. This red artery was beautifully visible both on +the under and upper surface of the leaf; but on the upper side many red +branches were seen going from it to the extremities of the leaf, which +on the other side were not visible except by looking through it against +the light. On this under side a system of branching vessels carrying a +pale milky fluid were seen coming from the extremities of the leaf, and +covering the whole underside of it, and joining into two large veins, +one on each side of the red artery in the middle rib of the leaf, and +along with it descending to the footstalk or petiole. On slitting one of +these leaves with scissars, and having a common magnifying lens ready, +the milky blood was seen oozing out of the returning veins on each side +of the red artery in the middle rib, but none of the red fluid from the +artery. + +All these appearances were more easily seen in a leaf of Picris treated +in the same manner; for in this milky plant the stems and middle rib of +the leaves are sometimes naturally coloured reddish, and hence the +colour of the madder seemed to pass further into the ramifications of +their leaf-arteries, and was there beautifully visible with the +returning branches of milky veins on each side. + +3. From these experiments the upper surface of the leaf appeared to be +the immediate organ of respiration, because the coloured fluid was +carried to the extremities of the leaf by vessels most conspicuous on +the upper surface, and there changed into a milky fluid, which is the +blood of the plant, and then returned by concomitant veins on the under +surface, which were seen to ooze when divided with scissars, and which +in Picris, particularly render the under surface of the leaves greatly +whiter than the upper one. + +4. As the upper surface of leaves constitutes the organ of respiration, +on which the sap is exposed in the terminations of arteries beneath a +thin pellicle to the action of the atmosphere, these surfaces in many +plants strongly repel moisture, as cabbage-leaves, whence the particles +of rain lying over their surfaces without touching them, as observed by +Mr. Melville (Essays Literary and Philosop. Edinburgh) have the +appearance of globules of quicksilver. And hence leaves laid with the +upper surfaces on water, wither as soon as in the dry air, but continue +green many days, if placed with the under surfaces on water, as appears +in the experiments of Mons. Bonnet (Usage des Fevilles.) Hence some +aquatic plants, as the Water-lily (Nymphoea) have the lower sides of +their leaves floating on the water, while the upper surfaces remain dry +in the air. + +5. As those insects, which have many spiracula, or breathing apertures, +as wasps and flies, are immediately suffocated by pouring oil upon +them, I carefully covered with oil the surfaces of several leaves of +Phlomis, of Portugal Laurel, and Balsams, and though it would not +regularly adhere, I found them all die in a day or two. + +Of aquatic leaves, see Note on Trapa and on Fucus, in Vol. II. to which +must be added that many leaves are furnished with muscles about their +footstalks, to turn their upper surfaces to the air or light, as Mimosa +and Hedysarum gyrans. From all these analogies I think there can be no +doubt but that leaves of trees are their lungs, giving out a phlogistic +material to the atmosphere, and absorbing oxygene or vital air. + +6. The great use of light to vegetation would appear from this theory to +be by disengaging vital air from the water which they perspire, and +thence to facilitate its union with their blood exposed beneath the thin +surface of their leaves; since when pure air is thus applied, it is +probable, that it can be more readily absorbed. Hence in the curious +experiments of Dr. Priestley and Mr. Ingenhouze, some plants purified +air less than others, that is, they perspired less in the sunshine; and +Mr. Scheele found that by putting peas into water, which about half- +covered them, that they converted the vital air into fixed air, or +carbonic acid gas, in the same manner as in animal respiration. See Note +XXXIV. + +7. The circulation in the lungs or leaves of plants is very similar to +that of fish. In fish the blood after having passed through their gills +does not return to the heart as from the lungs of air-breathing animals, +but the pulmonary vein taking the structure of an artery after having +received the blood from the gills, which there gains a more florrid +colour, distributes it to the other parts of their bodies. The same +structure occurs in the livers of fish, whence we see in those animals +two circulations independent of the power of the heart, viz. that +beginning at the termination of the veins of the gills, and branching +through the muscles; and that which passes through the liver; both which +are carried on by the action of those respective arteries and veins. +Monro's Physiology of Fish, p. 19. + +The course of the fluids in the roots, leaves, and buds of vegetables +seems to be performed in a manner similar to both these. First the +absorbent vessels of the roots and surfaces unite at the footstalk of +the leaf; and then, like the Vena Portarum, an artery commences without +the intervention of a heart, and spreads the sap in its numerous +ramifications on the upper surface of the leaf; here it changes its +colour and properties, and becomes vegetable blood; and is again +collected by a pulmonary vein on the under surface of the leaf. This +vein, like that which receives the blood from the gills of fish, assumes +the office and name of an artery, and branching again disperses the +blood upward to the bud from the footstalk of the leaf, and downward to +the roots; where it is all expended in the various secretions, the +nourishment and growth of the plant, as fast as it is prepared. + +II. The organ of respiration already spoken of belongs particularly to +the shoots or buds, but there is another pulmonary system, perhaps +totally independent of the green foliage, which belongs to the +fructification only, I mean the corol or petals. In this there is an +artery belonging to each petal, which conveys the vegetable blood to its +extremities, exposing it to the light and air under a delicate membrane +covering the internal surface of the petal, where it often changes its +colour, as is beautifully seen in some party-coloured poppies; though it +is probable some of the iridescent colours of flowers may be owing to +the different degrees of tenuity of the exterior membrane of the leaf +refracting the light like soap-bubbles, the vegetable blood is then +returned by correspondent vegetable veins, exactly as in the green +foliage; for the purposes of the important secretions of honey, wax, the +finer essential oil, and the prolific dust of the anthers. + +1. The vascular structure of the corol as above described, and which is +visible to the naked eye, and its exposing the vegetable juices to the +air and light during the day, evinces that it is a pulmonary organ. + +2. As the glands which produce the prolific dust of the anthers, the +honey, wax, and frequently some odoriferous essential oil, are generally +attached to the corol, and always fall off and perish with it, it is +evident that the blood is elaborated or oxygenated in this pulmonary +system for the purpose of these important secretions. + +3. Many flowers, as the Colchicum, and Hamamelis arise naked in autumn, +no green leaves appearing till the ensuing spring; and many others put +forth their flowers and complete their impregnation early in the spring +before the green foliage appears, as Mezereon, cherries, pears, which +shews that these corols are the lungs belonging to the fructification. + +4. This organ does not seem to have been necessary for the defence of +the stamens and pistils, since the calyx of many flowers, as Tragopogon, +performs this office; and in many flowers these petals themselves are so +tender as to require being shut up in the calyx during the night, for +what other use then can such an apparatus of vessels be designed? + +5. In the Helleborus-niger, Christmas-rose, after the seeds are grown to +a certain size, the nectaries and stamens drop off, and the beautiful +large white petals change their colour to a deep green, and gradually +thus become a calyx inclosing and defending the ripening seeds, hence it +would seem that the white vessels of the corol served the office of +exposing the blood to the action of the air, for the purposes of +separating or producing the honey, wax, and prolific dust, and when +these were no longer wanted, that these vessels coalesced like the +placental vessels of animals after their birth, and thus ceased to +perform that office and lost at the same time their white colour. Why +should they loose their white colour, unless they at the same time lost +some other property besides that of defending the seed-vessel, which +they still continue to defend? + +6. From these observations I am led to doubt whether green leaves be +absolutely necessary to the progress of the fruit-bud after the last +year's leaves are fallen off. The green leaves serve as lungs to the +shoots and foster the new buds in their bosoms, whether these buds be +leaf-buds or fruit-buds; but in the early spring the fruit-buds expand +their corols, which are their lungs, and seem no longer to require green +leaves; hence the vine bears fruit at one joint without leaves, and puts +out a leaf-bud at another joint without fruit. And I suppose the green +leaves which rise out of the earth in the spring from the Colchicum are +for the purpose of producing the new bulb, and its placenta, and not for +the giving maturity to the seed. When currant or goosberry trees lose +their leaves by the depredation of insects the fruit continues to be +formed, though less sweet and less in size. + +7. From these facts it appears that the flower-bud after the corol falls +off, (which is its lungs,) and the stamens and nectary along with it, +becomes simply an uterus for the purpose of supplying the growing +embryon with nourishment, together with a system of absorbent vessels +which bring the juices of the earth to the footstalk of the fruit, and +which there changes into an artery for the purpose of distributing the +sap for the secretion of the saccharine or farinaceous or acescent +materials for the use of the embryon. At the same time as all the +vessels of the different buds of trees inosculate or communicate with +each other, the fruit becomes sweeter and larger when the green leaves +continue on the tree, but the mature flowers themselves, (the succeeding +fruit not considered) perhaps suffer little injury from the green leaves +being taken off, as some florists have observed. + +8. That the vessels of different vegetable buds inosculate in various +parts of their circulation is rendered probable by the increased growth +of one bud, when others in its vicinity are cut away; as it thus seems +to receive the nourishment which was before divided amongst many. + + + + + NOTE XXXVIII.--VEGETABLE IMPREGNATION. + + + _Love out their hour and leave their lives in air._ + + CANTO IV. l. 456. + + +From the accurate experiments and observations of Spallanzani it appears +that in the Spartium Junceum, rush-broom, the very minute seeds were +discerned in the pod at least twenty days before the flower is in full +bloom, that is twenty days before fecundation. At this time also the +powder of the anthers was visible, but glued fast to their summits. The +seeds however at this time, and for ten days after the blossom had +fallen off, appeared to consist of a gelatinous substance. On the +eleventh day after the falling of the blossom the seeds became heart- +shape, with the basis attached by an appendage to the pod, and a white +point at the apex; this white point was on pressure found to be a cavity +including a drop of liquor. + +On the 25th day the cavity which at first appeared at the apex was much +enlarged and still full of liquor, it also contained a very small semi- +transparent body, of a yellowish colour, gelatinous, and fixed by its +two opposite ends to the sides of the cavity. + +In a month the seed was much enlarged and its shape changed from a heart +to a kidney, the little body contained in the cavity was increased in +bulk and was less transparent, and gelatinous, but there yet appeared no +organization. + +On the 40th day the cavity now grown larger was quite filled with the +body, which was covered with a thin membrane; after this membrane was +removed the body appeared of a bright green, and was easily divided by +the point of a needle into two portions, which manifestly formed the two +lobes, and within these attached to the lower part the exceedingly small +plantule was easily perceived. + +The foregoing observations evince, 1. That the seeds exist in the +ovarium many days before fecundation. 2. That they remain for some time +solid, and then a cavity containing a liquid is formed in them. 3. That +after fecundation a body begins to appear within the cavity fixed by two +points to the sides, which in process of time proves to be two lobes +containing a plantule. 4. That the ripe seed consists of two lobes +adhering to a plantule, and surrounded by a thin membrane which is +itself covered with a husk or cuticle. Spalanzani's Dissertations, Vol. +II. p. 253. + +The analogy between seeds and eggs has long been observed, and is +confirmed by the mode of their production. The egg is known to be formed +within the hen long before its impregnation; C.F. Wolf asserts that the +yolk of the egg is nourished by the vessels of the mother, and that it +has from those its arterial and venous branches, but that after +impregnation these vessels gradually become impervious and obliterated, +and that new ones are produced from the fetus and dispersed into the +yolk. Haller's Physiolog. Tom. VIII. p. 94. The young seed after +fecundation, I suppose, is nourished in a similar manner from the +gelatinous liquor, which is previously deposited for that purpose; the +uterus of the plant producing or secreting it into a reservoir or amnios +in which the embryon is lodged, and that the young embryon is furnished +with vessels to absorb a part of it, as in the very early embryon in the +animal uterus. + +The spawn of frogs and of fish is delivered from the female before its +impregnation. M. Bonnet says that the male salamander darts his semen +into the water, where it forms a little whitish cloud which is +afterwards received by the swoln anus of the female, and she is +fecundated.--He adds that marine plants approach near to these animals, +as the male does not project a fine powder but a liquor which in like +manner forms a little cloud in the water.--And further adds, who knows +but the powder of the stamina of certain plants may not make some +impression on certain germs belonging to the animal kingdom! Letter +XLIII. to Spalanzani, Oevres Philos. + +Spalanzani found that the seminal fluid of frogs and dogs even when +diluted with much water retained its prolific quality. Whether this +quality be simply a stimulus exciting the egg into animal action, which +may be called a vivifying principle, or whether part of it be actually +conjoined with the egg is not yet determined, though the latter seems +more probable from the frequent resemblance of the fetus to the male +parent. A conjunction however of both the male and female influence +seems necessary for the purpose of reproduction throughout all organized +nature, as well in hermaphrodite insects, microscopic animals, and +polypi, and exists as well in the formation of the buds of vegetables as +in the production of their seeds, which is ingeniously conceived and +explained by Linneus. After having compared the flower to the larva of a +butterfly, confining of petals instead of wings, calyxes instead of +wing-sheaths, with the organs of reproduction, and having shewn the use +of the farina in fecundating the egg or seed, he proceeds to explain the +production of the bud. The calyx of a flower, he says, is an expansion +of the outer bark, the petals proceed from the inner bark or rind, the +stamens from the alburnum or woody circle, and the style from the pith. +In the production and impregnation of the seed a commixture of the +secretions of the stamens and style are necessary; and for the +production of a bud he thinks the medulla or pith bursts its integuments +and mixes with the woody part or alburnum, and these forcing their +passage through the rind and bark constitute the bud or viviparous +progeny of the vegetable. System of Vegetables translated from Linneus, +p. 8. + +It has been supposed that the embryon vegetable after fecundation, by +its living activity or stimulus exerted on the vessels of the parent +plant, may produce the fruit or seed-lobes, as the animal fetus produces +its placenta, and as vegetable buds may be supposed to produce their +umbilical vessels or roots down the bark of the tree. This in respect to +the production of the fruit surrounding the seeds of trees has been +assimilated to the gall-nuts on oak-leaves, and to the bedeguar on +briars, but there is a powerful objection to this doctrine, viz. that +the fruit of figs, all which are female in this country, grow nearly as +large without fecundation, and therefore the embryon has in them no +self-living principle. + + + + + NOTE XXXIX.--VEGETABLE GLANDULATION. + + + _Seeks, where fine pores their dulcet balm distil._ + + CANTO IV. l. 503. + + +The glands of vegetables which separate from their blood the mucilage, +starch, or sugar for the placentation or support of their seeds, bulbs, +and buds; or those which deposit their bitter, acrid, or narcotic juices +for their defence from depredations of insects or larger animals; or +those which secrete resins or wax for their protection from moisture or +frosts, consist of vessels too fine for the injection or absorption of +coloured fluids, and have not therefore yet been exhibited to the +inspection even of our glasses, and can therefore only be known by their +effects, but one of the most curious and important of all vegetable +secretions, that of honey, is apparent to our naked eyes, though before +the discoveries of Linneus the nectary or honey-gland had not even +acquired a name. + +The odoriferous essential oils of several flowers seem to have been +designed for their defence against the depredations of insects, while +their beautiful colours were a necessary consequence of the size of the +particles of their blood, or of the tenuity of the exterior membrane of +the petal. The use of the prolific dust is now well ascertained, the wax +which covers the anthers prevents this dust from receiving moisture, +which would make it burst prematurely and thence prevent its application +to the stigma, as sometimes happens in moist years and is the cause of +deficient fecundation both of our fields and orchards. + +The universality of the production of honey in the vegetable world, and +the very complicated apparatus which nature has constructed in many +flowers, as well as the acrid or deleterious juices she has furnished +those flowers with (as in the Aconite) to protect this honey from rain +and from the depredations of insects, seem to imply that this fluid is +of very great importance in the vegetable economy; and also that it was +necessary to expose it to the open air previous to its reabsorption into +the vegetable vessels. + +In the animal system the lachrymal gland separates its fluid into the +open air for the purpose of moistening the eye, of this fluid the part +which does not exhale it absorbed by the puncta lachrymalia and carried +into the nostrils; but as this is not a nutritive fluid the analogy goes +no further than its secretion into the open air and its reabsorption +into the system; every other secreted fluid in the animal body is in +part absorbed again into the system, even those which are esteemed +excrementitious, as the urine and perspirable matter, of which the +latter is secreted, like the honey, into the external air. That the +honey is a nutritious fluid, perhaps the most so of any vegetable +production, appears from its great similarity to sugar, and from its +affording sustenance to such numbers of insects, which live upon it +solely during summer, and lay it up for their winter provision. These +proofs of its nutritive nature evince the necessity of its reabsorption +into the vegetable system for some useful purpose. + +This purpose however has as yet escaped the researches of philosophical +botanists. M. Pontedera believes it designed to lubricate the vegetable +uterus, and compares the horn-like nectaries of some flowers to the +appendicle of the caecum intestinum of animals. (Antholog. p. 49.) +Others have supposed that the honey, when reabsorbed, might serve the +purpose of the liquor amnii, or white of the egg, as a nutriment for the +young embryon or fecundated seed in its early state of existence. But as +the nectary is found equally general in male flowers as in female ones; +and as the young embryon or seed grows before the petals and nectary are +expanded, and after they fall off; and, thirdly, as the nectary so soon +falls off after the fecundation of the pistillum; these seem to be +insurmountable objections to both the above-mentioned opinions. + +In this state of uncertainty conjectures may be of use so far as they +lead to further experiment and investigation. In many tribes of insects, +as the silk-worm, and perhaps in all the moths and butterflies, the male +and female parents die as soon as the eggs are impregnated and excluded; +the eggs remaining to be perfected and hatched at some future time. The +same thing happens in regard to the male and female parts of flowers; +the anthers and filaments, which constitute the male parts of the +flower, and the stigma and style, which constitute the female part of +the flower, fall off and die as soon as the seeds are impregnated, and +along with these the petals and nectary. Now the moths and butterflies +above-mentioned, as soon as they acquire the passion and the apparatus +for the reproduction of their species, loose the power of feeding upon +leaves as they did before, and become nourished by what?--by honey alone. + +Hence we acquire a strong analogy for the use of the nectary or +secretion of honey in the vegetable economy, which is, that the male +parts of flowers, and the female parts, as soon as they leave their +fetus-state, expanding their petals, (which constitute their lungs,) +become sensible to the passion, and gain the apparatus for the +reproduction of their species, and are fed and nourished with honey like +the insects above described; and that hence the nectary begins its +office of producing honey, and dies or ceases to produce honey at the +same time with the birth and death of the stamens and the pistils; +which, whether existing in the same or in different flowers, are +separate and distinct animated beings. + +Previous to this time the anthers with their filaments, and the stigmas +with their styles, are in their fetus-state sustained by their placental +vessels, like the unexpanded leaf-bud; with the seeds existing in the +vegetable womb yet unimpregnated, and the dust yet unripe in the cells +of the anthers. After this period they expand their petals, which have +been shewn above to constitute the lungs of the flower; the placental +vessels, which before nourished the anthers and the stigmas, coalesce or +cease to nourish them; and they now acquire blood more oxygenated by the +air, obtain the passion and power of reproduction, are sensible to heat, +and cold, and moisture, and to mechanic stimulus, and become in reality +insects fed with honey, similar in every respect except their being +attached to the tree on which they were produced. + +Some experiments I have made this summer by cutting out the nectaries of +several flowers of the aconites before the petals were open, or had +become much coloured, some of these flowers near the summit of the +plants produced no seeds, others lower down produced seeds; but they +were not sufficiently guarded from the farina of the flowers in their +vicinity; nor have I had opportunity to try if these seeds would +vegetate. + +I am acquainted with a philosopher, who contemplating this subject +thinks it not impossible, that the first insects were the anthers or +stigmas of flowers; which had by some means loosed themselves from their +parent plant, like the male flowers of Vallisneria; and that many other +insects have gradually in long process of time been formed from these; +some acquiring wings, others fins, and others claws, from their +ceaseless efforts to procure their food, or to secure themselves from +injury. He contends, that none of these changes are more +incomprehensible than the transformation of tadpoles into frogs, and +caterpillars into butterflies. + +There are parts of animal bodies, which do not require oxygenated blood +for the purpose of their secretions, as the liver; which for the +production of bile takes its blood from the mesenteric veins, after it +must have lost the whole or a great part of its oxygenation, which it +had acquired in its passage through the lungs. In like manner the +pericarpium, or womb of the flower, continues to secrete its proper +juices for the present nourishment of the newly animated embryon-seed; +and the saccharine, acescent, or starchy matter of the fruit or seed- +lobes for its future growth; in the same manner as these things went on +before fecundation; that is, without any circulation of juices in the +petals, or production of honey in the nectary; these having perished and +fallen off with the male and female apparatus for impregnation. + +It is probable that the depredations of insects on this nutritious fluid +must be injurious to the products of vegetation, and would be much more +so, but that the plants have either acquired means to defend their honey +in part, or have learned to make more than is absolutely necessary for +their own economy. In the same manner the honey-dew on trees is very +injurious to them; in which disease the nutritive fluid, the vegetable- +sap-juice, seems to be exsuded by a retrograde motion of the cutaneous +lymphatics, as in the sweating sickness of the last century. To prevent +the depredation of insects on honey a wealthy man in Italy is said to +have poisoned his neighbour's bees perhaps by mixing arsnic with honey, +against which there is a most flowery declamation in Quintilian. No. +XIII. As the use of the wax is to preserve the dust of the anthers from +moisture, which would prematurely burst them, the bees which collect +this for the construction of the combs or cells, must on this account +also injure the vegetation of a country where they too much abound. + +It is not easy to conjecture why it was necessary that this secretion of +honey should be exposed to the open air in the nectary or honey-cup, for +which purpose so great an apparatus for its defence from insects and +from showers became necessary. This difficulty increases when we +recollect that the sugar in the joints of grass, in the sugar-cane, and +in the roots of beets, and in ripe fruits is produced without the +exposure to the air. On supposition of its serving for nutriment to the +anthers and stigmas it may thus acquire greater oxygenation for the +purpose of producing greater powers of sensibility, according to a +doctrine lately advanced by a French philosopher, who has endeavoured to +shew that the oxygene, or base of vital air, is the constituent +principle of our power of sensibility. + +From this provision of honey for the male and female parts of flowers, +and from the provision of sugar, starch, oil, and mucilage, in the +fruits, seed-cotyledons, roots, and buds of plants laid up for the +nutriment of the expanding fetus, not only a very numerous class of +insects, but a great part of the larger animals procure their food; and +thus enjoy life and pleasure without producing pain to others, for these +seeds or eggs with the nutriment laid up in them are not yet endued with +sensitive life. + +The secretions from various vegetable glands hardened in the air produce +gums, resins, and various kinds of saccharine, saponaceous, and wax-like +substances, as the gum of cherry or plumb-trees, gum tragacanth from the +astragalus tragacantha, camphor from the laurus camphora, elemi from +amyris elemifera, aneme from hymenoea courbaril, turpentine from +pistacia terebinthus, balsam of Mecca from the buds of amyris +opobalsamum, branches of which are placed in the temples of the East on +account of their fragrance, the wood is called xylobalsamum, and the +fruit carpobalsamum; aloe from a plant of the same name; myrrh from a +plant not yet described; the remarkably elastic resin is brought into +Europe principally in the form of flasks, which look like black leather, +and are wonderfully elastic, and not penetrable by water, rectified +ether dissolves it; its flexibility is encreased by warmth and destroyed +by cold; the tree which yields this juice is the jatropha elastica, it +grows in Guaiana and the neighbouring tracts of America; its juice is +said to resemble wax in becoming soft by heat, but that it acquires no +elasticity till that property is communicated to it by a secret art, +after which it is poured into moulds and well dried and can no longer be +rendered fluid by heat. Mr. de la Borde physician at Cayenne has given +this account. Manna is obtained at Naples from the fraxinus ornus, or +manna-ash, it partly issues spontaneously, which is preferred, and +partly exsudes from wounds made purposely in the month of August, many +other plants yield manna more sparingly; sugar is properly made from the +saccharum officinale, or sugar-cane, but is found in the roots of beet +and many other plants; American wax is obtained from the myrica +cerifera, candle-berry myrtle, the berries are boiled in water and a +green wax separates, with luke-warm water the wax is yellow: the seed of +croton sebiferum are lodged in tallow; there are many other vegetable +exsudations used in the various arts of dyeing, varnishing, tanning, +lacquering, and which supply the shop of the druggist with medicines and +with poisons. + +There is another analogy, which would seem to associate plants with +animals, and which perhaps belongs to this Note on Glandulation, I mean +the similarity of their digestive powers. In the roots of growing +vegetables, as in the process of making malt, the farinaceous part of +the seed is converted into sugar by the vegetable power of digestion in +the same manner as the farinaceous matter of seeds are converted into +sweet chyle by the animal digestion. The sap-juice which rises in the +vernal months from the roots of trees through the alburnum or sap-wood, +owes its sweetness I suppose to a similar digestive power of the +absorbent system of the young buds. This exists in many vegetables in +great abundance as in vines, sycamore, birch, and most abundantly in the +palm-tree, (Isert's Voyage to Guinea,) and seems to be a similar fluid +in all plants, as chyle is similar in all animals. + +Hence as the digested food of vegetables consists principally of sugar, +and from that is produced again their mucilage, starch, and oil, and +since animals are sustained by these vegetable productions, it would +seem that the sugar-making process carried on in vegetable vessels was +the great source of life to all organized beings. And that if our +improved chemistry should ever discover the art of making sugar from +fossile or aerial matter without the assistance of vegetation, food for +animals would then become as plentiful as water, and mankind might live +upon the earth as thick as blades of grass, with no restraint to their +numbers but the want of local room. + +It would seem that roots fixed in the earth, and leaves innumerable +waving in the air were necessary for the decomposition of water, and the +conversion of it into saccharine matter, which would have been not only +cumberous but totally incompatible with the locomotion of animal bodies. +For how could a man or quadruped have carried on his head or back a +forest of leaves, or have had long branching lacteal or absorbent +vessels terminating in the earth? Animals therefore subsist on +vegetables; that is, they take the matter so far prepared, and have +organs to prepare it further for the purposes of higher animation, and +greater sensibility. In the same manner the apparatus of green leaves +and long roots were found inconvenient for the more animated and +sensitive parts of vegetable-flowers, I mean the anthers and stigmas, +which are therefore separate beings, endued with the passion and power +of reproduction, with lungs of their own, and fed with honey, a food +ready prepared by the long roots and green leaves of the plant, and +presented to their absorbent mouths. + +From this outline a philosopher may catch a glimpse of the general +economy of nature; and like the mariner cast upon an unknown shore, who +rejoiced when he saw the print of a human foot upon the sand, he may cry +out with rapture, "A GOD DWELLS HERE." + + + + + CONTENTS + + OF THE + + ADDITIONAL NOTES. + + + NOTE I ... METEORS. + +There are four strata of the atmosphere, and four kinds of meteors. 1. +Lightning is electric, exists in visible clouds, its short course, and +red light. 2. Shooting stars exist in invisible vapour, without sound, +white light, have no luminous trains. 3. Twilight; fire-balls move +thirty miles in a second, and are about sixty miles high, have luminous +trains, occasioned by an electric spark passing between the aerial and +inflammable strata of the atmosphere, and mixing them and setting them +on fire in its passage; attracted by volcanic eruptions; one thousand +miles through such a medium resists less than the tenth of an inch of +glass. 4. Northern lights not attracted to a point but diffused; their +colours; passage of electric fire in vacuo dubious; Dr. Franklin's +theory of northern lights countenanced in part by the supposition of +a superior atmosphere of inflammable air; antiquity of their appearance; +described in Maccabees. + + + NOTE II ... PRIMARY COLOURS. + +The rainbow was in part understood before Sir Isaac Newton; the seven +colours were discovered by him; Mr. Gallon's experiments on colours; +manganese and lead produce colourless glass. + + + NOTE III ... COLOURED CLOUDS. + +The rays refracted by the convexity of the atmosphere; the particles of +air and of water are blue; shadow by means of a candle in the day; halo +round the moon in a fog; bright spot in the cornea of the eye; light +from cat's eyes in the dark, from a horse's eyes in a cavern, coloured +by the choroid coat within the eye. + + + NOTE IV ... COMETS. + +Tails of comets from rarified vapour, like northern lights, from +electricity; twenty millions of miles long; expected comet. + + + NOTE V ... SUN'S RAYS. + +Dispute about phlogiston; the sun the fountain from whence all +phlogiston is derived; its rays not luminous till they arrive at our +atmosphere; light owing to their combustion with air, whence an unknown +acid; the sun is on fire only on its surface; the dark spots on it are +excavations through its luminous crust. + + + NOTE VI ... CENTRAL FIRES. + +Sun's heat much less than that from the fire at the earth's centre; +sun's heat penetrates but a few feet in summer; some mines are warm; +warm springs owing to subterraneous fire; situations of volcanos on high +mountains; original nucleus of the earth; deep vallies of the ocean; +distant perception of earthquakes; great attraction of mountains; +variation of the compass; countenance the existence of a cavity or fluid +lava within the earth. + + + NOTE VII ... ELEMENTARY HEAT. + +Combined and sensible heat; chemical combinations attract heat, +solutions reject heat; ice cools boiling water six times as much as cold +water cools it; cold produced by evaporation; heat by devaporation; +capacities of bodies in respect to heat, 1. Existence of the matter of +heat shewn from the mechanical condensation and rarefaction of air, from +the steam produced in exhausting a receiver, snow from rarefied air, +cold from discharging an air-gun, heat from vibration or friction; 2. +Matter of heat analogous to the electric fluid in many circumstances, +explains many chemical phenomena. + + + NOTE VIII ... MEMNON'S LYRE. + +Mechanical impulse of light dubious; a glass tube laid horizontally +before a fire revolves; pulse-glass suspended on a centre; black leather +contracts in the sunshine; Memnon's statue broken by Cambyses. + + + NOTE IX ... LUMINOUS INSECTS. + +Eighteen species of glow-worm, their light owing to their respiration in +transparent lungs; Acudia of Surinam gives light enough to read and draw +by, use of its light to the insect; luminous sea-insects adhere to the +skin of those who bathe in the ports of Languedoc, the light may arise +from putrescent slime. + + + NOTE X ... PHOSPHORUS. + +Discovered by Kunkel, Brandt, and Boyle; produced in respiration, and by +luminous insects, decayed wood, and calcined shells; bleaching a slow +combustion in which the water is decomposed; rancidity of animal fat +owing to the decomposition of water on its surface; aerated marine acid +does not whiten or bleach the hand. + + + NOTE XI ... STEAM-ENGINE. + +Hero of Alexandria first applied steam to machinery, next a French +writer in 1630, the Marquis of Worcester in 1655, Capt. Savery in 1689, +Newcomen and Cawley added the piston; the improvements of Watt and +Boulton; power of one of their large engines equal to two hundred +horses. + + + NOTE XII ... FROST. + +Expansion of water in freezing; injury done by vernal frosts; fish, +eggs, seeds, resist congelation; animals do not resist the increase of +heat; frosts do not meliorate the ground, nor are in general salubrious; +damp air produces cold on the skin by evaporation; snow less pernicious +to agriculture than heavy rains for two reasons. + + + NOTE XIII ... ELECTRICITY. + +1. _Points_ preferable to knobs for defence of buildings; why points +emit the electric fluid; diffusion of oil on water; mountains are points +on the earth's globe; do they produce ascending currents of air? 2. +_Fairy-rings_ explained; advantage of paring and burning ground. + + + NOTE XIV ... BUDS AND BULBS. + +A tree is a swarm of individual plants; vegetables are either oviparous +or viviparous; are all annual productions like many kinds of insects? +Hybernacula, a new bark annually produced over the old one in trees and +in some herbaceous plants, whence their roots seem end-bitten; all +bulbous roots perish annually; experiment on a tulip-root; both the +leaf-bulbs and the flower-bulbs are annually renewed. + + + NOTE XV ... SOLAR VOLCANOS. + +The spots in the sun are cavities, some of them four thousand miles deep +and many times as broad; internal parts of the sun are not in a state of +combustion; volcanos visible in the sun; all the planets together are +less than one six hundred and fiftieth part of the sun; planets were +ejected from the sun by volcanos; many reasons shewing the probability +of this hypothesis; Mr. Buffon's hypothesis that planets were struck off +from the sun by comets; why no new planets are ejected from the sun; +some comets and the georgium sidus may be of later date; Sun's matter +decreased; Mr. Ludlam's opinion, that it is possible the moon might be +projected from the earth. + + + NOTE XVI ... CALCAREOUS EARTH. + +High mountains and deep mines replete with shells; the earth's nucleus +covered with limestone; animals convert water into limestone; all the +calcareous earth in the world formed in animal and vegetable bodies; +solid parts of the earth increase; the water decreases; tops of +calcareous mountains dissolved; whence spar, marbles, chalk, +stalactites; whence alabaster, fluor, flint, granulated limestone, from +solution of their angles, and by attrition; tupha deposited on moss; +limestones from shells with animals in them; liver-stone from fresh- +water muscles; calcareous earth from land-animals and vegetables, as +marl; beds of marble softened by fire; whence Bath-stone contains lime +as well as limestone. + + + NOTE XVII ... MORASSES. + +The production of morasses from fallen woods; account by the Earl +Cromartie of a new morass; morasses lose their salts by solution in +water; then their iron; their vegetable acid is converted into marine, +nitrous, and vitriolic acids; whence gypsum, alum, sulphur; into fluor- +acid, whence fluor; into siliceous acid, whence flint, the sand of the +sea, and other strata of siliceous sand and marl; some morasses ferment +like new hay, and, subliming their phlogistic part, form coal-beds above +and clay below, which are also produced by elutriation; shell-fish in +some morasses, hence shells sometimes found on coals and over iron- +stone. + + + NOTE XVIII ... IRON + +Calciform ores; combustion of iron in vital air; steel from deprivation +of vital air; welding; hardness; brittleness like Rupert's drops; +specific levity; hardness and brittleness compared; steel tempered by +its colours; modern production of iron, manganese, calamy; septaria of +iron-stone ejected from volcanos; red-hot cannon balls. + + + NOTE XIX ... FLINT. + +1. _Siliceous rocks_ from morasses; their cements. 2. _Siliceous trees_; +coloured by iron or manganese; Peak-diamonds; Bristol-stones; flint in +form of calcareous spar; has been fluid without much heat; obtained from +powdered quartz and fluor-acid by Bergman and by Achard. 3. _Agates and +onyxes_ found in sand-rocks; of vegetable origin; have been in complete +fusion; their concentric coloured circles not from superinduction but +from congelation; experiment of freezing a solution of blue vitriol; +iron and manganese repelled in spheres as the nodule of flint cooled; +circular stains of marl in salt-mines; some flint nodules resemble knots +of wood or roots. 4. _Sand of the sea_; its acid from morasses; its base +from shells. 5. _Chert or petrosilex_ stratified in cooling; their +colour and their acid from sea-animals; labradore-stone from mother- +pearl. 6. _Flints in chalk-beds_; their form, colour, and acid, from the +flesh of sea-animals; some are hollow and lined with crystals; contain +iron; not produced by injection from without; coralloids converted to +flint; French-millstones; flints sometimes found in solid strata. 7. +_Angles of sand_ destroyed by attrition and solution in steam; siliceous +breccia cemented by solution in red-hot water. 8. _Basaltes and +granites_ are antient lavas; basaltes raised by its congelation not by +subterraneous fire. + + + NOTE XX ... CLAY. + +Fire and water two great agents; stratification from precipitation; many +stratified materials not soluble in water. 1. Stratification of lava +from successive accumulation. 2. Stratifications of limestone from the +different periods of time in which the shells were deposited. 3. +Stratifications of coal, and clay, and sandstone, and iron-ores, not +from currents of water, but from the production of morass-beds at +different periods of time; morass-beds become ignited; their bitumen and +sulphur is sublimed; the clay, lime, and iron remain; whence sand, +marle, coal, white clay in valleys, and gravel-beds, and some ochres, +and some calcareous depositions owing to alluviation; clay from +decomposed granite; from the lava of Vesuvius; from vitreous lavas. + + + NOTE XXI ... ENAMELS. + +Rose-colour and purple from gold; precipitates of gold by alcaline salt +preferable to those by tin; aurum fulminans long ground; tender colours +from gold or iron not dissolved but suspended in the glass; cobalts; +calces of cobalt and copper require a strong fire; Ka-o-lin and +Pe-tun-tse the same as our own materials. + + + NOTE XXII ... PORTLAND VASE. + +Its figures do not allude to private history; they represent a part of +the Elusinian mysteries; marriage of Cupid and Psyche; procession of +torches; the figures in one compartment represent MORTAL LIFE in the act +of expiring, and HUMANKIND attending to her with concern; Adam and Eve +hyeroglyphic figures; Abel and Cain other hyeroglyphic figures; on the +other compartment is represented IMMORTAL LIFE, the Manes or Ghost +descending into Elisium is led on by DIVINE LOVE, and received by +IMMORTAL LIFE, and conducted to Pluto; Tree of Life and Knowledge are +emblematical; the figure at the bottom is of Atis, the first great +Hierophant, or teacher of mysteries. + + + NOTE XXIII ... COAL. + +1. A fountain of fossile tar in Shropshire; has been distilled from the +coal-beds beneath, and condensed in the cavities of a sand-rock; the +coal beneath is deprived of its bitumen in part; bitumen sublimed at +Matlock into cavities lined with spar. 2. Coal has been exposed to heat; +woody fibres and vegetable seeds in coal at Bovey and Polesworth; upper +part of coal-beds more bituminous at Beaudesert; thin stratum of +asphaltum near Caulk; upper part of coal-bed worse at Alfreton; upper +stratum of no value at Widdrington; alum at West-Hallum; at Bilston. 3. +Coal at Coalbrooke-Dale has been immersed in the sea, shewn by sea- +shells; marks of violence in the colliery at Mendip and at Ticknal; +Lead-ore and spar in coal-beds; gravel over coal near Lichfield; Coal +produced from morasses shewn by fern-leaves, and bog-shells, and muscle- +shells; by some parts of coal being still woody; from Lock Neagh and +Bovey, and the Temple of the devil; fixed alcali; oil. + + + NOTE XXIV ... GRANITE. + +Granite the lowest stratum of the earth yet known; porphory, trap, Moor- +stone, Whin-stone, slate, basaltes, all volcanic productions dissolved +in red-hot water; volcanos in granite strata; differ from the heat of +morasses from fermentation; the nucleus of the earth ejected from the +sun? was the sun originally a planet? supposed section of the globe. + + + NOTE XXV ... EVAPORATION. + +I. Solution of water in air; in the matter of heat; pulse-glass. 2. Heat +is the principal cause of evaporation; thermometer cooled by evaporation +of ether; heat given from steam to the worm-tub; warmth accompanying +rain. 3. Steam condensed on the eduction of heat; moisture on cold +walls; south-west and north-east winds. 4. Solution of salt and of blue +vitriol in the matter of heat. II. Other vapours may precipitate steam +and form rain. 1. Cold the principal cause of devaporation; hence the +steam dissolved in heat is precipitated, but that dissolved in air +remains even in frosts; south-west wind. 2. North-east winds mixing with +south-west winds produce rain; because the cold particles of air of the +north-east acquire some of the matter of heat from the south-west winds. +3. Devaporation from mechanical expansion of air, as in the receiver of +an air-pump; summer-clouds appear and vanish; when the barometers sink +without change of wind the weather becomes colder. 4. Solution of water +in electric fluid dubious. 5. Barometer sinks from the lessened gravity +of the air, and from the rain having less pressure as it falls; a +mixture of a solution of water in calorique with an aerial solution of +water is lighter than dry air; breath of animals in cold weather why +condensed into visible vapour and dissolved again. + + + NOTE XXVI ... SPRINGS. + +Lowest strata of the earth appear on the highest hills; springs from +dews sliding between them; mountains are colder than plains; 1. from +their being insulated in the air; 2. from their enlarged surface; 3. +from the rarety of the air it becomes a better conductor of heat; 4. by +the air on mountains being mechanically rarefied as it ascends; 5. +gravitation of the matter of heat; 6. the dashing of clouds against +hills; of fogs against trees; springs stronger in hot days with cold +nights; streams from subterranean caverns; from beneath the snow on the +Alps. + + + NOTE XXVII ... SHELL-FISH. + +The armour of the Echinus moveable; holds itself in storms to stones by +1200 or 2000 strings: Nautilus rows and sails; renders its shell +buoyant: Pinna and Cancer; Byssus of the antients was the beard of the +Pinna; as fine as the silk is spun by the silk-worm; gloves made of it; +the beard of muscles produces sickness; Indian weed; tendons of rats +tails. + + + NOTE XXVIII ... STURGEON. + +Sturgeon's mouth like a purse; without teeth; tendrils like worms hang +before his lips, which entice small fish and sea-insects mistaking them +for worms; his skin used for covering carriages; isinglass made from it; +cavear from the spawn. + + + NOTE XXIX ... OIL ON WATER. + +Oil and water do not touch; a second drop of oil will not diffuse itself +on the preceeding one; hence it stills the waves; divers for pearl carry +oil in their mouths; oil on water produces prismatic colours; oiled cork +circulates on water; a phial of oil and water made to oscillate. + + + NOTE XXX ... SHIP-WORM. + +The Teredo has calcareous jaws; a new enemy; they perish when they meet +together in their ligneous canals; United Provinces alarmed for the +piles of the banks of Zeland; were destroyed by a severe winter. + + + NOTE XXXI ... MAELSTROM. + +A whirlpool on the coast of Norway; passes through a subterraneous +cavity; less violent when the tide is up; eddies become hollow in the +middle; heavy bodies are thrown out by eddies; light ones retained; oil +and water whirled in a phial; hurricanes explained. + + + NOTE XXXII ... GLACIERS. + +Snow in contact with the earth is in a state of thaw; ice-houses; rivers +from beneath the snow; rime in spring vanishes by its contact with the +earth; and snow by its evaporation and contact with the earth; moss +vegetates beneath the snow; and Alpine plants perish at Upsal for want +of show. + + + NOTE XXXIII ... WINDS. + +Air is perpetually subject to increase and to diminution; Oxygene is +perpetually produced from vegetables in the sunshine, and from clouds in +the light, and from water; Azote is perpetually produced from animal and +vegetable putrefaction, or combustion; from springs of water; volatile +alcali; fixed alcali; sea-water; they are both perpetually diminished by +their contact with the soil, producing nitre; Oxygene is diminished in +the production of all acids; Azote by the growth of animal bodies; +charcoal in burning consumes double its weight of pure air; every barrel +of red-lead absorbes 2000 cubic feet of vital air; air obtained from +variety of substances by Dr. Priestley; Officina aeris in the polar +circle, and at the Line. _South-west winds_; their westerly direction +from the less velocity of the earth's surface; the contrary in respect +to north-east winds; South-west winds consist of regions of air from the +south; and north-east winds of regions of air from the north; when the +south-west prevails for weeks and the barometer sinks to 28, what +becomes of above one fifteenth part of the atmosphere; 1. It is not +carried back by superior currents; 2. Not from its loss of moisture; 3. +Not carried over the pole; 4. Not owing to atmospheric tides or +mountains; 5. It is absorbed at the polar circle; hence south-west winds +and rain; south-west sometimes cold. _North-east winds_ consist of air +from the north; cold by the evaporation of ice; are dry winds; 1. Not +supplied by superior current; 2. The whole atmosphere increased in +quantity by air set at liberty from its combinations in the polar +circles. _South-east winds_ consist of north winds driven back. _North- +west winds_ consist of south-west winds driven back; north-west winds of +America bring frost; owing to a vertical spiral eddy of air between the +eastern coast and the Apalachian mountains; hence the greater cold of +North America. _Trade-winds_; air over the Line always hotter than at +the tropics; trade-winds gain their easterly direction from the greater +velocity of the earth's surface at the line; not supplied by superior +currents; supplied by decomposed water in the sun's great light; 1. +Because there are no constant rains in the tract of the trade-winds; 2. +Because there is no condensible vapour above three or four miles high at +the line. _Monsoons and tornadoes_; some places at the tropic become +warmer when the sun is vertical than at the line; hence the air ascends, +supplied on one side by the north-east winds, and on the other by the +south-west; whence an ascending eddy or tornado, raising water from the +sea, or sand from the desert, and incessant rains; air diminished to the +northward produces south-west winds; tornadoes from heavier air above +sinking through lighter air below, which rises through a perforation; +hence trees are thrown down in a narrow line of twenty or forty yards +broad, the sea rises like a cone, with great rain and lightning. _Land +and sea breezes_; sea less heated than land; tropical islands more +heated in the day than the sea, and are cooled more in the night. +_Conclusion_; irregular winds from other causes; only two original winds +north and south; different sounds of north-east and south-west winds; a +Bear or Dragon in the arctic circle that swallows at times and +disembogues again above one fifteenth part of the atmosphere; wind- +instruments; recapitulation. + + + NOTE XXXIV ... VEGETABLE PERSPIRATION. + +Pure air from Dr. Priestley's vegetable matter, and from vegetable +leaves, owing to decomposition of water; the hydrogene retained by the +vegetables; plants in the shade are _tanned_ green by the sun's light; +animal skins are _tanned_ yellow by the retention of hydrogene; much +pure air from dew on a sunny morning; bleaching why sooner performed on +cotton than linen; bees wax bleached; metals calcined by decomposition +of water; oil bleached in the light becomes yellow again in the dark; +nitrous acid coloured by being exposed to the sun; vegetables perspire +more than animals, hence in the sun-shine they purify air more by their +perspiration than they injure it by their respiration; they grow fastest +in their sleep. + + + NOTE XXXV ... VEGETABLE PLACENTATION. + +Buds the viviparous offspring of vegetables; placentation in bulbs and +seeds; placentation of buds in the roots, hence the rising of sap in the +spring, as in vines, birch, which ceases as soon as the leaves expand; +production of the leaf of Horse-chesnut, and of its new bud; oil of +vitriol on the bud of Mimosa killed the leaf also; placentation shewn +from the sweetness of the sap; no umbilical artery in vegetables. + + + NOTE XXXVI ... VEGETABLE CIRCULATION. + +Buds set in the ground will grow if prevented from bleeding to death by +a cement; vegetables require no muscles of locomotion, no stomach or +bowels, no general system of veins; they have, 1. Three systems of +absorbent vessels; 2. Two pulmonary systems; 3. Arterial systems; 4. +Glands; 5. Organs of reproduction; 6. muscles. I. Absorbent system +evinced by experiments by coloured absorptions in fig-tree and picris; +called air-vessels erroneously; spiral structure of absorbent vessels; +retrograde motion of them like the throats of cows. II. Pulmonary +arteries in the leaves, and pulmonary veins; no general system of veins +shewn by experiment; no heart; the arteries act like the vena portarum +of the liver; pulmonary system in the petals of flowers; circulation +owing to living irritability; vegetable absorption more powerful than +animal, as in vines; not by capillary attraction. + + + NOTE XXXVII ... VEGETABLE RESPIRATION. + +I. Leaves not perspiratory organs, nor excretory ones; lungs of animals. +1. Great surfaces of leaves. 2. Vegetable blood changes colour in the +leaves; experiment with spurge; with picris. 3. Upper surface of the +leaf only acts as a respiratory organ. 4. Upper surface repels moisture; +leaves laid on water. 5. Leaves killed by oil like insects; muscles at +the foot-stalks of leaves. 6. Use of light to vegetable leaves; +experiments of Priestley, Ingenhouze, and Scheel. 7. Vegetable +circulation similar to that of fish. II. Another pulmonary system +belongs to flowers; colours of flowers. 1. Vascular structure of the +corol. 2. Glands producing honey, wax, &c. perish with the corol. 3. +Many flowers have no green leaves attending them, as Colchicum. 4. +Corols not for the defence of the stamens. 5. Corol of Helleborus Niger +changes to a calyx. 6. Green leaves not necessary to the fruit-bud; +green leaves of Colchicum belong to the new bulb not to the flower. 7. +Flower-bud after the corol falls is simply an uterus; mature flowers not +injured by taking of the green leaves. 8. Inosculation of vegetable +vessels. + + + NOTE XXXVIII ... VEGETABLE IMPREGNATION. + +Seeds in broom discovered twenty days before the flower opens; progress +of the seed after impregnation; seeds exist before fecundation; analogy +between seeds and eggs; progress of the egg within the hen; spawn of +frogs and of fish; male Salamander; marine plants project a liquor not a +powder; seminal fluid diluted with water, if a stimulus only? Male and +female influence necessary in animals, insects, and vegetables, both in +production of seeds and buds; does the embryon seed produce the +surrounding fruit, like insects in gall-nuts? + + + NOTE XXXIX ... VEGETABLE GLANDULATION. + +Vegetable glands cannot be injected with coloured fluids; essential oil; +wax; honey; nectary, its complicate apparatus; exposes the honey to the +air like the lacrymal gland; honey is nutritious; the male and female +parts of flowers copulate and die like moths and butterflies, and are +fed like them with honey; anthers supposed to become insects; +depredation of the honey and wax injurious to plants; honey-dew; honey +oxygenated by exposure to air; necessary for the production of +sensibility; the provision for the embryon plant of honey, sugar, +starch, &c. supplies food to numerous classes of animals; various +vegetable secretions as gum tragacanth, camphor, elemi, anime, +turpentine, balsam of Mecca, aloe, myrrh, elastic resin, manna, sugar, +wax, tallow, and many other concrete juices; vegetable digestion; +chemical production of sugar would multiply mankind; economy of nature. + + + THE END + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Botanic Garden, by Erasmus Darwin + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIC GARDEN *** + +This file should be named 8bot110.txt or 8bot110.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8bot111.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8bot110a.txt + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Robert Shimmin +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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