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diff --git a/old/vbgle11.txt b/old/vbgle11.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d7d5a45..0000000 --- a/old/vbgle11.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22184 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Etext of The Voyage of the Beagle by Darwin -#1 in our series by Charles Darwin - - -Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check -the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! - -Please take a look at the important information in this header. -We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an -electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. - - -**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** - -**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** - -*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* - -Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and -further information is included below. 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If you - don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are - payable to "Project Gutenberg Association/Carnegie-Mellon - University" within the 60 days following each - date you prepare (or were legally required to prepare) - your annual (or equivalent periodic) tax return. - -WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? -The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, -scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty -free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution -you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg -Association / Carnegie-Mellon University". - -*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* - - - - - -Prepared by John Hamm <John_Hamm@mindlink.bc.ca> -from text scanned by Internet Wiretap - - - - - -The Internet Wiretap Online Edition of -THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE -BY CHARLES DARWIN - - - - - -About the online edition. - -The degree symbol is represented as "degs." Italics -are represented as _italics_. Footnotes are collected -at the end of each chapter. - - - - - -THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE - - - - -PREFACE - - -I have stated in the preface to the first Edition of this work, -and in the Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle, that it was in -consequence of a wish expressed by Captain Fitz Roy, of having -some scientific person on board, accompanied by an offer from -him of giving up part of his own accommodations, that I -volunteered my services, which received, through the kindness of -the hydrographer, Captain Beaufort, the sanction of the Lords of -the Admiralty. As I feel that the opportunities which I enjoyed -of studying the Natural History of the different countries we -visited, have been wholly due to Captain Fitz Roy, I hope I may -here be permitted to repeat my expression of gratitude to him; -and to add that, during the five years we were together, I -received from him the most cordial friendship and steady -assistance. Both to Captain Fitz Roy and to all the Officers of -the Beagle [1] I shall ever feel most thankful for the -undeviating kindness with which I was treated during our long -voyage. - -This volume contains, in the form of a Journal, a history of -our voyage, and a sketch of those observations in Natural History -and Geology, which I think will possess some interest for the -general reader. I have in this edition largely condensed and -corrected some parts, and have added a little to others, in order -to render the volume more fitted for popular reading; but I trust -that naturalists will remember, that they must refer for details -to the larger publications which comprise the scientific results -of the Expedition. The Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle -includes an account of the Fossil Mammalia, by Professor Owen; -of the Living Mammalia, by Mr. Waterhouse; of the Birds, by -Mr. Gould; of the Fish, by the Rev. L. Jenyns; and of the -Reptiles, by Mr. Bell. I have appended to the descriptions of -each species an account of its habits and range. These works, -which I owe to the high talents and disinterested zeal of the -above distinguished authors, could not have been undertaken, had -it not been for the liberality of the Lords Commissioners of Her -Majesty's Treasury, who, through the representation of the Right -Honourable the Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been pleased -to grant a sum of one thousand pounds towards defraying part -of the expenses of publication. - -I have myself published separate volumes on the 'Structure -and Distribution of Coral Reefs;' on the 'Volcanic Islands -visited during the Voyage of the Beagle;' and on the 'Geology -of South America.' The sixth volume of the 'Geological -Transactions' contains two papers of mine on the Erratic -Boulders and Volcanic Phenomena of South America. Messrs. -Waterhouse, Walker, Newman, and White, have published several -able papers on the Insects which were collected, and I trust -that many others will hereafter follow. The plants from the -southern parts of America will be given by Dr. J. Hooker, in -his great work on the Botany of the Southern Hemisphere. The -Flora of the Galapagos Archipelago is the subject of a separate -memoir by him, in the 'Linnean Transactions.' The Reverend -Professor Henslow has published a list of the plants collected -by me at the Keeling Islands; and the Reverend J. M. Berkeley -has described my cryptogamic plants. - -I shall have the pleasure of acknowledging the great assistance -which I have received from several other naturalists, in the -course of this and my other works; but I must be here allowed -to return my most sincere thanks to the Reverend Professor -Henslow, who, when I was an undergraduate at Cambridge, was -one chief means of giving me a taste for Natural History, -- -who, during my absence, took charge of the collections I sent -home, and by his correspondence directed my endeavours, -- and -who, since my return, has constantly rendered me every -assistance which the kindest friend could offer. - -DOWN, BROMLEY, KENT, -June 9, 1845 - -[1] I must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks -to Mr. Bynoe, the surgeon of the Beagle, for his very kind -attention to me when I was ill at Valparaiso. - - - -THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE - - - -CHAPTER I - -ST. JAGO -- CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS - -Porto Praya -- Ribeira Grande -- Atmospheric Dust with -Infusoria -- Habits of a Sea-slug and Cuttle-fish -- St. -Paul's Rocks, non-volcanic -- Singular Incrustations -- -Insects the first Colonists of Islands -- Fernando Noronha -- -Bahia -- Burnished Rocks -- Habits of a Diodon -- Pelagic -Confervae and Infusoria -- Causes of discoloured Sea. - - -AFTER having been twice driven back by heavy southwestern -gales, Her Majesty's ship Beagle, a ten-gun -brig, under the command of Captain Fitz Roy, R. N., -sailed from Devonport on the 27th of December, 1831. The -object of the expedition was to complete the survey of -Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, commenced under Captain King -in 1826 to 1830, -- to survey the shores of Chile, Peru, and -of some islands in the Pacific -- and to carry a chain of -chronometrical measurements round the World. On the 6th -of January we reached Teneriffe, but were prevented landing, -by fears of our bringing the cholera: the next morning -we saw the sun rise behind the rugged outline of the Grand -Canary island, and suddenly illuminate the Peak of Teneriffe, -whilst the lower parts were veiled in fleecy clouds. This -was the first of many delightful days never to be forgotten. -On the 16th of January, 1832, we anchored at Porto Praya, -in St. Jago, the chief island of the Cape de Verd archipelago. - -The neighbourhood of Porto Praya, viewed from the sea, -wears a desolate aspect. The volcanic fires of a past age, -and the scorching heat of a tropical sun, have in most places -rendered the soil unfit for vegetation. The country rises in -successive steps of table-land, interspersed with some truncate -conical hills, and the horizon is bounded by an irregular -chain of more lofty mountains. The scene, as beheld through -the hazy atmosphere of this climate, is one of great interest; -if, indeed, a person, fresh from sea, and who has just -walked, for the first time, in a grove of cocoa-nut trees, can -be a judge of anything but his own happiness. The island -would generally be considered as very uninteresting, but to -anyone accustomed only to an English landscape, the novel -aspect of an utterly sterile land possesses a grandeur which -more vegetation might spoil. A single green leaf can -scarcely be discovered over wide tracts of the lava plains; -yet flocks of goats, together with a few cows, contrive to -exist. It rains very seldom, but during a short portion of -the year heavy torrents fall, and immediately afterwards a -light vegetation springs out of every crevice. This soon -withers; and upon such naturally formed hay the animals -live. It had not now rained for an entire year. When the -island was discovered, the immediate neighbourhood of -Porto Praya was clothed with trees, [1] the reckless -destruction of which has caused here, as at St. Helena, and -at some of the Canary islands, almost entire sterility. The -broad, flat-bottomed valleys, many of which serve during a -few days only in the season as water-courses, are clothed -with thickets of leafless bushes. Few living creatures inhabit -these valleys. The commonest bird is a kingfisher (Dacelo -Iagoensis), which tamely sits on the branches of the castor- -oil plant, and thence darts on grasshoppers and lizards. It -is brightly coloured, but not so beautiful as the European -species: in its flight, manners, and place of habitation, -which is generally in the driest valley, there is also a wide -difference. - -One day, two of the officers and myself rode to Ribeira -Grande, a village a few miles eastward of Porto Praya. Until -we reached the valley of St. Martin, the country presented -its usual dull brown appearance; but here, a very small rill -of water produces a most refreshing margin of luxuriant -vegetation. In the course of an hour we arrived at Ribeira -Grande, and were surprised at the sight of a large ruined -fort and cathedral. This little town, before its harbour was -filled up, was the principal place in the island: it now -presents a melancholy, but very picturesque appearance. Having -procured a black Padre for a guide, and a Spaniard who -had served in the Peninsular war as an interpreter, we visited -a collection of buildings, of which an ancient church -formed the principal part. It is here the governors and -captain-generals of the islands have been buried. Some of -the tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth century. [2] - -The heraldic ornaments were the only things in this retired -place that reminded us of Europe. The church or chapel -formed one side of a quadrangle, in the middle of which a -large clump of bananas were growing. On another side -was a hospital, containing about a dozen miserable-looking -inmates. - -We returned to the Venda to eat our dinners. A considerable -number of men, women, and children, all as black as -jet, collected to watch us. Our companions were extremely -merry; and everything we said or did was followed by their -hearty laughter. Before leaving the town we visited the -cathedral. It does not appear so rich as the smaller church, -but boasts of a little organ, which sent forth singularly -inharmonious cries. We presented the black priest with a few -shillings, and the Spaniard, patting him on the head, said, -with much candour, he thought his colour made no great -difference. We then returned, as fast as the ponies would -go, to Porto Praya. - -Another day we rode to the village of St. Domingo, situated -near the centre of the island. On a small plain which -we crossed, a few stunted acacias were growing; their tops -had been bent by the steady trade-wind, in a singular -manner -- some of them even at right angles to their trunks. -The direction of the branches was exactly N. E. by N., and S. W. -by S., and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing -direction of the force of the trade-wind. The travelling had -made so little impression on the barren soil, that we here -missed our track, and took that to Fuentes. This we did -not find out till we arrived there; and we were afterwards -glad of our mistake. Fuentes is a pretty village, with a small -stream; and everything appeared to prosper well, excepting, -indeed, that which ought to do so most -- its inhabitants. -The black children, completely naked, and looking very -wretched, were carrying bundles of firewood half as big as -their own bodies. - -Near Fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl -- -probably fifty or sixty in number. They were extremely -wary, and could not be approached. They avoided us, like -partridges on a rainy day in September, running with their -heads cocked up; and if pursued, they readily took to the -wing. - -The scenery of St. Domingo possesses a beauty totally -unexpected, from the prevalent gloomy character of the rest -of the island. The village is situated at the bottom of a -valley, bounded by lofty and jagged walls of stratified lava. -The black rocks afford a most striking contrast with the -bright green vegetation, which follows the banks of a little -stream of clear water. It happened to be a grand feast-day, -and the village was full of people. On our return we overtook -a party of about twenty young black girls, dressed in -excellent taste; their black skins and snow-white linen being -set off by coloured turbans and large shawls. As soon as -we approached near, they suddenly all turned round, and -covering the path with their shawls, sung with great energy -a wild song, beating time with their hands upon their legs. -We threw them some vintems, which were received with -screams of laughter, and we left them redoubling the noise -of their song. - -One morning the view was singularly clear; the distant -mountains being projected with the sharpest outline on a -heavy bank of dark blue clouds. Judging from the appearance, -and from similar cases in England, I supposed that the -air was saturated with moisture. The fact, however, turned -out quite the contrary. The hygrometer gave a difference -of 29.6 degs., between the temperature of the air, and the -point at which dew was precipitated. This difference was -nearly double that which I had observed on the previous -mornings. This unusual degree of atmospheric dryness was -accompanied by continual flashes of lightning. Is it not an -uncommon case, thus to find a remarkable degree of aerial -transparency with such a state of weather? - -Generally the atmosphere is hazy; and this is caused by -the falling of impalpably fine dust, which was found to have -slightly injured the astronomical instruments. The morning -before we anchored at Porto Praya, I collected a little packet -of this brown-coloured fine dust, which appeared to have -been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the vane at the -mast-head. Mr. Lyell has also given me four packets of dust -which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of -these islands. Professor Ehrenberg [3] finds that this dust -consists in great part of infusoria with siliceous shields, and -of the siliceous tissue of plants. In five little packets which -I sent him, he has ascertained no less than sixty-seven -different organic forms! The infusoria, with the exception of -two marine species, are all inhabitants of fresh-water. I -have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust -having fallen on vessels when far out in the Atlantic. From -the direction of the wind whenever it has fallen, and from -its having always fallen during those months when the harmattan -is known to raise clouds of dust high into the atmosphere, -we may feel sure that it all comes from Africa. It -is, however, a very singular fact, that, although Professor -Ehrenberg knows many species of infusoria peculiar to -Africa, he finds none of these in the dust which I sent him. -On the other hand, he finds in it two species which hitherto -he knows as living only in South America. The dust falls -in such quantities as to dirty everything on board, and to -hurt people's eyes; vessels even have run on shore owing to -the obscurity of the atmosphere. It has often fallen on -ships when several hundred, and even more than a thousand -miles from the coast of Africa, and at points sixteen hundred -miles distant in a north and south direction. In some -dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles -from the land, I was much surprised to find particles of -stone above the thousandth of an inch square, mixed with -finer matter. After this fact one need not be surprised -at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of -cryptogamic plants. - -The geology of this island is the most interesting part of -its natural history. On entering the harbour, a perfectly -horizontal white band, in the face of the sea cliff, may be seen -running for some miles along the coast, and at the height of -about forty-five feet above the water. Upon examination -this white stratum is found to consist of calcareous matter -with numerous shells embedded, most or all of which now -exist on the neighbouring coast. It rests on ancient volcanic -rocks, and has been covered by a stream of basalt, which -must have entered the sea when the white shelly bed was -lying at the bottom. It is interesting to trace the changes -produced by the heat of the overlying lava, on the friable -mass, which in parts has been converted into a crystalline -limestone, and in other parts into a compact spotted stone -Where the lime has been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments -of the lower surface of the stream, it is converted into -groups of beautifully radiated fibres resembling arragonite. -The beds of lava rise in successive gently-sloping plains, -towards the interior, whence the deluges of melted stone -have originally proceeded. Within historical times, no signs -of volcanic activity have, I believe, been manifested in any -part of St. Jago. Even the form of a crater can but rarely -be discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills; -yet the more recent streams can be distinguished on the -coast, forming lines of cliffs of less height, but stretching -out in advance of those belonging to an older series: the -height of the cliffs thus affording a rude measure of the age -of the streams. - -During our stay, I observed the habits of some marine -animals. A large Aplysia is very common. This sea-slug -is about five inches long; and is of a dirty yellowish colour -veined with purple. On each side of the lower surface, or -foot, there is a broad membrane, which appears sometimes -to act as a ventilator, in causing a current of water to flow -over the dorsal branchiae or lungs. It feeds on the delicate -sea-weeds which grow among the stones in muddy and shallow -water; and I found in its stomach several small pebbles, -as in the gizzard of a bird. This slug, when disturbed, emits -a very fine purplish-red fluid, which stains the water for the -space of a foot around. Besides this means of defence, an -acrid secretion, which is spread over its body, causes a -sharp, stinging sensation, similar to that produced by the -Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war. - -I was much interested, on several occasions, by watching -the habits of an Octopus, or cuttle-fish. Although common -in the pools of water left by the retiring tide, these animals -were not easily caught. By means of their long arms and -suckers, they could drag their bodies into very narrow crevices; -and when thus fixed, it required great force to remove -them. At other times they darted tail first, with the rapidity -of an arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the -same instant discolouring the water with a dark chestnut-brown -ink. These animals also escape detection by a very -extraordinary, chameleon-like power of changing their colour. -They appear to vary their tints according to the nature -of the ground over which they pass: when in deep water, -their general shade was brownish purple, but when placed on -the land, or in shallow water, this dark tint changed into one -of a yellowish green. The colour, examined more carefully, -was a French grey, with numerous minute spots of bright -yellow: the former of these varied in intensity; the latter -entirely disappeared and appeared again by turns. These -changes were effected in such a manner, that clouds, varying -in tint between a hyacinth red and a chestnut-brown, [4] were -continually passing over the body. Any part, being subjected -to a slight shock of galvanism, became almost black: a similar -effect, but in a less degree, was produced by scratching -the skin with a needle. These clouds, or blushes as they may -be called, are said to be produced by the alternate expansion -and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously -coloured fluids. [5] - -This cuttle-fish displayed its chameleon-like power both -during the act of swimming and whilst remaining stationary -at the bottom. I was much amused by the various arts to -escape detection used by one individual, which seemed fully -aware that I was watching it. Remaining for a time motionless, -it would then stealthily advance an inch or two, like a -cat after a mouse; sometimes changing its colour: it thus -proceeded, till having gained a deeper part, it darted away, -leaving a dusky train of ink to hide the hole into which it -had crawled. - -While looking for marine animals, with my head about -two feet above the rocky shore, I was more than once saluted -by a jet of water, accompanied by a slight grating noise. At -first I could not think what it was, but afterwards I found -out that it was this cuttle-fish, which, though concealed in a -hole, thus often led me to its discovery. That it possesses -the power of ejecting water there is no doubt, and it appeared -to me that it could certainly take good aim by directing the -tube or siphon on the under side of its body. From the -difficulty which these animals have in carrying their heads, -they cannot crawl with ease when placed on the ground. I -observed that one which I kept in the cabin was slightly -phosphorescent in the dark. - -ST. PAUL'S ROCKS. -- In crossing the Atlantic we hove-to -during the morning of February 16th, close to the island of -St. Paul's. This cluster of rocks is situated in 0 degs. 58' -north latitude, and 29 degs. 15' west longitude. It is 540 -miles distant from the coast of America, and 350 from the island -of Fernando Noronha. The highest point is only fifty feet above -the level of the sea, and the entire circumference is under -three-quarters of a mile. This small point rises abruptly out -of the depths of the ocean. Its mineralogical constitution -is not simple; in some parts the rock is of a cherty, in others -of a felspathic nature, including thin veins of serpentine. It -is a remarkable fact, that all the many small islands, lying -far from any continent, in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic -Oceans, with the exception of the Seychelles and this little -point of rock, are, I believe, composed either of coral or of -erupted matter. The volcanic nature of these oceanic islands -is evidently an extension of that law, and the effect of those -same causes, whether chemical or mechanical, from which it -results that a vast majority of the volcanoes now in action -stand either near sea-coasts or as islands in the midst of the -sea. - -The rocks of St. Paul appear from a distance of a brilliantly -white colour. This is partly owing to the dung of a -vast multitude of seafowl, and partly to a coating of a hard -glossy substance with a pearly lustre, which is intimately -united to the surface of the rocks. This, when examined -with a lens, is found to consist of numerous exceedingly -thin layers, its total thickness being about the tenth of an -inch. It contains much animal matter, and its origin, no -doubt, is due to the action of the rain or spray on the birds' -dung. Below some small masses of guano at Ascension, and -on the Abrolhos Islets, I found certain stalactitic branching -bodies, formed apparently in the same manner as the thin -white coating on these rocks. The branching bodies so closely -resembled in general appearance certain nulliporae (a family -of hard calcareous sea-plants), that in lately looking hastily -over my collection I did not perceive the difference. The -globular extremities of the branches are of a pearly texture, -like the enamel of teeth, but so hard as just to scratch plate- -glass. I may here mention, that on a part of the coast of -Ascension, where there is a vast accumulation of shelly sand, -an incrustation is deposited on the tidal rocks by the water -of the sea, resembling, as represented in the woodcut, certain -cryptogamic plants (Marchantiae) often seen on damp -walls. The surface of the fronds is beautifully glossy; and -those parts formed where fully exposed to the light are of a -jet black colour, but those shaded under ledges are only grey. -I have shown specimens of this incrustation to several -geologists, and they all thought that they were of volcanic -or igneous origin! In its hardness and translucency -- in -its polish, equal to that of the finest oliva-shell -- in the -bad smell given out, and loss of colour under the blowpipe -- it -shows a close similarity with living sea-shells. Moreover, in -sea-shells, it is known that the parts habitually covered and -shaded by the mantle of the animal, are of a paler colour -than those fully exposed to the light, just as is the case with -this incrustation. When we remember that lime, either as a -phosphate or carbonate, enters into the composition of the -hard parts, such as bones and shells, of all living animals, it -is an interesting physiological fact [6] to find substances -harder than the enamel of teeth, and coloured surfaces as well -polished as those of a fresh shell, reformed through inorganic -means from dead organic matter -- mocking, also, in -shape, some of the lower vegetable productions. - -We found on St. Paul's only two kinds of birds -- the -booby and the noddy. The former is a species of gannet, -and the latter a tern. Both are of a tame and stupid -disposition, and are so unaccustomed to visitors, that I could -have killed any number of them with my geological hammer. -The booby lays her eggs on the bare rock; but the tern makes -a very simple nest with sea-weed. By the side of many of -these nests a small flying-fish was placed; which I suppose, -had been brought by the male bird for its partner. It was -amusing to watch how quickly a large and active crab -(Graspus), which inhabits the crevices of the rock, stole the -fish from the side of the nest, as soon as we had disturbed -the parent birds. Sir W. Symonds, one of the few persons -who have landed here, informs me that he saw the crabs -dragging even the young birds out of their nests, and devouring -them. Not a single plant, not even a lichen, grows -on this islet; yet it is inhabited by several insects and -spiders. The following list completes, I believe, the -terrestrial fauna: a fly (Olfersia) living on the booby, and -a tick which must have come here as a parasite on the birds; -a small brown moth, belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers; -a beetle (Quedius) and a woodlouse from beneath the dung; and -lastly, numerous spiders, which I suppose prey on these small -attendants and scavengers of the water-fowl. The often repeated -description of the stately palm and other noble tropical -plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking possession of -the coral islets as soon as formed, in the Pacific, is probably -not correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of this story, that -feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and spiders -should be the first inhabitants of newly formed oceanic -land. - -The smallest rock in the tropical seas, by giving a foundation -for the growth of innumerable kinds of sea-weed and -compound animals, supports likewise a large number of fish. -The sharks and the seamen in the boats maintained a constant -struggle which should secure the greater share of the -prey caught by the fishing-lines. I have heard that a rock -near the Bermudas, lying many miles out at sea, and at a -considerable depth, was first discovered by the circumstance -of fish having been observed in the neighbourhood. - -FERNANDO NORONHA, Feb. 20th. -- As far as I was enabled -to observe, during the few hours we stayed at this place, the -constitution of the island is volcanic, but probably not of a -recent date. The most remarkable feature is a conical hill, -about one thousand feet high, the upper part of which is -exceedingly steep, and on one side overhangs its base. The -rock is phonolite, and is divided into irregular columns. On -viewing one of these isolated masses, at first one is inclined -to believe that it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid -state. At St. Helena, however, I ascertained that some -pinnacles, of a nearly similar figure and constitution, had -been formed by the injection of melted rock into yielding -strata, which thus had formed the moulds for these gigantic -obelisks. The whole island is covered with wood; but from -the dryness of the climate there is no appearance of luxuriance. -Half-way up the mountain, some great masses of the -columnar rock, shaded by laurel-like trees, and ornamented -by others covered with fine pink flowers but without a single -leaf, gave a pleasing effect to the nearer parts of the scenery. - -BAHIA, OR SAN SALVADOR. BRAZIL, Feb. 29th. -- The day -has passed delightfully. Delight itself, however, is a weak -term to express the feelings of a naturalist who, for the first -time, has wandered by himself in a Brazilian forest. The -elegance of the grasses, the novelty of the parasitical plants, -the beauty of the flowers, the glossy green of the foliage, -but above all the general luxuriance of the vegetation, filled -me with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture of sound -and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise -from the insects is so loud, that it may be heard even in a -vessel anchored several hundred yards from the shore; yet -within the recesses of the forest a universal silence appears -to reign. To a person fond of natural history, such a day -as this brings with it a deeper pleasure than he can ever hope -to experience again. After wandering about for some hours, -I returned to the landing-place; but, before reaching it, I -was overtaken by a tropical storm. I tried to find shelter -under a tree, which was so thick that it would never have -been penetrated by common English rain; but here, in a -couple of minutes, a little torrent flowed down the trunk. -It is to this violence of the rain that we must attribute the -verdure at the bottom of the thickest woods: if the showers -were like those of a colder climate, the greater part would -be absorbed or evaporated before it reached the ground. I -will not at present attempt to describe the gaudy scenery -of this noble bay, because, in our homeward voyage, we -called here a second time, and I shall then have occasion to -remark on it. - -Along the whole coast of Brazil, for a length of at least -2000 miles, and certainly for a considerable space inland, -wherever solid rock occurs, it belongs to a granitic formation. -The circumstance of this enormous area being constituted of -materials which most geologists believe to have -been crystallized when heated under pressure, gives rise to -many curious reflections. Was this effect produced beneath -the depths of a profound ocean? or did a covering of strata -formerly extend over it, which has since been removed? -Can we believe that any power, acting for a time short of -infinity, could have denuded the granite over so many thousand -square leagues? - -On a point not far from the city, where a rivulet entered -the sea, I observed a fact connected with a subject discussed -by Humboldt. [7] At the cataracts of the great rivers -Orinoco, Nile, and Congo, the syenitic rocks are coated by -a black substance, appearing as if they had been polished -with plumbago. The layer is of extreme thinness; and on -analysis by Berzelius it was found to consist of the oxides -of manganese and iron. In the Orinoco it occurs on the -rocks periodically washed by the floods, and in those parts -alone where the stream is rapid; or, as the Indians say, "the -rocks are black where the waters are white." Here the coating -is of a rich brown instead of a black colour, and seems -to be composed of ferruginous matter alone. Hand specimens -fail to give a just idea of these brown burnished stones -which glitter in the sun's rays. They occur only within the -limits of the tidal waves; and as the rivulet slowly trickles -down, the surf must supply the polishing power of the cataracts -in the great rivers. In like manner, the rise and fall -of the tide probably answer to the periodical inundations; -and thus the same effects are produced under apparently different -but really similar circumstances. The origin, however, of -these coatings of metallic oxides, which seem as if -cemented to the rocks, is not understood; and no reason, I -believe, can be assigned for their thickness remaining the -same. - -One day I was amused by watching the habits of the -Diodon antennatus, which was caught swimming near the -shore. This fish, with its flabby skin, is well known to possess -the singular power of distending itself into a nearly -spherical form. After having been taken out of water for -a short time, and then again immersed in it, a considerable -quantity both of water and air is absorbed by the mouth, -and perhaps likewise by the branchial orifices. This process -is effected by two methods: the air is swallowed, and is then -forced into the cavity of the body, its return being prevented -by a muscular contraction which is externally visible: but -the water enters in a gentle stream through the mouth, -which is kept wide open and motionless; this latter action -must, therefore, depend on suction. The skin about the -abdomen is much looser than that on the back; hence, during -the inflation, the lower surface becomes far more distended -than the upper; and the fish, in consequence, floats -with its back downwards. Cuvier doubts whether the Diodon -in this position is able to swim; but not only can it thus -move forward in a straight line, but it can turn round to -either side. This latter movement is effected solely by the -aid of the pectoral fins; the tail being collapsed, and not -used. From the body being buoyed up with so much air, the -branchial openings are out of water, but a stream drawn in -by the mouth constantly flows through them. - -The fish, having remained in this distended state for a -short time, generally expelled the air and water with -considerable force from the branchial apertures and mouth. It -could emit, at will, a certain portion of the water, and it -appears, therefore, probable that this fluid is taken in partly -for the sake of regulating its specific gravity. This Diodon -possessed several means of defence. It could give a severe -bite, and could eject water from its mouth to some distance, -at the same time making a curious noise by the movement -of its jaws. By the inflation of its body, the papillae, with -which the skin is covered, become erect and pointed. But -the most curious circumstance is, that it secretes from the -skin of its belly, when handled, a most beautiful carmine-red -fibrous matter, which stains ivory and paper in so permanent -a manner that the tint is retained with all its brightness -to the present day: I am quite ignorant of the nature -and use of this secretion. I have heard from Dr. Allan of -Forres, that he has frequently found a Diodon, floating alive -and distended, in the stomach of the shark, and that on -several occasions he has known it eat its way, not only -through the coats of the stomach, but through the sides of -the monster, which has thus been killed. Who would ever -have imagined that a little soft fish could have destroyed -the great and savage shark? - -March 18th. -- We sailed from Bahia. A few days afterwards, -when not far distant from the Abrolhos Islets, my; -attention was called to a reddish-brown appearance in the -sea. The whole surface of the water, as it appeared under a -weak lens, seemed as if covered by chopped bits of hay, with -their ends jagged. These are minute cylindrical confervae, -in bundles or rafts of from twenty to sixty in each. Mr. -Berkeley informs me that they are the same species -(Trichodesmium erythraeum) with that found over large spaces -in the Red Sea, and whence its name of Red Sea is derived. [8] -Their numbers must be infinite: the ship passed through -several bands of them, one of which was about ten yards -wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of the water, -at least two and a half miles long. In almost every long -voyage some account is given of these confervae. They appear -especially common in the sea near Australia; and off -Cape Leeuwin I found an allied but smaller and apparently -different species. Captain Cook, in his third voyage, remarks, -that the sailors gave to this appearance the name of -sea-sawdust. - -Near Keeling Atoll, in the Indian Ocean, I observed -many little masses of confervae a few inches square, consisting -of long cylindrical threads of excessive thinness, so as -to be barely visible to the naked eye, mingled with other -rather larger bodies, finely conical at both ends. Two of -these are shown in the woodcut united together. They vary -in length from .04 to .06, and even to .08 of an inch in -length; and in diameter from .006 to .008 of an inch. Near -one extremity of the cylindrical part, a green septum, formed -of granular matter, and thickest in the middle, may generally -be seen. This, I believe, is the bottom of a most delicate, -colourless sac, composed of a pulpy substance, which lines -the exterior case, but does not extend within the extreme -conical points. In some specimens, small but perfect spheres -of brownish granular matter supplied the -places of the septa; and I observed the curious process by -which they were produced. The pulpy matter of the internal -coating suddenly grouped itself into lines, some of which -assumed a form radiating from a common centre; it then -continued, with an irregular and rapid movement, to contract -itself, so that in the course of a second the whole was -united into a perfect little sphere, which occupied the -position of the septum at one end of the now quite hollow case. -The formation of the granular sphere was hastened by any -accidental injury. I may add, that frequently a pair of these -bodies were attached to each other, as represented above, -cone beside cone, at that end where the septum occurs. - -I will add here a few other observations connected with -the discoloration of the sea from organic causes. On the -coast of Chile, a few leagues north of Concepcion, the Beagle -one day passed through great bands of muddy water, exactly -like that of a swollen river; and again, a degree south of -Valparaiso, when fifty miles from the land, the same appearance -was still more extensive. Some of the water placed -in a glass was of a pale reddish tint; and, examined under -a microscope, was seen to swarm with minute animalcula -darting about, and often exploding. Their shape is oval, -and contracted in the middle by a ring of vibrating curved -ciliae. It was, however, very difficult to examine them with -care, for almost the instant motion ceased, even while crossing -the field of vision, their bodies burst. Sometimes both -ends burst at once, sometimes only one, and a quantity of -coarse, brownish, granular matter was ejected. The animal -an instant before bursting expanded to half again its natural -size; and the explosion took place about fifteen seconds -after the rapid progressive motion had ceased: in a few -cases it was preceded for a short interval by a rotatory -movement on the longer axis. About two minutes after any -number were isolated in a drop of water, they thus perished. -The animals move with the narrow apex forwards, by the -aid of their vibratory ciliae, and generally by rapid starts. -They are exceedingly minute, and quite invisible to the -naked eye, only covering a space equal to the square of the -thousandth of an inch. Their numbers were infinite; for -the smallest drop of water which I could remove contained -very many. In one day we passed through two spaces of -water thus stained, one of which alone must have extended -over several square miles. What incalculable numbers of -these microscopical animals! The colour of the water, as -seen at some distance, was like that of a river which has -flowed through a red clay district, but under the shade of -the vessel's side it was quite as dark as chocolate. The line -where the red and blue water joined was distinctly defined. -The weather for some days previously had been calm, and the -ocean abounded, to an unusual degree, with living creatures. [9] - -In the sea around Tierra del Fuego, and at no great distance -from the land, I have seen narrow lines of water of a -bright red colour, from the number of crustacea, which -somewhat resemble in form large prawns. The sealers call -them whale-food. Whether whales feed on them I do not -know; but terns, cormorants, and immense herds of great -unwieldy seals derive, on some parts of the coast, their -chief sustenance from these swimming crabs. Seamen -invariably attribute the discoloration of the water to spawn; -but I found this to be the case only on one occasion. At -the distance of several leagues from the Archipelago of the -Galapagos, the ship sailed through three strips of a dark -yellowish, or mud-like water; these strips were some miles -long, but only a few yards wide, and they were separated -from the surrounding water by a sinuous yet distinct margin. -The colour was caused by little gelatinous balls, about -the fifth of an inch in diameter, in which numerous minute -spherical ovules were imbedded: they were of two distinct -kinds, one being of a reddish colour and of a different shape -from the other. I cannot form a conjecture as to what two -kinds of animals these belonged. Captain Colnett remarks, -that this appearance is very common among the Galapagos -Islands, and that the directions of the bands indicate that -of the currents; in the described case, however, the line was -caused by the wind. The only other appearance which I -have to notice, is a thin oily coat on the water which displays -iridescent colours. I saw a considerable tract of the -ocean thus covered on the coast of Brazil; the seamen -attributed it to the putrefying carcase of some whale, which -probably was floating at no great distance. I do not here -mention the minute gelatinous particles, hereafter to be -referred to, which are frequently dispersed throughout the -water, for they are not sufficiently abundant to create any -change of colour. - -There are two circumstances in the above accounts which -appear remarkable: first, how do the various bodies which -form the bands with defined edges keep together? In the -case of the prawn-like crabs, their movements were as -co-instantaneous as in a regiment of soldiers; but this cannot -happen from anything like voluntary action with the ovules, -or the confervae, nor is it probable among the infusoria. -Secondly, what causes the length and narrowness of the -bands? The appearance so much resembles that which may -be seen in every torrent, where the stream uncoils into long -streaks the froth collected in the eddies, that I must attribute -the effect to a similar action either of the currents of the -air or sea. Under this supposition we must believe that the -various organized bodies are produced in certain favourable -places, and are thence removed by the set of either wind -or water. I confess, however, there is a very great difficulty -in imagining any one spot to be the birthplace of the millions -of millions of animalcula and confervae: for whence come -the germs at such points? -- the parent bodies having been -distributed by the winds and waves over the immense ocean. -But on no other hypothesis can I understand their linear -grouping. I may add that Scoresby remarks that green -water abounding with pelagic animals is invariably found -in a certain part of the Arctic Sea. - -[1] I state this on the authority of Dr. E. Dieffenbach, in his -German translation of the first edition of this Journal. - -[2] The Cape de Verd Islands were discovered in 1449. There was -a tombstone of a bishop with the date of 1571; and a crest of a -hand and dagger, dated 1497. - -[3] I must take this opportunity of acknowledging the great -kindness with which this illustrious naturalist has examined -many of my specimens. I have sent (June, 1845) a full account -of the falling of this dust to the Geological Society. - -[4] So named according to Patrick Symes's nomenclature. - -[5] See Encyclop. of Anat. and Physiol., article Cephalopoda - -[6] Mr. Horner and Sir David Brewster have described -(Philosophical Transactions, 1836, p. 65) a singular -"artificial substance resembling shell." It is deposited in -fine, transparent, highly polished, brown-coloured laminae, -possessing peculiar optical properties, on the inside of a -vessel, in which cloth, first prepared with glue and then -with lime, is made to revolve rapidly in water. It is much -softer, more transparent, and contains more animal matter, -than the natural incrustation at Ascension; but we here -again see the strong tendency which carbonate of lime and -animal matter evince to form a solid substance allied to -shell. - -[7] Pers. Narr., vol. v., pt. 1., p. 18. - -[8] M. Montagne, in Comptes Rendus, etc., Juillet, 1844; and -Annal. des Scienc. Nat., Dec. 1844 - -[9] M. Lesson (Voyage de la Coquille, tom. i., p. 255) mentions -red water off Lima, apparently produced by the same cause. -Peron, the distinguished naturalist, in the Voyage aux Terres -Australes, gives no less than twelve references to voyagers -who have alluded to the discoloured waters of the sea (vol. -ii. p. 239). To the references given by Peron may be added, -Humboldt's Pers. Narr., vol. vi. p. 804; Flinder's Voyage, -vol. i. p. 92; Labillardiere, vol. i. p. 287; Ulloa's Voyage; -Voyage of the Astrolabe and of the Coquille; Captain King's -Survey of Australia, etc. - - - -CHAPTER II - -RIO DE JANEIRO - -Rio de Janeiro -- Excursion north of Cape Frio -- Great -Evaporation -- Slavery -- Botofogo Bay -- Terrestrial -Planariae -- Clouds on the Corcovado -- Heavy Rain -- Musical -Frogs -- Phosphorescent Insects -- Elater, springing powers -of -- Blue Haze -- Noise made by a Butterfly -- Entomology -- -Ants -- Wasp killing a Spider -- Parasitical Spider -- -Artifices of an Epeira -- Gregarious Spider -- Spider with -an unsymmetrical Web. - - -APRIL 4th to July 5th, 1832. -- A few days after our -arrival I became acquainted with an Englishman who -was going to visit his estate, situated rather more -than a hundred miles from the capital, to the northward of -Cape Frio. I gladly accepted his kind offer of allowing me -to accompany him. - -April 8th. -- Our party amounted to seven. The first stage -was very interesting. The day was powerfully hot, and as -we passed through the woods, everything was motionless, -excepting the large and brilliant butterflies, which lazily -fluttered about. The view seen when crossing the hills -behind Praia Grande was most beautiful; the colours were -intense, and the prevailing tint a dark blue; the sky and the -calm waters of the bay vied with each other in splendour. -After passing through some cultivated country, we entered -a forest, which in the grandeur of all its parts could not be -exceeded. We arrived by midday at Ithacaia; this small -village is situated on a plain, and round the central house -are the huts of the negroes. These, from their regular form -and position, reminded me of the drawings of the Hottentot -habitations in Southern Africa. As the moon rose early, we -determined to start the same evening for our sleeping-place -at the Lagoa Marica. As it was growing dark we passed -under one of the massive, bare, and steep hills of granite -which are so common in this country. This spot is notorious -from having been, for a long time, the residence of some -runaway slaves, who, by cultivating a little ground near the -top, contrived to eke out a subsistence. At length they were -discovered, and a party of soldiers being sent, the whole -were seized with the exception of one old woman, who, -sooner than again be led into slavery, dashed herself to -pieces from the summit of the mountain. In a Roman -matron this would have been called the noble love of freedom: -in a poor negress it is mere brutal obstinacy. We -continued riding for some hours. For the few last miles the -road was intricate, and it passed through a desert waste of -marshes and lagoons. The scene by the dimmed light of the -moon was most desolate. A few fireflies flitted by us; and -the solitary snipe, as it rose, uttered its plaintive cry. The -distant and sullen roar of the sea scarcely broke the stillness -of the night. - -April 9th. -- We left our miserable sleeping-place before -sunrise. The road passed through a narrow sandy plain, -lying between the sea and the interior salt lagoons. The -number of beautiful fishing birds, such as egrets and cranes, -and the succulent plants assuming most fantastical forms, -gave to the scene an interest which it would not otherwise -have possessed. The few stunted trees were loaded with -parasitical plants, among which the beauty and delicious -fragrance of some of the orchideae were most to be admired. -As the sun rose, the day became extremely hot, and the -reflection of the light and heat from the white sand was very -distressing. We dined at Mandetiba; the thermometer in -the shade being 84 degs. The beautiful view of the distant -wooded hills, reflected in the perfectly calm water of an -extensive lagoon, quite refreshed us. As the venda [1] here -was a very good one, and I have the pleasant, but rare -remembrance, of an excellent dinner, I will be grateful and -presently describe it, as the type of its class. These houses -are often large, and are built of thick upright posts, with -boughs interwoven, and afterwards plastered. They seldom -have floors, and never glazed windows; but are generally -pretty well roofed. Universally the front part is open, forming -a kind of verandah, in which tables and benches are -placed. The bed-rooms join on each side, and here the passenger -may sleep as comfortably as he can, on a wooden -platform, covered by a thin straw mat. The venda stands -in a courtyard, where the horses are fed. On first arriving -it was our custom to unsaddle the horses and give them -their Indian corn; then, with a low bow, to ask the senhor -to do us the favour to give up something to eat. "Anything -you choose, sir," was his usual answer. For the few first -times, vainly I thanked providence for having guided us -to so good a man. The conversation proceeding, the case -universally became deplorable. "Any fish can you do us the -favour of giving ?" -- "Oh! no, sir." -- "Any soup?" -- "No, -sir." -- "Any bread?" -- "Oh! no, sir." -- "Any dried meat?" --- "Oh! no, sir." If we were lucky, by waiting a couple of -hours, we obtained fowls, rice, and farinha. It not unfrequently -happened, that we were obliged to kill, with stones, -the poultry for our own supper. When, thoroughly exhausted -by fatigue and hunger, we timorously hinted that we should -be glad of our meal, the pompous, and (though true) most -unsatisfactory answer was, "It will be ready when it is -ready." If we had dared to remonstrate any further, we -should have been told to proceed on our journey, as being -too impertinent. The hosts are most ungracious and disagreeable -in their manners; their houses and their persons -are often filthily dirty; the want of the accommodation of -forks, knives, and spoons is common; and I am sure no cottage -or hovel in England could be found in a state so utterly -destitute of every comfort. At Campos Novos, however, we -fared sumptuously; having rice and fowls, biscuit, wine, and -spirits, for dinner; coffee in the evening, and fish with coffee -for breakfast. All this, with good food for the horses, only -cost 2s. 6d. per head. Yet the host of this venda, being -asked if he knew anything of a whip which one of the party -had lost, gruffly answered, "How should I know? why did -you not take care of it? -- I suppose the dogs have eaten it." - -Leaving Mandetiba, we continued to pass through an intricate -wilderness of lakes; in some of which were fresh, -in others salt water shells. Of the former kinds, I found -a Limnaea in great numbers in a lake, into which, the inhabitants -assured me that the sea enters once a year, and -sometimes oftener, and makes the water quite salt. I have -no doubt many interesting facts, in relation to marine and -fresh water animals, might be observed in this chain of -lagoons, which skirt the coast of Brazil. M. Gay [2] has -stated that he found in the neighbourhood of Rio, shells of -the marine genera solen and mytilus, and fresh water ampullariae, -living together in brackish water. I also frequently -observed in the lagoon near the Botanic Garden, where the -water is only a little less salt than in the sea, a species of -hydrophilus, very similar to a water-beetle common in the -ditches of England: in the same lake the only shell belonged -to a genus generally found in estuaries. - -Leaving the coast for a time, we again entered the forest. -The trees were very lofty, and remarkable, compared with -those of Europe, from the whiteness of their trunks. I see -by my note-book, "wonderful and beautiful, flowering parasites," -invariably struck me as the most novel object in these -grand scenes. Travelling onwards we passed through tracts -of pasturage, much injured by the enormous conical ants' -nests, which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to the -plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanos at Jorullo, -as figured by Humboldt. We arrived at Engenhodo after it -was dark, having been ten hours on horseback. I never -ceased, during the whole journey, to be surprised at the -amount of labour which the horses were capable of enduring; -they appeared also to recover from any injury much -sooner than those of our English breed. The Vampire bat -is often the cause of much trouble, by biting the horses on -their withers. The injury is generally not so much owing -to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the pressure -of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance -has lately been doubted in England; I was therefore -fortunate in being present when one (Desmodus d'orbignyi, -Wat.) was actually caught on a horse's back. We were -bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chile, when -my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very restive, -went to see what was the matter, and fancying he could -distinguish something, suddenly put his hand on the beast's -withers, and secured the vampire. In the morning the spot -where the bite had been inflicted was easily distinguished -from being slightly swollen and bloody. The third day -afterwards we rode the horse, without any ill effects. - -April 13th. -- After three days' travelling we arrived at -Socego, the estate of Senhor Manuel Figuireda, a relation -of one of our party. The house was simple, and, though like -a barn in form, was well suited to the climate. In the sitting- -room gilded chairs and sofas were oddly contrasted with the -whitewashed walls, thatched roof, and windows without -glass. The house, together with the granaries, the stables, -and workshops for the blacks, who had been taught various -trades, formed a rude kind of quadrangle; in the centre -of which a large pile of coffee was drying. These buildings -stand on a little hill, overlooking the cultivated ground, and -surrounded on every side by a wall of dark green luxuriant -forest. The chief produce of this part of the country is -coffee. Each tree is supposed to yield annually, on an average, -two pounds; but some give as much as eight. Mandioca -or cassada is likewise cultivated in great quantity. Every -part of this plant is useful; the leaves and stalks are eaten -by the horses, and the roots are ground into a pulp, which, -when pressed dry and baked, forms the farinha, the principal -article of sustenance in the Brazils. It is a curious, -though well-known fact, that the juice of this most nutritious -plant is highly poisonous. A few years ago a cow died at -this Fazenda, in consequence of having drunk some of it. -Senhor Figuireda told me that he had planted, the year before, -one bag of feijao or beans, and three of rice; the -former of which produced eighty, and the latter three hundred -and twenty fold. The pasturage supports a fine stock -of cattle, and the woods are so full of game that a deer had -been killed on each of the three previous days. This profusion -of food showed itself at dinner, where, if the tables did -not groan, the guests surely did; for each person is expected -to eat of every dish. One day, having, as I thought, nicely -calculated so that nothing should go away untasted, to my -utter dismay a roast turkey and a pig appeared in all their -substantial reality. During the meals, it was the employment -of a man to drive out of the room sundry old hounds, -and dozens of little black children, which crawled in together, -at every opportunity. As long as the idea of slavery could be -banished, there was something exceedingly fascinating in -this simple and patriarchal style of living: it was such a -perfect retirement and independence from the rest of the -world. - -As soon as any stranger is seen arriving, a large bell is set -tolling, and generally some small cannon are fired. The -event is thus announced to the rocks and woods, but to nothing -else. One morning I walked out an hour before daylight -to admire the solemn stillness of the scene; at last, the -silence was broken by the morning hymn, raised on high by the -whole body of the blacks; and in this manner their daily -work is generally begun. On such fazendas as these, I have -no doubt the slaves pass happy and contented lives. On -Saturday and Sunday they work for themselves, and in this -fertile climate the labour of two days is sufficient to support -a man and his family for the whole week. - -April 14th. -- Leaving Socego, we rode to another estate on -the Rio Macae, which was the last patch of cultivated ground -in that direction. The estate was two and a half miles long, -and the owner had forgotten how many broad. Only a very -small piece had been cleared, yet almost every acre was -capable of yielding all the various rich productions of a tropical -land. Considering the enormous area of Brazil, the proportion -of cultivated ground can scarcely be considered as -anything, compared to that which is left in the state of -nature: at some future age, how vast a population it will -support! During the second day's journey we found the -road so shut up, that it was necessary that a man should go -ahead with a sword to cut away the creepers. The forest -abounded with beautiful objects; among which the tree ferns, -though not large, were, from their bright green foliage, and -the elegant curvature of their fronds, most worthy of admiration. -In the evening it rained very heavily, and although the -thermometer stood at 65 degs., I felt very cold. As soon as -the rain ceased, it was curious to observe the extraordinary -evaporation which commenced over the whole extent of the -forest. At the height of a hundred feet the hills were buried -in a dense white vapour, which rose like columns of smoke -from the most thickly wooded parts, and especially from the -valleys. I observed this phenomenon on several occasions. -I suppose it is owing to the large surface of foliage, previously -heated by the sun's rays. - -While staying at this estate, I was very nearly being an -eye-witness to one of those atrocious acts which can only -take place in a slave country. Owing to a quarrel and a -lawsuit, the owner was on the point of taking all the women -and children from the male slaves, and selling them separately -at the public auction at Rio. Interest, and not any -feeling of compassion, prevented this act. Indeed, I do not -believe the inhumanity of separating thirty families, who -had lived together for many years, even occurred to the -owner. Yet I will pledge myself, that in humanity and -good feeling he was superior to the common run of men. -It may be said there exists no limit to the blindness of interest -and selfish habit. I may mention one very trifling anecdote, -which at the time struck me more forcibly than any -story of cruelty. I was crossing a ferry with a negro, who -was uncommonly stupid. In endeavouring to make him -understand, I talked loud, and made signs, in doing which I -passed my hand near his face. He, I suppose, thought I was -in a passion, and was going to strike him; for instantly, -with a frightened look and half-shut eyes, he dropped his -hands. I shall never forget my feelings of surprise, disgust, -and shame, at seeing a great powerful man afraid even to -ward off a blow, directed, as he thought, at his face. This -man had been trained to a degradation lower than the -slavery of the most helpless animal. - -April 18th. -- In returning we spent two days at Socego, -and I employed them in collecting insects in the forest. The -greater number of trees, although so lofty, are not more -than three or four feet in circumference. There are, of -course, a few of much greater dimensions. Senhor Manuel -was then making a canoe 70 feet in length from a solid trunk, -which had originally been 110 feet long, and of great thickness. -The contrast of palm trees, growing amidst the common -branching kinds, never fails to give the scene an intertropical -character. Here the woods were ornamented by the -Cabbage Palm -- one of the most beautiful of its family. With -a stem so narrow that it might be clasped with the two -hands, it waves its elegant head at the height of forty or -fifty feet above the ground. The woody creepers, themselves -covered by other creepers, were of great thickness: some -which I measured were two feet in circumference. Many of -the older trees presented a very curious appearance from -the tresses of a liana hanging from their boughs, and resembling -bundles of hay. If the eye was turned from the world -of foliage above, to the ground beneath, it was attracted by -the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimosae. -The latter, in some parts, covered the surface with a brushwood -only a few inches high. In walking across these thick -beds of mimosae, a broad track was marked by the change -of shade, produced by the drooping of their sensitive petioles. -It is easy to specify the individual objects of admiration in -these grand scenes; but it is not possible to give an adequate -idea of the higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, and -devotion, which fill and elevate the mind. - -April 19th.--Leaving Socego, during the two first days, -we retraced our steps. It was very wearisome work, as the -road generally ran across a glaring hot sandy plain, not -far from the coast. I noticed that each time the horse put -its foot on the fine siliceous sand, a gentle chirping noise -was produced. On the third day we took a different line, -and passed through the gay little village of Madre de Deos. -This is one of the principal lines of road in Brazil; yet it -was in so bad a state that no wheeled vehicle, excepting the -clumsy bullock-wagon, could pass along. In our whole journey -we did not cross a single bridge built of stone; and -those made of logs of wood were frequently so much out of -repair, that it was necessary to go on one side to avoid them. -All distances are inaccurately known. The road is often -marked by crosses, in the place of milestones, to signify -where human blood has been spilled. On the evening of the -23rd we arrived at Rio, having finished our pleasant little -excursion. - -During the remainder of my stay at Rio, I resided in a -cottage at Botofogo Bay. It was impossible to wish for -anything more delightful than thus to spend some weeks -in so magnificent a country. In England any person fond -of natural history enjoys in his walks a great advantage, by -always having something to attract his attention; but in -these fertile climates, teeming with life, the attractions are -so numerous, that he is scarcely able to walk at all. - -The few observations which I was enabled to make were -almost exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals. The -existence of a division of the genus Planaria, which inhabits -the dry land, interested me much. These animals are of so -simple a structure, that Cuvier has arranged them with the -intestinal worms, though never found within the bodies of -other animals. Numerous species inhabit both salt and fresh -water; but those to which I allude were found, even in the -drier parts of the forest, beneath logs of rotten wood, on -which I believe they feed. In general form they resemble -little slugs, but are very much narrower in proportion, and -several of the species are beautifully coloured with -longitudinal stripes. Their structure is very simple: near the -middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small -transverse slits, from the anterior one of which a funnel- -shaped and highly irritable mouth can be protruded. For -some time after the rest of the animal was completely dead -from the effects of salt water or any other cause, this organ -still retained its vitality. - -I found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial -Planariae in different parts of the southern hemisphere. [3] -Some specimens which I obtained at Van Dieman's Land, -I kept alive for nearly two months, feeding them on rotten -wood. Having cut one of them transversely into two nearly -equal parts, in the course of a fortnight both had the shape -of perfect animals. I had, however, so divided the body, -that one of the halves contained both the inferior orifices, -and the other, in consequence, none. In the course of twenty- -five days from the operation, the more perfect half could -not have been distinguished from any other specimen. The -other had increased much in size; and towards its posterior -end, a clear space was formed in the parenchymatous mass, -in which a rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could clearly be -distinguished; on the under surface, however, no corresponding -slit was yet open. If the increased heat of the weather, -as we approached the equator, had not destroyed all the -individuals, there can be no doubt that this last step would -have completed its structure. Although so well-known an -experiment, it was interesting to watch the gradual production -of every essential organ, out of the simple extremity -of another animal. It is extremely difficult to preserve these -Planariae; as soon as the cessation of life allows the ordinary -laws of change to act, their entire bodies become soft -and fluid, with a rapidity which I have never seen equalled. - -I first visited the forest in which these Planariae were -found, in company with an old Portuguese priest who took -me out to hunt with him. The sport consisted in turning -into the cover a few dogs, and then patiently waiting to fire -at any animal which might appear. We were accompanied -by the son of a neighbouring farmer -- a good specimen of -a wild Brazilian youth. He was dressed in a tattered old -shirt and trousers, and had his head uncovered: he carried -an old-fashioned gun and a large knife. The habit of carrying -the knife is universal; and in traversing a thick wood -it is almost necessary, on account of the creeping plants. -The frequent occurrence of murder may be partly attributed -to this habit. The Brazilians are so dexterous with the -knife, that they can throw it to some distance with precision, -and with sufficient force to cause a fatal wound. I have seen -a number of little boys practising this art as a game of play -and from their skill in hitting an upright stick, they promised -well for more earnest attempts. My companion, the day -before, had shot two large bearded monkeys. These animals -have prehensile tails, the extremity of which, even after -death, can support the whole weight of the body. One of -them thus remained fast to a branch, and it was necessary -to cut down a large tree to procure it. This was soon effected, -and down came tree and monkey with an awful crash. Our -day's sport, besides the monkey, was confined to sundry small -green parrots and a few toucans. I profited, however, by my -acquaintance with the Portuguese padre, for on another -occasion he gave me a fine specimen of the Yagouaroundi -cat. - -Every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near -Botofogo. The house in which I lived was seated close -beneath the well-known mountain of the Corcovado. It has -been remarked, with much truth, that abruptly conical hills -are characteristic of the formation which Humboldt designates -as gneiss-granite. Nothing can be more striking than -the effect of these huge rounded masses of naked rock rising -out of the most luxuriant vegetation. - -I was often interested by watching the clouds, which, -rolling in from seaward, formed a bank just beneath the -highest point of the Corcovado. This mountain, like most -others, when thus partly veiled, appeared to rise to a far -prouder elevation than its real height of 2300 feet. Mr. -Daniell has observed, in his meteorological essays, that a -cloud sometimes appears fixed on a mountain summit, while -the wind continues to blow over it. The same phenomenon -here presented a slightly different appearance. In this case -the cloud was clearly seen to curl over, and rapidly pass -by the summit, and yet was neither diminished nor increased -in size. The sun was setting, and a gentle southerly breeze, -striking against the southern side of the rock, mingled its -current with the colder air above; and the vapour was thus -condensed; but as the light wreaths of cloud passed over -the ridge, and came within the influence of the warmer -atmosphere of the northern sloping bank, they were immediately -re-dissolved. - -The climate, during the months of May and June, or the -beginning of winter, was delightful. The mean temperature, -from observations taken at nine o'clock, both morning -and evening, was only 72 degs. It often rained heavily, but -the drying southerly winds soon again rendered the walks -pleasant. One morning, in the course of six hours, 1.6 inches -of rain fell. As this storm passed over the forests which -surround the Corcovado, the sound produced by the drops -pattering on the countless multitude of leaves was very -remarkable, it could be heard at the distance of a quarter of -a mile, and was like the rushing of a great body of water. -After the hotter days, it was delicious to sit quietly in the -garden and watch the evening pass into night. Nature, in -these climes, chooses her vocalists from more humble performers -than in Europe. A small frog, of the genus Hyla, -sits on a blade of grass about an inch above the surface of -the water, and sends forth a pleasing chirp: when several -are together they sing in harmony on different notes. I had -some difficulty in catching a specimen of this frog. The -genus Hyla has its toes terminated by small suckers; and I -found this animal could crawl up a pane of glass, when -placed absolutely perpendicular. Various cicidae and crickets, -at the same time, keep up a ceaseless shrill cry, but which, -softened by the distance, is not unpleasant. Every evening -after dark this great concert commenced; and often have I -sat listening to it, until my attention has been drawn away -by some curious passing insect. - -At these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from -hedge to hedge. On a dark night the light can be seen at -about two hundred paces distant. It is remarkable that in -all the different kinds of glowworms, shining elaters, and -various marine animals (such as the crustacea, medusae, -nereidae, a coralline of the genus Clytia, and Pyrosma), -which I have observed, the light has been of a well-marked -green colour. All the fireflies, which I caught here, belonged -to the Lampyridae (in which family the English glowworm -is included), and the greater number of specimens were of -Lampyris occidentalis. [4] I found that this insect emitted -the most brilliant flashes when irritated: in the intervals, -the abdominal rings were obscured. The flash was almost -co-instantaneous in the two rings, but it was just perceptible -first in the anterior one. The shining matter was fluid and -very adhesive: little spots, where the skin had been torn, -continued bright with a slight scintillation, whilst the -uninjured parts were obscured. When the insect was decapitated -the rings remained uninterruptedly bright, but not so brilliant -as before: local irritation with a needle always increased -the vividness of the light. The rings in one instance retained -their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after the -death of the insect. From these facts it would appear probable, -that the animal has only the power of concealing or -extinguishing the light for short intervals, and that at other -times the display is involuntary. On the muddy and wet -gravel-walks I found the larvae of this lampyris in great -numbers: they resembled in general form the female of the -English glowworm. These larvae possessed but feeble luminous -powers; very differently from their parents, on the -slightest touch they feigned death and ceased to shine; nor -did irritation excite any fresh display. I kept several of -them alive for some time: their tails are very singular organs, -for they act, by a well-fitted contrivance, as suckers or organs -of attachment, and likewise as reservoirs for saliva, or some -such fluid. I repeatedly fed them on raw meat; and I invariably -observed, that every now and then the extremity -of the tail was applied to the mouth, and a drop of fluid -exuded on the meat, which was then in the act of being consumed. -The tail, notwithstanding so much practice, does not -seem to be able to find its way to the mouth; at least the neck -was always touched first, and apparently as a guide. - -When we were at Bahia, an elater or beetle (Pyrophorus -luminosus, Illig.) seemed the most common luminous insect. -The light in this case was also rendered more brilliant by -irritation. I amused myself one day by observing the springing -powers of this insect, which have not, as it appears to -me, been properly described. [5] The elater, when placed on -its back and preparing to spring, moved its head and thorax -backwards, so that the pectoral spine was drawn out, and -rested on the edge of its sheath. The same backward movement -being continued, the spine, by the full action of the -muscles, was bent like a spring; and the insect at this moment -rested on the extremity of its head and wing-cases. -The effort being suddenly relaxed, the head and thorax flew -up, and in consequence, the base of the wing-cases struck -the supporting surface with such force, that the insect by -the reaction was jerked upwards to the height of one or -two inches. The projecting points of the thorax, and the -sheath of the spine, served to steady the whole body during -the spring. In the descriptions which I have read, sufficient -stress does not appear to have been laid on the elasticity of -the spine: so sudden a spring could not be the result of simple -muscular contraction, without the aid of some mechanical -contrivance. - -On several occasions I enjoyed some short but most pleasant -excursions in the neighbouring country. One day I went -to the Botanic Garden, where many plants, well known for -their great utility, might be seen growing. The leaves of the -camphor, pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees were delightfully -aromatic; and the bread-fruit, the jaca, and the mango, -vied with each other in the magnificence of their foliage. -The landscape in the neighbourhood of Bahia almost takes -its character from the two latter trees. Before seeing them, -I had no idea that any trees could cast so black a shade on -the ground. Both of them bear to the evergreen vegetation -of these climates the same kind of relation which laurels -and hollies in England do to the lighter green of the deciduous -trees. It may be observed, that the houses within the -tropics are surrounded by the most beautiful forms of -vegetation, because many of them are at the same time most -useful to man. Who can doubt that these qualities are united -in the banana, the cocoa-nut, the many kinds of palm, the -orange, and the bread-fruit tree? - -During this day I was particularly struck with a remark -of Humboldt's, who often alludes to "the thin vapour which, -without changing the transparency of the air, renders its -tints more harmonious, and softens its effects." This is an -appearance which I have never observed in the temperate -zones. The atmosphere, seen through a short space of half -or three-quarters of a mile, was perfectly lucid, but at a -greater distance all colours were blended into a most beautiful -haze, of a pale French grey, mingled with a little blue. -The condition of the atmosphere between the morning and -about noon, when the effect was most evident, had undergone -little change, excepting in its dryness. In the interval, -the difference between the dew point and temperature had -increased from 7.5 to 17 degs. - -On another occasion I started early and walked to the -Gavia, or topsail mountain. The air was delightfully cool -and fragrant; and the drops of dew still glittered on the -leaves of the large liliaceous plants, which shaded the -streamlets of clear water. Sitting down on a block of granite, -it was delightful to watch the various insects and birds as -they flew past. The humming-bird seems particularly fond of -such shady retired spots. Whenever I saw these little creatures -buzzing round a flower, with their wings vibrating so -rapidly as to be scarcely visible, I was reminded of the -sphinx moths: their movements and habits are indeed in -many respects very similar. - -Following a pathway, I entered a noble forest, and from -a height of five or six hundred feet, one of those splendid -views was presented, which are so common on every side -of Rio. At this elevation the landscape attains its most -brilliant tint; and every form, every shade, so completely -surpasses in magnificence all that the European has ever -beheld in his own country, that he knows not how to express -his feelings. The general effect frequently recalled -to my mind the gayest scenery of the Opera-house or the -great theatres. I never returned from these excursions -empty-handed. This day I found a specimen of a curious -fungus, called Hymenophallus. Most people know the English -Phallus, which in autumn taints the air with its odious -smell: this, however, as the entomologist is aware, is, to -some of our beetles a delightful fragrance. So was it here; -for a Strongylus, attracted by the odour, alighted on the -fungus as I carried it in my hand. We here see in two distant -countries a similar relation between plants and insects of the -same families, though the species of both are different. When -man is the agent in introducing into a country a new species, -this relation is often broken: as one instance of this I may -mention, that the leaves of the cabbages and lettuces, which -in England afford food to such a multitude of slugs and -caterpillars, in the gardens near Rio are untouched. - -During our stay at Brazil I made a large collection of -insects. A few general observations on the comparative -importance of the different orders may be interesting to the -English entomologist. The large and brilliantly coloured -Lepidoptera bespeak the zone they inhabit, far more plainly -than any other race of animals. I allude only to the -butterflies; for the moths, contrary to what might have been -expected from the rankness of the vegetation, certainly -appeared in much fewer numbers than in our own temperate -regions. I was much surprised at the habits of Papilio -feronia. This butterfly is not uncommon, and generally -frequents the orange-groves. Although a high flier, yet -it very frequently alights on the trunks of trees. On these -occasions its head is invariably placed downwards; and its -wings are expanded in a horizontal plane, instead of being -folded vertically, as is commonly the case. This is the only -butterfly which I have ever seen, that uses its legs for running. -Not being aware of this fact, the insect, more than once, as I -cautiously approached with my forceps, shuffled on one side -just as the instrument was on the point of closing, and thus -escaped. But a far more singular fact is the power which -this species possesses of making a noise. [6] Several times when -a pair, probably male and female, were chasing each other -in an irregular course, they passed within a few yards of me; -and I distinctly heard a clicking noise, similar to that -produced by a toothed wheel passing under a spring catch. The -noise was continued at short intervals, and could be -distinguished at about twenty yards' distance: I am certain -there is no error in the observation. - -I was disappointed in the general aspect of the Coleoptera. -The number of minute and obscurely coloured beetles -is exceedingly great. [7] The cabinets of Europe can, as yet, -boast only of the larger species from tropical climates. It -is sufficient to disturb the composure of an entomologist's -mind, to look forward to the future dimensions of a complete -catalogue. The carnivorous beetles, or Carabidae, appear -in extremely few numbers within the tropics: this is -the more remarkable when compared to the case of the -carnivorous quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot -countries. I was struck with this observation both on entering -Brazil, and when I saw the many elegant and active forms -of the Harpalidae re-appearing on the temperate plains of -La Plata. Do the very numerous spiders and rapacious -Hymenoptera supply the place of the carnivorous beetles? -The carrion-feeders and Brachelytra are very uncommon; -on the other hand, the Rhyncophora and Chrysomelidae, all -of which depend on the vegetable world for subsistence, are -present in astonishing numbers. I do not here refer to the -number of different species, but to that of the individual -insects; for on this it is that the most striking character in -the entomology of different countries depends. The orders -Orthoptera and Hemiptera are particularly numerous; as -likewise is the stinging division of the Hymenoptera the bees, -perhaps, being excepted. A person, on first entering a tropical -forest, is astonished at the labours of the ants: well-beaten -paths branch off in every direction, on which an army -of never-failing foragers may be seen, some going forth, and -others returning, burdened with pieces of green leaf, often -larger than their own bodies. - -A small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless -numbers. One day, at Bahia, my attention was drawn -by observing many spiders, cockroaches, and other insects, -and some lizards, rushing in the greatest agitation across -a bare piece of ground. A little way behind, every stalk and -leaf was blackened by a small ant. The swarm having -crossed the bare space, divided itself, and descended an old -wall. By this means many insects were fairly enclosed; and -the efforts which the poor little creatures made to extricate -themselves from such a death were wonderful. When the -ants came to the road they changed their course, and in -narrow files reascended the wall. Having placed a small -stone so as to intercept one of the lines, the whole body -attacked it, and then immediately retired. Shortly afterwards -another body came to the charge, and again having failed -to make any impression, this line of march was entirely -given up. By going an inch round, the file might have -avoided the stone, and this doubtless would have happened, -if it had been originally there: but having been attacked, the -lion-hearted little warriors scorned the idea of yielding. - -Certain wasp-like insects, which construct in the corners -of the verandahs clay cells for their larvae, are very numerous -in the neighbourhood of Rio. These cells they stuff full -of half-dead spiders and caterpillars, which they seem -wonderfully to know how to sting to that degree as to leave -them paralysed but alive, until their eggs are hatched; and -the larvae feed on the horrid mass of powerless, half-killed -victims -- a sight which has been described by an enthusiastic -naturalist [8] as curious and pleasing! I was much interested -one day by watching a deadly contest between a Pepsis and -a large spider of the genus Lycosa. The wasp made a sudden -dash at its prey, and then flew away: the spider was evidently -wounded, for, trying to escape, it rolled down a little -slope, but had still strength sufficient to crawl into a thick -tuft of grass. The wasp soon returned, and seemed surprised -at not immediately finding its victim. It then commenced -as regular a hunt as ever hound did after fox; -making short semicircular casts, and all the time rapidly vibrating -its wings and antennae. The spider, though well -concealed, was soon discovered, and the wasp, evidently still -afraid of its adversary's jaws, after much manoeuvring, inflicted -two stings on the under side of its thorax. At last, -carefully examining with its antennae the now motionless -spider, it proceeded to drag away the body. But I stopped -both tyrant and prey. [9] - -The number of spiders, in proportion to other insects, is -here compared with England very much larger; perhaps -more so than with any other division of the articulate animals. -The variety of species among the jumping spiders -appears almost infinite. The genus, or rather family, of -Epeira, is here characterized by many singular forms; some -species have pointed coriaceous shells, others enlarged and -spiny tibiae. Every path in the forest is barricaded with the -strong yellow web of a species, belonging to the same division -with the Epeira clavipes of Fabricius, which was formerly -said by Sloane to make, in the West Indies, webs so -strong as to catch birds. A small and pretty kind of spider, -with very long fore-legs, and which appears to belong to an -undescribed genus, lives as a parasite on almost every one -of these webs. I suppose it is too insignificant to be noticed -by the great Epeira, and is therefore allowed to prey on the -minute insects, which, adhering to the lines, would otherwise -be wasted. When frightened, this little spider either -feigns death by extending its front legs, or suddenly drops -from the web. A large Epeira of the same division with -Epeira tuberculata and conica is extremely common, especially -in dry situations. Its web, which is generally placed -among the great leaves of the common agave, is sometimes -strengthened near the centre by a pair or even four zigzag -ribbons, which connect two adjoining rays. When any large -insect, as a grasshopper or wasp, is caught, the spider, by -a dexterous movement, makes it revolve very rapidly, and at -the same time emitting a band of threads from its spinners, -soon envelops its prey in a case like the cocoon of a silkworm. -The spider now examines the powerless victim, and -gives the fatal bite on the hinder part of its thorax; then -retreating, patiently waits till the poison has taken effect. -The virulence of this poison may be judged of from the fact -that in half a minute I opened the mesh, and found a large -wasp quite lifeless. This Epeira always stands with its head -downwards near the centre of the web. When disturbed, it -acts differently according to circumstances: if there is a -thicket below, it suddenly falls down; and I have distinctly -seen the thread from the spinners lengthened by the animal -while yet stationary, as preparatory to its fall. If the ground -is clear beneath, the Epeira seldom falls, but moves quickly -through a central passage from one to the other side. When -still further disturbed, it practises a most curious manoeuvre: -standing in the middle, it violently jerks the web, which it -attached to elastic twigs, till at last the whole acquires such -a rapid vibratory movement, that even the outline of the -spider's body becomes indistinct. - -It is well known that most of the British spiders, when -a large insect is caught in their webs, endeavour to cut the -lines and liberate their prey, to save their nets from being -entirely spoiled. I once, however, saw in a hothouse in -Shropshire a large female wasp caught in the irregular web -of a quite small spider; and this spider, instead of cutting -the web, most perseveringly continued to entangle the body, -and especially the wings, of its prey. The wasp at first aimed -in vain repeated thrusts with its sting at its little antagonist. -Pitying the wasp, after allowing it to struggle for more than -an hour, I killed it and put it back into the web. The spider -soon returned; and an hour afterwards I was much surprised to -find it with its jaws buried in the orifice, through which the -sting is protruded by the living wasp. I drove the spider away -two or three times, but for the next twenty-four hours I -always found it again sucking at the same place. The spider -became much distended by the juices of its prey, which was -many times larger than itself. - -I may here just mention, that I found, near St. Fe Bajada, -many large black spiders, with ruby-coloured marks on their -backs, having gregarious habits. The webs were placed -vertically, as is invariably the case with the genus Epeira: -they were separated from each other by a space of about -two feet, but were all attached to certain common lines, -which were of great length, and extended to all parts of -the community. In this manner the tops of some large bushes -were encompassed by the united nets. Azara [10] has described -a gregarious spider in Paraguay, which Walckanaer thinks -must be a Theridion, but probably it is an Epeira, and -perhaps even the same species with mine. I cannot, however, -recollect seeing a central nest as large as a hat, in which, -during autumn, when the spiders die, Azara says the eggs are -deposited. As all the spiders which I saw were of the same -size, they must have been nearly of the same age. This -gregarious habit, in so typical a genus as Epeira, among -insects, which are so bloodthirsty and solitary that even -the two sexes attack each other, is a very singular fact. - -In a lofty valley of the Cordillera, near Mendoza, I found -another spider with a singularly-formed web. Strong lines -radiated in a vertical plane from a common centre, where the -insect had its station; but only two of the rays were connected -by a symmetrical mesh-work; so that the net, instead of being, -as is generally the case, circular, consisted of a wedge-shaped -segment. All the webs were similarly constructed. - -[1] Venda, the Portuguese name for an inn. - -[2] Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1833. - -[3] I have described and named these species in the Annals of -Nat. Hist., vol. xiv. p. 241. - -[4] I am greatly indebted to Mr. Waterhouse for his kindness -in naming for me this and many other insects, and giving me -much valuable assistance. - -[5] Kirby's Entomology, vol. ii. p. 317. - -[6] Mr. Doubleday has lately described (before the Entomological -Society, March 3rd, 1845) a peculiar structure in the wings -of this butterfly, which seems to be the means of its making -its noise. He says, "It is remarkable for having a sort of -drum at the base of the fore wings, between the costal nervure -and the subcostal. These two nervures, moreover, have a peculiar -screw-like diaphragm or vessel in the interior." I find in -Langsdorff's travels (in the years 1803-7, p. 74) it is said, -that in the island of St. Catherine's on the coast of Brazil, -a butterfly called Februa Hoffmanseggi, makes a noise, when -flying away, like a rattle. - -[7] I may mention, as a common instance of one day's (June 23rd) -collecting, when I was not attending particularly to the -Coleoptera, that I caught sixty-eight species of that order. -Among these, there were only two of the Carabidae, four -Brachelytra, fifteen Rhyncophora, and fourteen of the -Chrysomelidae. Thirty-seven species of Arachnidae, which I -brought home, will be sufficient to prove that I was not -paying overmuch attention to the generally favoured order -of Coleoptera. - -[8] In a MS. in the British Museum by Mr. Abbott, who made -his observations in Georgia; see Mr. A. White's paper in the -"Annals of Nat. Hist.," vol. vii. p. 472. Lieut. Hutton has -described a sphex with similar habits in India, in the "Journal -of the Asiatic Society," vol. i. p. 555. - -[9] Don Felix Azara (vol. i. p. 175), mentioning a hymenopterous -insect, probably of the same genus, says he saw it dragging -a dead spider through tall grass, in a straight line to its -nest, which was one hundred and sixty-three paces distant. He -adds that the wasp, in order to find the road, every now and -then made "demi-tours d'environ trois palmes." - -[10] Azara's Voyage, vol. i. p. 213 - - - -CHAPTER III - -MALDONADO - -Monte Video -- Excursion to R. Polanco -- Lazo and Bolas -- -Partridges -- Absence of Trees -- Deer -- Capybara, or River -Hog -- Tucutuco -- Molothrus, cuckoo-like habits -- Tyrant- -flycatcher -- Mocking-bird -- Carrion Hawks -- Tubes formed -by Lightning -- House struck. - - -July 5th, 1832 -- In the morning we got under way, and stood -out of the splendid harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In our passage -to the Plata, we saw nothing particular, excepting on one day -a great shoal of porpoises, many hundreds in number. The whole -sea was in places furrowed by them; and a most extraordinary -spectacle was presented, as hundreds, proceeding together by -jumps, in which their whole bodies were exposed, thus cut the -water. When the ship was running nine knots an hour, these -animals could cross and recross the bows with the greatest of -ease, and then dash away right ahead. As soon as we entered -the estuary of the Plata, the weather was very unsettled. One -dark night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, -which made such strange noises, that the officer on watch -reported he could hear the cattle bellowing on shore. On a -second night we witnessed a splendid scene of natural fireworks; -the mast-head and yard-arm-ends shone with St. Elmo's light; -and the form of the vane could almost be traced, as if it had -been rubbed with phosphorus. The sea was so highly luminous, -that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery wake, -and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by -the most vivid lightning. - -When within the mouth of the river, I was interested by -observing how slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed. -The latter, muddy and discoloured, from its less specific -gravity, floated on the surface of the salt water. This was -curiously exhibited in the wake of the vessel, where a line -of blue water was seen mingling in little eddies, with the -adjoining fluid. - -July 26th. -- We anchored at Monte Video. The Beagle -was employed in surveying the extreme southern and eastern -coasts of America, south of the Plata, during the two succeeding -years. To prevent useless repetitions, I will extract -those parts of my journal which refer to the same districts -without always attending to the order in which we visited -them. - -MALDONADO is situated on the northern bank of the Plata, -and not very far from the mouth of the estuary. It is a -most quiet, forlorn, little town; built, as is universally the -case in these countries, with the streets running at right -angles to each other, and having in the middle a large plaza -or square, which, from its size, renders the scantiness of the -population more evident. It possesses scarcely any trade; -the exports being confined to a few hides and living cattle. -The inhabitants are chiefly landowners, together with a few -shopkeepers and the necessary tradesmen, such as blacksmiths -and carpenters, who do nearly all the business for a -circuit of fifty miles round. The town is separated from the -river by a band of sand-hillocks, about a mile broad: it is -surrounded, on all other sides, by an open slightly-undulating -country, covered by one uniform layer of fine green turf, -on which countless herds of cattle, sheep, and horses graze. -There is very little land cultivated even close to the town. -A few hedges, made of cacti and agave, mark out where -some wheat or Indian corn has been planted. The features -of the country are very similar along the whole northern -bank of the Plata. The only difference is, that here the -granitic hills are a little bolder. The scenery is very -uninteresting; there is scarcely a house, an enclosed piece of -ground, or even a tree, to give it an air of cheerfulness -Yet, after being imprisoned for some time in a ship, there is -a charm in the unconfined feeling of walking over boundless -plains of turf. Moreover, if your view is limited to a small -space, many objects possess beauty. Some of the smaller -birds are brilliantly coloured; and the bright green sward, -browsed short by the cattle, is ornamented by dwarf flowers, -among which a plant, looking like the daisy, claimed the -place of an old friend. What would a florist say to whole -tracts, so thickly covered by the Verbena melindres, as, even -at a distance, to appear of the most gaudy scarlet? - -I stayed ten weeks at Maldonado, in which time a nearly -perfect collection of the animals, birds, and reptiles, was -procured. Before making any observations respecting them, -I will give an account of a little excursion I made as far -as the river Polanco, which is about seventy miles distant, -in a northerly direction. I may mention, as a proof how -cheap everything is in this country, that I paid only two -dollars a day, or eight shillings, for two men, together with -a troop of about a dozen riding-horses. My companions -were well armed with pistols and sabres; a precaution which -I thought rather unnecessary but the first piece of news -we heard was, that, the day before, a traveller from Monte -Video had been found dead on the road, with his throat -cut. This happened close to a cross, the record of a former -murder. - -On the first night we slept at a retired little country-house; -and there I soon found out that I possessed two or -three articles, especially a pocket compass, which created -unbounded astonishment. In every house I was asked to -show the compass, and by its aid, together with a map, to -point out the direction of various places. It excited the -liveliest admiration that I, a perfect stranger, should know -the road (for direction and road are synonymous in this open -country) to places where I had never been. At one house -a young woman, who was ill in bed, sent to entreat me to -come and show her the compass. If their surprise was great, -mine was greater, to find such ignorance among people who -possessed their thousands of cattle, and "estancias" of great -extent. It can only be accounted for by the circumstance -that this retired part of the country is seldom visited by -foreigners. I was asked whether the earth or sun moved; -whether it was hotter or colder to the north; where Spain -was, and many other such questions. The greater number of -the inhabitants had an indistinct idea that England, London, -and North America, were different names for the same -place; but the better informed well knew that London and -North America were separate countries close together, and -that England was a large town in London! I carried with -me some promethean matches, which I ignited by biting; it -was thought so wonderful that a man should strike fire with -his teeth, that it was usual to collect the whole family to -see it: I was once offered a dollar for a single one. Washing -my face in the morning caused much speculation at the village -of Las Minas; a superior tradesman closely cross-questioned -me about so singular a practice; and likewise why on -board we wore our beards; for he had heard from my guide -that we did so. He eyed me with much suspicion; perhaps -he had heard of ablutions in the Mahomedan religion, and -knowing me to be a heretick, probably he came to the conclusion -that all hereticks were Turks. It is the general custom -in this country to ask for a night's lodging at the first -convenient house. The astonishment at the compass, and -my other feats of jugglery, was to a certain degree -advantageous, as with that, and the long stories my guides -told of my breaking stones, knowing venomous from harmless -snakes, collecting insects, etc., I repaid them for their -hospitality. I am writing as if I had been among the inhabitants -of central Africa: Banda Oriental would not be flattered by -the comparison; but such were my feelings at the time. - -The next day we rode to the village of Las Minas. The -country was rather more hilly, but otherwise continued the -same; an inhabitant of the Pampas no doubt would have -considered it as truly Alpine. The country is so thinly -inhabited, that during the whole day we scarcely met a single -person. Las Minas is much smaller even than Maldonado. -It is seated on a little plain, and is surrounded by low rocky -mountains. It is of the usual symmetrical form, and with -its whitewashed church standing in the centre, had rather -a pretty appearance. The outskirting houses rose out of the -plain like isolated beings, without the accompaniment of -gardens or courtyards. This is generally the case in the -country, and all the houses have, in consequence an -uncomfortable aspect. At night we stopped at a pulperia, -or drinking-shop. During the evening a great number of Gauchos -came in to drink spirits and smoke cigars: their appearance -is very striking; they are generally tall and handsome, but -with a proud and dissolute expression of countenance. They -frequently wear their moustaches and long black hair curling -down their backs. With their brightly coloured garments, -great spurs clanking about their heels, and knives -stuck as daggers (and often so used) at their waists, they -look a very different race of men from what might be expected -from their name of Gauchos, or simple countrymen. -Their politeness is excessive; they never drink their spirits -without expecting you to taste it; but whilst making their -exceedingly graceful bow, they seem quite as ready, if occasion -offered, to cut your throat. - -On the third day we pursued rather an irregular course, -as I was employed in examining some beds of marble. On -the fine plains of turf we saw many ostriches (Struthio -rhea). Some of the flocks contained as many as twenty or -thirty birds. These, when standing on any little eminence, -and seen against the clear sky, presented a very noble -appearance. I never met with such tame ostriches in any other -part of the country: it was easy to gallop up within a short -distance of them; but then, expanding their wings, they -made all sail right before the wind, and soon left the horse -astern. - -At night we came to the house of Don Juan Fuentes, a -rich landed proprietor, but not personally known to either -of my companions. On approaching the house of a stranger, -it is usual to follow several little points of etiquette: riding -up slowly to the door, the salutation of Ave Maria is given, -and until somebody comes out and asks you to alight, it is -not customary even to get off your horse: the formal answer -of the owner is, "sin pecado concebida" -- that is, conceived -without sin. Having entered the house, some general conversation -is kept up for a few minutes, till permission is -asked to pass the night there. This is granted as a matter -of course. The stranger then takes his meals with the family, -and a room is assigned him, where with the horsecloths -belonging to his recado (or saddle of the Pampas) he makes -his bed. It is curious how similar circumstances produce -such similar results in manners. At the Cape of Good Hope -the same hospitality, and very nearly the same points of -etiquette, are universally observed. The difference, however, -between the character of the Spaniard and that of the Dutch -boer is shown, by the former never asking his guest a single -question beyond the strictest rule of politeness, whilst the -honest Dutchman demands where he has been, where he is -going, what is his business, and even how many brothers -sisters, or children he may happen to have. - -Shortly after our arrival at Don Juan's, one of the largest -herds of cattle was driven in towards the house, and three -beasts were picked out to be slaughtered for the supply of -the establishment. These half-wild cattle are very active; -and knowing full well the fatal lazo, they led the horses a -long and laborious chase. After witnessing the rude wealth -displayed in the number of cattle, men, and horses, Don -Juan's miserable house was quite curious. The floor consisted -of hardened mud, and the windows were without -glass; the sitting-room boasted only of a few of the roughest -chairs and stools, with a couple of tables. The supper, although -several strangers were present, consisted of two huge -piles, one of roast beef, the other of boiled, with some pieces -of pumpkin: besides this latter there was no other vegetable, -and not even a morsel of bread. For drinking, a large -earthenware jug of water served the whole party. Yet this -man was the owner of several square miles of land, of which -nearly every acre would produce corn, and, with a little -trouble, all the common vegetables. The evening was spent in -smoking, with a little impromptu singing, accompanied by -the guitar. The signoritas all sat together in one corner -of the room, and did not sup with the men. - -So many works have been written about these countries, -that it is almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or -the bolas. The lazo consists of a very strong, but thin, -well-plaited rope, made of raw hide. One end is attached to the -broad surcingle, which fastens together the complicated gear -of the recado, or saddle used in the Pampas; the other is -terminated by a small ring of iron or brass, by which a noose -can be formed. The Gaucho, when he is going to use the -lazo, keeps a small coil in his bridle-hand, and in the other -holds the running noose which is made very large, generally -having a diameter of about eight feet. This he whirls -round his head, and by the dexterous movement of his wrist -keeps the noose open; then, throwing it, he causes it to fall -on any particular spot he chooses. The lazo, when not used, -is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the recado. -The bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which -is chiefly used for catching ostriches, consists of two round -stones, covered with leather, and united by a thin plaited -thong, about eight feet long. The other kind differs only -in having three balls united by the thongs to a common -centre. The Gaucho holds the smallest of the three in his -hand, and whirls the other two round and round his head; -then, taking aim, sends them like chain shot revolving -through the air. The balls no sooner strike any object, than, -winding round it, they cross each other, and become firmly -hitched. The size and weight of the balls vary, according -to the purpose for which they are made: when of stone, -although not larger than an apple, they are sent with such -force as sometimes to break the leg even of a horse. I have -seen the balls made of wood, and as large as a turnip, for -the sake of catching these animals without injuring them. -The balls are sometimes made of iron, and these can be -hurled to the greatest distance. The main difficulty in using -either lazo or bolas is to ride so well as to be able at full -speed, and while suddenly turning about, to whirl them so -steadily round the head, as to take aim: on foot any person -would soon learn the art. One day, as I was amusing myself -by galloping and whirling the balls round my head, by accident -the free one struck a bush, and its revolving motion -being thus destroyed, it immediately fell to the ground, and, -like magic, caught one hind leg of my horse; the other ball -was then jerked out of my hand, and the horse fairly secured. -Luckily he was an old practised animal, and knew -what it meant; otherwise he would probably have kicked -till he had thrown himself down. The Gauchos roared with -laughter; they cried out that they had seen every sort of -animal caught, but had never before seen a man caught by -himself. - -During the two succeeding days, I reached the furthest -point which I was anxious to examine. The country wore -the same aspect, till at last the fine green turf became more -wearisome than a dusty turnpike road. We everywhere saw -great numbers of partridges (Nothura major). These birds -do not go in coveys, nor do they conceal themselves like -the English kind. It appears a very silly bird. A man on -horseback by riding round and round in a circle, or rather -in a spire, so as to approach closer each time, may knock -on the head as many as he pleases. The more common -method is to catch them with a running noose, or little lazo, -made of the stem of an ostrich's feather, fastened to the -end of a long stick. A boy on a quiet old horse will frequently -thus catch thirty or forty in a day. In Arctic North -America [1] the Indians catch the Varying Hare by walking -spirally round and round it, when on its form: the middle -of the day is reckoned the best time, when the sun is high, -and the shadow of the hunter not very long. - -On our return to Maldonado, we followed rather a different -line of road. Near Pan de Azucar, a landmark well -known to all those who have sailed up the Plata, I stayed -a day at the house of a most hospitable old Spaniard. Early -in the morning we ascended the Sierra de las Animas. By -the aid of the rising sun the scenery was almost picturesque. -To the westward the view extended over an immense level -plain as far as the Mount, at Monte Video, and to the eastward, -over the mammillated country of Maldonado. On -the summit of the mountain there were several small heaps -of stones, which evidently had lain there for many years. -My companion assured me that they were the work of the -Indians in the old time. The heaps were similar, but on -a much smaller scale, to those so commonly found on the -mountains of Wales. The desire to signalize any event, on -the highest point of the neighbouring land, seems an universal -passion with mankind. At the present day, not a -single Indian, either civilized or wild, exists in this part -of the province; nor am I aware that the former inhabitants -have left behind them any more permanent records than -these insignificant piles on the summit of the Sierra de las -Animas. - - -The general, and almost entire absence of trees in Banda -Oriental is remarkable. Some of the rocky hills are partly -covered by thickets, and on the banks of the larger streams, -especially to the north of Las Minas, willow-trees are not -uncommon. Near the Arroyo Tapes I heard of a wood of -palms; and one of these trees, of considerable size, I saw -near the Pan de Azucar, in lat. 35 degs. These, and the trees -planted by the Spaniards, offer the only exceptions to the -general scarcity of wood. Among the introduced kinds may -be enumerated poplars, olives, peach, and other fruit trees: -the peaches succeed so well, that they afford the main supply -of firewood to the city of Buenos Ayres. Extremely level -countries, such as the Pampas, seldom appear favourable to -the growth of trees. This may possibly be attributed either -to the force of the winds, or the kind of drainage. In the -nature of the land, however, around Maldonado, no such -reason is apparent; the rocky mountains afford protected -situations; enjoying various kinds of soil; streamlets of -water are common at the bottoms of nearly every valley; -and the clayey nature of the earth seems adapted to retain -moisture. It has been inferred with much probability, that -the presence of woodland is generally determined [2] by the -annual amount of moisture; yet in this province abundant -and heavy rain falls during the winter; and the summer, -though dry, is not so in any excessive degree. [3] We see nearly -the whole of Australia covered by lofty trees, yet that country -possesses a far more arid climate. Hence we must look -to some other and unknown cause. - -Confining our view to South America, we should certainly -be tempted to believe that trees flourished only under a very -humid climate; for the limit of the forest-land follows, in a -most remarkable manner, that of the damp winds. In the -southern part of the continent, where the western gales, -charged with moisture from the Pacific, prevail, every island -on the broken west coast, from lat. 38 degs. to the extreme -point of Tierra del Fuego, is densely covered by impenetrable -forests. On the eastern side of the Cordillera, over the same -extent of latitude, where a blue sky and a fine climate prove -that the atmosphere has been deprived of its moisture by -passing over the mountains, the arid plains of Patagonia -support a most scanty vegetation. In the more northern -parts of the continent, within the limits of the constant -south-eastern trade-wind, the eastern side is ornamented by -magnificent forests; whilst the western coast, from lat. -4 degs. S. to lat. 32 degs. S., may be described as a -desert; on this western coast, northward of lat. 4 degs. -S., where the trade-wind loses its regularity, and heavy -torrents of rain fall periodically, the shores of the -Pacific, so utterly desert in Peru, assume near Cape -Blanco the character of luxuriance so celebrated at -Guyaquil and Panama. Hence in the southern and northern -parts of the continent, the forest and desert lands occupy -reversed positions with respect to the Cordillera, and these -positions are apparently determined by the direction of the -prevalent winds. In the middle of the continent there is a -broad intermediate band, including central Chile and the -provinces of La Plata, where the rain-bringing winds have -not to pass over lofty mountains, and where the land is neither -a desert nor covered by forests. But even the rule, if -confined to South America, of trees flourishing only in a -climate rendered humid by rain-bearing winds, has a strongly -marked exception in the case of the Falkland Islands. These -islands, situated in the same latitude with Tierra del Fuego -and only between two and three hundred miles distant from -it, having a nearly similar climate, with a geological -formation almost identical, with favourable situations and the -same kind of peaty soil, yet can boast of few plants deserving -even the title of bushes; whilst in Tierra del Fuego it is -impossible to find an acre of land not covered by the densest -forest. In this case, both the direction of the heavy gales -of wind and of the currents of the sea are favourable to -the transport of seeds from Tierra del Fuego, as is shown -by the canoes and trunks of trees drifted from that country, -and frequently thrown on the shores of the Western Falkland. -Hence perhaps it is, that there are many plants in -common to the two countries but with respect to the trees -of Tierra del Fuego, even attempts made to transplant them -have failed. - -During our stay at Maldonado I collected several quadrupeds, -eighty kinds of birds, and many reptiles, including -nine species of snakes. Of the indigenous mammalia, the -only one now left of any size, which is common, is the Cervus -campestris. This deer is exceedingly abundant, often in -small herds, throughout the countries bordering the Plata -and in Northern Patagonia. If a person crawling close along -the ground, slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, -out of curiosity, approach to reconnoitre him. I -have by this means, killed from one spot, three out of the -same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet when -approached on horseback, they are exceedingly wary. In this -country nobody goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its -enemy only when he is mounted and armed with the bolas. -At Bahia Blanca, a recent establishment in Northern Patagonia, -I was surprised to find how little the deer cared for -the noise of a gun: one day I fired ten times from within -eighty yards at one animal; and it was much more startled -at the ball cutting up the ground than at the report of -the rifle. My powder being exhausted, I was obliged to -get up (to my shame as a sportsman be it spoken, though -well able to kill birds on the wing) and halloo till the deer -ran away. - -The most curious fact with respect to this animal, is the -overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds -from the buck. It is quite indescribable: several times -whilst skinning the specimen which is now mounted at the -Zoological Museum, I was almost overcome by nausea. I -tied up the skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief, and so carried -it home: this handkerchief, after being well washed, I -continually used, and it was of course as repeatedly washed; -yet every time, for a space of one year and seven months, when -first unfolded, I distinctly perceived the odour. This appears -an astonishing instance of the permanence of some -matter, which nevertheless in its nature must be most subtile -and volatile. Frequently, when passing at the distance of -half a mile to leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole -air tainted with the effluvium. I believe the smell from the -buck is most powerful at the period when its horns are perfect, -or free from the hairy skin. When in this state the -meat is, of course, quite uneatable; but the Gauchos assert, -that if buried for some time in fresh earth, the taint is -removed. I have somewhere read that the islanders in the -north of Scotland treat the rank carcasses of the fish-eating -birds in the same manner. - -The order Rodentia is here very numerous in species: -of mice alone I obtained no less than eight kinds. [4] The -largest gnawing animal in the world, the Hydrochaerus capybara -(the water-hog), is here also common. One which I -shot at Monte Video weighed ninety-eight pounds: its -length from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail, was -three feet two inches; and its girth three feet eight. These -great Rodents occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth -of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but are far more -abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers. -Near Maldonado three or four generally live together. In -the daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants, or -openly feed on the turf plain. [5] When viewed at a distance, -from their manner of walking and colour they resemble pigs: -but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching -any object with one eye, they reassume the appearance -of their congeners, cavies and rabbits. Both the front and -side view of their head has quite a ludicrous aspect, from -the great depth of their jaw. These animals, at Maldonado, -were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within -three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably -be accounted for, by the Jaguar having been banished for -some years, and by the Gaucho not thinking it worth his -while to hunt them. As I approached nearer and nearer -they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a low -abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising -from the sudden expulsion of air: the only noise I know -at all like it, is the first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having -watched the four from almost within arm's length (and they -me) for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full -gallop with the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the -same time their bark. After diving a short distance they -came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper -part of their heads. When the female is swimming in the -water, and has young ones, they are said to sit on her back. -These animals are easily killed in numbers; but their skins -are of trifling value, and the meat is very indifferent. On -the islands in the Rio Parana they are exceedingly abundant, -and afford the ordinary prey to the Jaguar. - -The Tucutuco (Ctenomys Brasiliensis) is a curious small -animal, which may be briefly described as a Gnawer, with -the habits of a mole. It is extremely numerous in some -parts of the country, but it is difficult to be procured, and -never, I believe, comes out of the ground. It throws up at -the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth like those of the -mole, but smaller. Considerable tracts of country are so -completely undermined by these animals, that horses in passing -over, sink above their fetlocks. The tucutucos appear, -to a certain degree, to be gregarious: the man who procured -the specimens for me had caught six together, and he -said this was a common occurrence. They are nocturnal in -their habits; and their principal food is the roots of plants, -which are the object of their extensive and superficial burrows. -This animal is universally known by a very peculiar -noise which it makes when beneath the ground. A person, -the first time he hears it, is much surprised; for it is not -easy to tell whence it comes, nor is it possible to guess what -kind of creature utters it. The noise consists in a short, but -not rough, nasal grunt, which is monotonously repeated -about four times in quick succession: [6] the name Tucutuco is -given in imitation of the sound. Where this animal is -abundant, it may be heard at all times of the day, and sometimes -directly beneath one's feet. When kept in a room, the -tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily, which appears -owing to the outward action of their hind legs; and they are -quite incapable, from the socket of the thigh-bone not having -a certain ligament, of jumping even the smallest vertical -height. They are very stupid in making any attempt to -escape; when angry or frightened they utter the tucutuco. -Of those I kept alive several, even the first day, became -quite tame, not attempting to bite or to run away; others -were a little wilder. - -The man who caught them asserted that very many are -invariably found blind. A specimen which I preserved in -spirits was in this state; Mr. Reid considers it to be the -effect of inflammation in the nictitating membrane. When the -animal was alive I placed my finger within half an inch of -its head, and not the slightest notice was taken: it made its -way, however, about the room nearly as well as the others. -Considering the strictly subterranean habits of the tucutuco, -the blindness, though so common, cannot be a very serious -evil; yet it appears strange that any animal should possess -an organ frequently subject to be injured. Lamarck would -have been delighted with this fact, had he known it, when -speculating [7] (probably with more truth than usual with him) -on the gradually _acquired_ blindness of the Asphalax, a -Gnawer living under ground, and of the Proteus, a reptile -living in dark caverns filled with water; in both of which -animals the eye is in an almost rudimentary state, and is -covered by a tendinous membrane and skin. In the common -mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect, though -many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true -optic nerve; its vision must certainly be imperfect, though -probably useful to the animal when it leaves its burrow. In -the tucutuco, which I believe never comes to the surface of -the ground, the eye is rather larger, but often rendered blind -and useless, though without apparently causing any inconvenience -to the animal; no doubt Lamarck would have said -that the tucutuco is now passing into the state of the -Asphalax and Proteus. - -Birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating, -grassy plains around Maldonado. There are several -species of a family allied in structure and manners to our -Starling: one of these (Molothrus niger) is remarkable from -its habits. Several may often be seen standing together on -the back of a cow or horse; and while perched on a hedge, -pluming themselves in the sun, they sometimes attempt to -sing, or rather to hiss; the noise being very peculiar, -resembling that of bubbles of air passing rapidly from a small -orifice under water, so as to produce an acute sound. According -to Azara, this bird, like the cuckoo, deposits its eggs -in other birds' nests. I was several times told by the country -people that there certainly is some bird having this -habit; and my assistant in collecting, who is a very accurate -person, found a nest of the sparrow of this country (Zonotrichia -matutina), with one egg in it larger than the others, -and of a different colour and shape. In North America -there is another species of Molothrus (M. pecoris), which -has a similar cuckoo-like habit, and which is most closely -allied in every respect to the species from the Plata, even in -such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of cattle; -it differs only in being a little smaller, and in its plumage -and eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour. This -close agreement in structure and habits, in representative -species coming from opposite quarters of a great continent, -always strikes one as interesting, though of common -occurrence. - -Mr. Swainson has well remarked, [8] that with the exception -of the Molothrus pecoris, to which must be added the -M. niger, the cuckoos are the only birds which can be called -truly parasitical; namely, such as "fasten themselves, as it -were, on another living animal, whose animal heat brings -their young into life, whose food they live upon, and whose -death would cause theirs during the period of infancy." It -is remarkable that some of the species, but not all, both of -the Cuckoo and Molothrus, should agree in this one strange -habit of their parasitical propagation, whilst opposed to each -other in almost every other habit: the molothrus, like our -starling, is eminently sociable, and lives on the open plains -without art or disguise: the cuckoo, as every one knows, -is a singularly shy bird; it frequents the most retired thickets, -and feeds on fruit and caterpillars. In structure also -these two genera are widely removed from each other. -Many theories, even phrenological theories, have been advanced -to explain the origin of the cuckoo laying its eggs in -other birds' nests. M. Prevost alone, I think, has thrown -light by his observations [9] on this puzzle: he finds that the -female cuckoo, which, according to most observers, lays at -least from four to six eggs, must pair with the male each time -after laying only one or two eggs. Now, if the cuckoo was -obliged to sit on her own eggs, she would either have to sit -on all together, and therefore leave those first laid so long, -that they probably would become addled; or she would have -to hatch separately each egg, or two eggs, as soon as laid: -but as the cuckoo stays a shorter time in this country than -any other migratory bird, she certainly would not have time -enough for the successive hatchings. Hence we can perceive -in the fact of the cuckoo pairing several times, and laying -her eggs at intervals, the cause of her depositing her eggs -in other birds' nests, and leaving them to the care of -foster-parents. I am strongly inclined to believe that this -view is correct, from having been independently led (as we -shall hereafter see) to an analogous conclusion with regard -to the South American ostrich, the females of which are -parasitical, if I may so express it, on each other; each -female laying several eggs in the nests of several other -females, and the male ostrich undertaking all the cares -of incubation, like the strange foster-parents with the -cuckoo. - -I will mention only two other birds, which are very common, -and render themselves prominent from their habits. -The Saurophagus sulphuratus is typical of the great American -tribe of tyrant-flycatchers. In its structure it closely -approaches the true shrikes, but in its habits may be compared -to many birds. I have frequently observed it, hunting -a field, hovering over one spot like a hawk, and then proceeding -on to another. When seen thus suspended in the air, -it might very readily at a short distance be mistaken for one -of the Rapacious order; its stoop, however, is very inferior -in force and rapidity to that of a hawk. At other times -the Saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water, and -there, like a kingfisher, remaining stationary, it catches any -small fish which may come near the margin. These birds are -not unfrequently kept either in cages or in courtyards, with -their wings cut. They soon become tame, and are very -amusing from their cunning odd manners, which were -described to me as being similar to those of the common -magpie. Their flight is undulatory, for the weight of the -head and bill appears too great for the body. In the -evening the Saurophagus takes its stand on a bush, often -by the roadside, and continually repeats without a change -a shrill and rather agreeable cry, which somewhat resembles -articulate words: the Spaniards say it is like the words -"Bien te veo" (I see you well), and accordingly have given -it this name. - -A mocking-bird (Mimus orpheus), called by the inhabitants -Calandria, is remarkable, from possessing a song far -superior to that of any other bird in the country: indeed, it -is nearly the only bird in South America which I have -observed to take its stand for the purpose of singing. The -song may be compared to that of the Sedge warbler, but -is more powerful; some harsh notes and some very high -ones, being mingled with a pleasant warbling. It is heard -only during the spring. At other times its cry is harsh and -far from harmonious. Near Maldonado these birds were -tame and bold; they constantly attended the country houses -in numbers, to pick the meat which was hung up on the posts -or walls: if any other small bird joined the feast, the -Calandria soon chased it away. On the wide uninhabited plains -of Patagonia another closely allied species, O. Patagonica -of d'Orbigny, which frequents the valleys clothed with -spiny bushes, is a wilder bird, and has a slightly different -tone of voice. It appears to me a curious circumstance, as -showing the fine shades of difference in habits, that judging -from this latter respect alone, when I first saw this second -species, I thought it was different from the Maldonado kind. -Having afterwards procured a specimen, and comparing the -two without particular care, they appeared so very similar, -that I changed my opinion; but now Mr. Gould says that they -are certainly distinct; a conclusion in conformity with the -trifling difference of habit, of which, of course, he was not -aware. - -The number, tameness, and disgusting habits of the -carrion-feeding hawks of South America make them -pre-eminently striking to any one accustomed only to the birds -of Northern Europe. In this list may be included four species -of the Caracara or Polyborus, the Turkey buzzard, the Gallinazo, -and the Condor. The Caracaras are, from their -structure, placed among the eagles: we shall soon see how -ill they become so high a rank. In their habits they well -supply the place of our carrion-crows, magpies, and ravens; -a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest of the world, -but entirely absent in South America. To begin with the -Polyborus Brasiliensis: this is a common bird, and has a wide -geographical range; it is most numerous on the grassy savannahs -of La Plata (where it goes by the name of Carrancha), -and is far from unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of -Patagonia. In the desert between the rivers Negro and Colorado, -numbers constantly attend the line of road to devour -the carcasses of the exhausted animals which chance to -perish from fatigue and thirst. Although thus common in -these dry and open countries, and likewise on the arid shores -of the Pacific, it is nevertheless found inhabiting the damp -impervious forests of West Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. -The Carranchas, together with the Chimango, constantly -attend in numbers the estancias and slaughtering-houses. If -an animal dies on the plain the Gallinazo commences the -feast, and then the two species of Polyborus pick the bones -clean. These birds, although thus commonly feeding together, -are far from being friends. When the Carrancha is -quietly seated on the branch of a tree or on the ground, the -Chimango often continues for a long time flying backwards -and forwards, up and down, in a semicircle, trying each time -at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger relative. The -Carrancha takes little notice, except by bobbing its head. -Although the Carranchas frequently assemble in numbers, -they are not gregarious; for in desert places they may be -seen solitary, or more commonly by pairs. - -The Carranchas are said to be very crafty, and to steal -great numbers of eggs. They attempt, also, together with -the Chimango, to pick off the scabs from the sore backs of -horses and mules. The poor animal, on the one hand, with -its ears down and its back arched; and, on the other, the -hovering bird, eyeing at the distance of a yard the disgusting -morsel, form a picture, which has been described by Captain -Head with his own peculiar spirit and accuracy. These -false eagles most rarely kill any living bird or animal; and -their vulture-like, necrophagous habits are very evident to -any one who has fallen asleep on the desolate plains of -Patagonia, for when he wakes, he will see, on each surrounding -hillock, one of these birds patiently watching him with an -evil eye: it is a feature in the landscape of these countries, -which will be recognised by every one who has wandered -over them. If a party of men go out hunting with dogs -and horses, they will be accompanied, during the day, by -several of these attendants. After feeding, the uncovered -craw protrudes; at such times, and indeed generally, the -Carrancha is an inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. Its -flight is heavy and slow, like that of an English rook. It -seldom soars; but I have twice seen one at a great height -gliding through the air with much ease. It runs (in -contradistinction to hopping), but not quite so quickly as some -of its congeners. At times the Carrancha is noisy, but is -not generally so: its cry is loud, very harsh and peculiar, and -may be likened to the sound of the Spanish guttural g, followed -by a rough double r r; when uttering this cry it -elevates its head higher and higher, till at last, with its -beak wide open, the crown almost touches the lower part of -the back. This fact, which has been doubted, is quite true; -I have seen them several times with their heads backwards -in a completely inverted position. To these observations I -may add, on the high authority of Azara, that the Carrancha -feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grasshoppers, and frogs; that -it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord; and -that it pursues the Gallinazo, till that bird is compelled to -vomit up the carrion it may have recently gorged. Lastly, -Azara states that several Carranchas, five or six together, -will unite in chase of large birds, even such as herons. All -these facts show that it is a bird of very versatile habits and -considerable ingenuity. - -The Polyborus Chimango is considerably smaller than the -last species. It is truly omnivorous, and will eat even bread; -and I was assured that it materially injures the potato crops -in Chiloe, by stocking up the roots when first planted. Of -all the carrion-feeders it is generally the last which leaves -the skeleton of a dead animal, and may often be seen within -the ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a cage. Another -species is the Polyborus Novae Zelandiae, which is exceedingly -common in the Falkland Islands. These birds in many -respects resemble in their habits the Carranchas. They live -on the flesh of dead animals and on marine productions; and -on the Ramirez rocks their whole sustenance must depend -on the sea. They are extraordinarily tame and fearless, and -haunt the neighborhood of houses for offal. If a hunting -party kills an animal, a number soon collect and patiently -await, standing on the ground on all sides. After eating, -their uncovered craws are largely protruded, giving them a -disgusting appearance. They readily attack wounded birds: -a cormorant in this state having taken to the shore, was -immediately seized on by several, and its death hastened -by their blows. The Beagle was at the Falklands only -during the summer, but the officers of the Adventure, who -were there in the winter, mention many extraordinary instances -of the boldness and rapacity of these birds. They -actually pounced on a dog that was lying fast asleep close -by one of the party; and the sportsmen had difficulty in -preventing the wounded geese from being seized before their -eyes. It is said that several together (in this respect -resembling the Carranchas) wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, -and together seize on the animal when it comes out. They -were constantly flying on board the vessel when in the harbour; -and it was necessary to keep a good look out to prevent -the leather being torn from the rigging, and the meat or -game from the stern. These birds are very mischievous and -inquisitive; they will pick up almost anything from the -ground; a large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, -as was a pair of the heavy balls used in catching cattle. Mr. -Usborne experienced during the survey a more severe loss, -in their stealing a small Kater's compass in a red morocco -leather case, which was never recovered. These birds are, -moreover, quarrelsome and very passionate; tearing up the -grass with their bills from rage. They are not truly gregarious; -they do not soar, and their flight is heavy and clumsy; -on the ground they run extremely fast, very much like -pheasants. They are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one -of which is like that of the English rook, hence the sealers -always call them rooks. It is a curious circumstance that, -when crying out, they throw their heads upwards and backwards, -after the same manner as the Carrancha. They build -in the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast, but only on the small -adjoining islets, and not on the two main islands: this is a -singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. The sealers -say that the flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite -white, and very good eating; but bold must the man be who -attempts such a meal. - -We have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard (Vultur -aura), and the Gallinazo. The former is found wherever -the country is moderately damp, from Cape Horn to North -America. Differently from the Polyborus Brasiliensis and -Chimango, it has found its way to the Falkland Islands. The -turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at most goes in pairs. It -may at once be recognised from a long distance, by its lofty, -soaring, and most elegant flight. It is well known to be a -true carrion-feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, among -the thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively -on what the sea throws up, and on the carcasses of dead -seals. Wherever these animals are congregated on the rocks, -there the vultures may be seen. The Gallinazo (Cathartes -atratus) has a different range from the last species, as it -never occurs southward of lat. 41 degs. Azara states that -there exists a tradition that these birds, at the time of the -conquest, were not found near Monte Video, but that they -subsequently followed the inhabitants from more northern -districts. At the present day they are numerous in the valley -of the Colorado, which is three hundred miles due south of Monte -Video. It seems probable that this additional migration has -happened since the time of Azara. The Gallinazo generally -prefers a humid climate, or rather the neighbourhood of -fresh water; hence it is extremely abundant in Brazil and -La Plata, while it is never found on the desert and arid -plains of Northern Patagonia, excepting near some stream. -These birds frequent the whole Pampas to the foot of the -Cordillera, but I never saw or heard of one in Chile; in Peru -they are preserved as scavengers. These vultures certainly -may be called gregarious, for they seem to have pleasure in -society, and are not solely brought together by the attraction -of a common prey. On a fine day a flock may often be -observed at a great height, each bird wheeling round and -round without closing its wings, in the most graceful -evolutions. This is clearly performed for the mere pleasure of -the exercise, or perhaps is connected with their matrimonial -alliances. - -I have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders, excepting -the condor, an account of which will be more appropriately -introduced when we visit a country more congenial to its -habits than the plains of La Plata. - - -In a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the -Laguna del Potrero from the shores of the Plata, at the -distance of a few miles from Maldonado, I found a group of -those vitrified, siliceous tubes, which are formed by lightning -entering loose sand. These tubes resemble in every particular -those from Drigg in Cumberland, described in the -Geological Transactions. [10] The sand-hillocks of Maldonado -not being protected by vegetation, are constantly changing -their position. From this cause the tubes projected above -the surface, and numerous fragments lying near, showed -that they had formerly been buried to a greater depth. Four -sets entered the sand perpendicularly: by working with -my hands I traced one of them two feet deep; and some -fragments which evidently had belonged to the same tube, -when added to the other part, measured five feet three -inches. The diameter of the whole tube was nearly equal, -and therefore we must suppose that originally it extended to -a much greater depth. These dimensions are however small, -compared to those of the tubes from Drigg, one of which -was traced to a depth of not less than thirty feet. - -The internal surface is completely vitrified, glossy, and -smooth. A small fragment examined under the microscope -appeared, from the number of minute entangled air or perhaps -steam bubbles, like an assay fused before the blowpipe. -The sand is entirely, or in greater part, siliceous; but some -points are of a black colour, and from their glossy surface -possess a metallic lustre. The thickness of the wall of the -tube varies from a thirtieth to a twentieth of an inch, and -occasionally even equals a tenth. On the outside the grains -of sand are rounded, and have a slightly glazed appearance: -I could not distinguish any signs of crystallization. In a -similar manner to that described in the Geological Transactions, -the tubes are generally compressed, and have deep -longitudinal furrows, so as closely to resemble a shrivelled -vegetable stalk, or the bark of the elm or cork tree. Their -circumference is about two inches, but in some fragments, -which are cylindrical and without any furrows, it is as much -as four inches. The compression from the surrounding loose -sand, acting while the tube was still softened from the -effects of the intense heat, has evidently caused the creases -or furrows. Judging from the uncompressed fragments, the -measure or bore of the lightning (if such a term may be used) -must have been about one inch and a quarter. At Paris, M. -Hachette and M. Beudant [11] succeeded in making tubes, in -most respects similar to these fulgurites, by passing very -strong shocks of galvanism through finely-powdered glass: -when salt was added, so as to increase its fusibility, the tubes -were larger in every dimension, They failed both with -powdered felspar and quartz. One tube, formed with -pounded glass, was very nearly an inch long, namely .982, -and had an internal diameter of .019 of an inch. When we -hear that the strongest battery in Paris was used, and that -its power on a substance of such easy fusibility as glass was -to form tubes so diminutive, we must feel greatly astonished -at the force of a shock of lightning, which, striking the sand -in several places, has formed cylinders, in one instance of at -least thirty feet long, and having an internal bore, where not -compressed, of full an inch and a half; and this in a material -so extraordinarily refractory as quartz! - -The tubes, as I have already remarked, enter the sand -nearly in a vertical direction. One, however, which was less -regular than the others, deviated from a right line, at the -most considerable bend, to the amount of thirty-three degrees. -From this same tube, two small branches, about a -foot apart, were sent off; one pointed downwards, and the -other upwards. This latter case is remarkable, as the electric -fluid must have turned back at the acute angle of 26 degs., -to the line of its main course. Besides the four tubes which -I found vertical, and traced beneath the surface, there were -several other groups of fragments, the original sites of which -without doubt were near. All occurred in a level area of -shifting sand, sixty yards by twenty, situated among some -high sand-hillocks, and at the distance of about half a mile -from a chain of hills four or five hundred feet in height. The -most remarkable circumstance, as it appears to me, in this -case as well as in that of Drigg, and in one described by -M. Ribbentrop in Germany, is the number of tubes found -within such limited spaces. At Drigg, within an area of -fifteen yards, three were observed, and the same number -occurred in Germany. In the case which I have described, -certainly more than four existed within the space of the -sixty by twenty yards. As it does not appear probable that -the tubes are produced by successive distinct shocks, we must -believe that the lightning, shortly before entering the ground, -divides itself into separate branches. - -The neighbourhood of the Rio Plata seems peculiarly subject -to electric phenomena. In the year 1793, [12] one of the -most destructive thunderstorms perhaps on record happened -at Buenos Ayres: thirty-seven places within the city were -struck by lightning, and nineteen people killed. From facts -stated in several books of travels, I am inclined to suspect -that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of -great rivers. Is it not possible that the mixture of large -bodies of fresh and salt water may disturb the electrical -equilibrium? Even during our occasional visits to this part -of South America, we heard of a ship, two churches, and a -house having been struck. Both the church and the house -I saw shortly afterwards: the house belonged to Mr. Hood, -the consul-general at Monte Video. Some of the effects were -curious: the paper, for nearly a foot on each side of the line -where the bell-wires had run, was blackened. The metal had -been fused, and although the room was about fifteen feet -high, the globules, dropping on the chairs and furniture, had -drilled in them a chain of minute holes. A part of the wall -was shattered, as if by gunpowder, and the fragments had -been blown off with force sufficient to dent the wall on the -opposite side of the room. The frame of a looking-glass was -blackened, and the gilding must have been volatilized, for a -smelling-bottle, which stood on the chimney-piece, was coated -with bright metallic particles, which adhered as firmly as -if they had been enamelled. - -[1] Hearne's Journey, p. 383. - -[2] Maclaren, art. "America," Encyclop. Brittann. - -[3] Azara says, "Je crois que la quantite annuelle des pluies -est, dans toutes ces contrees, plus considerable qu'en Espagne." --- Vol. i. p. 36. - -[4] In South America I collected altogether twenty-seven -species of mice, and thirteen more are known from the works -of Azara and other authors. Those collected by myself have -been named and described by Mr. Waterhouse at the meetings -of the Zoological Society. I must be allowed to take this -opportunity of returning my cordial thanks to Mr. Waterhouse, -and to the other gentleman attached to that Society, for their -kind and most liberal assistance on all occasions. - -[5] In the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which I opened -I found a very large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid, -in which scarcely a fibre could be distinguished. Mr. Owen -informs me that a part of the oesophagus is so constructed -that nothing much larger than a crowquill can be passed down. -Certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this animal are -well fitted to grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which it -feeds. - -[6] At the R. Negro, in Northern Patagonia, there is an animal -of the same habits, and probably a closely allied species, but -which I never saw. Its noise is different from that of the -Maldonado kind; it is repeated only twice instead of three or -four times, and is more distinct and sonorous; when heard from -a distance it so closely resembles the sound made in cutting -down a small tree with an axe, that I have sometimes remained -in doubt concerning it. - -[7] Philosoph. Zoolog., tom. i. p. 242. - -[8] Magazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 217. - -[9] Read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. L'Institut, -1834, p. 418. - -[10] Geolog. Transact. vol. ii. p. 528. In the Philosoph. -Transact. (1790, p. 294) Dr. Priestly has described some -imperfect siliceous tubes and a melted pebble of quartz, -found in digging into the ground, under a tree, where a man -had been killed by lightning. - -[11] Annals de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxxvii. p. 319. - -[12] Azara's Voyage, vol. i. p. 36. - - - -CHAPTER IV - -RIO NEGRO TO BAHIA BLANCA - -Rio Negro -- Estancias attacked by the Indians -- Salt-Lakes -- -Flamingoes -- R. Negro to R. Colorado -- Sacred Tree -- -Patagonian Hare -- Indian Families -- General Rosas -- -Proceed to Bahia Blanca -- Sand Dunes -- Negro Lieutenant -- -Bahia Blanca -- Saline Incrustations -- Punta Alta -- Zorillo. - - -JULY 24th, 1833. -- The Beagle sailed from Maldonado, -and on August the 3rd she arrived off the mouth of the -Rio Negro. This is the principal river on the whole line -of coast between the Strait of Magellan and the Plata. It -enters the sea about three hundred miles south of the estuary -of the Plata. About fifty years ago, under the old Spanish -government, a small colony was established here; and it is -still the most southern position (lat. 41 degs.) on this -eastern coast of America inhabited by civilized man. - -The country near the mouth of the river is wretched in -the extreme: on the south side a long line of perpendicular -cliffs commences, which exposes a section of the geological -nature of the country. The strata are of sandstone, and -one layer was remarkable from being composed of a firmly- -cemented conglomerate of pumice pebbles, which must have -travelled more than four hundred miles, from the Andes. -The surface is everywhere covered up by a thick bed of -gravel, which extends far and wide over the open plain. -Water is extremely scarce, and, where found, is almost -invariably brackish. The vegetation is scanty; and although -there are bushes of many kinds, all are armed with formidable -thorns, which seem to warn the stranger not to enter on -these inhospitable regions. - -The settlement is situated eighteen miles up the river. -The road follows the foot of the sloping cliff, which forms -the northern boundary of the great valley, in which the Rio -Negro flows. On the way we passed the ruins of some fine -"estancias," which a few years since had been destroyed by -the Indians. They withstood several attacks. A man present -at one gave me a very lively description of what took place. -The inhabitants had sufficient notice to drive all the cattle -and horses into the "corral" [1] which surrounded the house, -and likewise to mount some small cannon. The Indians were -Araucanians from the south of Chile; several hundreds in -number, and highly disciplined. They first appeared in two -bodies on a neighbouring hill; having there dismounted, and -taken off their fur mantles, they advanced naked to the -charge. The only weapon of an Indian is a very long bamboo -or chuzo, ornamented with ostrich feathers, and pointed -by a sharp spearhead. My informer seemed to remember -with the greatest horror the quivering of these chuzos as they -approached near. When close, the cacique Pincheira hailed -the besieged to give up their arms, or he would cut all their -throats. As this would probably have been the result of -their entrance under any circumstances, the answer was -given by a volley of musketry. The Indians, with great -steadiness, came to the very fence of the corral: but to their -surprise they found the posts fastened together by iron nails -instead of leather thongs, and, of course, in vain attempted -to cut them with their knives. This saved the lives of the -Christians: many of the wounded Indians were carried away -by their companions, and at last, one of the under caciques -being wounded, the bugle sounded a retreat. They retired to -their horses, and seemed to hold a council of war. This was -an awful pause for the Spaniards, as all their ammunition, -with the exception of a few cartridges, was expended. In -an instant the Indians mounted their horses, and galloped -out of sight. Another attack was still more quickly repulsed. -A cool Frenchman managed the gun; he stopped till the -Indians approached close, and then raked their line with -grape-shot: he thus laid thirty-nine of them on the ground; -and, of course, such a blow immediately routed the whole -party. - -The town is indifferently called El Carmen or Patagones. -It is built on the face of a cliff which fronts the river, and -many of the houses are excavated even in the sandstone. -The river is about two or three hundred yards wide, and is -deep and rapid. The many islands, with their willow-trees, -and the flat headlands, seen one behind the other on the -northern boundary of the broad green valley, form, by the -aid of a bright sun, a view almost picturesque. The number -of inhabitants does not exceed a few hundreds. These Spanish -colonies do not, like our British ones, carry within themselves -the elements of growth. Many Indians of pure blood -reside here: the tribe of the Cacique Lucanee constantly have -their Toldos [2] on the outskirts of the town. The local -government partly supplies them with provisions, by giving them -all the old worn-out horses, and they earn a little by making -horse-rugs and other articles of riding-gear. These Indians -are considered civilized; but what their character may have -gained by a lesser degree of ferocity, is almost counterbalanced -by their entire immorality. Some of the younger men -are, however, improving; they are willing to labour, and a -short time since a party went on a sealing-voyage, and behaved -very well. They were now enjoying the fruits of their -labour, by being dressed in very gay, clean clothes, and by -being very idle. The taste they showed in their dress was -admirable; if you could have turned one of these young -Indians into a statue of bronze, his drapery would have been -perfectly graceful. - -One day I rode to a large salt-lake, or Salina, which is -distant fifteen miles from the town. During the winter it -consists of a shallow lake of brine, which in summer is -converted into a field of snow-white salt. The layer near the -margin is from four to five inches thick, but towards the -centre its thickness increases. This lake was two and a half -miles long, and one broad. Others occur in the neighbourhood -many times larger, and with a floor of salt, two and -three feet in thickness, even when under water during the -winter. One of these brilliantly white and level expanses -in the midst of the brown and desolate plain, offers an -extraordinary spectacle. A large quantity of salt is annually -drawn from the salina: and great piles, some hundred -tons in weight, were lying ready for exportation. The season -for working the salinas forms the harvest of Patagones; for -on it the prosperity of the place depends. Nearly the whole -population encamps on the bank of the river, and the people -are employed in drawing out the salt in bullock-waggons, -This salt is crystallized in great cubes, and is remarkably -pure: Mr. Trenham Reeks has kindly analyzed some for me, -and he finds in it only 0.26 of gypsum and 0.22 of earthy -matter. It is a singular fact, that it does not serve so well -for preserving meat as sea-salt from the Cape de Verd -islands; and a merchant at Buenos Ayres told me that he -considered it as fifty per cent. less valuable. Hence the -Cape de Verd salt is constantly imported, and is mixed with -that from these salinas. The purity of the Patagonian salt, -or absence from it of those other saline bodies found in all -sea-water, is the only assignable cause for this inferiority: -a conclusion which no one, I think, would have suspected, -but which is supported by the fact lately ascertained, [3] -that those salts answer best for preserving cheese which -contain most of the deliquescent chlorides. - -The border of this lake is formed of mud: and in this -numerous large crystals of gypsum, some of which are three -inches long, lie embedded; whilst on the surface others of -sulphate of soda lie scattered about. The Gauchos call the -former the "Padre del sal," and the latter the "Madre;" -they state that these progenitive salts always occur on the -borders of the salinas, when the water begins to evaporate. -The mud is black, and has a fetid odour. I could not at first -imagine the cause of this, but I afterwards perceived that the -froth which the wind drifted on shore was coloured green, -as if by confervae; I attempted to carry home some of this -green matter, but from an accident failed. Parts of the lake -seen from a short distance appeared of a reddish colour, and -this perhaps was owing to some infusorial animalcula. The -mud in many places was thrown up by numbers of some kind -of worm, or annelidous animal. How surprising it is that -any creatures should be able to exist in brine, and that they -should be crawling among crystals of sulphate of soda and -lime! And what becomes of these worms when, during the -long summer, the surface is hardened into a solid layer of -salt? Flamingoes in considerable numbers inhabit this lake, -and breed here, throughout Patagonia, in Northern Chile, -and at the Galapagos Islands, I met with these birds wherever -there were lakes of brine. I saw them here wading -about in search of food -- probably for the worms which burrow -in the mud; and these latter probably feed on infusoria or -confervae. Thus we have a little living world within itself -adapted to these inland lakes of brine. A minute crustaceous -animal (Cancer salinus) is said [4] to live in countless numbers -in the brine-pans at Lymington: but only in those in which -the fluid has attained, from evaporation, considerable -strength -- namely, about a quarter of a pound of salt to a -pint of water. Well may we affirm that every part of the -world is habitable! Whether lakes of brine, or those -subterranean ones hidden beneath volcanic mountains -- warm -mineral springs -- the wide expanse and depths of the ocean - -- the upper regions of the atmosphere, and even the surface -of perpetual snow -- all support organic beings. - - -To the northward of the Rio Negro, between it and the -inhabited country near Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards have -only one small settlement, recently established at Bahia -Blanca. The distance in a straight line to Buenos Ayres is -very nearly five hundred British miles. The wandering -tribes of horse Indians, which have always occupied the -greater part of this country, having of late much harassed -the outlying estancias, the government at Buenos Ayres -equipped some time since an army under the command of -General Rosas for the purpose of exterminating them. The -troops were now encamped on the banks of the Colorado; -a river lying about eighty miles northward of the Rio Negro -When General Rosas left Buenos Ayres he struck in a direct -line across the unexplored plains: and as the country was -thus pretty well cleared of Indians, he left behind him, at -wide intervals, a small party of soldiers with a troop of -horses (a posta), so as to be enabled to keep up a communication -with the capital. As the Beagle intended to call at -Bahia Blanca, I determined to proceed there by land; and -ultimately I extended my plan to travel the whole way by -the postas to Buenos Ayres. - -August 11th. -- Mr. Harris, an Englishman residing at -Patagones, a guide, and five Gauchos who were proceeding -to the army on business, were my companions on the journey. -The Colorado, as I have already said, is nearly eighty -miles distant: and as we travelled slowly, we were two days -and a half on the road. The whole line of country deserves -scarcely a better name than that of a desert. Water is found -only in two small wells; it is called fresh; but even at this -time of the year, during the rainy season, it was quite brackish. -In the summer this must be a distressing passage; for -now it was sufficiently desolate. The valley of the Rio -Negro, broad as it is, has merely been excavated out of the -sandstone plain; for immediately above the bank on which -the town stands, a level country commences, which is interrupted -only by a few trifling valleys and depressions. Everywhere -the landscape wears the same sterile aspect; a dry -gravelly soil supports tufts of brown withered grass, and -low scattered bushes, armed with thorns. - -Shortly after passing the first spring we came in sight of -a famous tree, which the Indians reverence as the altar of -Walleechu. It is situated on a high part of the plain; and -hence is a landmark visible at a great distance. As soon as a -tribe of Indians come in sight of it, they offer their adorations -by loud shouts. The tree itself is low, much branched, -and thorny: just above the root it has a diameter of about -three feet. It stands by itself without any neighbour, and -was indeed the first tree we saw; afterwards we met with a -few others of the same kind, but they were far from common. -Being winter the tree had no leaves, but in their place -numberless threads, by which the various offerings, such as -cigars, bread, meat, pieces of cloth, etc., had been suspended. -Poor Indians, not having anything better, only pull a thread -out of their ponchos, and fasten it to the tree. Richer -Indians are accustomed to pour spirits and mate into a certain -hole, and likewise to smoke upwards, thinking thus to -afford all possible gratification to Walleechu. To complete -the scene, the tree was surrounded by the bleached bones -of horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices. All -Indians of every age and sex make their offerings; they then -think that their horses will not tire, and that they themselves -shall be prosperous. The Gaucho who told me this, said that -in the time of peace he had witnessed this scene, and that -he and others used to wait till the Indians had passed by, for -the sake of stealing from Walleechu the offerings. - -The Gauchos think that the Indians consider the tree as -the god itself, but it seems for more probable that they -regard it as the altar. The only cause which I can imagine -for this choice, is its being a landmark in a dangerous passage. -The Sierra de la Ventana is visible at an immense -distance; and a Gaucho told me that he was once riding with -an Indian a few miles to the north of the Rio Colorado -when the Indian commenced making the same loud noise -which is usual at the first sight of the distant tree, putting -his hand to his head, and then pointing in the direction of the -Sierra. Upon being asked the reason of this, the Indian said -in broken Spanish, "First see the Sierra." About two -leagues beyond this curious tree we halted for the night: at -this instant an unfortunate cow was spied by the lynx-eyed -Gauchos, who set off in full chase, and in a few minutes -dragged her in with their lazos, and slaughtered her. We -here had the four necessaries of life "en el campo," -- pasture -for the horses, water (only a muddy puddle), meat and -firewood. The Gauchos were in high spirits at finding all -these luxuries; and we soon set to work at the poor cow. This -was the first night which I passed under the open sky, with -the gear of the recado for my bed. There is high enjoyment -in the independence of the Gaucho life -- to be able at any -moment to pull up your horse, and say, "Here we will pass -the night." The death-like stillness of the plain, the dogs -keeping watch, the gipsy-group of Gauchos making their -beds round the fire, have left in my mind a strongly-marked -picture of this first night, which will never be forgotten. - -The next day the country continued similar to that above -described. It is inhabited by few birds or animals of any -kind. Occasionally a deer, or a Guanaco (wild Llama) may -be seen; but the Agouti (Cavia Patagonica) is the commonest -quadruped. This animal here represents our hares. It -differs, however, from that genus in many essential respects; -for instance, it has only three toes behind. It is also nearly -twice the size, weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds. -The Agouti is a true friend of the desert; it is a common -feature of the landscape to see two or three hopping quickly -one after the other in a straight line across these wild plains. -They are found as far north as the Sierra Tapalguen (lat. -37 degs. 30'), where the plain rather suddenly becomes greener -and more humid; and their southern limit is between Port -Desire and St. Julian, where there is no change in the nature -of the country. It is a singular fact, that although the -Agouti is not now found as far south as Port St. Julian, yet -that Captain Wood, in his voyage in 1670, talks of them as -being numerous there. What cause can have altered, in a -wide, uninhabited, and rarely-visited country, the range of -an animal like this? It appears also, from the number shot -by Captain Wood in one day at Port Desire, that they must -have been considerably more abundant there formerly than -at present. Where the Bizcacha lives and makes its burrows, -the Agouti uses them; but where, as at Bahia Blanca, the -Bizcacha is not found, the Agouti burrows for itself. The -same thing occurs with the little owl of the Pampas (Athene -cunicularia), which has so often been described as standing -like a sentinel at the mouth of the burrows; for in Banda -Oriental, owing to the absence of the Bizcacha, it is obliged -to hollow out its own habitation. - -The next morning, as we approached the Rio Colorado, -the appearance of the country changed; we soon came on a -plain covered with turf, which, from its flowers, tall clover, -and little owls, resembled the Pampas. We passed also a -muddy swamp of considerable extent, which in summer dries, -and becomes incrusted with various salts; and hence is called -a salitral. It was covered by low succulent plants, of the -same kind with those growing on the sea-shore. The Colorado, -at the pass where we crossed it, is only about sixty -yards wide; generally it must be nearly double that width. -Its course is very tortuous, being marked by willow-trees -and beds of reeds: in a direct line the distance to the mouth -of the river is said to be nine leagues, but by water -twenty-five. We were delayed crossing in the canoe by some -immense troops of mares, which were swimming the river in -order to follow a division of troops into the interior. A -more ludicrous spectacle I never beheld than the hundreds -and hundreds of heads, all directed one way, with pointed -ears and distended snorting nostrils, appearing just above -the water like a great shoal of some amphibious animal. -Mare's flesh is the only food which the soldiers have when -on an expedition. This gives them a great facility of movement; -for the distance to which horses can be driven over -these plains is quite surprising: I have been assured that an -unloaded horse can travel a hundred miles a day for many -days successively. - -The encampment of General Rosas was close to the river. -It consisted of a square formed by waggons, artillery, straw -huts, etc. The soldiers were nearly all cavalry; and I should -think such a villainous, banditti-like army was never before -collected together. The greater number of men were of a -mixed breed, between Negro, Indian, and Spaniard. I know -not the reason, but men of such origin seldom have a good -expression of countenance. I called on the Secretary to show -my passport. He began to cross-question me in the most -dignified and mysterious manner. By good luck I had a -letter of recommendation from the government of Buenos -Ayres [5] to the commandant of Patagones. This was taken -to General Rosas, who sent me a very obliging message; and -the Secretary returned all smiles and graciousness. We took -up our residence in the _rancho_, or hovel, of a curious old -Spaniard, who had served with Napoleon in the expedition -against Russia. - -We stayed two days at the Colorado; I had little to do, -for the surrounding country was a swamp, which in summer -(December), when the snow melts on the Cordillera, is over- -flowed by the river. My chief amusement was watching the -Indian families as they came to buy little articles at the -rancho where we stayed. It was supposed that General -Rosas had about six hundred Indian allies. The men were -a tall, fine race, yet it was afterwards easy to see in the -Fuegian savage the same countenance rendered hideous by -cold, want of food, and less civilization. Some authors, -in defining the primary races of mankind, have separated -these Indians into two classes; but this is certainly -incorrect. Among the young women or chinas, some deserve to -be called even beautiful. Their hair was coarse, but bright -and black; and they wore it in two plaits hanging down -to the waist. They had a high colour, and eyes that -glistened with brilliancy; their legs, feet, and arms were -small and elegantly formed; their ankles, and sometimes -their wrists, were ornamented by broad bracelets of blue -beads. Nothing could be more interesting than some of the -family groups. A mother with one or two daughters would -often come to our rancho, mounted on the same horse. They -ride like men, but with their knees tucked up much higher. -This habit, perhaps, arises from their being accustomed, -when travelling, to ride the loaded horses. The duty of the -women is to load and unload the horses; to make the tents -for the night; in short to be, like the wives of all savages, -useful slaves. The men fight, hunt, take care of the horses, -and make the riding gear. One of their chief indoor occupations -is to knock two stones together till they become round, -in order to make the bolas. With this important weapon the -Indian catches his game, and also his horse, which roams -free over the plain. In fighting, his first attempt is to throw -down the horse of his adversary with the bolas, and when -entangled by the fall to kill him with the chuzo. If the balls -only catch the neck or body of an animal, they are often -carried away and lost. As the making the stones round is -the labour of two days, the manufacture of the balls is a -very common employment. Several of the men and women -had their faces painted red, but I never saw the horizontal -bands which are so common among the Fuegians. Their -chief pride consists in having everything made of silver; I -have seen a cacique with his spurs, stirrups, handle of his -knife, and bridle made of this metal: the head-stall and reins -being of wire, were not thicker than whipcord; and to see a -fiery steed wheeling about under the command of so light -a chain, gave to the horsemanship a remarkable character of -elegance. - -General Rosas intimated a wish to see me; a circumstance -which I was afterwards very glad of. He is a man of an -extraordinary character, and has a most predominant influence -in the country, which it seems he will use to its prosperity -and advancement. [6] He is said to be the owner of -seventy-four square leagues of land, and to have about three -hundred thousand head of cattle. His estates are admirably -managed, and are far more productive of corn than those of -others. He first gained his celebrity by his laws for his own -estancias, and by disciplining several hundred men, so as to -resist with success the attacks of the Indians. There are -many stories current about the rigid manner in which his -laws were enforced. One of these was, that no man, on -penalty of being put into the stocks, should carry his knife -on a Sunday: this being the principal day for gambling and -drinking, many quarrels arose, which from the general manner -of fighting with the knife often proved fatal. One -Sunday the Governor came in great form to pay the estancia -a visit, and General Rosas, in his hurry, walked out to receive -him with his knife, as usual, stuck in his belt. The steward -touched his arm, and reminded him of the law; upon which -turning to the Governor, he said he was extremely sorry, but -that he must go into the stocks, and that till let out, he -possessed no power even in his own house. After a little time -the steward was persuaded to open the stocks, and to let -him out, but no sooner was this done, than he turned to the -steward and said, "You now have broken the laws, so you -must take my place in the stocks." Such actions as these -delighted the Gauchos, who all possess high notions of their -own equality and dignity. - -General Rosas is also a perfect horseman -- an accomplishment -of no small consequence In a country where an assembled -army elected its general by the following trial: A troop -of unbroken horses being driven into a corral, were let out -through a gateway, above which was a cross-bar: it was -agreed whoever should drop from the bar on one of these -wild animals, as it rushed out, and should be able, without -saddle or bridle, not only to ride it, but also to bring it back -to the door of the corral, should be their general. The person -who succeeded was accordingly elected; and doubtless -made a fit general for such an army. This extraordinary -feat has also been performed by Rosas. - -By these means, and by conforming to the dress and habits -of the Gauchos, he has obtained an unbounded popularity in -the country, and in consequence a despotic power. I was -assured by an English merchant, that a man who had murdered -another, when arrested and questioned concerning his -motive, answered, "He spoke disrespectfully of General -Rosas, so I killed him." At the end of a week the murderer -was at liberty. This doubtless was the act of the general's -party, and not of the general himself. - -In conversation he is enthusiastic, sensible, and very -grave. His gravity is carried to a high pitch: I heard one -of his mad buffoons (for he keeps two, like the barons of -old) relate the following anecdote. "I wanted very much to -hear a certain piece of music, so I went to the general two -or three times to ask him; he said to me, 'Go about your -business, for I am engaged.' I went a second time; he said, -'If you come again I will punish you.' A third time I -asked, and he laughed. I rushed out of the tent, but it was -too late -- he ordered two soldiers to catch and stake me. I -begged by all the saints in heaven he would let me off; but it -would not do, -- when the general laughs he spares neither -mad man nor sound." The poor flighty gentleman looked quite -dolorous, at the very recollection of the staking. This is a -very severe punishment; four posts are driven into the -ground, and the man is extended by his arms and legs -horizontally, and there left to stretch for several hours. -The idea is evidently taken from the usual method of drying -hides. My interview passed away, without a smile, and I -obtained a passport and order for the government post-horses, -and this he gave me in the most obliging and ready -manner. - -In the morning we started for Bahia Blanca, which we -reached in two days. Leaving the regular encampment, we -passed by the toldos of the Indians. These are round like -ovens, and covered with hides; by the mouth of each, a tapering -chuzo was stuck in the ground. The toldos were divided -into separate groups, which belong to the different caciques' -tribes, and the groups were again divided into smaller ones, -according to the relationship of the owners. For several -miles we travelled along the valley of the Colorado. The -alluvial plains on the side appeared fertile, and it is supposed -that they are well adapted to the growth of corn. Turning -northward from the river, we soon entered on a country, differing -from the plains south of the river. The land still continued -dry and sterile: but it supported many different kinds -of plants, and the grass, though brown and withered, was -more abundant, as the thorny bushes were less so. These -latter in a short space entirely disappeared, and the plains -were left without a thicket to cover their nakedness. This -change in the vegetation marks the commencement of the -grand calcareo argillaceous deposit, which forms the wide -extent of the Pampas, and covers the granitic rocks of Banda -Oriental. From the Strait of Magellan to the Colorado, a -distance of about eight hundred miles, the face of the country -is everywhere composed of shingle: the pebbles are -chiefly of porphyry, and probably owe their origin to the -rocks of the Cordillera. North of the Colorado this bed -thins out, and the pebbles become exceedingly small, and -here the characteristic vegetation of Patagonia ceases. - -Having ridden about twenty-five miles, we came to a -broad belt of sand-dunes, which stretches, as far as the eye -can reach, to the east and west. The sand-hillocks resting -on the clay, allow small pools of water to collect, and thus -afford in this dry country an invaluable supply of fresh -water. The great advantage arising from depressions and -elevations of the soil, is not often brought home to the mind. -The two miserable springs in the long passage between the -Rio Negro and Colorado were caused by trifling inequalities -in the plain, without them not a drop of water would have -been found. The belt of sand-dunes is about eight miles -wide; at some former period, it probably formed the margin -of a grand estuary, where the Colorado now flows. In this -district, where absolute proofs of the recent elevation of -the land occur, such speculations can hardly be neglected by -any one, although merely considering the physical geography -of the country. Having crossed the sandy tract, we arrived -in the evening at one of the post-houses; and, as the fresh -horses were grazing at a distance we determined to pass -the night there. - -The house was situated at the base of a ridge between -one and two hundred feet high -- a most remarkable feature -in this country. This posta was commanded by a negro -lieutenant, born in Africa: to his credit be it said, there -was not a ranche between the Colorado and Buenos Ayres in -nearly such neat order as his. He had a little room for -strangers, and a small corral for the horses, all made of -sticks and reeds; he had also dug a ditch round his house -as a defence in case of being attacked. This would, however, -have been of little avail, if the Indians had come; but -his chief comfort seemed to rest in the thought of selling -his life dearly. A short time before, a body of Indians had -travelled past in the night; if they had been aware of the -posta, our black friend and his four soldiers would assuredly -have been slaughtered. I did not anywhere meet a more -civil and obliging man than this negro; it was therefore -the more painful to see that he would not sit down and eat -with us. - -In the morning we sent for the horses very early, and -started for another exhilarating gallop. We passed the -Cabeza del Buey, an old name given to the head of a large -marsh, which extends from Bahia Blanca. Here we changed -horses, and passed through some leagues of swamps and -saline marshes. Changing horses for the last time, we again -began wading through the mud. My animal fell and I was -well soused in black mire -- a very disagreeable accident -when one does not possess a change of clothes. Some miles -from the fort we met a man, who told us that a great gun -had been fired, which is a signal that Indians are near. We -immediately left the road, and followed the edge of a marsh, -which when chased offers the best mode of escape. We -were glad to arrive within the walls, when we found all the -alarm was about nothing, for the Indians turned out to be -friendly ones, who wished to join General Rosas. - -Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village. A -few houses and the barracks for the troops are enclosed by -a deep ditch and fortified wall. The settlement is only of -recent standing (since 1828); and its growth has been one of -trouble. The government of Buenos Ayres unjustly occupied -it by force, instead of following the wise example of the -Spanish Viceroys, who purchased the land near the older -settlement of the Rio Negro, from the Indians. Hence the -need of the fortifications; hence the few houses and little -cultivated land without the limits of the walls; even the -cattle are not safe from the attacks of the Indians beyond -the boundaries of the plain, on which the fortress stands. - -The part of the harbour where the Beagle intended to -anchor being distant twenty-five miles, I obtained from the -Commandant a guide and horses, to take me to see whether -she had arrived. Leaving the plain of green turf, which -extended along the course of a little brook, we soon entered -on a wide level waste consisting either of sand, saline -marshes, or bare mud. Some parts were clothed by low -thickets, and others with those succulent plants, which -luxuriate only where salt abounds. Bad as the country was, -ostriches, deer, agoutis, and armadilloes, were abundant. My -guide told me, that two months before he had a most narrow -escape of his life: he was out hunting with two other men, -at no great distance from this part of the country, when they -were suddenly met by a party of Indians, who giving chase, -soon overtook and killed his two friends. His own horse's -legs were also caught by the bolas, but he jumped off, and -with his knife cut them free: while doing this he was obliged -to dodge round his horse, and received two severe wounds -from their chuzos. Springing on the saddle, he managed, by -a most wonderful exertion, just to keep ahead of the long -spears of his pursuers, who followed him to within sight of -the fort. From that time there was an order that no one -should stray far from the settlement. I did not know of this -when I started, and was surprised to observe how earnestly -my guide watched a deer, which appeared to have been -frightened from a distant quarter. - -We found the Beagle had not arrived, and consequently -set out on our return, but the horses soon tiring, we were -obliged to bivouac on the plain. In the morning we had -caught an armadillo, which although a most excellent dish -when roasted in its shell, did not make a very substantial -breakfast and dinner for two hungry men. The ground at -the place where we stopped for the night, was incrusted with -a layer of sulphate of soda, and hence, of course, was without -water. Yet many of the smaller rodents managed to -exist even here, and the tucutuco was making its odd little -grunt beneath my head, during half the night. Our horses -were very poor ones, and in the morning they were soon -exhausted from not having had anything to drink, so that -we were obliged to walk. About noon the dogs killed a kid, -which we roasted. I ate some of it, but it made me intolerably -thirsty. This was the more distressing as the road, -from some recent rain, was full of little puddles of clear -water, yet not a drop was drinkable. I had scarcely been -twenty hours without water, and only part of the time under -a hot sun, yet the thirst rendered me very weak. How people -survive two or three days under such circumstances, I cannot -imagine: at the same time, I must confess that my guide did -not suffer at all, and was astonished that one day's -deprivation should be so troublesome to me. - -I have several times alluded to the surface of the ground -being incrusted with salt. This phenomenon is quite -different from that of the salinas, and more extraordinary. -In many parts of South America, wherever the climate is -moderately dry, these incrustations occur; but I have nowhere -seen them so abundant as near Bahia Blanca. The salt here, -and in other parts of Patagonia, consists chiefly of sulphate -of soda with some common salt. As long as the ground -remains moist in the salitrales (as the Spaniards improperly -call them, mistaking this substance for saltpeter), nothing is -to be seen but an extensive plain composed of a black, muddy -soil, supporting scattered tufts of succulent plants. On returning -through one of these tracts, after a week's hot weather, -one is surprised to see square miles of the plain white, as if -from a slight fall of snow, here and there heaped up by the -wind into little drifts. This latter appearance is chiefly -caused by the salts being drawn up, during the slow evaporation -of the moisture, round blades of dead grass, stumps of -wood, and pieces of broken earth, instead of being crystallized -at the bottoms of the puddles of water. The salitrales -occur either on level tracts elevated only a few feet above -the level of the sea, or on alluvial land bordering rivers. -M. Parchappe [7] found that the saline incrustation on the plain, -at the distance of some miles from the sea, consisted chiefly -of sulphate of soda, with only seven per cent. of common -salt; whilst nearer to the coast, the common salt increased -to 37 parts in a hundred. This circumstance would tempt -one to believe that the sulphate of soda is generated in the -soil, from the muriate, left on the surface during the slow -and recent elevation of this dry country. The whole phenomenon -is well worthy the attention of naturalists. Have -the succulent, salt-loving plants, which are well known to -contain much soda, the power of decomposing the muriate? -Does the black fetid mud, abounding with organic matter, -yield the sulphur and ultimately the sulphuric acid? - -Two days afterwards I again rode to the harbour: when -not far from our destination, my companion, the same man -as before, spied three people hunting on horseback. He -immediately dismounted, and watching them intently, said, -"They don't ride like Christians, and nobody can leave the -fort." The three hunters joined company, and likewise -dismounted from their horses. At last one mounted again -and rode over the hill out of sight. My companion said, -"We must now get on our horses: load your pistol;" and he -looked to his own sword. I asked, "Are they Indians?" -- -"Quien sabe? (who knows?) if there are no more than three, -it does not signify." It then struck me, that the one man -had gone over the hill to fetch the rest of his tribe. I -suggested this; but all the answer I could extort was, "Quien -sabe?" His head and eye never for a minute ceased scanning -slowly the distant horizon. I thought his uncommon -coolness too good a joke, and asked him why he did not -return home. I was startled when he answered, "We are -returning, but in a line so as to pass near a swamp, into -which we can gallop the horses as far as they can go, and -then trust to our own legs; so that there is no danger." I did -not feel quite so confident of this, and wanted to increase -our pace. He said, "No, not until they do." When any -little inequality concealed us, we galloped; but when in sight, -continued walking. At last we reached a valley, and turning -to the left, galloped quickly to the foot of a hill; he gave me -his horse to hold, made the dogs lie down, and then crawled -on his hands and knees to reconnoitre. He remained in this -position for some time, and at last, bursting out in laughter, -exclaimed, "Mugeres!" (women!). He knew them to be -the wife and sister-in-law of the major's son, hunting for -ostrich's eggs. I have described this man's conduct, because -he acted under the full impression that they were Indians. -As soon, however, as the absurd mistake was found out, he -gave me a hundred reasons why they could not have been -Indians; but all these were forgotten at the time. We then -rode on in peace and quietness to a low point called Punta -Alta, whence we could see nearly the whole of the great harbour -of Bahia Blanca. - -The wide expanse of water is choked up by numerous -great mud-banks, which the inhabitants call Cangrejales, or -_crabberies_, from the number of small crabs. The mud is so -soft that it is impossible to walk over them, even for the -shortest distance. Many of the banks have their surfaces -covered with long rushes, the tops of which alone are visible -at high water. On one occasion, when in a boat, we were -so entangled by these shallows that we could hardly find -our way. Nothing was visible but the flat beds of mud; the -day was not very clear, and there was much refraction, or -as the sailors expressed it, "things loomed high." The only -object within our view which was not level was the horizon; -rushes looked like bushes unsupported in the air, and water -like mud-banks, and mud-banks like water. - -We passed the night in Punta Alta, and I employed myself -in searching for fossil bones; this point being a perfect -catacomb for monsters of extinct races. The evening was -perfectly calm and clear; the extreme monotony of the view -gave it an interest even in the midst of mud-banks and gulls -sand-hillocks and solitary vultures. In riding back in the -morning we came across a very fresh track of a Puma, but -did not succeed in finding it. We saw also a couple of -Zorillos, or skunks, -- odious animals, which are far from -uncommon. In general appearance, the Zorillo resembles a -polecat, but it is rather larger, and much thicker in proportion. -Conscious of its power, it roams by day about the open -plain, and fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged to -the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops -of the fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running -at the nose. Whatever is once polluted by it, is for -ever useless. Azara says the smell can be perceived at a -league distant; more than once, when entering the harbour -of Monte Video, the wind being off shore, we have perceived -the odour on board the Beagle. Certain it is, that -every animal most willingly makes room for the Zorillo. - -[1] The corral is an enclosure made of tall and strong -stakes. Every estancia, or farming estate, has one attached -to it. - -[2] The hovels of the Indians are thus called. - -[3] Report of the Agricult. Chem. Assoc. in the Agricult. -Gazette, 1845, p. 93. - -[4] Linnaean Trans., vol. xi. p. 205. It is remarkable how -all the circumstances connected with the salt-lakes in Siberia -and Patagonia are similar. Siberia, like Patagonia, appears -to have been recently elevated above the waters of the sea. -In both countries the salt-lakes occupy shallow depressions -in the plains; in both the mud on the borders is black and -fetid; beneath the crust of common salt, sulphate of soda or -of magnesium occurs, imperfectly crystallized; and in both, -the muddy sand is mixed with lentils of gypsum. The Siberian -salt-lakes are inhabited by small crustaceous animals; and -flamingoes (Edin. New Philos. Jour., Jan 1830) likewise -frequent them. As these circumstances, apparently so trifling, -occur in two distant continents, we may feel sure that they -are the necessary results of a common cause -- See Pallas's -Travels, 1793 to 1794, pp. 129 - 134. - -[5] I am bound to express in the strongest terms, my obligation -to the government of Buenos Ayres for the obliging manner in -which passports to all parts of the country were given me, as -naturalist of the Beagle. - -[6] This prophecy has turned out entirely and miserably wrong. -1845. - -[7] Voyage dans l'Amerique Merid. par M. A. d'Orbigny. Part. -Hist. tom. i. p. 664. - - - -CHAPTER V - -BAHIA BLANCA - -Bahia Blanca -- Geology -- Numerous gigantic Quadrupeds -- -Recent Extinction -- Longevity of species -- Large Animals -do not require a luxuriant vegetation -- Southern Africa -- -Siberian Fossils -- Two Species of Ostrich -- Habits of -Oven-bird -- Armadilloes -- Venomous Snake, Toad, Lizard -- -Hybernation of Animal -- Habits of Sea-Pen -- Indian Wars and -Massacres -- Arrow-head, antiquarian Relic. - - -The Beagle arrived here on the 24th of August, and a -week afterwards sailed for the Plata. With Captain -Fitz Roy's consent I was left behind, to travel by land -to Buenos Ayres. I will here add some observations, which -were made during this visit and on a previous occasion, when -the Beagle was employed in surveying the harbour. - -The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, -belongs to the great Pampean formation, which consists in -part of a reddish clay, and in part of a highly calcareous -marly rock. Nearer the coast there are some plains formed -from the wreck of the upper plain, and from mud, gravel, -and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow elevation of -the land, of which elevation we have evidence in upraised -beds of recent shells, and in rounded pebbles of pumice -scattered over the country. At Punta Alta we have a section of -one of these later-formed little plains, which is highly -interesting from the number and extraordinary character of the -remains of gigantic land-animals embedded in it. These have -been fully described by Professor Owen, in the Zoology of the -voyage of the Beagle, and are deposited in the College of -Surgeons. I will here give only a brief outline of their nature. - -First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, -the huge dimensions of which are expressed by its -name. Secondly, the Megalonyx, a great allied animal. -Thirdly, the Scelidotherium, also an allied animal, of which -I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton. It must have been as -large as a rhinoceros: in the structure of its head it comes -according to Mr. Owen, nearest to the Cape Anteater, but -in some other respects it approaches to the armadilloes. -Fourthly, the Mylodon Darwinii, a closely related genus of -little inferior size. Fifthly, another gigantic edental quadruped. -Sixthly, a large animal, with an osseous coat in compartments, -very like that of an armadillo. Seventhly, an -extinct kind of horse, to which I shall have again to refer. -Eighthly, a tooth of a Pachydermatous animal, probably the -same with the Macrauchenia, a huge beast with a long neck -like a camel, which I shall also refer to again. Lastly, the -Toxodon, perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered: -in size it equalled an elephant or megatherium, but -the structure of its teeth, as Mr. Owen states, proves -indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, the -order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest -quadrupeds: in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: -judging from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, -it was probably aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, -to which it is also allied. How wonderfully are the different -Orders, at the present time so well separated, blended together -in different points of the structure of the Toxodon! - -The remains of these nine great quadrupeds, and many -detached bones, were found embedded on the beach, within -the space of about 200 yards square. It is a remarkable -circumstance that so many different species should be found -together; and it proves how numerous in kind the ancient -inhabitants of this country must have been. At the distance -of about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in a cliff of red earth, -I found several fragments of bones, some of large size. -Among them were the teeth of a gnawer, equalling in size -and closely resembling those of the Capybara, whose habits -have been described; and therefore, probably, an aquatic -animal. There was also part of the head of a Ctenomys; the -species being different from the Tucutuco, but with a close -general resemblance. The red earth, like that of the Pampas, -in which these remains were embedded, contains, according -to Professor Ehrenberg, eight fresh-water and one salt-water -infusorial animalcule; therefore, probably, it was an estuary -deposit. - -The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified -gravel and reddish mud, just such as the sea might now wash -up on a shallow bank. They were associated with twenty- -three species of shells, of which thirteen are recent and four -others very closely related to recent forms. [1] From the bones -of the Scelidotherium, including even the knee-cap, being -intombed in their proper relative positions, and from the -osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so -well preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we -may feel assured that these remains were fresh and united by -their ligaments, when deposited in the gravel together with -the shells. [2] Hence we have good evidence that the above -enumerated gigantic quadrupeds, more different from those -of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary quadrupeds -of Europe, lived whilst the sea was peopled with most -of its present inhabitants; and we have confirmed that remarkable -law so often insisted on by Mr. Lyell, namely, that -the "longevity of the species in the mammalia is upon the -whole inferior to that of the testacea." [3] - -The great size of the bones of the Megatheroid animals, -including the Megatherium, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, and -Mylodon, is truly wonderful. The habits of life of these -animals were a complete puzzle to naturalists, until Professor -Owen [4] solved the problem with remarkable ingenuity. The -teeth indicate, by their simple structure, that these Megatheroid -animals lived on vegetable food, and probably on the -leaves and small twigs of trees; their ponderous forms and -great strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion, -that some eminent naturalists have actually believed, -that, like the sloths, to which they are intimately related, -they subsisted by climbing back downwards on trees, and -feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to say preposterous, -idea to conceive even antediluvian trees, with branches -strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. Professor -Owen, with far more probability, believes that, instead -of climbing on the trees, they pulled the branches down to -them, and tore up the smaller ones by the roots, and so fed on -the leaves. The colossal breadth and weight of their hinder -quarters, which can hardly be imagined without having been -seen, become on this view, of obvious service, instead of -being an incumbrance: their apparent clumsiness disappears. -With their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed like -a tripod on the ground, they could freely exert the full force -of their most powerful arms and great claws. Strongly -rooted, indeed, must that tree have been, which could have -resisted such force! The Mylodon, moreover, was furnished -with a long extensile tongue like that of the giraffe, which, -by one of those beautiful provisions of nature, thus reaches -with the aid of its long neck its leafy food. I may remark, -that in Abyssinia the elephant, according to Bruce, when it -cannot reach with its proboscis the branches, deeply scores -with its tusks the trunk of the tree, up and down and all -round, till it is sufficiently weakened to be broken down. - -The beds including the above fossil remains, stand only -from fifteen to twenty feet above the level of high-water; -and hence the elevation of the land has been small (without -there has been an intercalated period of subsidence, of which -we have no evidence) since the great quadrupeds wandered -over the surrounding plains; and the external features of -the country must then have been very nearly the same as -now. What, it may naturally be asked, was the character -of the vegetation at that period; was the country as wretchedly -sterile as it now is? As so many of the co-embedded -shells are the same with those now living in the bay, I was -at first inclined to think that the former vegetation was -probably similar to the existing one; but this would have -been an erroneous inference for some of these same shells -live on the luxuriant coast of Brazil; and generally, the -character of the inhabitants of the sea are useless as guides -to judge of those on the land. Nevertheless, from the following -considerations, I do not believe that the simple fact -of many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on the plains -round Bahia Blanca, is any sure guide that they formerly -were clothed with a luxuriant vegetation: I have no doubt -that the sterile country a little southward, near the Rio -Negro, with its scattered thorny trees, would support many -and large quadrupeds. - - -That large animals require a luxuriant vegetation, has -been a general assumption which has passed from one work -to another; but I do not hesitate to say that it is completely -false, and that it has vitiated the reasoning of geologists -on some points of great interest in the ancient history of -the world. The prejudice has probably been derived from -India, and the Indian islands, where troops of elephants, -noble forests, and impenetrable jungles, are associated together -in every one's mind. If, however, we refer to any -work of travels through the southern parts of Africa, we -shall find allusions in almost every page either to the desert -character of the country, or to the numbers of large animals -inhabiting it. The same thing is rendered evident -by the many engravings which have been published of various -parts of the interior. When the Beagle was at Cape -Town, I made an excursion of some days' length into the -country, which at least was sufficient to render that which -I had read more fully intelligible. - -Dr. Andrew Smith, who, at the head of his adventurous -party, has lately succeeded in passing the Tropic of Capricorn, -informs me that, taking into consideration the whole -of the southern part of Africa, there can be no doubt of its -being a sterile country. On the southern and south-eastern -coasts there are some fine forests, but with these exceptions, -the traveller may pass for days together through open plains, -covered by a poor and scanty vegetation. It is difficult to -convey any accurate idea of degrees of comparative fertility; -but it may be safely said that the amount of vegetation -supported at any one time [5] by Great Britain, exceeds, -perhaps even tenfold, the quantity on an equal area, in the -interior parts of Southern Africa. The fact that bullock- -waggons can travel in any direction, excepting near the -coast, without more than occasionally half an hour's delay -in cutting down bushes, gives, perhaps, a more definite notion -of the scantiness of the vegetation. Now, if we look to the -animals inhabiting these wide plains, we shall find their -numbers extraordinarily great, and their bulk immense. We -must enumerate the elephant, three species of rhinoceros, -and probably, according to Dr. Smith, two others, the hippopotamus, -the giraffe, the bos caffer -- as large as a full-grown -bull, and the elan -- but little less, two zebras, and the -quaccha, two gnus, and several antelopes even larger than these -latter animals. It may be supposed that although the species -are numerous, the individuals of each kind are few. -By the kindness of Dr. Smith, I am enabled to show that -the case is very different. He informs me, that in lat. 24 degs., -in one day's march with the bullock-waggons, he saw, without -wandering to any great distance on either side, between -one hundred and one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses, which -belonged to three species: the same day he saw several herds -of giraffes, amounting together to nearly a hundred; and -that although no elephant was observed, yet they are found -in this district. At the distance of a little more than one -hour's march from their place of encampment on the previous -night, his party actually killed at one spot eight -hippopotamuses, and saw many more. In this same river there -were likewise crocodiles. Of course it was a case quite -extraordinary, to see so many great animals crowded together, -but it evidently proves that they must exist in great numbers. -Dr. Smith describes the country passed through that -day, as "being thinly covered with grass, and bushes about -four feet high, and still more thinly with mimosa-trees." -The waggons were not prevented travelling in a nearly -straight line. - -Besides these large animals, every one the least acquainted -with the natural history of the Cape, has read of -the herds of antelopes, which can be compared only with the -flocks of migratory birds. The numbers indeed of the lion, -panther, and hyaena, and the multitude of birds of prey, -plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller quadrupeds: -one evening seven lions were counted at the same time prowling -round Dr. Smith's encampment. As this able naturalist -remarked to me, the carnage each day in Southern Africa -must indeed be terrific! I confess it is truly surprising how -such a number of animals can find support in a country -producing so little food. The larger quadrupeds no doubt -roam over wide tracts in search of it; and their food chiefly -consists of underwood, which probably contains much nutriment -in a small bulk. Dr. Smith also informs me that the -vegetation has a rapid growth; no sooner is a part consumed, -than its place is supplied by a fresh stock. There can be -no doubt, however, that our ideas respecting the apparent -amount of food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds -are much exaggerated: it should have been remembered -that the camel, an animal of no mean bulk, has always been -considered as the emblem of the desert. - -The belief that where large quadrupeds exist, the vegetation -must necessarily be luxuriant, is the more remarkable, -because the converse is far from true. Mr. Burchell observed -to me that when entering Brazil, nothing struck him more -forcibly than the splendour of the South American vegetation -contrasted with that of South Africa, together with -the absence of all large quadrupeds. In his Travels, [6] he has -suggested that the comparison of the respective weights (if -there were sufficient data) of an equal number of the largest -herbivorous quadrupeds of each country would be extremely -curious. If we take on the one side, the elephant, [7] hippopotamus, -giraffe, bos caffer, elan, certainly three, and probably -five species of rhinoceros; and on the American side, -two tapirs, the guanaco, three deer, the vicuna, peccari, -capybara (after which we must choose from the monkeys to -complete the number), and then place these two groups -alongside each other, it is not easy to conceive ranks more -disproportionate in size. After the above facts, we are compelled -to conclude, against anterior probability, [8] that among -the mammalia there exists no close relation between the -bulk of the species, and the _quantity_ of the vegetation, in -the countries which they inhabit. - -With regard to the number of large quadrupeds, there -certainly exists no quarter of the globe which will bear -comparison with Southern Africa. After the different statements -which have been given, the extremely desert character -of that region will not be disputed. In the European division -of the world, we must look back to the tertiary epochs, -to find a condition of things among the mammalia, resembling -that now existing at the Cape of Good Hope. Those -tertiary epochs, which we are apt to consider as abounding -to an astonishing degree with large animals, because we -find the remains of many ages accumulated at certain spots, -could hardly boast of more large quadrupeds than Southern -Africa does at present. If we speculate on the condition -of the vegetation during these epochs we are at least bound -so far to consider existing analogies, as not to urge as -absolutely necessary a luxuriant vegetation, when we see -a state of things so totally different at the Cape of Good -Hope. - -We know [9] that the extreme regions of North America, -many degrees beyond the limit where the ground at the depth -of a few feet remains perpetually congealed, are covered by -forests of large and tall trees. In a like manner, in Siberia, -we have woods of birch, fir, aspen, and larch, growing in a -latitude [10] (64 degs.) where the mean temperature of the -air falls below the freezing point, and where the earth is so -completely frozen, that the carcass of an animal embedded in it -is perfectly preserved. With these facts we must grant, as -far as _quantity alone_ of vegetation is concerned, that the -great quadrupeds of the later tertiary epochs might, in most -parts of Northern Europe and Asia, have lived on the spots -where their remains are now found. I do not here speak of -the kind of vegetation necessary for their support; because, -as there is evidence of physical changes, and as the animals -have become extinct, so may we suppose that the species of -plants have likewise been changed. - -These remarks, I may be permitted to add, directly bear -on the case of the Siberian animals preserved in ice. The -firm conviction of the necessity of a vegetation possessing -a character of tropical luxuriance, to support such large -animals, and the impossibility of reconciling this with the -proximity of perpetual congelation, was one chief cause of -the several theories of sudden revolutions of climate, and of -overwhelming catastrophes, which were invented to account -for their entombment. I am far from supposing that the -climate has not changed since the period when those animals -lived, which now lie buried in the ice. At present I -only wish to show, that as far as _quantity_ of food _alone_ is -concerned, the ancient rhinoceroses might have roamed over -the _steppes_ of central Siberia (the northern parts probably -being under water) even in their present condition, as well -as the living rhinoceroses and elephants over the _Karros_ -of Southern Africa. - - -I will now give an account of the habits of some of the -more interesting birds which are common on the wild plains -of Northern Patagonia: and first for the largest, or South -American ostrich. The ordinary habits of the ostrich are -familiar to every one. They live on vegetable matter, such -as roots and grass; but at Bahia Blanca I have repeatedly -seen three or four come down at low water to the extensive -mud-banks which are then dry, for the sake, as the Gauchos -say, of feeding on small fish. Although the ostrich in its -habits is so shy, wary, and solitary, and although so fleet -in its pace, it is caught without much difficulty by the Indian -or Gaucho armed with the bolas. When several horsemen -appear in a semicircle, it becomes confounded, and does -not know which way to escape. They generally prefer running -against the wind; yet at the first start they expand -their wings, and like a vessel make all sail. On one fine -hot day I saw several ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes, -where they squatted concealed, till quite closely approached. -It is not generally known that ostriches readily take to the -water. Mr. King informs me that at the Bay of San Blas, -and at Port Valdes in Patagonia, he saw these birds swimming -several times from island to island. They ran into -the water both when driven down to a point, and likewise -of their own accord when not frightened: the distance -crossed was about two hundred yards. When swimming, -very little of their bodies appear above water; their necks -are extended a little forward, and their progress is slow. -On two occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across the -Santa Cruz river, where its course was about four hundred -yards wide, and the stream rapid. Captain Sturt, [11] when -descending the Murrumbidgee, in Australia, saw two emus -in the act of swimming. - -The inhabitants of the country readily distinguish, even -at a distance, the cock bird from the hen. The former is -larger and darker-coloured, [12] and has a bigger head. The -ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a singular, deep-toned, -hissing note: when first I heard it, standing in the midst of -some sand-hillocks, I thought it was made by some wild -beast, for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it comes, -or from how far distant. When we were at Bahia Blanca -in the months of September and October, the eggs, in -extraordinary numbers, were found all over the country. They -lie either scattered and single, in which case they are never -hatched, and are called by the Spaniards huachos; or they -are collected together into a shallow excavation, which forms -the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained -twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. -In one day's hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs were -found; forty-four of these were in two nests, and the remaining -twenty, scattered huachos. The Gauchos unanimously -affirm, and there is no reason to doubt their statement, -that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for -some time afterwards accompanies the young. The cock -when on the nest lies very close; I have myself almost -ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times they -are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they -have been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to -kick and leap on him. My informer pointed out to me an old -man, whom he had seen much terrified by one chasing him. I -observe in Burchell's travels in South Africa, that he remarks, -"Having killed a male ostrich, and the feathers being -dirty, it was said by the Hottentots to be a nest bird." I -understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens -takes charge of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common -to the family. - -The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females -lay in one nest. I have been positively told that four or -five hen birds have been watched to go in the middle of the -day, one after the other, to the same nest. I may add, also, -that it is believed in Africa, that two or more females lay -in one nest. [13] Although this habit at first appears very -strange, I think the cause may be explained in a simple -manner. The number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty -to forty, and even to fifty; and according to Azara, some -times to seventy or eighty. Now, although it is most probable, -from the number of eggs found in one district being -so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds, -and likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that -she may in the course of the season lay a large number, yet -the time required must be very long. Azara states, [14] that a -female in a state of domestication laid seventeen eggs, each -at the interval of three days one from another. If the hen -was obliged to hatch her own eggs, before the last was laid -the first probably would be addled; but if each laid a few -eggs at successive periods, in different nests, and several -hens, as is stated to be the case, combined together, then -the eggs in one collection would be nearly of the same age. -If the number of eggs in one of these nests is, as I believe, -not greater on an average than the number laid by one -female in the season, then there must be as many nests as -females, and each cock bird will have its fair share of the -labour of incubation; and that during a period when the -females probably could not sit, from not having finished -laying. [15] I have before mentioned the great numbers of -huachos, or deserted eggs; so that in one day's hunting -twenty were found in this state. It appears odd that so -many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the difficulty -of several females associating together, and finding a male -ready to undertake the office of incubation? It is evident -that there must at first be some degree of association between -at least two females; otherwise the eggs would remain -scattered over the wide plain, at distances far too great to -allow of the male collecting them into one nest: some authors -have believed that the scattered eggs were deposited -for the young birds to feed on. This can hardly be the case -in America, because the huachos, although often found -addled and putrid, are generally whole. - -When at the Rio Negro in Northern Patagonia, I repeatedly -heard the Gauchos talking of a very rare bird which -they called Avestruz Petise. They described it as being less -than the common ostrich (which is there abundant), but -with a very close general resemblance. They said its colour -was dark and mottled, and that its legs were shorter, and -feathered lower down than those of the common ostrich. -It is more easily caught by the bolas than the other species. -The few inhabitants who had seen both kinds, affirmed they -could distinguish them apart from a long distance. The -eggs of the small species appeared, however, more generally -known; and it was remarked, with surprise, that they were -very little less than those of the Rhea, but of a slightly -different form, and with a tinge of pale blue. This species occurs -most rarely on the plains bordering the Rio Negro; but about -a degree and a half further south they are tolerably abundant. -When at Port Desire, in Patagonia (lat. 48 degs.), Mr. -Martens shot an ostrich; and I looked at it, forgetting at -the moment, in the most unaccountable manner, the whole -subject of the Petises, and thought it was a not full-grown -bird of the common sort. It was cooked and eaten before -my memory returned. Fortunately the head, neck, legs, -wings, many of the larger feathers, and a large part of the -skin, had been preserved; and from these a very nearly perfect -specimen has been put together, and is now exhibited -in the museum of the Zoological Society. Mr. Gould, in -describing this new species, has done me the honour of -calling it after my name. - -Among the Patagonian Indians in the Strait of Magellan, -we found a half Indian, who had lived some years with -the tribe, but had been born in the northern provinces. I -asked him if he had ever heard of the Avestruz Petise? He -answered by saying, "Why, there are none others in these -southern countries." He informed me that the number of -eggs in the nest of the petise is considerably less than in that -of the other kind, namely, not more than fifteen on an average, -but he asserted that more than one female deposited -them. At Santa Cruz we saw several of these birds. They -were excessively wary: I think they could see a person -approaching when too far off to be distinguished themselves. -In ascending the river few were seen; but in our quiet and -rapid descent, many, in pairs and by fours or fives, were -observed. It was remarked that this bird did not expand -its wings, when first starting at full speed, after the manner -of the northern kind. In conclusion I may observe, that -the Struthio rhea inhabits the country of La Plata as far -as a little south of the Rio Negro in lat. 41 degs., and that -the Struthio Darwinii takes its place in Southern Patagonia; -the part about the Rio Negro being neutral territory. M. -A. d'Orbigny, [16] when at the Rio Negro, made great exertions -to procure this bird, but never had the good fortune to -succeed. Dobrizhoffer [17] long ago was aware of there being -two kinds of ostriches, he says, "You must know, moreover, -that Emus differ in size and habits in different tracts -of land; for those that inhabit the plains of Buenos Ayres -and Tucuman are larger, and have black, white and grey -feathers; those near to the Strait of Magellan are smaller -and more beautiful, for their white feathers are tipped with -black at the extremity, and their black ones in like manner -terminate in white." - -A very singular little bird, Tinochorus rumicivorus, is -here common: in its habits and general appearance, it nearly -equally partakes of the characters, different as they are, of -the quail and snipe. The Tinochorus is found in the whole -of southern South America, wherever there are sterile plains, -or open dry pasture land. It frequents in pairs or small -flocks the most desolate places, where scarcely another living -creature can exist. Upon being approached they squat close, -and then are very difficult to be distinguished from the -ground. When feeding they walk rather slowly, with their -legs wide apart. They dust themselves in roads and sandy -places, and frequent particular spots, where they may be -found day after day: like partridges, they take wing in a -flock. In all these respects, in the muscular gizzard adapted -for vegetable food, in the arched beak and fleshy nostrils, -short legs and form of foot, the Tinochorus has a close affinity -with quails. But as soon as the bird is seen flying, its -whole appearance changes; the long pointed wings, so different -from those in the gallinaceous order, the irregular -manner of flight, and plaintive cry uttered at the moment -of rising, recall the idea of a snipe. The sportsmen of the -Beagle unanimously called it the short-billed snipe. To this -genus, or rather to the family of the Waders, its skeleton -shows that it is really related. - -The Tinochorus is closely related to some other South -American birds. Two species of the genus Attagis are in -almost every respect ptarmigans in their habits; one lives -in Tierra del Fuego, above the limits of the forest land; and -the other just beneath the snow-line on the Cordillera of -Central Chile. A bird of another closely allied genus, Chionis -alba, is an inhabitant of the antarctic regions; it feeds -on sea-weed and shells on the tidal rocks. Although not -web footed, from some unaccountable habit, it is frequently -met with far out at sea. This small family of birds is one -of those which, from its varied relations to other families, -although at present offering only difficulties to the systematic -naturalist, ultimately may assist in revealing the -grand scheme, common to the present and past ages, on -which organized beings have been created. - -The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small -birds, living on the ground, and inhabiting open dry countries. -In structure they cannot be compared to any European -form. Ornithologists have generally included them -among the creepers, although opposed to that family in every -habit. The best known species is the common oven-bird of -La Plata, the Casara or housemaker of the Spaniards. The -nest, whence it takes its name, is placed in the most exposed -situations, as on the top of a post, a bare rock, or on -a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits of straw, and has -strong thick walls: in shape it precisely resembles an oven, -or depressed beehive. The opening is large and arched, -and directly in front, within the nest, there is a partition, -which reaches nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage -or antechamber to the true nest. - -Another and smaller species of Furnarius (F. cunicularius), -resembles the oven-bird in the general reddish tint -of its plumage, in a peculiar shrill reiterated cry, and in an -odd manner of running by starts. From its affinity, the -Spaniards call it Casarita (or little housebuilder), although -its nidification is quite different. The Casarita builds its -nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is -said to extend horizontally to nearly six feet under ground. -Several of the country people told me, that when boys, they -had attempted to dig out the nest, but had scarcely ever -succeeded in getting to the end of the passage. The bird -chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side of a -road or stream. Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round -the houses are built of hardened mud, and I noticed that -one, which enclosed a courtyard where I lodged, was bored -through by round holes in a score of places. On asking the -owner the cause of this he bitterly complained of the little -casarita, several of which I afterwards observed at work. -It is rather curious to find how incapable these birds must -be of acquiring any notion of thickness, for although they -were constantly flitting over the low wall, they continued -vainly to bore through it, thinking it an excellent bank for -their nests. I do not doubt that each bird, as often as it -came to daylight on the opposite side, was greatly surprised -at the marvellous fact. - -I have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common -in this country. Of armadilloes three species occur -namely, the Dasypus minutus or _pichy_, the D. villosus or -_peludo_, and the _apar_. The first extends ten degrees further -south than any other kind; a fourth species, the _Mulita_, -does not come as far south as Bahia Blanca. The four species -have nearly similar habits; the _peludo_, however, is nocturnal, -while the others wander by day over the open plains, -feeding on beetles, larvae, roots, and even small snakes. The -_apar_, commonly called _mataco_, is remarkable by having only -three moveable bands; the rest of its tesselated covering -being nearly inflexible. It has the power of rolling itself -into a perfect sphere, like one kind of English woodlouse. -In this state it is safe from the attack of dogs; for the dog -not being able to take the whole in its mouth, tries to bite -one side, and the ball slips away. The smooth hard covering -of the _mataco_ offers a better defence than the sharp -spines of the hedgehog. The _pichy_ prefers a very dry soil; -and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many months -it can never taste water, is its favourite resort: it often tries -to escape notice, by squatting close to the ground. In the -course of a day's ride, near Bahia Blanca, several were generally -met with. The instant one was perceived, it was -necessary, in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one's -horse; for in soft soil the animal burrowed so quickly, that -its hinder quarters would almost disappear before one could -alight. It seems almost a pity to kill such nice little animals, -for as a Gaucho said, while sharpening his knife on -the back of one, "Son tan mansos" (they are so quiet). - -Of reptiles there are many kinds: one snake (a Trigonocephalus, -or Cophias [18]), from the size of the poison channel -in its fangs, must be very deadly. Cuvier, in opposition to -some other naturalists, makes this a sub-genus of the rattlesnake, -and intermediate between it and the viper. In confirmation -of this opinion, I observed a fact, which appears -to me very curious and instructive, as showing how every -character, even though it may be in some degree independent -of structure, has a tendency to vary by slow degrees. -The extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated by a -point, which is very slightly enlarged; and as the animal -glides along, it constantly vibrates the last inch; and this -part striking against the dry grass and brushwood, produces -a rattling noise, which can be distinctly heard at the distance -of six feet. As often as the animal was irritated or -surprised, its tail was shaken; and the vibrations were extremely -rapid. Even as long as the body retained its irritability, -a tendency to this habitual movement was evident. -This Trigonocephalus has, therefore, in some respects the -structure of a viper, with the habits of a rattlesnake: the -noise, however, being produced by a simpler device. The -expression of this snake's face was hideous and fierce; the -pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery -iris; the jaws were broad at the base, and the nose terminated -in a triangular projection. I do not think I ever saw -anything more ugly, excepting, perhaps, some of the vampire -bats. I imagine this repulsive aspect originates from -the features being placed in positions, with respect to each -other, somewhat proportional to those of the human face; -and thus we obtain a scale of hideousness. - -Amongst the Batrachian reptiles, I found only one little -toad (Phryniscus nigricans), which was most singular from -its colour. If we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in -the blackest ink, and then, when dry, allowed to crawl over -a board, freshly painted with the brightest vermilion, so -as to colour the soles of its feet and parts of its stomach, a -good idea of its appearance will be gained. If it had been -an unnamed species, surely it ought to have been called -_Diabolicus_, for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of Eve. -Instead of being nocturnal in its habits, as other toads are, -and living in damp obscure recesses, it crawls during the heat -of the day about the dry sand-hillocks and arid plains, where -not a single drop of water can be found. It must necessarily -depend on the dew for its moisture; and this probably is -absorbed by the skin, for it is known, that these reptiles possess -great powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado, -I found one in a situation nearly as dry as at Bahia Blanca, -and thinking to give it a great treat, carried it to a pool of -water; not only was the little animal unable to swim, but -I think without help it would soon have been drowned. -Of lizards there were many kinds, but only one (Proctotretus -multimaculatus) remarkable from its habits. It -lives on the bare sand near the sea coast, and from its mottled -colour, the brownish scales being speckled with white, -yellowish red, and dirty blue, can hardly be distinguished -from the surrounding surface. When frightened, it attempts -to avoid discovery by feigning death, with outstretched -legs, depressed body, and closed eyes: if further -molested, it buries itself with great quickness in the loose -sand. This lizard, from its flattened body and short legs, -cannot run quickly. - -I will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals -in this part of South America. When we first arrived -at Bahia Blanca, September 7th, 1832, we thought nature -had granted scarcely a living creature to this sandy and dry -country. By digging, however, in the ground, several insects, -large spiders, and lizards were found in a half-torpid -state. On the 15th, a few animals began to appear, and by -the 18th (three days from the equinox), everything announced -the commencement of spring. The plains were ornamented -by the flowers of a pink wood-sorrel, wild peas, -cenotherae, and geraniums; and the birds began to lay their -eggs. Numerous Lamellicorn and Heteromerous insects, the -latter remarkable for their deeply sculptured bodies, were -slowly crawling about; while the lizard tribe, the constant -inhabitants of a sandy soil, darted about in every direction. -During the first eleven days, whilst nature was dormant, the -mean temperature taken from observations made every two -hours on board the Beagle, was 51 degs.; and in the middle of -the day the thermometer seldom ranged above 55 degs. On the -eleven succeeding days, in which all living things became so -animated, the mean was 58 degs., and the range in the middle -of the day 7 between 60 and 70 degs. Here, then, an -increase of seven degrees in mean temperature, but a greater one -of extreme heat, was sufficient to awake the functions of life. -At Monte Video, from which we had just before sailed, in -the twenty-three days included between the 26th of July -and the 19th of August, the mean temperature from 276 -observations was 58.4 degs.; the mean hottest day being -65.5 degs., and the coldest 46 degs. The lowest point to -which the thermometer fell was 41.5 degs., and occasionally -in the middle of the day it rose to 69 or 70 degs. -Yet with this high temperature, almost every beetle, several -genera of spiders, snails, and land-shells, toads and -lizards were all lying torpid beneath stones. But -we have seen that at Bahia Blanca, which is four degrees -southward and therefore with a climate only a very little -colder, this same temperature with a rather less extreme -heat, was sufficient to awake all orders of animated beings. -This shows how nicely the stimulus required to arouse hybernating -animals is governed by the usual climate of the -district, and not by the absolute heat. It is well known that -within the tropics, the hybernation, or more properly aestivation, -of animals is determined not by the temperature, but -by the times of drought. Near Rio de Janeiro, I was at first -surprised to observe, that, a few days after some little -depressions had been filled with water, they were peopled by -numerous full-grown shells and beetles, which must have -been lying dormant. Humboldt has related the strange accident -of a hovel having been erected over a spot where a -young crocodile lay buried in the hardened mud. He adds, -"The Indians often find enormous boas, which they call Uji -or water serpents, in the same lethargic state. To reanimate -them, they must be irritated or wetted with water." - -I will only mention one other animal, a zoophyte (I believe -Virgularia Patagonica), a kind of sea-pen. It consists -of a thin, straight, fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi -on each side, and surrounding an elastic stony axis, varying -in length from eight inches to two feet. The stem at one -extremity is truncate, but at the other is terminated by a -vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which gives -strength to the stem may be traced at this extremity into a -mere vessel filled with granular matter. At low water hundreds -of these zoophytes might be seen, projecting like stubble, -with the truncate end upwards, a few inches above the -surface of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled they -suddenly drew themselves in with force, so as nearly or quite -to disappear. By this action, the highly elastic axis must -be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly -curved; and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the -zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud. Each -polypus, though closely united to its brethren, has a distinct -mouth, body, and tentacula. Of these polypi, in a large -specimen, there must be many thousands; yet we see that -they act by one movement: they have also one central axis -connected with a system of obscure circulation, and the ova -are produced in an organ distinct from the separate -individuals. [19] Well may one be allowed to ask, what is an -individual? It is always interesting to discover the foundation -of the strange tales of the old voyagers; and I have no doubt -but that the habits of this Virgularia explain one such case. -Captain Lancaster, in his voyage [20] in 1601, narrates that on -the sea-sands of the Island of Sombrero, in the East Indies, -he "found a small twig growing up like a young tree, and -on offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the ground, -and sinks, unless held very hard. On being plucked up, a -great worm is found to be its root, and as the tree groweth -in greatness, so doth the worm diminish, and as soon as the -worm is entirely turned into a tree it rooteth in the earth, -and so becomes great. This transformation is one of the -strangest wonders that I saw in all my travels: for if this -tree is plucked up, while young, and the leaves and bark -stripped off, it becomes a hard stone when dry, much like -white coral: thus is this worm twice transformed into -different natures. Of these we gathered and brought home -many." - - -During my stay at Bahia Blanca, while waiting for the -Beagle, the place was in a constant state of excitement, from -rumours of wars and victories, between the troops of Rosas -and the wild Indians. One day an account came that a small -party forming one of the postas on the line to Buenos Ayres, -had been found all murdered. The next day three hundred -men arrived from the Colorado, under the command of Commandant -Miranda. A large portion of these men were Indians -(mansos, or tame), belonging to the tribe of the Cacique -Bernantio. They passed the night here; and it was -impossible to conceive anything more wild and savage than -the scene of their bivouac. Some drank till they were -intoxicated; others swallowed the steaming blood of the -cattle slaughtered for their suppers, and then, being sick -from drunkenness, they cast it up again, and were besmeared -with filth and gore. - -Nam simul expletus dapibus, vinoque sepultus -Cervicem inflexam posuit, jacuitque per antrum -Immensus, saniem eructans, ac frusta cruenta -Per somnum commixta mero. - -In the morning they started for the scene of the murder, -with orders to follow the "rastro," or track, even if it led -them to Chile. We subsequently heard that the wild Indians -had escaped into the great Pampas, and from some -cause the track had been missed. One glance at the rastro -tells these people a whole history. Supposing they examine -the track of a thousand horses, they will soon guess the number -of mounted ones by seeing how many have cantered; by -the depth of the other impressions, whether any horses were -loaded with cargoes; by the irregularity of the footsteps, -how far tired; by the manner in which the food has been -cooked, whether the pursued travelled in haste; by the general -appearance, how long it has been since they passed. -They consider a rastro of ten days or a fortnight, quite -recent enough to be hunted out. We also heard that Miranda -struck from the west end of the Sierra Ventana, in a direct -line to the island of Cholechel, situated seventy leagues up -the Rio Negro. This is a distance of between two and three -hundred miles, through a country completely unknown. -What other troops in the world are so independent? With -the sun for their guide, mare's flesh for food, their saddle- -cloths for beds, -- as long as there is a little water, these -men would penetrate to the end of the world. - -A few days afterwards I saw another troop of these banditti-like -soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of -Indians at the small Salinas, who had been betrayed by a -prisoner cacique. The Spaniard who brought the orders -for this expedition was a very intelligent man. He gave -me an account of the last engagement at which he was present. -Some Indians, who had been taken prisoners, gave -information of a tribe living north of the Colorado. Two -hundred soldiers were sent; and they first discovered the -Indians by a cloud of dust from their horses' feet, as they -chanced to be travelling. The country was mountainous and -wild, and it must have been far in the interior, for the -Cordillera were in sight. The Indians, men, women, and children, -were about one hundred and ten in number, and they -were nearly all taken or killed, for the soldiers sabre every -man. The Indians are now so terrified that they offer no -resistance in a body, but each flies, neglecting even his wife -and children; but when overtaken, like wild animals, they -fight against any number to the last moment. One dying Indian -seized with his teeth the thumb of his adversary, and -allowed his own eye to be forced out sooner than relinquish -his hold. Another, who was wounded, feigned death, keeping -a knife ready to strike one more fatal blow. My informer -said, when he was pursuing an Indian, the man cried out -for mercy, at the same time that he was covertly loosing the -bolas from his waist, meaning to whirl it round his head and -so strike his pursuer. "I however struck him with my sabre -to the ground, and then got off my horse, and cut his throat -with my knife." This is a dark picture; but how much more -shocking is the unquestionable fact, that all the women who -appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold blood! -When I exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman, he -answered, "Why, what can be done? they breed so!" - -Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most -just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would -believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in -a Christian civilized country? The children of the Indians -are saved, to be sold or given away as servants, or rather -slaves for as long a time as the owners can make them -believe themselves slaves; but I believe in their treatment -there is little to complain of. - -In the battle four men ran away together. They were -pursued, one was killed, and the other three were taken alive. -They turned out to be messengers or ambassadors from a -large body of Indians, united in the common cause of -defence, near the Cordillera. The tribe to which they had -been sent was on the point of holding a grand council, the -feast of mare's flesh was ready, and the dance prepared: in -the morning the ambassadors were to have returned to the -Cordillera. They were remarkably fine men, very fair, above -six feet high, and all under thirty years of age. The three -survivors of course possessed very valuable information and -to extort this they were placed in a line. The two first being -questioned, answered, "No se" (I do not know), and were -one after the other shot. The third also said "No se;" adding, -"Fire, I am a man, and can die!" Not one syllable -would they breathe to injure the united cause of their country! -The conduct of the above-mentioned cacique was very -different; he saved his life by betraying the intended plan -of warfare, and the point of union in the Andes. It was -believed that there were already six or seven hundred Indians -together, and that in summer their numbers would be -doubled. Ambassadors were to have been sent to the Indians -at the small Salinas, near Bahia Blanca, whom I have mentioned -that this same cacique had betrayed. The communication, -therefore, between the Indians, extends from the -Cordillera to the coast of the Atlantic. - -General Rosas's plan is to kill all stragglers, and having -driven the remainder to a common point, to attack them in -a body, in the summer, with the assistance of the Chilenos. -This operation is to be repeated for three successive years. -I imagine the summer is chosen as the time for the main -attack, because the plains are then without water, and the -Indians can only travel in particular directions. The escape -of the Indians to the south of the Rio Negro, where in such -a vast unknown country they would be safe, is prevented by -a treaty with the Tehuelches to this effect; -- that Rosas pays -them so much to slaughter every Indian who passes to the -south of the river, but if they fail in so doing, they -themselves are to be exterminated. The war is waged chiefly -against the Indians near the Cordillera; for many of the -tribes on this eastern side are fighting with Rosas. The -general, however, like Lord Chesterfield, thinking that his -friends may in a future day become his enemies, always -places them in the front ranks, so that their numbers may -be thinned. Since leaving South America we have heard -that this war of extermination completely failed. - -Among the captive girls taken in the same engagement, -there were two very pretty Spanish ones, who had been carried -away by the Indians when young, and could now only -speak the Indian tongue. From their account they must -have come from Salta, a distance in a straight line of nearly -one thousand miles. This gives one a grand idea of the -immense territory over which the Indians roam: yet, great -as it is, I think there will not, in another half-century, be -a wild Indian northward of the Rio Negro. The warfare -is too bloody to last; the Christians killing every Indian, -and the Indians doing the same by the Christians. It is -melancholy to trace how the Indians have given way before -the Spanish invaders. Schirdel [21] says that in 1535, when -Buenos Ayres was founded, there were villages containing -two and three thousand inhabitants. Even in Falconer's -time (1750) the Indians made inroads as far as Luxan, -Areco, and Arrecife, but now they are driven beyond the -Salado. Not only have whole tribes been exterminated, but -the remaining Indians have become more barbarous: instead -of living in large villages, and being employed in the arts of -fishing, as well as of the chase, they now wander about the -open plains, without home or fixed occupation. - -I heard also some account of an engagement which took -place, a few weeks previously to the one mentioned, at -Cholechel. This is a very important station on account of -being a pass for horses; and it was, in consequence, for -some time the head-quarters of a division of the army. -When the troops first arrived there they found a tribe of -Indians, of whom they killed twenty or thirty. The cacique -escaped in a manner which astonished every one. The chief -Indians always have one or two picked horses, which they -keep ready for any urgent occasion. On one of these, an old -white horse, the cacique sprung, taking with him his little -son. The horse had neither saddle nor bridle. To avoid the -shots, the Indian rode in the peculiar method of his nation -namely, with an arm round the horse's neck, and one leg -only on its back. Thus hanging on one side, he was seen -patting the horse's head, and talking to him. The pursuers -urged every effort in the chase; the Commandant three -times changed his horse, but all in vain. The old Indian -father and his son escaped, and were free. What a fine picture -one can form in one's mind, -- the naked, bronze-like -figure of the old man with his little boy, riding like a -Mazeppa on the white horse, thus leaving far behind him the -host of his pursuers! - -I saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint, -which I immediately recognised as having been a part of the -head of an arrow. He told me it was found near the island -of Cholechel, and that they are frequently picked up there. -It was between two and three inches long, and therefore -twice as large as those now used in Tierra del Fuego: it was -made of opaque cream-coloured flint, but the point and barbs -had been intentionally broken off. It is well known that no -Pampas Indians now use bows and arrows. I believe a small -tribe in Banda Oriental must be excepted; but they are -widely separated from the Pampas Indians, and border close -on those tribes that inhabit the forest, and live on foot. It -appears, therefore, that these arrow-heads are antiquarian [22] -relics of the Indians, before the great change in habits -consequent on the introduction of the horse into South -America. - -[1] Since this was written, M. Alcide d'Orbingy has examined -these shells, and pronounces them all to be recent. - -[2] M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work -('Observaciones Geologicas,' 1857), this district, and he -believes that the bones of the extinct mammals were washed -out of the underlying Pampean deposit, and subsequently became -embedded with the still existing shells; but I am not convinced -by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole enormous -Pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand-dunes: this -seems to me to be an untenable doctrine. - -[3] Principles of Geology, vol. iv. p. 40. - -[4] This theory was first developed in the Zoology of the -Voyage of the Beagle, and subsequently in Professor Owen's -Memoir on Mylodon robustus. - -[5] I mean this to exclude the total amount which may have been -successively produced and consumed during a given period. - -[6] Travels in the Interior of South Africa, vol. ii. p. 207 - -[7] The elephant which was killed at Exeter Change was -estimated (being partly weighed) at five tons and a half. -The elephant actress, as I was informed, weighed one ton less; -so that we may take five as the average of a full-grown -elephant. I was told at the Surry Gardens, that a hippopotamus -which was sent to England cut up into pieces was estimated at -three tons and a half; we will call it three. From these -premises we may give three tons and a half to each of the five -rhinoceroses; perhaps a ton to the giraffe, and half to the -bos caffer as well as to the elan (a large ox weighs from -1200 to 1500 pounds). This will give an average (from the above -estimates) of 2.7 of a ton for the ten largest herbivorous -animals of Southern Africa. In South America, allowing 1200 -pounds for the two tapirs together, 550 for the guanaco and -vicuna, 500 for three deer, 300 for the capybara, peccari, and -a monkey, we shall have an average of 250 pounds, which I -believe is overstating the result. The ratio will therefore -be as 6048 to 250, or 24 to 1, for the ten largest animals -from the two continents. - -[8] If we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of -a Greenland whale in a fossil state, not a single cetaceous -animal being known to exist, what naturalist would have ventured -conjecture on the possibility of a carcass so gigantic being -supported on the minute crustacea and mollusca living in the -frozen seas of the extreme North? - -[9] See Zoological Remarks to Capt. Back's Expedition, by Dr. -Richardson. He says, "The subsoil north of latitude 56 degs. -is perpetually frozen, the thaw on the coast not penetrating -above three feet, and at Bear Lake, in latitude 64 degs., not -more than twenty inches. The frozen substratum does not of -itself destroy vegetation, for forests flourish on the surface, -at a distance from the coast." - -[10] See Humboldt, Fragments Asiatiques, p. 386: Barton's -Geography of Plants: and Malte Brun. In the latter work it is -said that the limit of the growth of trees in Siberia may be -drawn under the parallel of 70 degs. - -[11] Sturt's Travels, vol. ii. p. 74. - -[12] A Gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or -Albino variety, and that it was a most beautiful bird. - -[13] Burchell's Travels, vol. i. p. 280. - -[14] Azara, vol. iv. p. 173. - -[15] Lichtenstein, however, asserts (Travels, vol. ii. p. 25) -that the hens begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve -eggs; and that they continue laying, I presume, in another -nest. This appears to me very improbable. He asserts that four -or five hens associate for incubation with one cock, who sits -only at night. - -[16] When at the Rio Negro, we heard much of the indefatigable -labours of this naturalist. M. Alcide d'Orbigny, during the -years 1825 to 1833, traversed several large portions of South -America, and has made a collection, and is now publishing the -results on a scale of magnificence, which at once places himself -in the list of American travellers second only to Humboldt. - -[17] Account of the Abipones, A.D. 1749, vol. i. (English -Translation) p. 314 - -[18] M. Bibron calls it T. crepitans. - - -[19] The cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of -the extremity, were filled with a yellow pulpy matter, which, -examined under a microscope, presented an extraordinary -appearance. The mass consisted of rounded, semi-transparent, -irregular grains, aggregated together into particles of -various sizes. All such particles, and the separate grains, -possessed the power of rapid movement; generally revolving -around different axes, but sometimes progressive. The movement -was visible with a very weak power, but even with the highest -its cause could not be perceived. It was very different from -the circulation of the fluid in the elastic bag, containing -the thin extremity of the axis. On other occasions, when -dissecting small marine animals beneath the microscope, I have -seen particles of pulpy matter, some of large size, as soon as -they were disengaged, commence revolving. I have imagined, I know -not with how much truth, that this granulo-pulpy matter was in -process of being converted into ova. Certainly in this zoophyte -such appeared to be the case. - -[20] Kerr's Collection of Voyages, vol. viii. p. 119. - -[21] Purchas's Collection of Voyages. I believe the date was -really 1537. - -[22] Azara has even doubted whether the Pampas Indians ever -used bows. - - - -CHAPTER VI - -BAHIA BLANCA TO BUENOS AYRES - -Set out for Buenos Ayres -- Rio Sauce -- Sierra Ventana -- -Third Posta -- Driving Horses -- Bolas -- Partridges and -Foxes -- Features of the Country -- Long-legged Plover -- -Teru-tero -- Hail-storm -- Natural Enclosures in the Sierra -Tapalguen -- Flesh of Puma -- Meat Diet -- Guardia del -Monte -- Effects of Cattle on the Vegetation -- Cardoon -- -Buenos Ayres -- Corral where Cattle are Slaughtered. - - -SEPTEMBER 18th. -- I hired a Gaucho to accompany me -on my ride to Buenos Ayres, though with some difficulty, -as the father of one man was afraid to let him -go, and another, who seemed willing, was described to me -as so fearful, that I was afraid to take him, for I was told -that even if he saw an ostrich at a distance, he would mistake -it for an Indian, and would fly like the wind away. -The distance to Buenos Ayres is about four hundred miles, -and nearly the whole way through an uninhabited country. -We started early in the morning; ascending a few hundred -feet from the basin of green turf on which Bahia Blanca -stands, we entered on a wide desolate plain. It consists of -a crumbling argillaceo-calcareous rock, which, from the dry -nature of the climate, supports only scattered tufts of withered -grass, without a single bush or tree to break the monotonous -uniformity. The weather was fine, but the atmosphere -remarkably hazy; I thought the appearance foreboded -a gale, but the Gauchos said it was owing to the plain, at -some great distance in the interior, being on fire. After a -long gallop, having changed horses twice, we reached the Rio -Sauce: it is a deep, rapid, little stream, not above twenty-five -feet wide. The second posta on the road to Buenos Ayres -stands on its banks, a little above there is a ford for horses, -where the water does not reach to the horses' belly; but from -that point, in its course to the sea, it is quite impassable, -and hence makes a most useful barrier against the Indians. - -Insignificant as this stream is, the Jesuit Falconer, whose -information is generally so very correct, figures it as a -considerable river, rising at the foot of the Cordillera. With -respect to its source, I do not doubt that this is the case -for the Gauchos assured me, that in the middle of the dry -summer, this stream, at the same time with the Colorado -has periodical floods; which can only originate in the snow -melting on the Andes. It is extremely improbable that a -stream so small as the Sauce then was, should traverse the -entire width of the continent; and indeed, if it were the -residue of a large river, its waters, as in other ascertained -cases, would be saline. During the winter we must look to -the springs round the Sierra Ventana as the source of its -pure and limpid stream. I suspect the plains of Patagonia -like those of Australia, are traversed by many water-courses -which only perform their proper parts at certain periods. -Probably this is the case with the water which flows into the -head of Port Desire, and likewise with the Rio Chupat, on -the banks of which masses of highly cellular scoriae were -found by the officers employed in the survey. - -As it was early in the afternoon when we arrived, we -took fresh horses, and a soldier for a guide, and started for -the Sierra de la Ventana. This mountain is visible from -the anchorage at Bahia Blanca; and Capt. Fitz Roy calculates -its height to be 3340 feet -- an altitude very remarkable -on this eastern side of the continent. I am not aware -that any foreigner, previous to my visit, had ascended this -mountain; and indeed very few of the soldiers at Bahia -Blanca knew anything about it. Hence we heard of beds -of coal, of gold and silver, of caves, and of forests, all of -which inflamed my curiosity, only to disappoint it. The -distance from the posta was about six leagues over a level -plain of the same character as before. The ride was, however, -interesting, as the mountain began to show its true -form. When we reached the foot of the main ridge, we had -much difficulty in finding any water, and we thought we -should have been obliged to have passed the night without -any. At last we discovered some by looking close to the -mountain, for at the distance even of a few hundred yards -the streamlets were buried and entirely lost in the friable -calcareous stone and loose detritus. I do not think Nature -ever made a more solitary, desolate pile of rock; -- it well -deserves its name of _Hurtado_, or separated. The mountain -is steep, extremely rugged, and broken, and so entirely destitute -of trees, and even bushes, that we actually could not -make a skewer to stretch out our meat over the fire of thistle- -stalks. [1] The strange aspect of this mountain is contrasted -by the sea-like plain, which not only abuts against its steep -sides, but likewise separates the parallel ranges. The uniformity -of the colouring gives an extreme quietness to the -view, -- the whitish grey of the quartz rock, and the light -brown of the withered grass of the plain, being unrelieved -by any brighter tint. From custom, one expects to see in -the neighbourhood of a lofty and bold mountain, a broken -country strewed over with huge fragments. Here nature -shows that the last movement before the bed of the sea is -changed into dry land may sometimes be one of tranquillity. -Under these circumstances I was curious to observe how -far from the parent rock any pebbles could be found. On -the shores of Bahia Blanca, and near the settlement, there -were some of quartz, which certainly must have come from -this source: the distance is forty-five miles. - -The dew, which in the early part of the night wetted the -saddle-cloths under which we slept, was in the morning -frozen. The plain, though appearing horizontal, had insensibly -sloped up to a height of between 800 and 900 feet -above the sea. In the morning (9th of September) the guide -told me to ascend the nearest ridge, which he thought would -lead me to the four peaks that crown the summit. The climbing -up such rough rocks was very fatiguing; the sides -were so indented, that what was gained in one five minutes -was often lost in the next. At last, when I reached the ridge, -my disappointment was extreme in finding a precipitous -valley as deep as the plain, which cut the chain transversely -in two, and separated me from the four points. This valley -is very narrow, but flat-bottomed, and it forms a fine horse- -pass for the Indians, as it connects the plains on the northern -and southern sides of the range. Having descended, and -while crossing it, I saw two horses grazing: I immediately -hid myself in the long grass, and began to reconnoitre; but -as I could see no signs of Indians I proceeded cautiously on -my second ascent. It was late in the day, and this part of -the mountain, like the other, was steep and rugged. I was -on the top of the second peak by two o'clock, but got there -with extreme difficulty; every twenty yards I had the cramp -in the upper part of both thighs, so that I was afraid I -should not have been able to have got down again. It was -also necessary to return by another road, as it was out of -the question to pass over the saddle-back. I was therefore -obliged to give up the two higher peaks. Their altitude was -but little greater, and every purpose of geology had been -answered; so that the attempt was not worth the hazard -of any further exertion. I presume the cause of the cramp -was the great change in the kind of muscular action, from -that of hard riding to that of still harder climbing. It is -a lesson worth remembering, as in some cases it might cause -much difficulty. - -I have already said the mountain is composed of white -quartz rock, and with it a little glossy clay-slate is -associated. At the height of a few hundred feet above the plain -patches of conglomerate adhered in several places to the -solid rock. They resembled in hardness, and in the nature -of the cement, the masses which may be seen daily forming -on some coasts. I do not doubt these pebbles were in a similar -manner aggregated, at a period when the great calcareous -formation was depositing beneath the surrounding sea. -We may believe that the jagged and battered forms of the -hard quartz yet show the effects of the waves of an open -ocean. - -I was, on the whole, disappointed with this ascent. Even -the view was insignificant; -- a plain like the sea, but without -its beautiful colour and defined outline. The scene, however, -was novel, and a little danger, like salt to meat, gave -it a relish. That the danger was very little was certain, for -my two companions made a good fire -- a thing which is never -done when it is suspected that Indians are near. I reached -the place of our bivouac by sunset, and drinking much mate, -and smoking several cigaritos, soon made up my bed for the -night. The wind was very strong and cold, but I never slept -more comfortably. - -September 10th. -- In the morning, having fairly scudded -before the gale, we arrived by the middle of the day at the -Sauce posta. In the road we saw great numbers of deer, -and near the mountain a guanaco. The plain, which abuts -against the Sierra, is traversed by some curious gullies, of -which one was about twenty feet wide, and at least thirty -deep; we were obliged in consequence to make a considerable -circuit before we could find a pass. We stayed the night -at the posta, the conversation, as was generally the case, -being about the Indians. The Sierra Ventana was formerly -a great place of resort; and three or four years ago there -was much fighting there. My guide had been present when -many Indians were killed: the women escaped to the top of -the ridge, and fought most desperately with great stones; -many thus saving themselves. - -September 11th. -- Proceeded to the third posta in company -with the lieutenant who commanded it. The distance -is called fifteen leagues; but it is only guess-work, and is -generally overstated. The road was uninteresting, over a -dry grassy plain; and on our left hand at a greater or less -distance there were some low hills; a continuation of which -we crossed close to the posta. Before our arrival we met -a large herd of cattle and horses, guarded by fifteen soldiers; -but we were told many had been lost. It is very difficult to -drive animals across the plains; for if in the night a puma, -or even a fox, approaches, nothing can prevent the horses -dispersing in every direction; and a storm will have the -same effect. A short time since, an officer left Buenos Ayres -with five hundred horses, and when he arrived at the army -he had under twenty. - -Soon afterwards we perceived by the cloud of dust, that -a party of horsemen were coming towards us; when far distant -my companions knew them to be Indians, by their long -hair streaming behind their backs. The Indians generally -have a fillet round their heads, but never any covering; and -their black hair blowing across their swarthy faces, heightens -to an uncommon degree the wildness of their appearance. -They turned out to be a party of Bernantio's friendly tribe, -going to a salina for salt. The Indians eat much salt, their -children sucking it like sugar. This habit is very different -from that of the Spanish Gauchos, who, leading the same -kind of life, eat scarcely any; according to Mungo Park, [2] -it is people who live on vegetable food who have an unconquerable -desire for salt. The Indians gave us good-humoured -nods as they passed at full gallop, driving before them a -troop of horses, and followed by a train of lanky dogs. - -September 12th and 13th. -- I stayed at this posta two days, -waiting for a troop of soldiers, which General Rosas had -the kindness to send to inform me, would shortly travel to -Buenos Ayres; and he advised me to take the opportunity -of the escort. In the morning we rode to some neighbouring -hills to view the country, and to examine the geology. After -dinner the soldiers divided themselves into two parties for -a trial of skill with the bolas. Two spears were stuck in -the ground twenty-five yards apart, but they were struck -and entangled only once in four or five times. The balls can -be thrown fifty or sixty yards, but with little certainty. -This, however, does not apply to a man on horseback; for when -the speed of the horse is added to the force of the arm, it -is said, that they can be whirled with effect to the distance -of eighty yards. As a proof of their force, I may mention, -that at the Falkland Islands, when the Spaniards murdered -some of their own countrymen and all the Englishmen, a -young friendly Spaniard was running away, when a great -tall man, by name Luciano, came at full gallop after him, -shouting to him to stop, and saying that he only wanted to -speak to him. Just as the Spaniard was on the point of -reaching the boat, Luciano threw the balls: they struck him -on the legs with such a jerk, as to throw him down and -to render him for some time insensible. The man, after -Luciano had had his talk, was allowed to escape. He told -us that his legs were marked by great weals, where the thong -had wound round, as if he had been flogged with a whip. -In the middle of the day two men arrived, who brought a -parcel from the next posta to be forwarded to the general: -so that besides these two, our party consisted this evening -of my guide and self, the lieutenant, and his four soldiers. -The latter were strange beings; the first a fine young negro; -the second half Indian and negro; and the two others non- -descripts; namely, an old Chilian miner, the colour of mahogany, -and another partly a mulatto; but two such mongrels -with such detestable expressions, I never saw before. -At night, when they were sitting round the fire, and playing -at cards, I retired to view such a Salvator Rosa scene. They -were seated under a low cliff, so that I could look down -upon them; around the party were lying dogs, arms, remnants -of deer and ostriches; and their long spears were stuck -in the turf. Further in the dark background, their horses -were tied up, ready for any sudden danger. If the stillness -of the desolate plain was broken by one of the dogs barking, -a soldier, leaving the fire, would place his head close to the -ground, and thus slowly scan the horizon. Even if the noisy -teru-tero uttered its scream, there would be a pause in the -conversation, and every head, for a moment, a little inclined. - -What a life of misery these men appear to us to lead! -They were at least ten leagues from the Sauce posta, and -since the murder committed by the Indians, twenty from -another. The Indians are supposed to have made their attack -in the middle of the night; for very early in the morning -after the murder, they were luckily seen approaching -this posta. The whole party here, however, escaped, together -with the troop of horses; each one taking a line for himself, -and driving with him as many animals as he was able to -manage. - -The little hovel, built of thistle-stalks, in which they slept, -neither kept out the wind nor rain; indeed in the latter case -the only effect the roof had, was to condense it into larger -drops. They had nothing to eat excepting what they could -catch, such as ostriches, deer, armadilloes, etc., and their -only fuel was the dry stalks of a small plant, somewhat -resembling an aloe. The sole luxury which these men enjoyed -was smoking the little paper cigars, and sucking mate. I -used to think that the carrion vultures, man's constant -attendants on these dreary plains, while seated on the little -neighbouring cliffs seemed by their very patience to say, -"Ah! when the Indians come we shall have a feast." - -In the morning we all sallied forth to hunt, and although -we had not much success, there were some animated chases. -Soon after starting the party separated, and so arranged -their plans, that at a certain time of the day (in guessing -which they show much skill) they should all meet from different -points of the compass on a plain piece of ground, -and thus drive together the wild animals. One day I went -out hunting at Bahia Blanca, but the men there merely rode -in a crescent, each being about a quarter of a mile apart -from the other. A fine male ostrich being turned by the -headmost riders, tried to escape on one side. The Gauchos -pursued at a reckless pace, twisting their horses about with -the most admirable command, and each man whirling the -balls round his head. At length the foremost threw them, -revolving through the air: in an instant the ostrich rolled -over and over, its legs fairly lashed together by the thong. -The plains abound with three kinds of partridge, [3] two -of which are as large as hen pheasants. Their destroyer, -a small and pretty fox, was also singularly numerous; in -the course of the day we could not have seen less than forty -or fifty. They were generally near their earths, but the dogs -killed one. When we returned to the posta, we found two -of the party returned who had been hunting by themselves. -They had killed a puma, and had found an ostrich's nest with -twenty-seven eggs in it. Each of these is said to equal in -weight eleven hen's eggs; so that we obtained from this one -nest as much food as 297 hen's eggs would have given. - -September 14th. -- As the soldiers belonging to the next -posta meant to return, and we should together make a party -of five, and all armed, I determined not to wait for the expected -troops. My host, the lieutenant, pressed me much -to stop. As he had been very obliging -- not only providing -me with food, but lending me his private horses -- I wanted -to make him some remuneration. I asked my guide whether -I might do so, but he told me certainly not; that the only -answer I should receive, probably would be, "We have meat -for the dogs in our country, and therefore do not grudge it -to a Christian." It must not be supposed that the rank of -lieutenant in such an army would at all prevent the acceptance -of payment: it was only the high sense of hospitality, -which every traveller is bound to acknowledge as nearly universal -throughout these provinces. After galloping some -leagues, we came to a low swampy country, which extends -for nearly eighty miles northward, as far as the Sierra -Tapalguen. In some parts there were fine damp plains, covered -with grass, while others had a soft, black, and peaty soil. -There were also many extensive but shallow lakes, and large -beds of reeds. The country on the whole resembled the better -parts of the Cambridgeshire fens. At night we had some -difficulty in finding amidst the swamps, a dry place for our -bivouac. - -September 15th. -- Rose very early in the morning and -shortly after passed the posta where the Indians had murdered -the five soldiers. The officer had eighteen chuzo -wounds in his body. By the middle of the day, after a hard -gallop, we reached the fifth posta: on account of some difficulty -in procuring horses we stayed there the night. As this -point was the most exposed on the whole line, twenty-one -soldiers were stationed here; at sunset they returned from -hunting, bringing with them seven deer, three ostriches, and -many armadilloes and partridges. When riding through the -country, it is a common practice to set fire to the plain; -and hence at night, as on this occasion, the horizon was -illuminated in several places by brilliant conflagrations. -This is done partly for the sake of puzzling any stray Indians, -but chiefly for improving the pasture. In grassy -plains unoccupied by the larger ruminating quadrupeds, it -seems necessary to remove the superfluous vegetation by fire, -so as to render the new year's growth serviceable. - -The rancho at this place did not boast even of a roof, -but merely consisted of a ring of thistle-stalks, to break -the force of the wind. It was situated on the borders of an -extensive but shallow lake, swarming with wild fowl, among -which the black-necked swan was conspicuous. - -The kind of plover, which appears as if mounted on -stilts (Himantopus nigricollis), is here common in flocks of -considerable size. It has been wrongfully accused of inelegance; -when wading about in shallow water, which is its -favourite resort, its gait is far from awkward. These birds -in a flock utter a noise, that singularly resembles the cry of -a pack of small dogs in full chase: waking in the night, I -have more than once been for a moment startled at the distant -sound. The teru-tero (Vanellus cayanus) is another -bird, which often disturbs the stillness of the night. In -appearance and habits it resembles in many respects our peewits; -its wings, however, are armed with sharp spurs, like -those on the legs of the common cock. As our peewit takes -its name from the sound of its voice, so does the teru-tero. -While riding over the grassy plains, one is constantly pursued -by these birds, which appear to hate mankind, and I -am sure deserve to be hated for their never-ceasing, unvaried, -harsh screams. To the sportsman they are most annoying, -by telling every other bird and animal of his approach: to -the traveller in the country, they may possibly, as Molina -says, do good, by warning him of the midnight robber. During -the breeding season, they attempt, like our peewits, by -feigning to be wounded, to draw away from their nests dogs -and other enemies. The eggs of this bird are esteemed a -great delicacy. - -September 16th. -- To the seventh posta at the foot of the -Sierra Tapalguen. The country was quite level, with a -coarse herbage and a soft peaty soil. The hovel was here -remarkably neat, the posts and rafters being made of about -a dozen dry thistle-stalks bound together with thongs of -hide; and by the support of these Ionic-like columns, the -roof and sides were thatched with reeds. We were here told -a fact, which I would not have credited, if I had not had -partly ocular proof of it; namely, that, during the previous -night hail as large as small apples, and extremely hard, had -fallen with such violence, as to kill the greater number of the -wild animals. One of the men had already found thirteen -deer (Cervus campestris) lying dead, and I saw their _fresh_ -hides; another of the party, a few minutes after my arrival -brought in seven more. Now I well know, that one man -without dogs could hardly have killed seven deer in a week. -The men believed they had seen about fifteen ostriches (part -of one of which we had for dinner); and they said that -several were running about evidently blind in one eye. -Numbers of smaller birds, as ducks, hawks, and partridges, -were killed. I saw one of the latter with a black mark on -its back, as if it had been struck with a paving-stone. A -fence of thistle-stalks round the hovel was nearly broken -down, and my informer, putting his head out to see what was -the matter, received a severe cut, and now wore a bandage. -The storm was said to have been of limited extent: we -certainly saw from our last night's bivouac a dense cloud -and lightning in this direction. It is marvellous how such -strong animals as deer could thus have been killed; but I -have no doubt, from the evidence I have given, that the -story is not in the least exaggerated. I am glad, however, -to have its credibility supported by the Jesuit Dobrizhoffen, [4] -who, speaking of a country much to the northward, says, -hail fell of an enormous size and killed vast numbers of cattle: -the Indians hence called the place _Lalegraicavalca_, meaning -"the little white things." Dr. Malcolmson, also, informs me -that he witnessed in 1831 in India, a hail-storm, which -killed numbers of large birds and much injured the cattle. -These hailstones were flat, and one was ten inches in -circumference, and another weighed two ounces. They -ploughed up a gravel-walk like musket-balls, and passed -through glass-windows, making round holes, but not cracking -them. - -Having finished our dinner, of hail-stricken meat, we -crossed the Sierra Tapalguen; a low range of hills, a few -hundred feet in height, which commences at Cape Corrientes. -The rock in this part is pure quartz; further eastward I -understand it is granitic. The hills are of a remarkable -form; they consist of flat patches of table-land, surrounded -by low perpendicular cliffs, like the outliers of a sedimentary -deposit. The hill which I ascended was very small, not -above a couple of hundred yards in diameter; but I saw -others larger. One which goes by the name of the "Corral," -is said to be two or three miles in diameter, and encompassed -by perpendicular cliffs, between thirty and forty feet high, -excepting at one spot, where the entrance lies. Falconer [5] -gives a curious account of the Indians driving troops of -wild horses into it, and then by guarding the entrance, keeping -them secure. I have never heard of any other instance -of table-land in a formation of quartz, and which, in the -hill I examined, had neither cleavage nor stratification. I -was told that the rock of the "Corral" was white, and would -strike fire. - -We did not reach the posta on the Rio Tapalguen till -after it was dark. At supper, from something which was -said, I was suddenly struck with horror at thinking that I -was eating one of the favourite dishes of the country -namely, a half-formed calf, long before its proper time of -birth. It turned out to be Puma; the meat is very white -and remarkably like veal in taste. Dr. Shaw was laughed -at for stating that "the flesh of the lion is in great esteem -having no small affinity with veal, both in colour, taste, -and flavour." Such certainly is the case with the Puma. -The Gauchos differ in their opinion, whether the Jaguar is -good eating, but are unanimous in saying that cat is excellent. - -September 17th. -- We followed the course of the Rio -Tapalguen, through a very fertile country, to the ninth -posta. Tapalguen, itself, or the town of Tapalguen, if it -may be so called, consists of a perfectly level plain, studded -over, as far as the eye can reach, with the toldos or -oven-shaped huts of the Indians. The families of the friendly -Indians, who were fighting on the side of Rosas, resided -here. We met and passed many young Indian women, riding -by two or three together on the same horse: they, as -well as many of the young men, were strikingly handsome, -- -their fine ruddy complexions being the picture of health. -Besides the toldos, there were three ranchos; one inhabited -by the Commandant, and the two others by Spaniards with -small shops. - -We were here able to buy some biscuit. I had now been -several days without tasting anything besides meat: I did -not at all dislike this new regimen; but I felt as if it would -only have agreed with me with hard exercise. I have heard -that patients in England, when desired to confine themselves -exclusively to an animal diet, even with the hope of life -before their eyes, have hardly been able to endure it. Yet -the Gaucho in the Pampas, for months together, touches -nothing but beef. But they eat, I observe, a very large -proportion of fat, which is of a less animalized nature; and -they particularly dislike dry meat, such as that of the Agouti. -Dr. Richardson [6] also, has remarked, "that when people -have fed for a long time solely upon lean animal food, the -desire for fat becomes so insatiable, that they can consume -a large quantity of unmixed and even oily fat without -nausea:" this appears to me a curious physiological fact. -It is, perhaps, from their meat regimen that the Gauchos, -like other carnivorous animals, can abstain long from food. -I was told that at Tandeel, some troops voluntarily pursued -a party of Indians for three days, without eating or drinking. - -We saw in the shops many articles, such as horsecloths, -belts, and garters, woven by the Indian women. The patterns -were very pretty, and the colours brilliant; the workmanship -of the garters was so good that an English merchant -at Buenos Ayres maintained they must have been -manufactured in England, till he found the tassels had been -fastened by split sinew. - -September 18th. -- We had a very long ride this day. At -the twelfth posta, which is seven leagues south of the Rio -Salado, we came to the first estancia with cattle and white -women. Afterwards we had to ride for many miles through -a country flooded with water above our horses' knees. By -crossing the stirrups, and riding Arab-like with our legs -bent up, we contrived to keep tolerably dry. It was nearly -dark when we arrived at the Salado; the stream was deep, -and about forty yards wide; in summer, however, its bed -becomes almost dry, and the little remaining water nearly -as salt as that of the sea. We slept at one of the great -estancias of General Rosas. It was fortified, and of such an -extent, that arriving in the dark I thought it was a town -and fortress. In the morning we saw immense herds of -cattle, the general here having seventy-four square leagues -of land. Formerly nearly three hundred men were employed -about this estate, and they defied all the attacks of -the Indians. - -September 19th. -- Passed the Guardia del Monte. This -is a nice scattered little town, with many gardens, full of -peach and quince trees. The plain here looked like that -around Buenos Ayres; the turf being short and bright green, -with beds of clover and thistles, and with bizcacha holes. -I was very much struck with the marked change in the -aspect of the country after having crossed the Salado. From -a coarse herbage we passed on to a carpet of fine green verdure. -I at first attributed this to some change in the nature -of the soil, but the inhabitants assured me that here, as -well as in Banda Oriental, where there is as great a difference -between the country round Monte Video and the -thinly-inhabited savannahs of Colonia, the whole was to be -attributed to the manuring and grazing of the cattle. Exactly -the same fact has been observed in the prairies [7] of -North America, where coarse grass, between five and six -feet high, when grazed by cattle, changes into common pasture -land. I am not botanist enough to say whether the -change here is owing to the introduction of new species, -to the altered growth of the same, or to a difference in their -proportional numbers. Azara has also observed with astonishment -this change: he is likewise much perplexed by the -immediate appearance of plants not occurring in the neighbourhood, -on the borders of any track that leads to a newly- -constructed hovel. In another part he says, [8] "ces chevaux -(sauvages) ont la manie de preferer les chemins, et le bord -des routes pour deposer leurs excremens, dont on trouve des -monceaux dans ces endroits." Does this not partly explain -the circumstance? We thus have lines of richly manured -land serving as channels of communication across wide districts. - -Near the Guardia we find the southern limit of two European -plants, now become extraordinarily common. The -fennel in great profusion covers the ditch-banks in the -neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, and other towns. -But the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) has a far wider -range: [9] it occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the, -Cordillera, across the continent. I saw it in unfrequented -spots in Chile, Entre Rios, and Banda Oriental. In the -latter country alone, very many (probably several hundred) -square miles are covered by one mass of these prickly plants, -and are impenetrable by man or beast. Over the undulating -plains, where these great beds occur, nothing else can now -live. Before their introduction, however, the surface must -have supported, as in other parts, a rank herbage. I doubt -whether any case is on record of an invasion on so grand -a scale of one plant over the aborigines. As I have already -said, I nowhere saw the cardoon south of the Salado; but -it is probable that in proportion as that country becomes -inhabited, the cardoon will extend its limits. The case is -different with the giant thistle (with variegated leaves) of -the Pampas, for I met with it in the valley of the Sauce. -According to the principles so well laid down by Mr. Lyell, -few countries have undergone more remarkable changes, -since the year 1535, when the first colonist of La Plata landed -with seventy-two horses. The countless herds of horses, -cattle, and sheep, not only have altered the whole aspect of -the vegetation, but they have almost banished the guanaco, -deer and ostrich. Numberless other changes must likewise -have taken place; the wild pig in some parts probably replaces -the peccari; packs of wild dogs may be heard howling -on the wooded banks of the less-frequented streams; and -the common cat, altered into a large and fierce animal, inhabits -rocky hills. As M. d'Orbigny has remarked, the increase -in numbers of the carrion-vulture, since the introduction -of the domestic animals, must have been infinitely great; -and we have given reasons for believing that they have extended -their southern range. No doubt many plants, besides -the cardoon and fennel, are naturalized; thus the islands -near the mouth of the Parana, are thickly clothed with -peach and orange trees, springing from seeds carried there -by the waters of the river. - -While changing horses at the Guardia several people questioned -us much about the army, -- I never saw anything like -the enthusiasm for Rosas, and for the success of the "most -just of all wars, because against barbarians." This expression, -it must be confessed, is very natural, for till lately, -neither man, woman nor horse, was safe from the attacks -of the Indians. We had a long day's ride over the same -rich green plain, abounding with various flocks, and with -here and there a solitary estancia, and its one _ombu_ tree. -In the evening it rained heavily: on arriving at a posthouse -we were told by the owner, that if we had not a -regular passport we must pass on, for there were so -many robbers he would trust no one. When he read, however, -my passport, which began with "El Naturalista Don -Carlos," his respect and civility were as unbounded as his -suspicions had been before. What a naturalist might be, -neither he nor his countrymen, I suspect, had any idea; -but probably my title lost nothing of its value from that -cause. - -September 20th. -- We arrived by the middle of the day at -Buenos Ayres. The outskirts of the city looked quite pretty, -with the agave hedges, and groves of olive, peach and willow -trees, all just throwing out their fresh green leaves. I rode -to the house of Mr. Lumb, an English merchant, to whose -kindness and hospitality, during my stay in the country, I -was greatly indebted. - -The city of Buenos Ayres is large; [10] and I should think -one of the most regular in the world. Every street is at right -angles to the one it crosses, and the parallel ones being -equidistant, the houses are collected into solid squares of -equal dimensions, which are called quadras. On the other hand, -the houses themselves are hollow squares; all the rooms opening -into a neat little courtyard. They are generally only -one story high, with flat roofs, which are fitted with seats -and are much frequented by the inhabitants in summer. In -the centre of the town is the Plaza, where the public offices, -fortress, cathedral, etc., stand. Here also, the old viceroys, -before the revolution, had their palaces. The general assemblage -of buildings possesses considerable architectural beauty, -although none individually can boast of any. - -The great _corral_, where the animals are kept for slaughter -to supply food to this beef-eating population, is one of -the spectacles best worth seeing. The strength of the horse -as compared to that of the bullock is quite astonishing: a -man on horseback having thrown his lazo round the horns -of a beast, can drag it anywhere he chooses. The animal -ploughing up the ground with outstretched legs, in vain -efforts to resist the force, generally dashes at full speed to -one side; but the horse immediately turning to receive the -shock, stands so firmly that the bullock is almost thrown -down, and it is surprising that their necks are not broken. -The struggle is not, however, one of fair strength; the -horse's girth being matched against the bullock's extended -neck. In a similar manner a man can hold the wildest horse, -if caught with the lazo, just behind the ears. When the -bullock has been dragged to the spot where it is to be -slaughtered, the matador with great caution cuts the hamstrings. -Then is given the death bellow; a noise more expressive -of fierce agony than any I know. I have often distinguished -it from a long distance, and have always known -that the struggle was then drawing to a close. The whole -sight is horrible and revolting: the ground is almost made of -bones; and the horses and riders are drenched with gore. - -[1] I call these thistle-stalks for the want of a more correct -name. I believe it is a species of Eryngium. - -[2] Travels in Africa, p. 233. - -[3] Two species of Tinamus and Eudromia elegans of A. d'Orbigny, -which can only be called a partridge with regard to its habits. - -[4] History of the Abipones, vol. ii. p. 6. - -[5] Falconer's Patagonia, p. 70. - -[6] Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 35. - -[7] See Mr. Atwater's account of the Prairies, in Silliman's -N. A. Journal, vol. i. p. 117. - -[8] Azara's Voyages, vol. i. p. 373. - -[9] M. A. d'Orbigny (vol. i. p. 474) says that the cardoon -and artichoke are both found wild. Dr. Hooker (Botanical -Magazine, vol. iv. p. 2862), has described a variety of the -Cynara from this part of South America under the name of -inermis. He states that botanists are now generally agreed -that the cardoon and the artichoke are varieties of one plant. -I may add, that an intelligent farmer assured me that he had -observed in a deserted garden some artichokes changing into -the common cardoon. Dr. Hooker believes that Head's vivid -description of the thistle of the Pampas applies to the -cardoon, but this is a mistake. Captain Head referred to the -plant, which I have mentioned a few lines lower down, under -the title of giant thistle. Whether it is a true thistle I do -not know; but it is quite different from the cardoon; and more -like a thistle properly so called. - -[10] It is said to contain 60,000 inhabitants. Monte Video, the -second town of importance on the banks of the Plata, has -15,000. - - - -CHAPTER VII - -BUENOS AYRES AND ST. FE - -Excursion to St. Fe -- Thistle Beds -- Habits of the Bizcacha -- -Little Owl -- Saline Streams -- Level Plain -- Mastodon -- St. -Fe -- Change in Landscape -- Geology -- Tooth of extinct -Horse -- Relation of the Fossil and recent Quadrupeds of North -and South America -- Effects of a great Drought -- Parana -- -Habits of the Jaguar -- Scissor-beak -- Kingfisher, Parrot, -and Scissor-tail -- Revolution -- Buenos Ayres State of -Government. - - -SEPTEMBER 27th. -- In the evening I set out on an -excursion to St. Fe, which is situated nearly three hundred -English miles from Buenos Ayres, on the banks of -the Parana. The roads in the neighbourhood of the city after -the rainy weather, were extraordinarily bad. I should never -have thought it possible for a bullock waggon to have -crawled along: as it was, they scarcely went at the rate of a -mile an hour, and a man was kept ahead, to survey the best -line for making the attempt. The bullocks were terribly -jaded: it is a great mistake to suppose that with improved -roads, and an accelerated rate of travelling, the sufferings of -the animals increase in the same proportion. We passed a -train of waggons and a troop of beasts on their road to -Mendoza. The distance is about 580 geographical miles, and -the journey is generally performed in fifty days. These -waggons are very long, narrow, and thatched with reeds; -they have only two wheels, the diameter of which in some -cases is as much as ten feet. Each is drawn by six bullocks, -which are urged on by a goad at least twenty feet long: this -is suspended from within the roof; for the wheel bullocks a -smaller one is kept; and for the intermediate pair, a point -projects at right angles from the middle of the long one. - -The whole apparatus looked like some implement of war. - -September 28th. -- We passed the small town of Luxan -where there is a wooden bridge over the river -- a most -unusual convenience in this country. We passed also Areco. -The plains appeared level, but were not so in fact; for in -various places the horizon was distant. The estancias are -here wide apart; for there is little good pasture, owing to -the land being covered by beds either of an acrid clover, -or of the great thistle. The latter, well known from the -animated description given by Sir F. Head, were at this -time of the year two-thirds grown; in some parts they were -as high as the horse's back, but in others they had not yet -sprung up, and the ground was bare and dusty as on a turnpike- -road. The clumps were of the most brilliant green, and -they made a pleasing miniature-likeness of broken forest -land. When the thistles are full grown, the great beds are -impenetrable, except by a few tracts, as intricate as those -in a labyrinth. These are only known to the robbers, who -at this season inhabit them, and sally forth at night to rob -and cut throats with impunity. Upon asking at a house -whether robbers were numerous, I was answered, "The thistles -are not up yet;" -- the meaning of which reply was not at -first very obvious. There is little interest in passing over -these tracts, for they are inhabited by few animals or birds, -excepting the bizcacha and its friend the little owl. - -The bizcacha [1] is well known to form a prominent feature -in the zoology of the Pampas. It is found as far south as -the Rio Negro, in lat. 41 degs., but not beyond. It cannot, -like the agouti, subsist on the gravelly and desert plains of -Patagonia, but prefers a clayey or sandy soil, which produces a -different and more abundant vegetation. Near Mendoza, at -the foot of the Cordillera, it occurs in close neighbourhood -with the allied alpine species. It is a very curious -circumstance in its geographical distribution, that it has never -been seen, fortunately for the inhabitants of Banda Oriental, to -the eastward of the river Uruguay: yet in this province there -are plains which appear admirably adapted to its habits. -The Uruguay has formed an insuperable obstacle to its -migration: although the broader barrier of the Parana has -been passed, and the bizcacha is common in Entre Rios, the -province between these two great rivers. Near Buenos Ayres -these animals are exceedingly common. Their most favourite -resort appears to be those parts of the plain which during -one-half of the year are covered with giant thistles, to the -exclusion of other plants. The Gauchos affirm that it lives -on roots; which, from the great strength of its gnawing -teeth, and the kind of places frequented by it, seems probable. -In the evening the bizcachas come out in numbers, and quietly -sit at the mouths of their burrows on their haunches. At -such times they are very tame, and a man on horseback passing -by seems only to present an object for their grave -contemplation. They run very awkwardly, and when running -out of danger, from their elevated tails and short front legs -much resemble great rats. Their flesh, when cooked, is very -white and good, but it is seldom used. - -The bizcacha has one very singular habit; namely, dragging -every hard object to the mouth of its burrow: around -each group of holes many bones of cattle, stones, thistle- -stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry dung, etc., are collected into -an irregular heap, which frequently amounts to as much as -a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed that -a gentleman, when riding on a dark night, dropped his -watch; he returned in the morning, and by searching the -neighbourhood of every bizcacha hole on the line of road, -as he expected, he soon found it. This habit of picking -up whatever may be lying on the ground anywhere near its -habitation, must cost much trouble. For what purpose it -is done, I am quite unable to form even the most remote -conjecture: it cannot be for defence, because the rubbish -is chiefly placed above the mouth of the burrow, which -enters the ground at a very small inclination. No doubt -there must exist some good reason; but the inhabitants of -the country are quite ignorant of it. The only fact which -I know analogous to it, is the habit of that extraordinary -Australian bird, the Calodera maculata, which makes an -elegant vaulted passage of twigs for playing in, and -which collects near the spot, land and sea-shells, bones -and the feathers of birds, especially brightly coloured -ones. Mr. Gould, who has described these facts, informs -me, that the natives, when they lose any hard object, -search the playing passages, and he has known a tobacco- -pipe thus recovered. - -The little owl (Athene cunicularia), which has been so -often mentioned, on the plains of Buenos Ayres exclusively -inhabits the holes of the bizcacha; but in Banda Oriental it -is its own workman. During the open day, but more especially -in the evening, these birds may be seen in every direction -standing frequently by pairs on the hillock near their -burrows. If disturbed they either enter the hole, or, uttering -a shrill harsh cry, move with a remarkably undulatory -flight to a short distance, and then turning round, steadily -gaze at their pursuer. Occasionally in the evening they may -be heard hooting. I found in the stomachs of two which -I opened the remains of mice, and I one day saw a small -snake killed and carried away. It is said that snakes are -their common prey during the daytime. I may here mention, -as showing on what various kinds of food owls subsist, -that a species killed among the islets of the Chonos -Archipelago, had its stomach full of good-sized crabs. In -India [2] there is a fishing genus of owls, which likewise -catches crabs. - -In the evening we crossed the Rio Arrecife on a simple -raft made of barrels lashed together, and slept at the post- -house on the other side. I this day paid horse-hire for -thirty-one leagues; and although the sun was glaring hot I -was but little fatigued. When Captain Head talks of riding -fifty leagues a day, I do not imagine the distance is equal -to 150 English miles. At all events, the thirty-one leagues -was only 76 miles in a straight line, and in an open country -I should think four additional miles for turnings would be -a sufficient allowance. - -29th and 30th. -- We continued to ride over plains of the -same character. At San Nicolas I first saw the noble river -of the Parana. At the foot of the cliff on which the town -stands, some large vessels were at anchor. Before arriving -at Rozario, we crossed the Saladillo, a stream of fine clear -running water, but too saline to drink. Rozario is a large -town built on a dead level plain, which forms a cliff about -sixty feet high over the Parana. The river here is very -broad, with many islands, which are low and wooded, as is -also the opposite shore. The view would resemble that of a -great lake, if it were not for the linear-shaped islets, which -alone give the idea of running water. The cliffs are the most -picturesque part; sometimes they are absolutely perpendicular, -and of a red colour; at other times in large broken -masses, covered with cacti and mimosa-trees. The real -grandeur, however, of an immense river like this, is derived -from reflecting how important a means of communication -and commerce it forms between one nation and another; to -what a distance it travels, and from how vast a territory -it drains the great body of fresh water which flows past -your feet. - -For many leagues north and south of San Nicolas and -Rozario, the country is really level. Scarcely anything which -travellers have written about its extreme flatness, can be -considered as exaggeration. Yet I could never find a spot -where, by slowly turning round, objects were not seen at -greater distances in some directions than in others; and -this manifestly proves inequality in the plain. At sea, a -person's eye being six feet above the surface of the water, -his horizon is two miles and four-fifths distant. In like -manner, the more level the plain, the more nearly does the -horizon approach within these narrow limits; and this, in -my opinion, entirely destroys that grandeur which one would -have imagined that a vast level plain would have possessed. - -October 1st. -- We started by moonlight and arrived at the -Rio Tercero by sunrise. The river is also called the Saladillo, -and it deserves the name, for the water is brackish. -I stayed here the greater part of the day, searching for fossil -bones. Besides a perfect tooth of the Toxodon, and many -scattered bones, I found two immense skeletons near each -other, projecting in bold relief from the perpendicular cliff -of the Parana. They were, however, so completely decayed, -that I could only bring away small fragments of one of the -great molar teeth; but these are sufficient to show that the -remains belonged to a Mastodon, probably to the same species -with that, which formerly must have inhabited the Cordillera -in Upper Peru in such great numbers. The men -who took me in the canoe, said they had long known of these -skeletons, and had often wondered how they had got there: -the necessity of a theory being felt, they came to the -conclusion that, like the bizcacha, the mastodon was formerly -a burrowing animal! In the evening we rode another stage, -and crossed the Monge, another brackish stream, bearing the -dregs of the washings of the Pampas. - -October 2nd. -- We passed through Corunda, which, from -the luxuriance of its gardens, was one of the prettiest -villages I saw. From this point to St. Fe the road is not very -safe. The western side of the Parana northward, ceases to -be inhabited; and hence the Indians sometimes come down -thus far, and waylay travellers. The nature of the country -also favours this, for instead of a grassy plain, there is an -open woodland, composed of low prickly mimosas. We -passed some houses that had been ransacked and since deserted; -we saw also a spectacle, which my guides viewed -with high satisfaction; it was the skeleton of an Indian -with the dried skin hanging on the bones, suspended to the -branch of a tree. - -In the morning we arrived at St. Fe. I was surprised -to observe how great a change of climate a difference of only -three degrees of latitude between this place and Buenos -Ayres had caused. This was evident from the dress and -complexion of the men -- from the increased size of the -ombu-trees -- the number of new cacti and other plants -- -and especially from the birds. In the course of an hour I -remarked half-a-dozen birds, which I had never seen at -Buenos Ayres. Considering that there is no natural boundary -between the two places, and that the character of the -country is nearly similar, the difference was much greater -than I should have expected. - -October 3rd and 4th. -- I was confined for these two days -to my bed by a headache. A good-natured old woman, -who attended me, wished me to try many odd remedies. A -common practice is, to bind an orange-leaf or a bit of black -plaster to each temple: and a still more general plan is, to -split a bean into halves, moisten them, and place one on -each temple, where they will easily adhere. It is not thought -proper ever to remove the beans or plaster, but to allow -them to drop off, and sometimes, if a man, with patches on -his head, is asked, what is the matter? he will answer, "I -had a headache the day before yesterday." Many of the -remedies used by the people of the country are ludicrously -strange, but too disgusting to be mentioned. One of the -least nasty is to kill and cut open two puppies and bind -them on each side of a broken limb. Little hairless dogs are -in great request to sleep at the feet of invalids. - -St. Fe is a quiet little town, and is kept clean and in good -order. The governor, Lopez, was a common soldier at the -time of the revolution; but has now been seventeen years -in power. This stability of government is owing to his -tyrannical habits; for tyranny seems as yet better adapted -to these countries than republicanism. The governor's favourite -occupation is hunting Indians: a short time since -he slaughtered forty-eight, and sold the children at the rate -of three or four pounds apiece. - -October 5th. -- We crossed the Parana to St. Fe Bajada, -a town on the opposite shore. The passage took some hours, -as the river here consisted of a labyrinth of small streams, -separated by low wooded islands. I had a letter of introduction -to an old Catalonian Spaniard, who treated me with -the most uncommon hospitality. The Bajada is the capital -of Entre Rios. In 1825 the town contained 6000 inhabitants, -and the province 30,000; yet, few as the inhabitants are, no -province has suffered more from bloody and desperate -revolutions. They boast here of representatives, ministers, a -standing army, and governors: so it is no wonder that they -have their revolutions. At some future day this must be -one of the richest countries of La Plata. The soil is varied -and productive; and its almost insular form gives it two -grand lines of communication by the rivers Parana and -Uruguay. - - -I was delayed here five days, and employed myself in examining -the geology of the surrounding country, which was -very interesting. We here see at the bottom of the cliffs, -beds containing sharks' teeth and sea-shells of extinct species, -passing above into an indurated marl, and from that -into the red clayey earth of the Pampas, with its calcareous -concretions and the bones of terrestrial quadrupeds. This -vertical section clearly tells us of a large bay of pure salt- -water, gradually encroached on, and at last converted into -the bed of a muddy estuary, into which floating carcasses -were swept. At Punta Gorda, in Banda Oriental, I found -an alternation of the Pampaean estuary deposit, with a -limestone containing some of the same extinct sea-shells; and -this shows either a change in the former currents, or more -probably an oscillation of level in the bottom of the ancient -estuary. Until lately, my reasons for considering the Pampaean -formation to be an estuary deposit were, its general -appearance, its position at the mouth of the existing great -river the Plata, and the presence of so many bones of -terrestrial quadrupeds: but now Professor Ehrenberg has had -the kindness to examine for me a little of the red earth, -taken from low down in the deposit, close to the skeletons -of the mastodon, and he finds in it many infusoria, partly -salt-water and partly fresh-water forms, with the latter -rather preponderating; and therefore, as he remarks, the -water must have been brackish. M. A. d'Orbigny found on -the banks of the Parana, at the height of a hundred feet, -great beds of an estuary shell, now living a hundred miles -lower down nearer the sea; and I found similar shells at a -less height on the banks of the Uruguay; this shows that -just before the Pampas was slowly elevated into dry land, -the water covering it was brackish. Below Buenos Ayres -there are upraised beds of sea-shells of existing species, -which also proves that the period of elevation of the Pampas -was within the recent period. - -In the Pampaean deposit at the Bajada I found the osseous -armour of a gigantic armadillo-like animal, the inside -of which, when the earth was removed, was like a great -cauldron; I found also teeth of the Toxodon and Mastodon, -and one tooth of a Horse, in the same stained and decayed -state. This latter tooth greatly interested me, [3] and I took -scrupulous care in ascertaining that it had been embedded -contemporaneously with the other remains; for I was not -then aware that amongst the fossils from Bahia Blanca -there was a horse's tooth hidden in the matrix: nor was it -then known with certainty that the remains of horses are -common in North America. Mr. Lyell has lately brought -from the United States a tooth of a horse; and it is an -interesting fact, that Professor Owen could find in no species, -either fossil or recent, a slight but peculiar curvature -characterizing it, until he thought of comparing it with my -specimen found here: he has named this American horse Equus -curvidens. Certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history -of the Mammalia, that in South America a native horse -should have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after- -ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced -with the Spanish colonists! - -The existence in South America of a fossil horse, of the -mastodon, possibly of an elephant, [4] and of a hollow-horned -ruminant, discovered by MM. Lund and Clausen in the -caves of Brazil, are highly interesting facts with respect to -the geographical distribution of animals. At the present -time, if we divide America, not by the Isthmus of Panama, -but by the southern part of Mexico [5] in lat. 20 degs., where -the great table-land presents an obstacle to the migration of -species, by affecting the climate, and by forming, with the -exception of some valleys and of a fringe of low land on -the coast, a broad barrier; we shall then have the two -zoological provinces of North and South America strongly -contrasted with each other. Some few species alone have -passed the barrier, and may be considered as wanderers from -the south, such as the puma, opossum, kinkajou, and peccari. -South America is characterized by possessing many peculiar -gnawers, a family of monkeys, the llama, peccari, tapir, -opossums, and, especially, several genera of Edentata, the -order which includes the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadilloes. -North America, on the other hand, is characterized (putting -on one side a few wandering species) by numerous peculiar -gnawers, and by four genera (the ox, sheep, goat, and antelope) -of hollow-horned ruminants, of which great division -South America is not known to possess a single species. -Formerly, but within the period when most of the now existing -shells were living, North America possessed, besides -hollow-horned ruminants, the elephant, mastodon, horse, and -three genera of Edentata, namely, the Megatherium, Megalonyx, -and Mylodon. Within nearly this same period (as -proved by the shells at Bahia Blanca) South America possessed, -as we have just seen, a mastodon, horse, hollow- -horned ruminant, and the same three genera (as well as -several others) of the Edentata. Hence it is evident that -North and South America, in having within a late geological -period these several genera in common, were much -more closely related in the character of their terrestrial -inhabitants than they now are. The more I reflect on this -case, the more interesting it appears: I know of no other -instance where we can almost mark the period and manner -of the splitting up of one great region into two well- -characterized zoological provinces. The geologist, who is fully -impressed with the vast oscillations of level which have -affected the earth's crust within late periods, will not fear -to speculate on the recent elevation of the Mexican platform, -or, more probably, on the recent submergence of land -in the West Indian Archipelago, as the cause of the present -zoological separation of North and South America. The -South American character of the West Indian mammals [6] -seems to indicate that this archipelago was formerly united -to the southern continent, and that it has subsequently been -an area of subsidence. - -When America, and especially North America, possessed -its elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants, -it was much more closely related in its zoological -characters to the temperate parts of Europe and Asia than -it now is. As the remains of these genera are found on -both sides of Behring's Straits [7] and on the plains of -Siberia, we are led to look to the north-western side of North -America as the former point of communication between the Old -and so-called New World. And as so many species, both -living and extinct, of these same genera inhabit and have -inhabited the Old World, it seems most probable that the -North American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow- -horned ruminants migrated, on land since submerged near -Behring's Straits, from Siberia into North America, and -thence, on land since submerged in the West Indies, into -South America, where for a time they mingled with the -forms characteristic of that southern continent, and have -since become extinct. - - -While travelling through the country, I received several -vivid descriptions of the effects of a late great drought; and -the account of this may throw some light on the cases where -vast numbers of animals of all kinds have been embedded -together. The period included between the years 1827 and -1830 is called the "gran seco," or the great drought. During -this time so little rain fell, that the vegetation, even to the -thistles, failed; the brooks were dried up, and the whole -country assumed the appearance of a dusty high road. This -was especially the case in the northern part of the province -of Buenos Ayres and the southern part of St. Fe. Very -great numbers of birds, wild animals, cattle, and horses -perished from the want of food and water. A man told me -that the deer [8] used to come into his courtyard to the well, -which he had been obliged to dig to supply his own family -with water; and that the partridges had hardly strength to -fly away when pursued. The lowest estimation of the loss -of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres alone, was taken -at one million head. A proprietor at San Pedro had previously -to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one remained. -San Pedro is situated in the middle of the finest -country; and even now abounds again with animals; yet -during the latter part of the "gran seco," live cattle were -brought in vessels for the consumption of the inhabitants. -The animals roamed from their estancias, and, wandering -far southward, were mingled together in such multitudes, -that a government commission was sent from Buenos Ayres -to settle the disputes of the owners. Sir Woodbine Parish -informed me of another and very curious source of dispute; -the ground being so long dry, such quantities of dust were -blown about, that in this open country the landmarks became -obliterated, and people could not tell the limits of their -estates. - -I was informed by an eye-witness that the cattle in herds -of thousands rushed into the Parana, and being exhausted -by hunger they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks, -and thus were drowned. The arm of the river which runs -by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcasses, that the master -of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite impassable. -Without doubt several hundred thousand animals -thus perished in the river: their bodies when putrid were -seen floating down the stream; and many in all probability -were deposited in the estuary of the Plata. All the small -rivers became highly saline, and this caused the death of -vast numbers in particular spots; for when an animal drinks -of such water it does not recover. Azara describes [9] the -fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion, rushing into -the marshes, those which arrived first being overwhelmed -and crushed by those which followed. He adds that more -than once he has seen the carcasses of upwards of a thousand -wild horses thus destroyed. I noticed that the smaller -streams in the Pampas were paved with a breccia of bones -but this probably is the effect of a gradual increase, rather -than of the destruction at any one period. Subsequently -to the drought of 1827 to 1832, a very rainy season followed -which caused great floods. Hence it is almost certain that -some thousands of the skeletons were buried by the deposits -of the very next year. What would be the opinion of a -geologist, viewing such an enormous collection of bones, of -all kinds of animals and of all ages, thus embedded in one -thick earthy mass? Would he not attribute it to a flood -having swept over the surface of the land, rather than to -the common order of things? [10] - -October 12th. -- I had intended to push my excursion further, -but not being quite well, I was compelled to return by -a balandra, or one-masted vessel of about a hundred tons' -burden, which was bound to Buenos Ayres. As the weather -was not fair, we moored early in the day to a branch of a -tree on one of the islands. The Parana is full of islands, -which undergo a constant round of decay and renovation. -In the memory of the master several large ones had disappeared, -and others again had been formed and protected -by vegetation. They are composed of muddy sand, without -even the smallest pebble, and were then about four feet -above the level of the river; but during the periodical floods -they are inundated. They all present one character; numerous -willows and a few other trees are bound together by a -great variety of creeping plants, thus forming a thick jungle. -These thickets afford a retreat for capybaras and jaguars. -The fear of the latter animal quite destroyed all pleasure -in scrambling through the woods. This evening I had not -proceeded a hundred yards, before finding indubitable signs -of the recent presence of the tiger, I was obliged to come -back. On every island there were tracks; and as on the -former excursion "el rastro de los Indios" had been the -subject of conversation, so in this was "el rastro del tigre." -The wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be the -favourite haunts of the jaguar; but south of the Plata, I -was told that they frequented the reeds bordering lakes: -wherever they are, they seem to require water. Their common -prey is the capybara, so that it is generally said, where -capybaras are numerous there is little danger from the -jaguar. Falconer states that near the southern side of the -mouth of the Plata there are many jaguars, and that they -chiefly live on fish; this account I have heard repeated. On -the Parana they have killed many wood-cutters, and have -even entered vessels at night. There is a man now living -in the Bajada, who, coming up from below when it was -dark, was seized on the deck; he escaped, however, with -the loss of the use of one arm. When the floods drive these -animals from the islands, they are most dangerous. I was -told that a few years since a very large one found its way -into a church at St. Fe: two padres entering one after the -other were killed, and a third, who came to see what was the -matter, escaped with difficulty. The beast was destroyed by -being shot from a corner of the building which was unroofed. -They commit also at these times great ravages -among cattle and horses. It is said that they kill their prey -by breaking their necks. If driven from the carcass, they -seldom return to it. The Gauchos say that the jaguar, when -wandering about at night, is much tormented by the foxes -yelping as they follow him. This is a curious coincidence -with the fact which is generally affirmed of the jackals -accompanying, in a similarly officious manner, the East Indian -tiger. The jaguar is a noisy animal, roaring much by night, -and especially before bad weather. - -One day, when hunting on the banks of the Uruguay, I -was shown certain trees, to which these animals constantly -recur for the purpose, as it is said, of sharpening their -claws. I saw three well-known trees; in front, the bark -was worn smooth, as if by the breast of the animal, and on -each side there were deep scratches, or rather grooves, -extending in an oblique line, nearly a yard in length. The -scars were of different ages. A common method of ascertaining -whether a jaguar is in the neighbourhood is to -examine these trees. I imagine this habit of the jaguar is -exactly similar to one which may any day be seen in the -common cat, as with outstretched legs and exserted claws it -scrapes the leg of a chair; and I have heard of young fruit- -trees in an orchard in England having been thus much injured. -Some such habit must also be common to the puma, -for on the bare hard soil of Patagonia I have frequently -seen scores so deep that no other animal could have made -them. The object of this practice is, I believe, to tear off -the ragged points of their claws, and not, as the Gauchos -think, to sharpen them. The jaguar is killed, without much -difficulty, by the aid of dogs baying and driving him up a -tree, where he is despatched with bullets. - -Owing to bad weather we remained two days at our moorings. -Our only amusement was catching fish for our dinner: -there were several kinds, and all good eating. A fish called -the "armado" (a Silurus) is remarkable from a harsh grating -noise which it makes when caught by hook and line, -and which can be distinctly heard when the fish is beneath -the water. This same fish has the power of firmly catching -hold of any object, such as the blade of an oar or the fishing- -line, with the strong spine both of its pectoral and dorsal -fin. In the evening the weather was quite tropical, the -thermometer standing at 79 degs. Numbers of fireflies were -hovering about, and the musquitoes were very troublesome. -I exposed my hand for five minutes, and it was soon black -with them; I do not suppose there could have been less than -fifty, all busy sucking. - -October 15th. -- We got under way and passed Punta -Gorda, where there is a colony of tame Indians from the -province of Missiones. We sailed rapidly down the current, -but before sunset, from a silly fear of bad weather, we -brought-to in a narrow arm of the river. I took the boat -and rowed some distance up this creek. It was very narrow, -winding, and deep; on each side a wall thirty or forty feet -high, formed by trees intwined with creepers, gave to the -canal a singularly gloomy appearance. I here saw a very -extraordinary bird, called the Scissor-beak (Rhynchops -nigra). It has short legs, web feet, extremely long-pointed -wings, and is of about the size of a tern. The beak is flattened -laterally, that is, in a plane at right angles to that -of a spoonbill or duck. It is as flat and elastic as an ivory -paper-cutter, and the lower mandible, differing from every -other bird, is an inch and a half longer than the upper. In -a lake near Maldonado, from which the water had been -nearly drained, and which, in consequence, swarmed with -small fry, I saw several of these birds, generally in small -flocks, flying rapidly backwards and forwards close to the -surface of the lake. They kept their bills wide open, and -the lower mandible half buried in the water. Thus skimming -the surface, they ploughed it in their course: the water was -quite smooth, and it formed a most curious spectacle to behold -a flock, each bird leaving its narrow wake on the mirror-like -surface. In their flight they frequently twist about -with extreme quickness, and dexterously manage with their -projecting lower mandible to plough up small fish, which are -secured by the upper and shorter half of their scissor-like - - -[picture] - - -bills. This fact I repeatedly saw, as, like swallows, they -continued to fly backwards and forwards close before me. -Occasionally when leaving the surface of the water their -flight was wild, irregular, and rapid; they then uttered loud -harsh cries. When these birds are fishing, the advantage -of the long primary feathers of their wings, in keeping them -dry, is very evident. When thus employed, their forms resemble -the symbol by which many artists represent marine -birds. Their tails are much used in steering their irregular -course. - -These birds are common far inland along the course of -the Rio Parana; it is said that they remain here during the -whole year, and breed in the marshes. During the day they -rest in flocks on the grassy plains at some distance from -the water. Being at anchor, as I have said, in one of the -deep creeks between the islands of the Parana, as the evening -drew to a close, one of these scissor-beaks suddenly appeared. -The water was quite still, and many little fish were -rising. The bird continued for a long time to skim the -surface, flying in its wild and irregular manner up and down -the narrow canal, now dark with the growing night and the -shadows of the overhanging trees. At Monte Video, I observed -that some large flocks during the day remained on the -mud-banks at the head of the harbour, in the same manner -as on the grassy plains near the Parana; and every evening -they took flight seaward. From these facts I suspect -that the Rhynchops generally fishes by night, at which time -many of the lower animals come most abundantly to the -surface. M. Lesson states that he has seen these birds -opening the shells of the mactrae buried in the sand-banks on -the coast of Chile: from their weak bills, with the lower -mandible so much projecting, their short legs and long -wings, it is very improbable that this can be a general habit. - -In our course down the Parana, I observed only three -other birds, whose habits are worth mentioning. One is a -small kingfisher (Ceryle Americana); it has a longer tail -than the European species, and hence does not sit in so stiff -and upright a position. Its flight also, instead of being direct -and rapid, like the course of an arrow, is weak and -undulatory, as among the soft-billed birds. It utters a low -note, like the clicking together of two small stones. A small -green parrot (Conurus murinus), with a grey breast, appears -to prefer the tall trees on the islands to any other -situation for its building-place. A number of nests are -placed so close together as to form one great mass of sticks. -These parrots always live in flocks, and commit great ravages -on the corn-fields. I was told, that near Colonia 2500 were -killed in the course of one year. A bird with a forked tail, -terminated by two long feathers (Tyrannus savana), and -named by the Spaniards scissor-tail, is very common near -Buenos Ayres: it commonly sits on a branch of the _ombu_ -tree, near a house, and thence takes a short flight in pursuit -of insects, and returns to the same spot. When on the wing -it presents in its manner of flight and general appearance -a caricature-likeness of the common swallow. It has the -power of turning very shortly in the air, and in so doing -opens and shuts its tail, sometimes in a horizontal or lateral -and sometimes in a vertical direction, just like a pair of -scissors. - -October 16th. -- Some leagues below Rozario, the western -shore of the Parana is bounded by perpendicular cliffs, -which extend in a long line to below San Nicolas; hence it -more resembles a sea-coast than that of a fresh-water river. -It is a great drawback to the scenery of the Parana, that, -from the soft nature of its banks, the water is very muddy. -The Uruguay, flowing through a granitic country, is much -clearer; and where the two channels unite at the head of -the Plata, the waters may for a long distance be distinguished -by their black and red colours. In the evening, the -wind being not quite fair, as usual we immediately moored, -and the next day, as it blew rather freshly, though with a -favouring current, the master was much too indolent to think -of starting. At Bajada, he was described to me as "hombre -muy aflicto" -- a man always miserable to get on; but certainly -he bore all delays with admirable resignation. He -was an old Spaniard, and had been many years in this -country. He professed a great liking to the English, but -stoutly maintained that the battle of Trafalgar was merely -won by the Spanish captains having been all bought over; -and that the only really gallant action on either side was -performed by the Spanish admiral. It struck me as rather -characteristic, that this man should prefer his countrymen -being thought the worst of traitors, rather than unskilful or -cowardly. - -18th and 19th. -- We continued slowly to sail down the -noble stream: the current helped us but little. We met, -during our descent, very few vessels. One of the best gifts -of nature, in so grand a channel of communication, seems -here wilfully thrown away -- a river in which ships might -navigate from a temperate country, as surprisingly abundant -in certain productions as destitute of others, to another -possessing a tropical climate, and a soil which, according to -the best of judges, M. Bonpland, is perhaps unequalled in -fertility in any part of the world. How different would -have been the aspect of this river if English colonists had -by good fortune first sailed up the Plata! What noble towns -would now have occupied its shores! Till the death of -Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, these two countries must -remain distinct, as if placed on opposite sides of the globe. -And when the old bloody-minded tyrant is gone to his long -account, Paraguay will be torn by revolutions, violent in -proportion to the previous unnatural calm. That country -will have to learn, like every other South American state, -that a republic cannot succeed till it contains a certain body -of men imbued with the principles of justice and honour. - -October 20th. -- Being arrived at the mouth of the Parana, -and as I was very anxious to reach Buenos Ayres, I went -on shore at Las Conchas, with the intention of riding there. -Upon landing, I found to my great surprise that I was to -a certain degree a prisoner. A violent revolution having -broken out, all the ports were laid under an embargo. I -could not return to my vessel, and as for going by land to -the city, it was out of the question. After a long conversation -with the commandant, I obtained permission to go the -next day to General Rolor, who commanded a division of -the rebels on this side the capital. In the morning I rode -to the encampment. The general, officers, and soldiers, all -appeared, and I believe really were, great villains. The -general, the very evening before he left the city, voluntarily -went to the Governor, and with his hand to his heart, pledged -his word of honour that he at least would remain faithful -to the last. The general told me that the city was in a state -of close blockade, and that all he could do was to give me -a passport to the commander-in-chief of the rebels at Quilmes. -We had therefore to take a great sweep round the -city, and it was with much difficulty that we procured horses. -My reception at the encampment was quite civil, but I was -told it was impossible that I could be allowed to enter the -city. I was very anxious about this, as I anticipated the -Beagle's departure from the Rio Plata earlier than it took -place. Having mentioned, however, General Rosas's obliging -kindness to me when at the Colorado, magic itself could -not have altered circumstances quicker than did this -conversation. I was instantly told that though they could not -give me a passport, if I chose to leave my guide and horses, -I might pass their sentinels. I was too glad to accept of -this, and an officer was sent with me to give directions that -I should not be stopped at the bridge. The road for the -space of a league was quite deserted. I met one party of -soldiers, who were satisfied by gravely looking at an old -passport: and at length I was not a little pleased to find -myself within the city. - -This revolution was supported by scarcely any pretext of -grievances: but in a state which, in the course of nine months -(from February to October, 1820), underwent fifteen -changes in its government -- each governor, according to the -constitution, being elected for three years -- it would be very -unreasonable to ask for pretexts. In this case, a party of -men -- who, being attached to Rosas, were disgusted with -the governor Balcarce -- to the number of seventy left the -city, and with the cry of Rosas the whole country took arms. -The city was then blockaded, no provisions, cattle or horses, -were allowed to enter; besides this, there was only a little -skirmishing, and a few men daily killed. The outside party -well knew that by stopping the supply of meat they would -certainly be victorious. General Rosas could not have known -of this rising; but it appears to be quite consonant with the -plans of his party. A year ago he was elected governor, but -he refused it, unless the Sala would also confer on him -extraordinary powers. This was refused, and since then -his party have shown that no other governor can keep his -place. The warfare on both sides was avowedly protracted -till it was possible to hear from Rosas. A note arrived a -few days after I left Buenos Ayres, which stated that the -General disapproved of peace having been broken, but that -he thought the outside party had justice on their side. On -the bare reception of this, the Governor, ministers, and part -of the military, to the number of some hundreds, fled from -the city. The rebels entered, elected a new governor, and -were paid for their services to the number of 5500 men. -From these proceedings, it was clear that Rosas ultimately -would become the dictator: to the term king, the people in -this, as in other republics, have a particular dislike. Since -leaving South America, we have heard that Rosas has -been elected, with powers and for a time altogether opposed -to the constitutional principles of the republic. - -[1] The bizcacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus) somewhat resembles -a large rabbit, but with bigger gnawing teeth and a long tail; -it has, however, only three toes behind, like the agouti. During -the last three or four years the skins of these animals have -been sent to England for the sake of the fur. - -[2] Journal of Asiatic Soc., vol. v. p. 363. - -[3] I need hardly state here that there is good evidence -against any horse living in America at the time of Columbus. - -[4] Cuvier. Ossemens Fossils, tom. i. p. 158. - -[5] This is the geographical division followed by Lichtenstein, -Swainson, Erichson, and Richardson. The section from Vera Cruz -to Acapulco, given by Humboldt in the Polit. Essay on Kingdom -of N. Spain will show how immense a barrier the Mexican -table-land forms. Dr. Richardson, in his admirable Report on -the Zoology of N. America read before the Brit. Assoc. 1836 -(p. 157), talking of the identification of a Mexican animal -with the Synetheres prehensilis, says, "We do not know with -what propriety, but if correct, it is, if not a solitary -instance, at least very nearly so, of a rodent animal being -common to North and South America." - -[6] See Dr. Richardson's Report, p. 157; also L'Institut, -1837, p. 253. Cuvier says the kinkajou is found in the larger -Antilles, but this is doubtful. M. Gervais states that the -Didelphis crancrivora is found there. It is certain that the -West Indies possess some mammifers peculiar to themselves. A -tooth of a mastadon has been brought from Bahama; Edin. New -Phil. Journ., 1826, p. 395. - -[7] See the admirable Appendix by Dr. Buckland to Beechey's -Voyage; also the writings of Chamisso in Kotzebue's Voyage. - -[8] In Captain Owen's Surveying Voyage (vol. ii. p. 274) -there is a curious account of the effects of a drought on the -elephants, at Benguela (west coast of Africa). "A number of -these animals had some time since entered the town, in a body, -to possess themselves of the wells, not being able to procure -any water in the country. The inhabitants mustered, when a -desperate conflict ensued, which terminated in the ultimate -discomfiture of the invaders, but not until they had killed -one man, and wounded several others." The town is said to -have a population of nearly three thousand! Dr. Malcolmson -informs me that, during a great drought in India, the wild -animals entered the tents of some troops at Ellore, and that -a hare drank out of a vessel held by the adjutant of the -regiment. - -[9] Travels, vol. i. p. 374. - -[10] These droughts to a certain degree seem to be almost -periodical; I was told the dates of several others, and the -intervals were about fifteen years. - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -BANDA ORIENTAL AND PATAGONIA - -Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento -- Value of an Estancia -- -Cattle, how counted -- Singular Breed of Oxen -- Perforated -Pebbles -- Shepherd Dogs -- Horses broken-in, Gauchos -riding -- Character of Inhabitants -- Rio Plata -- Flocks of -Butterflies -- Aeronaut Spiders -- Phosphorescence of the -Sea -- Port Desire -- Guanaco -- Port St. Julian -- Geology -of Patagonia -- Fossil gigantic Animal -- Types of Organization -constant -- Change in the Zoology of America -- Causes of -Extinction. - - -HAVING been delayed for nearly a fortnight in the -city, I was glad to escape on board a packet bound -for Monte Video. A town in a state of blockade -must always be a disagreeable place of residence; in this case -moreover there were constant apprehensions from robbers -within. The sentinels were the worst of all; for, from -their office and from having arms in their hands, they robbed -with a degree of authority which other men could not -imitate. - -Our passage was a very long and tedious one. The Plata -looks like a noble estuary on the map; but is in truth a poor -affair. A wide expanse of muddy water has neither grandeur -nor beauty. At one time of the day, the two shores, -both of which are extremely low, could just be distinguished -from the deck. On arriving at Monte Video I found that -the Beagle would not sail for some time, so I prepared for a -short excursion in this part of Banda Oriental. Everything -which I have said about the country near Maldonado is applicable -to Monte Video; but the land, with the one exception -of the Green Mount 450 feet high, from which it takes -its name, is far more level. Very little of the undulating -grassy plain is enclosed; but near the town there are a few -hedge-banks, covered with agaves, cacti, and fennel. - -November 14th. -- We left Monte Video in the afternoon. -I intended to proceed to Colonia del Sacramiento, situated -on the northern bank of the Plata and opposite to Buenos -Ayres, and thence, following up the Uruguay, to the village -of Mercedes on the Rio Negro (one of the many rivers of -this name in South America), and from this point to return -direct to Monte Video. We slept at the house of my guide -at Canelones. In the morning we rose early, in the hopes -of being able to ride a good distance; but it was a vain -attempt, for all the rivers were flooded. We passed in boats -the streams of Canelones, St. Lucia, and San Jose, and thus -lost much time. On a former excursion I crossed the Lucia -near its mouth, and I was surprised to observe how easily -our horses, although not used to swim, passed over a width -of at least six hundred yards. On mentioning this at Monte -Video, I was told that a vessel containing some mountebanks -and their horses, being wrecked in the Plata, one horse -swam seven miles to the shore. In the course of the day I -was amused by the dexterity with which a Gaucho forced -a restive horse to swim a river. He stripped off his clothes, -and jumping on its back, rode into the water till it was out -of its depth; then slipping off over the crupper, he caught -hold of the tail, and as often as the horse turned round -the man frightened it back by splashing water in its face. -As soon as the horse touched the bottom on the other side, -the man pulled himself on, and was firmly seated, bridle -in hand, before the horse gained the bank. A naked man -on a naked horse is a fine spectacle; I had no idea how well -the two animals suited each other. The tail of a horse is a -very useful appendage; I have passed a river in a boat with -four people in it, which was ferried across in the same way -as the Gaucho. If a man and horse have to cross a broad -river, the best plan is for the man to catch hold of the pommel -or mane, and help himself with the other arm. - -We slept and stayed the following day at the post of -Cufre. In the evening the postman or letter-carrier arrived. -He was a day after his time, owing to the Rio Rozario being -flooded. It would not, however, be of much consequence; -for, although he had passed through some of the principal -towns in Banda Oriental, his luggage consisted of two letters! -The view from the house was pleasing; an undulating -green surface, with distant glimpses of the Plata. I find -that I look at this province with very different eyes from -what I did upon my first arrival. I recollect I then thought -it singularly level; but now, after galloping over the Pampas, -my only surprise is, what could have induced me ever -to call it level. The country is a series of undulations, in -themselves perhaps not absolutely great, but, as compared -to the plains of St. Fe, real mountains. From these -inequalities there is an abundance of small rivulets, and -the turf is green and luxuriant. - -November 17th. -- We crossed the Rozario, which was -deep and rapid, and passing the village of Colla, arrived -at midday at Colonia del Sacramiento. The distance is -twenty leagues, through a country covered with fine grass, -but poorly stocked with cattle or inhabitants. I was invited -to sleep at Colonia, and to accompany on the following -day a gentleman to his estancia, where there were some -limestone rocks. The town is built on a stony promontory -something in the same manner as at Monte Video. It is -strongly fortified, but both fortifications and town suffered -much in the Brazilian war. It is very ancient; and the -irregularity of the streets, and the surrounding groves of -old orange and peach trees, gave it a pretty appearance. -The church is a curious ruin; it was used as a powder- -magazine, and was struck by lightning in one of the ten -thousand thunderstorms of the Rio Plata. Two-thirds of -the building were blown away to the very foundation; and -the rest stands a shattered and curious monument of the -united powers of lightning and gunpowder. In the evening -I wandered about the half-demolished walls of the town. It -was the chief seat of the Brazilian war; -- a war most injurious -to this country, not so much in its immediate effects, -as in being the origin of a multitude of generals and all -other grades of officers. More generals are numbered (but -not paid) in the United Provinces of La Plata than in the -United Kingdom of Great Britain. These gentlemen have -learned to like power, and do not object to a little -skirmishing. Hence there are many always on the watch to -create disturbance and to overturn a government which as yet -has never rested on any staple foundation. I noticed, however, -both here and in other places, a very general interest -in the ensuing election for the President; and this appears -a good sign for the prosperity of this little country. The -inhabitants do not require much education in their -representatives; I heard some men discussing the merits of those -for Colonia; and it was said that, "although they were not -men of business, they could all sign their names:" with this -they seemed to think every reasonable man ought to be -satisfied. - -18th. -- Rode with my host to his estancia, at the Arroyo -de San Juan. In the evening we took a ride round the -estate: it contained two square leagues and a half, and was -situated in what is called a rincon; that is, one side was -fronted by the Plata, and the two others guarded by impassable -brooks. There was an excellent port for little vessels, -and an abundance of small wood, which is valuable -as supplying fuel to Buenos Ayres. I was curious to know -the value of so complete an estancia. Of cattle there were -3000, and it would well support three or four times that -number; of mares 800, together with 150 broken-in horses, -and 600 sheep. There was plenty of water and limestone, -a rough house, excellent corrals, and a peach orchard. For -all this he had been offered 2000 Pounds, and he only wanted -500 Pounds additional, and probably would sell it for less. The -chief trouble with an estancia is driving the cattle twice a -week to a central spot, in order to make them tame, and to count -them. This latter operation would be thought difficult, -where there are ten or fifteen thousand head together. It -is managed on the principle that the cattle invariably divide -themselves into little troops of from forty to one hundred. -Each troop is recognized by a few peculiarly marked -animals, and its number is known: so that, one being lost -out of ten thousand, it is perceived by its absence from one -of the tropillas. During a stormy night the cattle all mingle -together; but the next morning the tropillas separate as -before; so that each animal must know its fellow out of ten -thousand others. - -On two occasions I met with in this province some oxen -of a very curious breed, called nata or niata. They appear -externally to hold nearly the same relation to other cattle, -which bull or pug dogs do to other dogs. Their forehead -is very short and broad, with the nasal end turned up, and -the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project -beyond the upper, and have a corresponding upward curve; -hence their teeth are always exposed. Their nostrils are -seated high up and are very open; their eyes project outwards. -When walking they carry their heads low, on a short -neck; and their hinder legs are rather longer compared -with the front legs than is usual. Their bare teeth, their -short heads, and upturned nostrils give them the most ludicrous -self-confident air of defiance imaginable. - -Since my return, I have procured a skeleton head, -through the kindness of my friend Captain Sulivan, R. N., -which is now deposited in the College of Surgeons. [1] Don -F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected for me all the -information which he could respecting this breed. From his -account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago, they -were rare and kept as curiosities at Buenos Ayres. The -breed is universally believed to have originated amongst -the Indians southward of the Plata; and that it was with -them the commonest kind. Even to this day, those reared -in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilized -origin, in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow -easily deserting her first calf, if visited too often or -molested. It is a singular fact that an almost similar structure -to the abnormal [2] one of the niata breed, characterizes, as I -am informed by Dr. Falconer, that great extinct ruminant -of India, the Sivatherium. The breed is very _true_; and a -niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves. A niata -bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces offspring -having an intermediate character, but with the niata -characters strongly displayed: according to Senor Muniz, -there is the clearest evidence, contrary to the common belief -of agriculturists in analogous cases, that the niata cow when -crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more -strongly than the niata bull when crossed with a common -cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, the niata cattle -feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle; -but during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, -the niata breed is under a great disadvantage, and would -be exterminated if not attended to; for the common cattle, -like horses, are able just to keep alive, by browsing with -their lips on twigs of trees and reeds; this the niatas cannot -so well do, as their lips do not join, and hence they are found -to perish before the common cattle. This strikes me as a -good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the -ordinary habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring -only at long intervals, the rarity or extinction of a species -may be determined. - -November 19th. -- Passing the valley of Las Vacas, we -slept at a house of a North American, who worked a lime- -kiln on the Arroyo de las Vivoras. In the morning we rode -to a protecting headland on the banks of the river, called -Punta Gorda. On the way we tried to find a jaguar. There -were plenty of fresh tracks, and we visited the trees, on -which they are said to sharpen their claws; but we did not -succeed in disturbing one. From this point the Rio Uruguay -presented to our view a noble volume of water. From -the clearness and rapidity of the stream, its appearance was -far superior to that of its neighbour the Parana. On the -opposite coast, several branches from the latter river entered -the Uruguay. As the sun was shining, the two colours of -the waters could be seen quite distinct. - -In the evening we proceeded on our road towards Mercedes -on the Rio Negro. At night we asked permission to -sleep at an estancia at which we happened to arrive. It was -a very large estate, being ten leagues square, and the owner -is one of the greatest landowners in the country. His nephew -had charge of it, and with him there was a captain in -the army, who the other day ran away from Buenos Ayres. -Considering their station, their conversation was rather -amusing. They expressed, as was usual, unbounded astonishment -at the globe being round, and could scarcely credit -that a hole would, if deep enough, come out on the other -side. They had, however, heard of a country where there -were six months of light and six of darkness, and where -the inhabitants were very tall and thin! They were curious -about the price and condition of horses and cattle in England. -Upon finding out we did not catch our animals with -the lazo, they cried out, "Ah, then, you use nothing but -the bolas:" the idea of an enclosed country was quite new -to them. The captain at last said, he had one question to -ask me, which he should be very much obliged if I would -answer with all truth. I trembled to think how deeply scientific -it would be: it was, "Whether the ladies of Buenos -Ayres were not the handsomest in the world." I replied, like -a renegade, "Charmingly so." He added, "I have one other -question: Do ladies in any other part of the world wear -such large combs?" I solemnly assured him that they did -not. They were absolutely delighted. The captain exclaimed, -"Look there! a man who has seen half the world -says it is the case; we always thought so, but now we know -it." My excellent judgment in combs and beauty procured -me a most hospitable reception; the captain forced me to -take his bed, and he would sleep on his recado. - -21st. -- Started at sunrise, and rode slowly during the -whole day. The geological nature of this part of the province -was different from the rest, and closely resembled that -of the Pampas. In consequence, there were immense beds -of the thistle, as well as of the cardoon: the whole country, -indeed, may be called one great bed of these plants. The -two sorts grow separate, each plant in company with its -own kind. The cardoon is as high as a horse's back, but the -Pampas thistle is often higher than the crown of the rider's -head. To leave the road for a yard is out of the question; -and the road itself is partly, and in some cases entirely -closed. Pasture, of course there is none; if cattle or horses -once enter the bed, they are for the time completely lost. -Hence it is very hazardous to attempt to drive cattle at -this season of the year; for when jaded enough to face the -thistles, they rush among them, and are seen no more. In -these districts there are very few estancias, and these few -are situated in the neighbourhood of damp valleys, where -fortunately neither of these overwhelming plants can exist. -As night came on before we arrived at our journey's end, -we slept at a miserable little hovel inhabited by the poorest -people. The extreme though rather formal courtesy of our -host and hostess, considering their grade of life, was quite -delightful. - -November 22nd. -- Arrived at an estancia on the Berquelo -belonging to a very hospitable Englishman, to whom I had -a letter of introduction from my friend Mr. Lumb. I stayed -here three days. One morning I rode with my host to the -Sierra del Pedro Flaco, about twenty miles up the Rio -Negro. Nearly the whole country was covered with good -though coarse grass, which was as high as a horse's belly; -yet there were square leagues without a single head of cattle. -The province of Banda Oriental, if well stocked, would support -an astonishing number of animals, at present the annual -export of hides from Monte Video amounts to three -hundred thousand; and the home consumption, from waste, -is very considerable. An "estanciero" told me that he often -had to send large herds of cattle a long journey to a salting -establishment, and that the tired beasts were frequently -obliged to be killed and skinned; but that he could never -persuade the Gauchos to eat of them, and every evening -a fresh beast was slaughtered for their suppers! The view -of the Rio Negro from the Sierra was more picturesque than -any other which I saw in this province. The river, broad, -deep, and rapid, wound at the foot of a rocky precipitous -cliff: a belt of wood followed its course, and the horizon -terminated in the distant undulations of the turf-plain. - -When in this neighbourhood, I several times heard of -the Sierra de las Cuentas: a hill distant many miles to the -northward. The name signifies hill of beads. I was assured -that vast numbers of little round stones, of various colours, -each with a small cylindrical hole, are found there. Formerly -the Indians used to collect them, for the purpose of -making necklaces and bracelets -- a taste, I may observe, -which is common to all savage nations, as well as to the most -polished. I did not know what to understand from this -story, but upon mentioning it at the Cape of Good Hope -to Dr. Andrew Smith, he told me that he recollected finding -on the south-eastern coast of Africa, about one hundred -miles to the eastward of St. John's river, some quartz crystals -with their edges blunted from attrition, and mixed with -gravel on the sea-beach. Each crystal was about five lines -in diameter, and from an inch to an inch and a half in -length. Many of them had a small canal extending from -one extremity to the other, perfectly cylindrical, and of a -size that readily admitted a coarse thread or a piece of fine -catgut. Their colour was red or dull white. The natives -were acquainted with this structure in crystals. I have -mentioned these circumstances because, although no crystallized -body is at present known to assume this form, it may -lead some future traveller to investigate the real nature of -such stones. - - -While staying at this estancia, I was amused with what -I saw and heard of the shepherd-dogs of the country. [3] When -riding, it is a common thing to meet a large flock of sheep -guarded by one or two dogs, at the distance of some miles -from any house or man. I often wondered how so firm a -friendship had been established. The method of education -consists in separating the puppy, while very young, from -the bitch, and in accustoming it to its future companions. -An ewe is held three or four times a day for the little thing -to suck, and a nest of wool is made for it in the sheep-pen; -at no time is it allowed to associate with other dogs, or with -the children of the family. The puppy is, moreover, generally -castrated; so that, when grown up, it can scarcely -have any feelings in common with the rest of its kind. From -this education it has no wish to leave the flock, and just -as another dog will defend its master, man, so will these -the sheep. It is amusing to observe, when approaching a -flock, how the dog immediately advances barking, and the -sheep all close in his rear, as if round the oldest ram. These -dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock, at a -certain hour in the evening. Their most troublesome fault, -when young, is their desire of playing with the sheep; for -in their sport they sometimes gallop their poor subjects most -unmercifully. - -The shepherd-dog comes to the house every day for some -meat, and as soon as it is given him, he skulks away as if -ashamed of himself. On these occasions the house-dogs are -very tyrannical, and the least of them will attack and pursue -the stranger. The minute, however, the latter has reached -the flock, he turns round and begins to bark, and then all -the house-dogs take very quickly to their heels. In a similar -manner a whole pack of the hungry wild dogs will scarcely -ever (and I was told by some never) venture to attack a -flock guarded by even one of these faithful shepherds. The -whole account appears to me a curious instance of the pliability -of the affections in the dog; and yet, whether wild or -however educated, he has a feeling of respect or fear for -those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. For -we can understand on no principle the wild dogs being -driven away by the single one with its flock, except that they -consider, from some confused notion, that the one thus -associated gains power, as if in company with its own kind. -F. Cuvier has observed that all animals that readily enter -into domestication, consider man as a member of their own -society, and thus fulfil their instinct of association. In -the above case the shepherd-dog ranks the sheep as its fellow- -brethren, and thus gains confidence; and the wild dogs, -though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs, but -are good to eat, yet partly consent to this view when seeing -them in a flock with a shepherd-dog at their head. - -One evening a "domidor" (a subduer of horses) came -for the purpose of breaking-in some colts. I will describe -the preparatory steps, for I believe they have not been -mentioned by other travellers. A troop of wild young horses -is driven into the corral, or large enclosure of stakes, and -the door is shut. We will suppose that one man alone has -to catch and mount a horse, which as yet had never felt -bridle or saddle. I conceive, except by a Gaucho, such a feat -would be utterly impracticable. The Gaucho picks out a -full-grown colt; and as the beast rushes round the circus -he throws his lazo so as to catch both the front legs. Instantly -the horse rolls over with a heavy shock, and whilst -struggling on the ground, the Gaucho, holding the lazo -tight, makes a circle, so as to catch one of the hind legs -just beneath the fetlock, and draws it close to the two front -legs: he then hitches the lazo, so that the three are bound -together. Then sitting on the horse's neck, he fixes a strong -bridle, without a bit, to the lower jaw: this he does by passing -a narrow thong through the eye-holes at the end of the -reins, and several times round both jaw and tongue. The -two front legs are now tied closely together with a strong -leathern thong, fastened by a slip-knot. The lazo, which -bound the three together, being then loosed, the horse rises -with difficulty. The Gaucho now holding fast the bridle -fixed to the lower jaw, leads the horse outside the corral. If -a second man is present (otherwise the trouble is much -greater) he holds the animal's head, whilst the first puts on -the horsecloths and saddle, and girths the whole together. -During this operation, the horse, from dread and astonishment -at thus being bound round the waist, throws himself -over and over again on the ground, and, till beaten, is -unwilling to rise. At last, when the saddling is finished, the -poor animal can hardly breathe from fear, and is white with -foam and sweat. The man now prepares to mount by pressing -heavily on the stirrup, so that the horse may not lose -its balance; and at the moment that he throws his leg over -the animal's back, he pulls the slip-knot binding the front -legs, and the beast is free. Some "domidors" pull the knot -while the animal is lying on the ground, and, standing over -the saddle, allow him to rise beneath them. The horse, wild -with dread, gives a few most violent bounds, and then starts -off at full gallop: when quite exhausted, the man, by patience, -brings him back to the corral, where, reeking hot and -scarcely alive, the poor beast is let free. Those animals -which will not gallop away, but obstinately throw themselves -on the ground, are by far the most troublesome. This process -is tremendously severe, but in two or three trials the horse -is tamed. It is not, however, for some weeks that the animal -is ridden with the iron bit and solid ring, for it must learn -to associate the will of its rider with the feel of the rein, -before the most powerful bridle can be of any service. - -Animals are so abundant in these countries, that humanity -and self-interest are not closely united; therefore I -fear it is that the former is here scarcely known. One day, -riding in the Pampas with a very respectable "estanciero," -my horse, being tired, lagged behind. The man often shouted -to me to spur him. When I remonstrated that it was a pity, -for the horse was quite exhausted, he cried out, "Why not? --- never mind -- spur him -- it is my horse." I had then some -difficulty in making him comprehend that it was for the -horse's sake, and not on his account, that I did not choose -to use my spurs. He exclaimed, with a look of great surprise, -"Ah, Don Carlos, que cosa!" It was clear that such -an idea had never before entered his head. - -The Gauchos are well known to be perfect riders The -idea of being thrown, let the horse do what it likes; never -enters their head. Their criterion of a good rider is, a man -who can manage an untamed colt, or who, if his horse falls, -alights on his own feet, or can perform other such exploits. -I have heard of a man betting that he would throw his horse -down twenty times, and that nineteen times he would not -fall himself. I recollect seeing a Gaucho riding a very -stubborn horse, which three times successively reared so -high as to fall backwards with great violence. The man -judged with uncommon coolness the proper moment for -slipping off, not an instant before or after the right time; -and as soon as the horse got up, the man jumped on his back, -and at last they started at a gallop. The Gaucho never appears -to exert any muscular force. I was one day watching -a good rider, as we were galloping along at a rapid pace, -and thought to myself, "Surely if the horse starts, you -appear so careless on your seat, you must fall." At this moment, -a male ostrich sprang from its nest right beneath the -horse's nose: the young colt bounded on one side like a stag; -but as for the man, all that could be said was, that he started -and took fright with his horse. - -In Chile and Peru more pains are taken with the mouth -of the horse than in La Plata, and this is evidently a -consequence of the more intricate nature of the country. In -Chile a horse is not considered perfectly broken, till he can -be brought up standing, in the midst of his full speed, on -any particular spot, -- for instance, on a cloak thrown on -the ground: or, again, he will charge a wall, and rearing, -scrape the surface with his hoofs. I have seen an animal -bounding with spirit, yet merely reined by a fore-finger and -thumb, taken at full gallop across a courtyard, and then -made to wheel round the post of a veranda with great speed, -but at so equal a distance, that the rider, with outstretched -arm, all the while kept one finger rubbing the post. Then -making a demi-volte in the air, with the other arm outstretched -in a like manner, he wheeled round, with astonishing -force, in an opposite direction. - -Such a horse is well broken; and although this at first -may appear useless, it is far otherwise. It is only carrying -that which is daily necessary into perfection. When a bullock -is checked and caught by the lazo, it will sometimes -gallop round and round in a circle, and the horse being -alarmed at the great strain, if not well broken, will not -readily turn like the pivot of a wheel. In consequence many -men have been killed; for if the lazo once takes a twist -round a man's body, it will instantly, from the power of the -two opposed animals, almost cut him in twain. On the -same principle the races are managed; the course is only -two or three hundred yards long, the wish being to have -horses that can make a rapid dash. The race-horses are -trained not only to stand with their hoofs touching a line, -but to draw all four feet together, so as at the first spring -to bring into play the full action of the hind-quarters. In -Chile I was told an anecdote, which I believe was true; and -it offers a good illustration of the use of a well-broken -animal. A respectable man riding one day met two others, one -of whom was mounted on a horse, which he knew to have -been stolen from himself. He challenged them; they answered -him by drawing their sabres and giving chase. The -man, on his good and fleet beast, kept just ahead: as he -passed a thick bush he wheeled round it, and brought up -his horse to a dead check. The pursuers were obliged to -shoot on one side and ahead. Then instantly dashing on, -right behind them, he buried his knife in the back of one, -wounded the other, recovered his horse from the dying -robber, and rode home. For these feats of horsemanship -two things are necessary: a most severe bit, like the Mameluke, -the power of which, though seldom used, the horse -knows full well; and large blunt spurs, that can be applied -either as a mere touch, or as an instrument of extreme pain. -I conceive that with English spurs, the slightest touch of -which pricks the skin, it would be impossible to break in a -horse after the South American fashion. - -At an estancia near Las Vacas large numbers of mares -are weekly slaughtered for the sake of their hides, although -worth only five paper dollars, or about half a crown apiece. -It seems at first strange that it can answer to kill mares -for such a trifle; but as it is thought ridiculous in this -country ever to break in or ride a mare, they are of no value -except for breeding. The only thing for which I ever saw -mares used, was to tread out wheat from the ear, for which -purpose they were driven round a circular enclosure, where -the wheat-sheaves were strewed. The man employed for -slaughtering the mares happened to be celebrated for his -dexterity with the lazo. Standing at the distance of twelve -yards from the mouth of the corral, he has laid a wager -that he would catch by the legs every animal, without missing -one, as it rushed past him. There was another man -who said he would enter the corral on foot, catch a mare, -fasten her front legs together, drive her out, throw her down, -kill, skin, and stake the hide for drying (which latter is a -tedious job); and he engaged that he would perform this -whole operation on twenty-two animals in one day. Or he -would kill and take the skin off fifty in the same time. This -would have been a prodigious task, for it is considered a -good day's work to skin and stake the hides of fifteen or -sixteen animals. - -November 26th. -- I set out on my return in a direct line -for Monte Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at -a neighbouring farm-house on the Sarandis, a small stream -entering the Rio Negro, I rode there accompanied by my -host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence the head -of the Toxodon. [4] When found it was quite perfect; but -the boys knocked out some of the teeth with stones, and then -set up the head as a mark to throw at. By a most fortunate -chance I found a perfect tooth, which exactly fitted one of -the sockets in this skull, embedded by itself on the banks -of the Rio Tercero, at the distance of about 180 miles from -this place. I found remains of this extraordinary animal -at two other places, so that it must formerly have been common. -I found here, also, some large portions of the armour -of a gigantic armadillo-like animal, and part of the great -head of a Mylodon. The bones of this head are so fresh, -that they contain, according to the analysis by Mr. T. Reeks, -seven per cent of animal matter; and when placed in a -spirit-lamp, they burn with a small flame. The number -of the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which -forms the Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda -Oriental, must be extraordinarily great. I believe a straight -line drawn in any direction through the Pampas would cut -through some skeleton or bones. Besides those which I -found during my short excursions, I heard of many others, -and the origin of such names as "the stream of the animal," -"the hill of the giant," is obvious. At other times I heard -of the marvellous property of certain rivers, which had the -power of changing small bones into large; or, as some -maintained, the bones themselves grew. As far as I am aware, -not one of these animals perished, as was formerly supposed, -in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present land, but -their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the -subaqueous deposit in which they were originally embedded. -We may conclude that the whole area of the Pampas is one -wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic quadrupeds. - -By the middle of the day, on the 28th, we arrived at -Monte Video, having been two days and a half on the road. -The country for the whole way was of a very uniform character, -some parts being rather more rocky and hilly than -near the Plata. Not far from Monte Video we passed -through the village of Las Pietras, so named from some -large rounded masses of syenite. Its appearance was rather -pretty. In this country a few fig-trees round a group of -houses, and a site elevated a hundred feet above the general -level, ought always to be called picturesque. - - -During the last six months I have had an opportunity of -seeing a little of the character of the inhabitants of these -provinces. The Gauchos, or countryrmen, are very superior -to those who reside in the towns. The Gaucho is invariably -most obliging, polite, and hospitable: I did not meet with -even one instance of rudeness or inhospitality. He is modest, -both respecting himself and country, but at the same -time a spirited, bold fellow. On the other hand, many robberies -are committed, and there is much bloodshed: the -habit of constantly wearing the knife is the chief cause -of the latter. It is lamentable to hear how many lives are -lost in trifling quarrels. In fighting, each party tries to -mark the face of his adversary by slashing his nose or eyes; -as is often attested by deep and horrid-looking scars. Robberies -are a natural consequence of universal gambling, -much drinking, and extreme indolence. At Mercedes I asked -two men why they did not work. One gravely said the days -were too long; the other that he was too poor. The number -of horses and the profusion of food are the destruction of -all industry. Moreover, there are so many feast-days; and -again, nothing can succeed without it be begun when the -moon is on the increase; so that half the month is lost from -these two causes. - -Police and justice are quite inefficient. If a man who is -poor commits murder and is taken, he will be imprisoned, -and perhaps even shot; but if he is rich and has friends, -he may rely on it no very severe consequence will ensue. -It is curious that the most respectable inhabitants of the -country invariably assist a murderer to escape: they seem -to think that the individual sins against the government, -and not against the people. A traveller has no protection -besides his fire-arms; and the constant habit of carrying -them is the main check to more frequent robberies. -The character of the higher and more educated classes -who reside in the towns, partakes, but perhaps in a lesser -degree, of the good parts of the Gaucho, but is, I fear, stained -by many vices of which he is free. Sensuality, mockery of -all religion, and the grossest corruption, are far from -uncommon. Nearly every public officer can be bribed. The -head man in the post-office sold forged government franks. -The governor and prime minister openly combined to plunder -the state. Justice, where gold came into play, was -hardly expected by any one. I knew an Englishman, who -went to the Chief Justice (he told me, that not then -understanding the ways of the place, he trembled as he entered -the room), and said, "Sir, I have come to offer you two hundred -(paper) dollars (value about five pounds sterling) if -you will arrest before a certain time a man who has cheated -me. I know it is against the law, but my lawyer (naming -him) recommended me to take this step." The Chief Justice -smiled acquiescence, thanked him, and the man before -night was safe in prison. With this entire want of principle -in many of the leading men, with the country full of -ill-paid turbulent officers, the people yet hope that a -democratic form of government can succeed! - -On first entering society in these countries, two or three -features strike one as particularly remarkable. The polite -and dignified manners pervading every rank of life, the -excellent taste displayed by the women in their dresses, and -the equality amongst all ranks. At the Rio Colorado some -men who kept the humblest shops used to dine with General -Rosas. A son of a major at Bahia Blanca gained his -livelihood by making paper cigars, and he wished to accompany -me, as guide or servant, to Buenos Ayres, but his -father objected on the score of the danger alone. Many -officers in the army can neither read nor write, yet all meet -in society as equals. In Entre Rios, the Sala consisted of -only six representatives. One of them kept a common shop, -and evidently was not degraded by the office. All this is -what would be expected in a new country; nevertheless the -absence of gentlemen by profession appears to an Englishman -something strange. - -When speaking of these countries, the manner in which -they have been brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, -should always be borne in mind. On the whole, perhaps, -more credit is due for what has been done, than blame for -that which may be deficient. It is impossible to doubt but -that the extreme liberalism of these countries must ultimately -lead to good results. The very general toleration of -foreign religions, the regard paid to the means of education, -the freedom of the press, the facilities offered to all -foreigners, and especially, as I am bound to add, to every one -professing the humblest pretensions to science, should be -recollected with gratitude by those who have visited Spanish -South America. - -December 6th. -- The Beagle sailed from the Rio Plata, -never again to enter its muddy stream. Our course was -directed to Port Desire, on the coast of Patagonia. Before -proceeding any further, I will here put together a few -observations made at sea. - -Several times when the ship has been some miles off the -mouth of the Plata, and at other times when off the shores -of Northern Patagonia, we have been surrounded by insects. -One evening, when we were about ten miles from the Bay -of San Blas, vast numbers of butterflies, in bands or flocks -of countless myriads, extended as far as the eye could range. -Even by the aid of a telescope it was not possible to see a -space free from butterflies. The seamen cried out "it was -snowing butterflies," and such in fact was the appearance. -More species than one were present, but the main part belonged -to a kind very similar to, but not identical with, the -common English Colias edusa. Some moths and hymenoptera -accompanied the butterflies; and a fine beetle (Calosoma) -flew on board. Other instances are known of this -beetle having been caught far out at sea; and this is the -more remarkable, as the greater number of the Carabidae -seldom or never take wing. The day had been fine and calm, -and the one previous to it equally so, with light and variable -airs. Hence we cannot suppose that the insects were blown -off the land, but we must conclude that they voluntarily took -flight. The great bands of the Colias seem at first to afford -an instance like those on record of the migrations of another -butterfly, Vanessa cardui; [5] but the presence of other insects -makes the case distinct, and even less intelligible. Before -sunset a strong breeze sprung up from the north, and this -must have caused tens of thousands of the butterflies and -other insects to have perished. - -On another occasion, when seventeen miles off Cape Corrientes, -I had a net overboard to catch pelagic animals. -Upon drawing it up, to my surprise, I found a considerable -number of beetles in it, and although in the open sea, they -did not appear much injured by the salt water. I lost some -of the specimens, but those which I preserved belonged -to the genera Colymbetes, Hydroporus, Hydrobius (two species), -Notaphus, Cynucus, Adimonia, and Scarabaeus. At -first I thought that these insects had been blown from the -shore; but upon reflecting that out of the eight species four -were aquatic, and two others partly so in their habits, it -appeared to me most probable that they were floated into the -sea by a small stream which drains a lake near Cape Corrientes. -On any supposition it is an interesting circumstance -to find live insects swimming in the open ocean seventeen -miles from the nearest point of land. There are several -accounts of insects having been blown off the Patagonian -shore. Captain Cook observed it, as did more lately Captain -King of the Adventure. The cause probably is due to the -want of shelter, both of trees and hills, so that an insect on -the wing with an off-shore breeze, would be very apt to -be blown out to sea. The most remarkable instance I have -known of an insect being caught far from the land, was that -of a large grasshopper (Acrydium), which flew on board, -when the Beagle was to windward of the Cape de Verd -Islands, and when the nearest point of land, not directly -opposed to the trade-wind, was Cape Blanco on the coast of -Africa, 370 miles distant. [6] - -On several occasions, when the Beagle has been within -the mouth of the Plata, the rigging has been coated with -the web of the Gossamer Spider. One day (November 1st, -1832) I paid particular attention to this subject. The weather -had been fine and clear, and in the morning the air was full -of patches of the flocculent web, as on an autumnal day in -England. The ship was sixty miles distant from the land, in -the direction of a steady though light breeze. Vast numbers -of a small spider, about one-tenth of an inch in length, and of -a dusky red colour, were attached to the webs. There must -have been, I should suppose, some thousands on the ship. The -little spider, when first coming in contact with the rigging, -was always seated on a single thread, and not on the flocculent -mass. This latter seems merely to be produced by the -entanglement of the single threads. The spiders were all of -one species, but of both sexes, together with young ones. -These latter were distinguished by their smaller size and -more dusky colour. I will not give the description of this -spider, but merely state that it does not appear to me to be -included in any of Latreille's genera. The little aeronaut as -soon as it arrived on board was very active, running about, -sometimes letting itself fall, and then reascending the same -thread; sometimes employing itself in making a small and -very irregular mesh in the corners between the ropes. It -could run with facility on the surface of the water. When -disturbed it lifted up its front legs, in the attitude of -attention. On its first arrival it appeared very thirsty, and -with exserted maxillae drank eagerly of drops of water, this -same circumstance has been observed by Strack: may it not be in -consequence of the little insect having passed through a dry -and rarefied atmosphere? Its stock of web seemed inexhaustible. -While watching some that were suspended by a -single thread, I several times observed that the slightest -breath of air bore them away out of sight, in a horizontal -line. - -On another occasion (25th) under similar circumstances, -I repeatedly observed the same kind of small spider, -either when placed or having crawled on some little eminence, -elevate its abdomen, send forth a thread, and then -sail away horizontally, but with a rapidity which was quite -unaccountable. I thought I could perceive that the spider, -before performing the above preparatory steps, connected -its legs together with the most delicate threads, but I am not -sure whether this observation was correct. - -One day, at St. Fe, I had a better opportunity of observing -some similar facts. A spider which was about three-tenths -of an inch in length, and which in its general appearance -resembled a Citigrade (therefore quite different from the -gossamer), while standing on the summit of a post, darted -forth four or five threads from its spinners. These, glittering -in the sunshine, might be compared to diverging rays of -light; they were not, however, straight, but in undulations -like films of silk blown by the wind. They were more than a -yard in length, and diverged in an ascending direction from -the orifices. The spider then suddenly let go its hold of the -post, and was quickly borne out of sight. The day was hot -and apparently calm; yet under such circumstances, the -atmosphere can never be so tranquil as not to affect a vane so -delicate as the thread of a spider's web. If during a warm -day we look either at the shadow of any object cast on a -bank, or over a level plain at a distant landmark, the effect -of an ascending current of heated air is almost always evident: -such upward currents, it has been remarked, are also -shown by the ascent of soap-bubbles, which will not rise in -an in-doors room. Hence I think there is not much difficulty -in understanding the ascent of the fine lines projected from -a spider's spinners, and afterwards of the spider itself; the -divergence of the lines has been attempted to be explained, I -believe by Mr. Murray, by their similar electrical condition. -The circumstance of spiders of the same species, but of -different sexes and ages, being found on several occasions at -the distance of many leagues from the land, attached in vast -numbers to the lines, renders it probable that the habit of -sailing through the air is as characteristic of this tribe, as -that of diving is of the Argyroneta. We may then reject -Latreille's supposition, that the gossamer owes its origin -indifferently to the young of several genera of spiders: -although, as we have seen, the young of other spiders do -possess the power of performing aerial voyages. [7] - -During our different passages south of the Plata, I often -towed astern a net made of bunting, and thus caught many -curious animals. Of Crustacea there were many strange -and undescribed genera. One, which in some respects is -allied to the Notopods (or those crabs which have their -posterior legs placed almost on their backs, for the purpose -of adhering to the under side of rocks), is very remarkable -from the structure of its hind pair of legs. The penultimate -joint, instead of terminating in a simple claw, ends in three -bristle-like appendages of dissimilar lengths -- the longest -equalling that of the entire leg. These claws are very thin, -and are serrated with the finest teeth, directed backwards: -their curved extremities are flattened, and on this part five -most minute cups are placed which seem to act in the same -manner as the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish. As -the animal lives in the open sea, and probably wants a place -of rest, I suppose this beautiful and most anomalous structure -is adapted to take hold of floating marine animals. - -In deep water, far from the land, the number of living -creatures is extremely small: south of the latitude 35 degs., -I never succeeded in catching anything besides some beroe, -and a few species of minute entomostracous crustacea. -In shoaler water, at the distance of a few miles from the -coast, very many kinds of crustacea and some other animals -are numerous, but only during the night. Between latitudes -56 and 57 degs. south of Cape Horn, the net was put -astern several times; it never, however, brought up anything -besides a few of two extremely minute species of Entomostraca. -Yet whales and seals, petrels and albatross, are exceedingly -abundant throughout this part of the ocean. It has always -been a mystery to me on what the albatross, which lives far -from the shore, can subsist; I presume that, like the condor, -it is able to fast long; and that one good feast on the carcass -of a putrid whale lasts for a long time. The central and -intertropical parts of the Atlantic swarm with Pteropoda, -Crustacea, and Radiata, and with their devourers the flying- -fish, and again with their devourers the bonitos and albicores; -I presume that the numerous lower pelagic animals -feed on the Infusoria, which are now known, from the -researches of Ehrenberg, to abound in the open ocean: but -on what, in the clear blue water, do these Infusoria subsist? - -While sailing a little south of the Plata on one very dark -night, the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful -spectacle. There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the -surface, which during the day is seen as foam, now glowed -with a pale light. The vessel drove before her bows two -billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed -by a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest -of every wave was bright, and the sky above the horizon, -from the reflected glare of these livid flames, was not so -utterly obscure as over the vault of the heavens. - -As we proceed further southward the sea is seldom -phosphorescent; and off Cape Horn I do not recollect more than -once having seen it so, and then it was far from being -brilliant. This circumstance probably has a close connection -with the scarcity of organic beings in that part of the ocean. -After the elaborate paper, [8] by Ehrenberg, on the -phosphorescence of the sea, it is almost superfluous on my part -to make any observations on the subject. I may however -add, that the same torn and irregular particles of gelatinous -matter, described by Ehrenberg, seem in the southern as -well as in the northern hemisphere, to be the common cause -of this phenomenon. The particles were so minute as easily -to pass through fine gauze; yet many were distinctly visible -by the naked eye. The water when placed in a tumbler and -agitated, gave out sparks, but a small portion in a watch- -glass scarcely ever was luminous. Ehrenberg states that -these particles all retain a certain degree of irritability. My -observations, some of which were made directly after taking -up the water, gave a different result. I may also mention, -that having used the net during one night, I allowed it to -become partially dry, and having occasion twelve hours -afterwards to employ it again, I found the whole surface -sparkled as brightly as when first taken out of the water. -It does not appear probable in this case, that the particles -could have remained so long alive. On one occasion having -kept a jelly-fish of the genus Dianaea till it was dead, the -water in which it was placed became luminous. When the -waves scintillate with bright green sparks, I believe it is -generally owing to minute crustacea. But there can be no -doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when alive, are -phosphorescent. - -On two occasions I have observed the sea luminous at -considerable depths beneath the surface. Near the mouth -of the Plata some circular and oval patches, from two to -four yards in diameter, and with defined outlines, shone with -a steady but pale light; while the surrounding water only -gave out a few sparks. The appearance resembled the reflection -of the moon, or some luminous body; for the edges were -sinuous from the undulations of the surface. The ship, -which drew thirteen feet of water, passed over, without -disturbing these patches. Therefore we must suppose that some -animals were congregated together at a greater depth than -the bottom of the vessel. - -Near Fernando Noronha the sea gave out light in flashes. -The appearance was very similar to that which might be -expected from a large fish moving rapidly through a luminous -fluid. To this cause the sailors attributed it; at the -time, however, I entertained some doubts, on account of the -frequency and rapidity of the flashes. I have already -remarked that the phenomenon is very much more common -in warm than in cold countries; and I have sometimes imagined -that a disturbed electrical condition of the atmosphere -was most favourable to its production. Certainly I -think the sea is most luminous after a few days of more -calm weather than ordinary, during which time it has -swarmed with various animals. Observing that the water -charged with gelatinous particles is in an impure state, and -that the luminous appearance in all common cases is produced -by the agitation of the fluid in contact with the atmosphere, -I am inclined to consider that the phosphorescence is -the result of the decomposition of the organic particles, by -which process (one is tempted almost to call it a kind of -respiration) the ocean becomes purified. - -December 23rd. -- We arrived at Port Desire, situated in -lat. 47 degs., on the coast of Patagonia. The creek runs for -about twenty miles inland, with an irregular width. The -Beagle anchored a few miles within the entrance, in front of -the ruins of an old Spanish settlement. - -The same evening I went on shore. The first landing in -any new country is very interesting, and especially when, as in -this case, the whole aspect bears the stamp of a marked and -individual character. At the height of between two and -three hundred feet above some masses of porphyry a wide -plain extends, which is truly characteristic of Patagonia. -The surface is quite level, and is composed of well-rounded -shingle mixed with a whitish earth. Here and there scattered -tufts of brown wiry grass are supported, and still more -rarely, some low thorny bushes. The weather is dry and -pleasant, and the fine blue sky is but seldom obscured. When -standing in the middle of one of these desert plains and -looking towards the interior, the view is generally bounded -by the escarpment of another plain, rather higher, but equally -level and desolate; and in every other direction the horizon -is indistinct from the trembling mirage which seems to rise -from the heated surface. - -In such a country the fate of the Spanish settlement was -soon decided; the dryness of the climate during the greater -part of the year, and the occasional hostile attacks of the -wandering Indians, compelled the colonists to desert their -half-finished buildings. The style, however, in which they -were commenced shows the strong and liberal hand of Spain -in the old time. The result of all the attempts to colonize this -side of America south of 41 degs., has been miserable. Port -Famine expresses by its name the lingering and extreme -sufferings of several hundred wretched people, of whom one -alone survived to relate their misfortunes. At St. Joseph's -Bay, on the coast of Patagonia, a small settlement was made; -but during one Sunday the Indians made an attack and massacred -the whole party, excepting two men, who remained -captives during many years. At the Rio Negro I conversed -with one of these men, now in extreme old age. - -The zoology of Patagonia is as limited as its flora. [9] On -the arid plains a few black beetles (Heteromera) might be -seen slowly crawling about, and occasionally a lizard darted -from side to side. Of birds we have three carrion hawks -and in the valleys a few finches and insect-feeders. An ibis -(Theristicus melanops -- a species said to be found in central -Africa) is not uncommon on the most desert parts: in -their stomachs I found grasshoppers, cicadae, small lizards, -and even scorpions. [10] At one time of the year these birds -go in flocks, at another in pairs, their cry is very loud and -singular, like the neighing of the guanaco. - -The guanaco, or wild llama, is the characteristic quadruped -of the plains of Patagonia; it is the South American -representative of the camel of the East. It is an elegant -animal in a state of nature, with a long slender neck and -fine legs. It is very common over the whole of the temperate -parts of the continent, as far south as the islands near Cape -Horn. It generally lives in small herds of from half a dozen -to thirty in each; but on the banks of the St. Cruz we saw -one herd which must have contained at least five hundred. - -They are generally wild and extremely wary. Mr. Stokes -told me, that he one day saw through a glass a herd of these -animals which evidently had been frightened, and were running -away at full speed, although their distance was so great -that he could not distinguish them with his naked eye. The -sportsman frequently receives the first notice of their -presence, by hearing from a long distance their peculiar shrill -neighing note of alarm. If he then looks attentively, he will -probably see the herd standing in a line on the side of some -distant hill. On approaching nearer, a few more squeals are -given, and off they set at an apparently slow, but really quick -canter, along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring -hill. If, however, by chance he abruptly meets a single animal, -or several together, they will generally stand motionless -and intently gaze at him; then perhaps move on a few yards, -turn round, and look again. What is the cause of this difference -in their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the distance -for their chief enemy the puma? Or does curiosity -overcome their timidity? That they are curious is certain; -for if a person lies on the ground, and plays strange antics, -such as throwing up his feet in the air, they will almost -always approach by degrees to reconnoitre him. It was an -artifice that was repeatedly practised by our sportsmen with -success, and it had moreover the advantage of allowing several -shots to be fired, which were all taken as parts of the -performance. On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, I have -more than once seen a guanaco, on being approached, not -only neigh and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most -ridiculous manner, apparently in defiance as a challenge. -These animals are very easily domesticated, and I have seen -some thus kept in northern Patagonia near a house, though -not under any restraint. They are in this state very bold, and -readily attack a man by striking him from behind with both -knees. It is asserted that the motive for these attacks is -jealousy on account of their females. The wild guanacos, -however, have no idea of defence; even a single dog will -secure one of these large animals, till the huntsman can come -up. In many of their habits they are like sheep in a flock. -Thus when they see men approaching in several directions -on horseback, they soon become bewildered, and know not -which way to run. This greatly facilitates the Indian method -of hunting, for they are thus easily driven to a central point, -and are encompassed. - -The guanacos readily take to the water: several times at -Port Valdes they were seen swimming from island to island. -Byron, in his voyage says he saw them drinking salt water. -Some of our officers likewise saw a herd apparently drinking -the briny fluid from a salina near Cape Blanco. I imagine -in several parts of the country, if they do not drink salt -water, they drink none at all. In the middle of the day they -frequently roll in the dust, in saucer-shaped hollows. The -males fight together; two one day passed quite close to me, -squealing and trying to bite each other; and several were -shot with their hides deeply scored. Herds sometimes appear -to set out on exploring parties: at Bahia Blanca, where, -within thirty miles of the coast, these animals are extremely -unfrequent, I one day saw the tracks of thirty or forty, which -had come in a direct line to a muddy salt-water creek. They -then must have perceived that they were approaching the -sea, for they had wheeled with the regularity of cavalry, and -had returned back in as straight a line as they had advanced. -The guanacos have one singular habit, which is to me quite -inexplicable; namely, that on successive days they drop their -dung in the same defined heap. I saw one of these heaps -which was eight feet in diameter, and was composed of a -large quantity. This habit, according to M. A. d'Orbigny, is -common to all the species of the genus; it is very useful to -the Peruvian Indians, who use the dung for fuel, and are -thus saved the trouble of collecting it. - -The guanacos appear to have favourite spots for lying -down to die. On the banks of the St. Cruz, in certain -circumscribed spaces, which were generally bushy and all near -the river, the ground was actually white with bones. On one -such spot I counted between ten and twenty heads. I particularly -examined the bones; they did not appear, as some -scattered ones which I had seen, gnawed or broken, as if -dragged together by beasts of prey. The animals in most -cases must have crawled, before dying, beneath and amongst -the bushes. Mr. Bynoe informs me that during a former -voyage he observed the same circumstance on the banks of -the Rio Gallegos. I do not at all understand the reason of -this, but I may observe, that the wounded guanacos at the -St. Cruz invariably walked towards the river. At St. Jago -in the Cape de Verd Islands, I remember having seen in a -ravine a retired corner covered with bones of the goat; we -at the time exclaimed that it was the burial ground of all the -goats in the island. I mention these trifling circumstances, -because in certain cases they might explain the occurrence -of a number of uninjured bones in a cave, or buried under -alluvial accumulations; and likewise the cause why certain -animals are more commonly embedded than others in sedimentary -deposits. - -One day the yawl was sent under the command of Mr. -Chaffers with three days' provisions to survey the upper part -of the harbour. In the morning we searched for some -watering-places mentioned in an old Spanish chart. We found one -creek, at the head of which there was a trickling rill (the -first we had seen) of brackish water. Here the tide compelled -us to wait several hours; and in the interval I walked -some miles into the interior. The plain as usual consisted -of gravel, mingled with soil resembling chalk in appearance, -but very different from it in nature. From the softness of -these materials it was worn into many gulleys. There was -not a tree, and, excepting the guanaco, which stood on the -hill-top a watchful sentinel over its herd, scarcely an animal -or a bird. All was stillness and desolation. Yet in passing -over these scenes, without one bright object near, an -ill-defined but strong sense of pleasure is vividly excited. -One asked how many ages the plain had thus lasted, and how -many more it was doomed thus to continue. - -"None can reply -- all seems eternal now. -The wilderness has a mysterious tongue, -Which teaches awful doubt." [11] - -In the evening we sailed a few miles further up, and then -pitched the tents for the night. By the middle of the next -day the yawl was aground, and from the shoalness of the -water could not proceed any higher. The water being found -partly fresh, Mr. Chaffers took the dingey and went up two -or three miles further, where she also grounded, but in a -fresh-water river. The water was muddy, and though the -stream was most insignificant in size, it would be difficult to -account for its origin, except from the melting snow on the -Cordillera. At the spot where we bivouacked, we were surrounded -by bold cliffs and steep pinnacles of porphyry. I do -not think I ever saw a spot which appeared more secluded -from the rest of the world, than this rocky crevice in the -wide plain. - -The second day after our return to the anchorage, a party -of officers and myself went to ransack an old Indian grave, -which I had found on the summit of a neighbouring hill. -Two immense stones, each probably weighing at least a -couple of tons, had been placed in front of a ledge of rock -about six feet high. At the bottom of the grave on the hard -rock there was a layer of earth about a foot deep, which -must have been brought up from the plain below. Above it a -pavement of flat stones was placed, on which others were -piled, so as to fill up the space between the ledge and the two -great blocks. To complete the grave, the Indians had contrived -to detach from the ledge a huge fragment, and to -throw it over the pile so as to rest on the two blocks. We -undermined the grave on both sides, but could not find any -relics, or even bones. The latter probably had decayed long -since (in which case the grave must have been of extreme -antiquity), for I found in another place some smaller heaps -beneath which a very few crumbling fragments could yet be -distinguished as having belonged to a man. Falconer states, -that where an Indian dies he is buried, but that subsequently -his bones are carefully taken up and carried, let the distance -be ever so great, to be deposited near the sea-coast. This -custom, I think, may be accounted for by recollecting, that -before the introduction of horses, these Indians must have -led nearly the same life as the Fuegians now do, and therefore -generally have resided in the neighbourhood of the sea. -The common prejudice of lying where one's ancestors have -lain, would make the now roaming Indians bring the less -perishable part of their dead to their ancient burial-ground -on the coast. - -January 9th, 1834. -- Before it was dark the Beagle anchored -in the fine spacious harbour of Port St. Julian, situated -about one hundred and ten miles to the south of Port Desire. -We remained here eight days. The country is nearly similar -to that of Port Desire, but perhaps rather more sterile. One -day a party accompanied Captain Fitz Roy on a long walk -round the head of the harbour. We were eleven hours without -tasting any water, and some of the party were quite -exhausted. From the summit of a hill (since well named -Thirsty Hill) a fine lake was spied, and two of the party -proceeded with concerted signals to show whether it was fresh -water. What was our disappointment to find a snow-white -expanse of salt, crystallized in great cubes! We attributed -our extreme thirst to the dryness of the atmosphere; but -whatever the cause might be, we were exceedingly glad late -in the evening to get back to the boats. Although we could -nowhere find, during our whole visit, a single drop of fresh -water, yet some must exist; for by an odd chance I found on -the surface of the salt water, near the head of the bay, a -Colymbetes not quite dead, which must have lived in some -not far distant pool. Three other insects (a Cincindela, like -hybrida, a Cymindis, and a Harpalus, which all live on muddy -flats occasionally overflowed by the sea), and one other -found dead on the plain, complete the list of the beetles. A -good-sized fly (Tabanus) was extremely numerous, and tormented -us by its painful bite. The common horsefly, which -is so troublesome in the shady lanes of England, belongs to -this same genus. We here have the puzzle that so frequently -occurs in the case of musquitoes -- on the blood of what -animals do these insects commonly feed? The guanaco is -nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped, and it is found in -quite inconsiderable numbers compared with the multitude -of flies. - -The geology of Patagonia is interesting. Differently from -Europe, where the tertiary formations appear to have accumulated -in bays, here along hundreds of miles of coast we -have one great deposit, including many tertiary shells, all -apparently extinct. The most common shell is a massive -gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in diameter. These -beds are covered by others of a peculiar soft white stone, -including much gypsum, and resembling chalk, but really of -a pumiceous nature. It is highly remarkable, from being -composed, to at least one-tenth of its bulk, of Infusoria. -Professor Ehrenberg has already ascertained in it thirty -oceanic forms. This bed extends for 500 miles along the coast, -and probably for a considerably greater distance. At Port -St. Julian its thickness is more than 800 feet! These white -beds are everywhere capped by a mass of gravel, forming -probably one of the largest beds of shingle in the world: it -certainly extends from near the Rio Colorado to between 600 -and 700 nautical miles southward, at Santa Cruz (a river a -little south of St. Julian), it reaches to the foot of the -Cordillera; half way up the river, its thickness is more than -200 feet; it probably everywhere extends to this great chain, -whence the well-rounded pebbles of porphyry have been -derived: we may consider its average breadth as 200 miles, -and its average thickness as about 50 feet. If this great bed -of pebbles, without including the mud necessarily derived -from their attrition, was piled into a mound, it would form a -great mountain chain! When we consider that all these -pebbles, countless as the grains of sand in the desert, have -been derived from the slow falling of masses of rock on the -old coast-lines and banks of rivers, and that these fragments -have been dashed into smaller pieces, and that each of them -has since been slowly rolled, rounded, and far transported -the mind is stupefied in thinking over the long, absolutely -necessary, lapse of years. Yet all this gravel has been -transported, and probably rounded, subsequently to the -deposition of the white beds, and long subsequently to the -underlying beds with the tertiary shells. - -Everything in this southern continent has been effected -on a grand scale: the land, from the Rio Plata to Tierra del -Fuego, a distance of 1200 miles, has been raised in mass (and -in Patagonia to a height of between 300 and 400 feet), within -the period of the now existing sea-shells. The old and -weathered shells left on the surface of the upraised plain still -partially retain their colours. The uprising movement has -been interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest, during -which the sea ate, deeply back into the land, forming at -successive levels the long lines of cliffs, or escarpments, -which separate the different plains as they rise like steps one -behind the other. The elevatory movement, and the eating-back -power of the sea during the periods of rest, have been -equable over long lines of coast; for I was astonished to -find that the step-like plains stand at nearly corresponding -heights at far distant points. The lowest plain is 90 feet -high; and the highest, which I ascended near the coast, is -950 feet; and of this, only relics are left in the form of flat -gravel-capped hills. The upper plain of Santa Cruz slopes -up to a height of 3000 feet at the foot of the Cordillera. I -have said that within the period of existing sea-shells, -Patagonia has been upraised 300 to 400 feet: I may add, that -within the period when icebergs transported boulders over -the upper plain of Santa Cruz, the elevation has been at least -1500 feet. Nor has Patagonia been affected only by upward -movements: the extinct tertiary shells from Port St. Julian -and Santa Cruz cannot have lived, according to Professor E. -Forbes, in a greater depth of water than from 40 to 250 feet; -but they are now covered with sea-deposited strata from 800 -to 1000 feet in thickness: hence the bed of the sea, on which -these shells once lived, must have sunk downwards several -hundred feet, to allow of the accumulation of the superincumbent -strata. What a history of geological changes does the -simply-constructed coast of Patagonia reveal! - -At Port St. Julian, [12] in some red mud capping the gravel -on the 90-feet plain, I found half the skeleton of the -Macrauchenia Patachonica, a remarkable quadruped, full as large -as a camel. It belongs to the same division of the Pachydermata -with the rhinoceros, tapir, and palaeotherium; but -in the structure of the bones of its long neck it shows a clear -relation to the camel, or rather to the guanaco and llama. -From recent sea-shells being found on two of the higher -step-formed plains, which must have been modelled and -upraised before the mud was deposited in which the Macrauchenia -was entombed, it is certain that this curious quadruped -lived long after the sea was inhabited by its present -shells. I was at first much surprised how a large quadruped -could so lately have subsisted, in lat. 49 degs. 15', on these -wretched gravel plains, with their stunted vegetation; but -the relationship of the Macrauchenia to the Guanaco, now -an inhabitant of the most sterile parts, partly explains this -difficulty. - -The relationship, though distant, between the Macrauchenia -and the Guanaco, between the Toxodon and the -Capybara, -- the closer relationship between the many extinct -Edentata and the living sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, -now so eminently characteristic of South American zoology, --- and the still closer relationship between the fossil and -living species of Ctenomys and Hydrochaerus, are most -interesting facts. This relationship is shown wonderfully -- as -wonderfully as between the fossil and extinct Marsupial -animals of Australia -- by the great collection lately brought -to Europe from the caves of Brazil by MM. Lund and Clausen. -In this collection there are extinct species of all the -thirty-two genera, excepting four, of the terrestrial quadrupeds -now inhabiting the provinces in which the caves occur; -and the extinct species are much more numerous than those -now living: there are fossil ant-eaters, armadillos, tapirs, -peccaries, guanacos, opossums, and numerous South American -gnawers and monkeys, and other animals. This wonderful -relationship in the same continent between the dead and -the living, will, I do not doubt, hereafter throw more light -on the appearance of organic beings on our earth, and their -disappearance from it, than any other class of facts. - -It is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the -American continent without the deepest astonishment. Formerly -it must have swarmed with great monsters: now we -find mere pigmies, compared with the antecedent, allied -races. If Buffon had known of the gigantic sloth and -armadillo-like animals, and of the lost Pachydermata, he might -have said with a greater semblance of truth that the creative -force in America had lost its power, rather than that it had -never possessed great vigour. The greater number, if not all, -of these extinct quadrupeds lived at a late period, and were -the contemporaries of most of the existing sea-shells. Since -they lived, no very great change in the form of the land can -have taken place. What, then, has exterminated so many -species and whole genera? The mind at first is irresistibly -hurried into the belief of some great catastrophe; but thus -to destroy animals, both large and small, in Southern Patagonia, -in Brazil, on the Cordillera of Peru, in North America -up to Behring's Straits, we must shake the entire framework -of the globe. An examination, moreover, of the geology of -La Plata and Patagonia, leads to the belief that all the -features of the land result from slow and gradual changes. It -appears from the character of the fossils in Europe, Asia, -Australia, and in North and South America, that those conditions -which favour the life of the _larger_ quadrupeds were -lately co-extensive with the world: what those conditions -were, no one has yet even conjectured. It could hardly have -been a change of temperature, which at about the same time -destroyed the inhabitants of tropical, temperate, and arctic -latitudes on both sides of the globe. In North America we -positively know from Mr. Lyell, that the large quadrupeds -lived subsequently to that period, when boulders were -brought into latitudes at which icebergs now never arrive: -from conclusive but indirect reasons we may feel sure, that -in the southern hemisphere the Macrauchenia, also, lived -long subsequently to the ice-transporting boulder-period. Did -man, after his first inroad into South America, destroy, as -has been suggested, the unwieldy Megatherium and the -other Edentata? We must at least look to some other cause -for the destruction of the little tucutuco at Bahia Blanca, and -of the many fossil mice and other small quadrupeds in -Brazil. No one will imagine that a drought, even far severer -than those which cause such losses in the provinces of La -Plata, could destroy every individual of every species from -Southern Patagonia to Behring's Straits. What shall we say -of the extinction of the horse? Did those plains fail of -pasture, which have since been overrun by thousands and hundreds -of thousands of the descendants of the stock introduced -by the Spaniards? Have the subsequently introduced -species consumed the food of the great antecedent races? -Can we believe that the Capybara has taken the food of the -Toxodon, the Guanaco of the Macrauchenia, the existing -small Edentata of their numerous gigantic prototypes? Certainly, -no fact in the long history of the world is so startling -as the wide and repeated exterminations of its inhabitants. - -Nevertheless, if we consider the subject under another -point of view, it will appear less perplexing. We do not -steadily bear in mind, how profoundly ignorant we are of the -conditions of existence of every animal; nor do we always -remember, that some check is constantly preventing the too -rapid increase of every organized being left in a state of -nature. The supply of food, on an average, remains constant, yet -the tendency in every animal to increase by propagation is -geometrical; and its surprising effects have nowhere been -more astonishingly shown, than in the case of the European -animals run wild during the last few centuries in America. -Every animal in a state of nature regularly breeds; yet in a -species long established, any _great_ increase in numbers is -obviously impossible, and must be checked by some means. -We are, nevertheless, seldom able with certainty to tell in -any given species, at what period of life, or at what period -of the year, or whether only at long intervals, the check -falls; or, again, what is the precise nature of the check. -Hence probably it is, that we feel so little surprise at one, of -two species closely allied in habits, being rare and the other -abundant in the same district; or, again, that one should be -abundant in one district, and another, filling the same place -in the economy of nature, should be abundant in a neighbouring -district, differing very little in its conditions. If asked -how this is, one immediately replies that it is determined by -some slight difference, in climate, food, or the number of -enemies: yet how rarely, if ever, we can point out the precise -cause and manner of action of the check! We are -therefore, driven to the conclusion, that causes generally -quite inappreciable by us, determine whether a given species -shall be abundant or scanty in numbers. - -In the cases where we can trace the extinction of a -species through man, either wholly or in one limited district, -we know that it becomes rarer and rarer, and is then lost: -it would be difficult to point out any just distinction [13] -between a species destroyed by man or by the increase of its -natural enemies. The evidence of rarity preceding extinction, -is more striking in the successive tertiary strata, as remarked -by several able observers; it has often been found that a shell -very common in a tertiary stratum is now most rare, and has -even long been thought extinct. If then, as appears probable, -species first become rare and then extinct -- if the too rapid -increase of every species, even the most favoured, is steadily -checked, as we must admit, though how and when it is hard to -say -- and if we see, without the smallest surprise, though -unable to assign the precise reason, one species abundant -and another closely allied species rare in the same district -- -why should we feel such great astonishment at the rarity being -carried one step further to extinction? An action going on, -on every side of us, and yet barely appreciable, might surely -be carried a little further, without exciting our observation. -Who would feel any great surprise at hearing that the Magalonyx -was formerly rare compared with the Megatherium, or that one of -the fossil monkeys was few in number compared with one of the -now living monkeys? and yet in this comparative rarity, we -should have the plainest evidence of less favourable conditions -for their existence. To admit that species generally become -rare before they become extinct -- to feel no surprise at the -comparative rarity of one species with another, and yet to -call in some extraordinary agent and to marvel greatly when -a species ceases to exist, appears to me much the same as -to admit that sickness in the individual is the prelude to -death -- to feel no surprise at sickness -- but when the -sick man dies to wonder, and to believe that he died through -violence. - -[1] Mr. Waterhouse has drawn up a detailed description of this -head, which I hope he will publish in some Journal. - -[2] A nearly similar abnormal, but I do not know whether -hereditary, structure has been observed in the carp, and -likewise in the crocodile of the Ganges: Histoire des Anomalies, -par M. Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, tom. i. p. 244. - -[3] M. A. d'Orbigny has given nearly a similar account of these -dogs, tom. i. p. 175. - -[4] I must express my obligations to Mr. Keane, at whose house -I was staying on the Berquelo, and to Mr. Lumb at Buenos Ayres, -for without their assistance these valuable remains would never -have reached England. - -[5] Lyell's Principles of Geology, vol. iii. p. 63. - -[6] The flies which frequently accompany a ship for some days -on its passage from harbour to harbour, wandering from the -vessel, are soon lost, and all disappear. - -[7] Mr. Blackwall, in his Researches in Zoology, has many -excellent observations on the habits of spiders. - -[8] An abstract is given in No. IV. of the Magazine of Zoology -and Botany. - -[9] I found here a species of cactus, described by Professor -Henslow, under the name of Opuntia Darwinii (Magazine of -Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 466), which was remarkable -for the irritability of the stamens, when I inserted either a -piece of stick or the end of my finger in the flower. The -segments of the perianth also closed on the pistil, but more -slowly than the stamens. Plants of this family, generally -considered as tropical, occur in North America (Lewis and -Clarke's Travels, p. 221), in the same high latitude as here, -namely, in both cases, in 47 degs. - -[10] These insects were not uncommon beneath stones. I found -one cannibal scorpion quietly devouring another. - -[11] Shelley, Lines on Mt. Blanc. - -[12] I have lately heard that Capt. Sulivan, R.N., has found -numerous fossil bones, embedded in regular strata, on the banks -of the R. Gallegos, in lat. 51 degs. 4'. Some of the bones -are large; others are small, and appear to have belonged to -an armadillo. This is a most interesting and important -discovery. - -[13] See the excellent remarks on this subject by Mr. Lyell, -in his Principles of Geology. - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SANTA CRUZ, PATAGONIA, AND THE FALKLAND ISLANDS - -Santa Cruz -- Expedition up the River -- Indians -- Immense -Streams of Basaltic Lava -- Fragments not transported by the -River -- Excavations of the Valley -- Condor, Habits of -- -Cordillera -- Erratic Boulders of great size -- Indian Relics -- -Return to the Ship -- Falkland Islands -- Wild Horses, Cattle, -Rabbits -- Wolf-like Fox -- Fire made of Bones -- Manner of -Hunting Wild Cattle -- Geology -- Streams of Stones -- Scenes -of Violence -- Penguins -- Geese -- Eggs of Doris -- Compound -Animals. - - -APRIL 13, 1834. -- The Beagle anchored within the mouth of the -Santa Cruz. This river is situated about sixty miles south of -Port St. Julian. During the last voyage Captain Stokes proceeded -thirty miles up it, but then, from the want of provisions, was -obliged to return. Excepting what was discovered at that time, -scarcely anything was known about this large river. Captain Fitz -Roy now determined to follow its course as far as time would -allow. On the 18th three whale-boats started, carrying three -weeks' provisions; and the party consisted of twenty-five -souls -- a force which would have been sufficient to have -defied a host of Indians. With a strong flood-tide and a fine -day we made a good run, soon drank some of the fresh water, -and were at night nearly above the tidal influence. - -The river here assumed a size and appearance which, even at -the highest point we ultimately reached, was scarcely -diminished. It was generally from three to four hundred yards -broad, and in the middle about seventeen feet deep. The -rapidity of the current, which in its whole course runs at -the rate of from four to six knots an hour, is perhaps its -most remarkable feature. The water is of a fine blue colour, -but with a slight milky tinge, and not so transparent as at -first sight would have been expected. It flows over a bed of -pebbles, like those which compose the beach and the surrounding -plains. It runs in a winding course through a -valley, which extends in a direct line westward. This valley -varies from five to ten miles in breadth; it is bounded by -step-formed terraces, which rise in most parts, one above the -other, to the height of five hundred feet, and have on the -opposite sides a remarkable correspondence. - -April 19th. -- Against so strong a current it was, of -course, quite impossible to row or sail: consequently the -three boats were fastened together head and stern, two hands -left in each, and the rest came on shore to track. As the -general arrangements made by Captain Fitz Roy were very -good for facilitating the work of all, and as all had a share -in it, I will describe the system. The party including every -one, was divided into two spells, each of which hauled at the -tracking line alternately for an hour and a half. The officers -of each boat lived with, ate the same food, and slept -in the same tent with their crew, so that each boat was -quite independent of the others. After sunset the first level -spot where any bushes were growing, was chosen for our -night's lodging. Each of the crew took it in turns to be -cook. Immediately the boat was hauled up, the cook made -his fire; two others pitched the tent; the coxswain handed -the things out of the boat; the rest carried them up to the -tents and collected firewood. By this order, in half an hour -everything was ready for the night. A watch of two men -and an officer was always kept, whose duty it was to look -after the boats, keep up the fire, and guard against Indians. -Each in the party had his one hour every night. - -During this day we tracked but a short distance, for there -were many islets, covered by thorny bushes, and the channels -between them were shallow. - -April 20th. -- We passed the islands and set to work. Our -regular day's march, although it was hard enough, carried -us on an average only ten miles in a straight line, and perhaps -fifteen or twenty altogether. Beyond the place where -we slept last night, the country is completely _terra incognita_, -for it was there that Captain Stokes turned back. We saw -in the distance a great smoke, and found the skeleton of a -horse, so we knew that Indians were in the neighbourhood. -On the next morning (21st) tracks of a party of horse -and marks left by the trailing of the chuzos, or long spears, -were observed on the ground. It was generally thought -that the Indians had reconnoitred us during the night. -Shortly afterwards we came to a spot where, from the fresh -footsteps of men, children, and horses, it was evident that -the party had crossed the river. - -April 22nd. -- The country remained the same, and was -extremely uninteresting. The complete similarity of the -productions throughout Patagonia is one of its most striking -characters. The level plains of arid shingle support -the same stunted and dwarf plants; and in the valleys the -same thorn-bearing bushes grow. Everywhere we see the -same birds and insects. Even the very banks of the river -and of the clear streamlets which entered it, were scarcely -enlivened by a brighter tint of green. The curse of sterility -is on the land, and the water flowing over a bed of pebbles -partakes of the same curse. Hence the number of water-fowls -is very scanty; for there is nothing to support life in -the stream of this barren river. - -Patagonia, poor as she is in some respects, can however -boast of a greater stock of small rodents [1] than perhaps any -other country in the world. Several species of mice are -externally characterized by large thin ears and a very fine -fur. These little animals swarm amongst the thickets in the -valleys, where they cannot for months together taste a drop -of water excepting the dew. They all seem to be cannibals -for no sooner was a mouse caught in one of my traps that -it was devoured by others. A small and delicately shaped -fox, which is likewise very abundant, probably derives its -entire support from these small animals. The guanaco is -also in his proper district, herds of fifty or a hundred were -common; and, as I have stated, we saw one which must -have contained at least five hundred. The puma, with the -condor and other carrion-hawks in its train, follows and -preys upon these animals. The footsteps of the puma were -to be seen almost everywhere on the banks of the river; -and the remains of several guanacos, with their necks -dislocated and bones broken, showed how they had met their -death. - -April 24th. -- Like the navigators of old when approaching -an unknown land, we examined and watched for the most -trivial sign of a change. The drifted trunk of a tree, or a -boulder of primitive rock, was hailed with joy, as if we had -seen a forest growing on the flanks of the Cordillera. The -top, however, of a heavy bank of clouds, which remained -almost constantly in one position, was the most promising -sign, and eventually turned out a true harbinger. At first the -clouds were mistaken for the mountains themselves, instead -of the masses of vapour condensed by their icy summits. - -April 26th. -- We this day met with a marked change in -the geological structure of the plains. From the first starting -I had carefully examined the gravel in the river, and -for the two last days had noticed the presence of a few small -pebbles of a very cellular basalt. These gradually increased -in number and in size, but none were as large as a man's -head. This morning, however, pebbles of the same rock, -but more compact, suddenly became abundant, and in the -course of half an hour we saw, at the distance of five of -six miles, the angular edge of a great basaltic platform. -When we arrived at its base we found the stream bubbling -among the fallen blocks. For the next twenty-eight miles -the river-course was encumbered with these basaltic masses. -Above that limit immense fragments of primitive rocks, -derived from its surrounding boulder-formation, were -equally numerous. None of the fragments of any considerable -size had been washed more than three or four miles -down the river below their parent-source: considering the -singular rapidity of the great body of water in the Santa -Cruz, and that no still reaches occur in any part, this example -is a most striking one, of the inefficiency of rivers in -transporting even moderately-sized fragments. - -The basalt is only lava, which has flowed beneath the sea; -but the eruptions must have been on the grandest scale. At -the point where we first met this formation it was 120 feet -in thickness; following up the river course, the surface -imperceptibly rose and the mass became thicker, so that at -forty miles above the first station it was 320 feet thick. -What the thickness may be close to the Cordillera, I have -no means of knowing, but the platform there attains a height -of about three thousand feet above the level of the sea; -we must therefore look to the mountains of that great chain -for its source; and worthy of such a source are streams that -have flowed over the gently inclined bed of the sea to a -distance of one hundred miles. At the first glance of the -basaltic cliffs on the opposite sides of the valley, it was -evident that the strata once were united. What power, then, -has removed along a whole line of country, a solid mass of -very hard rock, which had an average thickness of nearly -three hundred feet, and a breadth varying from rather less -than two miles to four miles? The river, though it has so -little power in transporting even inconsiderable fragments, -yet in the lapse of ages might produce by its gradual erosion -an effect of which it is difficult to judge the amount. But -in this case, independently of the insignificance of such an -agency, good reasons can be assigned for believing that this -valley was formerly occupied by an arm of the sea. It is -needless in this work to detail the arguments leading to this -conclusion, derived from the form and the nature of the -step-formed terraces on both sides of the valley, from the -manner in which the bottom of the valley near the Andes -expands into a great estuary-like plain with sand-hillocks -on it, and from the occurrence of a few sea-shells lying in -the bed of the river. If I had space I could prove that -South America was formerly here cut off by a strait, joining -the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, like that of Magellan. -But it may yet be asked, how has the solid basalt been -moved? Geologists formerly would have brought into play -the violent action of some overwhelming debacle; but in this -case such a supposition would have been quite inadmissible, -because, the same step-like plains with existing sea-shells -lying on their surface, which front the long line of the -Patagonian coast, sweep up on each side of the valley of Santa -Cruz. No possible action of any flood could thus have -modelled the land, either within the valley or along the open -coast; and by the formation of such step-like plains or terraces -the valley itself had been hollowed out. Although we -know that there are tides, which run within the Narrows -of the Strait of Magellan at the rate of eight knots an hour, -yet we must confess that it makes the head almost giddy to -reflect on the number of years, century after century, which -the tides, unaided by a heavy surf, must have required to -have corroded so vast an area and thickness of solid basaltic -lava. Nevertheless, we must believe that the strata undermined -by the waters of this ancient strait, were broken up -into huge fragments, and these lying scattered on the beach -were reduced first to smaller blocks, then to pebbles and -lastly to the most impalpable mud, which the tides drifted -far into the Eastern or Western Ocean. - -With the change in the geological structure of the plains -the character of the landscape likewise altered. While rambling -up some of the narrow and rocky defiles, I could almost -have fancied myself transported back again to the barren -valleys of the island of St. Jago. Among the basaltic cliffs -I found some plants which I had seen nowhere else, but -others I recognised as being wanderers from Tierra del -Fuego. These porous rocks serve as a reservoir for the -scanty rain-water; and consequently on the line where the -igneous and sedimentary formations unite, some small -springs (most rare occurrences in Patagonia) burst forth; -and they could be distinguished at a distance by the -circumscribed patches of bright green herbage. - -April 27th. -- The bed of the river became rather narrower -and hence the stream more rapid. It here ran at the rate -of six knots an hour. From this cause, and from the many -great angular fragments, tracking the boats became both -dangerous and laborious. - - -This day I shot a condor. It measured from tip to tip -of the wings, eight and a half feet, and from beak to tail, -four feet. This bird is known to have a wide geographical -range, being found on the west coast of South America, -from the Strait of Magellan along the Cordillera as far as -eight degrees north of the equator. The steep cliff near the -mouth of the Rio Negro is its northern limit on the Patagonian -coast; and they have there wandered about four -hundred miles from the great central line of their habitations -in the Andes. Further south, among the bold precipices -at the head of Port Desire, the condor is not uncommon; -yet only a few stragglers occasionally visit the sea-coast. -A line of cliff near the mouth of the Santa Cruz is -frequented by these birds, and about eighty miles up the -river, where the sides of the valley are formed by steep -basaltic precipices, the condor reappears. From these facts -it seems that the condors require perpendicular cliffs. In -Chile, they haunt, during the greater part of the year, the -lower country near the shores of the Pacific, and at night -several roost together in one tree; but in the early part of -summer, they retire to the most inaccessible parts of the -inner Cordillera, there to breed in peace. - -With respect to their propagation, I was told by the -country people in Chile, that the condor makes no sort of -nest, but in the months of November and December lays -two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock. It is said that -the young condors cannot fly for an entire year; and long -after they are able, they continue to roost by night, and -hunt by day with their parents. The old birds generally live -in pairs; but among the inland basaltic cliffs of the Santa -Cruz, I found a spot, where scores must usually haunt. On -coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice, it was a grand -spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these great -birds start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel away -in majestic circles. From the quantity of dung on the rocks -they must long have frequented this cliff for roosting and -breeding. Having gorged themselves with carrion on the -plains below, they retire to these favourite ledges to digest -their food. From these facts, the condor, like the gallinazo, -must to a certain degree be considered as a gregarious bird. -In this part of the country they live altogether on the guanacos -which have died a natural death, or as more commonly -happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, from -what I saw in Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary occasions -extend their daily excursions to any great distance -from their regular sleeping-places. - -The condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height, -soaring over a certain spot in the most graceful circles. -On some occasions I am sure that they do this only for -pleasure, but on others, the Chileno countryman tells you -that they are watching a dying animal, or the puma devouring -its prey. If the condors glide down, and then suddenly -all rise together, the Chileno knows that it is the puma -which, watching the carcass, has sprung out to drive away -the robbers. Besides feeding on carrion, the condors frequently -attack young goats and lambs; and the shepherd-dogs -are trained, whenever they pass over, to run out, and -looking upwards to bark violently. The Chilenos destroy -and catch numbers. Two methods are used; one is to place -a carcass on a level piece of ground within an enclosure of -sticks with an opening, and when the condors are gorged -to gallop up on horseback to the entrance, and thus enclose -them: for when this bird has not space to run, it cannot -give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground. -The second method is to mark the trees in which, frequently -to the number of five or six together, they roost, and they -at night to climb up and noose them. They are such heave -sleepers, as I have myself witnessed, that this is not a -difficult task. At Valparaiso, I have seen a living condor sold -for sixpence, but the common price is eight or ten shillings. -One which I saw brought in, had been tied with rope, and -was much injured; yet, the moment the line was cut by -which its bill was secured, although surrounded by people, -it began ravenously to tear a piece of carrion. In a garden -at the same place, between twenty and thirty were kept alive. -They were fed only once a week, but they appeared in pretty -good health. [2] The Chileno countrymen assert that the condor -will live, and retain its vigour, between five and six weeks -without eating: I cannot answer for the truth of this, but -it is a cruel experiment, which very likely has been tried. - -When an animal is killed in the country, it is well known -that the condors, like other carrion-vultures, soon gain -intelligence of it, and congregate in an inexplicable manner. -In most cases it must not be overlooked, that the birds -have discovered their prey, and have picked the skeleton -clean, before the flesh is in the least degree tainted. -Remembering the experiments of M. Audubon, on the little -smelling powers of carrion-hawks, I tried in the above -mentioned garden the following experiment: the condors -were tied, each by a rope, in a long row at the bottom of a -wall; and having folded up a piece of meat in white paper, I -walked backwards and forwards, carrying it in my hand at -the distance of about three yards from them, but no notice -whatever was taken. I then threw it on the ground, within -one yard of an old male bird; he looked at it for a moment -with attention, but then regarded it no more. With a stick -I pushed it closer and closer, until at last he touched it with -his beak; the paper was then instantly torn off with fury, -and at the same moment, every bird in the long row began -struggling and flapping its wings. Under the same circumstances, -it would have been quite impossible to have deceived -a dog. The evidence in favour of and against the acute -smelling powers of carrion-vultures is singularly balanced. -Professor Owen has demonstrated that the olfactory nerves -of the turkey-buzzard (Cathartes aura) are highly developed, -and on the evening when Mr. Owen's paper was read -at the Zoological Society, it was mentioned by a gentleman -that he had seen the carrion-hawks in the West Indies on -two occasions collect on the roof of a house, when a corpse -had become offensive from not having been buried, in this -case, the intelligence could hardly have been acquired be -sight. On the other hand, besides the experiments of Audubon -and that one by myself, Mr. Bachman has tried in the -United States many varied plans, showing that neither the -turkey-buzzard (the species dissected by Professor Owen) -nor the gallinazo find their food by smell. He covered portions -of highly-offensive offal with a thin canvas cloth, and -strewed pieces of meat on it: these the carrion-vultures ate -up, and then remained quietly standing, with their beaks -within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass, without -discovering it. A small rent was made in the canvas, and -the offal was immediately discovered; the canvas was replaced -by a fresh piece, and meat again put on it, and was -again devoured by the vultures without their discovering -the hidden mass on which they were trampling. These facts -are attested by the signatures of six gentlemen, besides that -of Mr. Bachman. [3] - -Often when lying down to rest on the open plains, on -looking upwards, I have seen carrion-hawks sailing through -the air at a great height. Where the country is level I do -not believe a space of the heavens, of more than fifteen degrees -above the horizon, is commonly viewed with any attention -by a person either walking or on horseback. If such -be the case, and the vulture is on the wing at a height of -between three and four thousand feet, before it could come -within the range of vision, its distance in a straight line -from the beholder's eye, would be rather more than two -British miles. Might it not thus readily be overlooked? -When an animal is killed by the sportsman in a lonely valley, -may he not all the while be watched from above by the -sharp-sighted bird? And will not the manner of its descend -proclaim throughout the district to the whole family of -carrion-feeders, that their prey is at hand? - -When the condors are wheeling in a flock round and -round any spot, their flight is beautiful. Except when rising -from the ground, I do not recollect ever having seen one -of these birds flap its wings. Near Lima, I watched several -for nearly half an hour, without once taking off my eyes, -they moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending -and ascending without giving a single flap. As they glided -close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique position, -the outlines of the separate and great terminal feathers -of each wing; and these separate feathers, if there had been -the least vibratory movement, would have appeared as if -blended together; but they were seen distinct against the -blue sky. The head and neck were moved frequently, and -apparently with force; and the extended wings seemed to -form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck, body, -and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings -were for a moment collapsed; and when again expanded -with an altered inclination, the momentum gained by the -rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with the -even and steady movement of a paper kite. In the case of -any bird soaring, its motion must be sufficiently rapid so -that the action of the inclined surface of its body on the -atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity. The force to -keep up the momentum of a body moving in a horizontal -plane in the air (in which there is so little friction) cannot -be great, and this force is all that is wanted. The movements -of the neck and body of the condor, we must suppose, -is sufficient for this. However this may be, it is truly -wonderful and beautiful to see so great a bird, hour after hour, -without any apparent exertion, wheeling and gliding over -mountain and river. - -April 29th. -- From some high land we hailed with joy -the white summits of the Cordillera, as they were seen -occasionally peeping through their dusky envelope of clouds. -During the few succeeding days we continued to get on -slowly, for we found the river-course very tortuous, and -strewed with immense fragments of various ancient slate -rocks, and of granite. The plain bordering the valley has -here attained an elevation of about 1100 feet above the river, -and its character was much altered. The well-rounded pebbles -of porphyry were mingled with many immense angular -fragments of basalt and of primary rocks. The first of these -erratic boulders which I noticed, was sixty-seven miles distant -from the nearest mountain; another which I measured -was five yards square, and projected five feet above the -gravel. Its edges were so angular, and its size so great, that -I at first mistook it for a rock _in situ_, and took out my -compass to observe the direction of its cleavage. The plain here -was not quite so level as that nearer the coast, but yet in -betrayed no signs of any great violence. Under these -circumstances it is, I believe, quite impossible to explain the -transportal of these gigantic masses of rock so many miles -from their parent-source, on any theory except by that of -floating icebergs. - -During the two last days we met with signs of horses, and -with several small articles which had belonged to the Indians --- such as parts of a mantle and a bunch of ostrich feathers --, -but they appeared to have been lying long on the ground. -Between the place where the Indians had so lately crossed -the river and this neighbourhood, though so many miles -apart, the country appears to be quite unfrequented. At first, -considering the abundance of the guanacos, I was surprised -at this; but it is explained by the stony nature of the plains, -which would soon disable an unshod horse from taking part -in the chase. Nevertheless, in two places in this very central -region, I found small heaps of stones, which I do not think -could have been accidentally thrown together. They were -placed on points, projecting over the edge of the highest lava -cliff, and they resembled, but on a small scale, those near -Port Desire. - -May 4th. -- Captain Fitz Roy determined to take the boats -no higher. The river had a winding course, and was very -rapid; and the appearance of the country offered no temptation -to proceed any further. Everywhere we met with the -same productions, and the same dreary landscape. We were -now one hundred and forty miles distant from the Atlantic -and about sixty from the nearest arm of the Pacific. The -valley in this upper part expanded into a wide basin, bounded -on the north and south by the basaltic platforms, and fronted -by the long range of the snow-clad Cordillera. But we -viewed these grand mountains with regret, for we were -obliged to imagine their nature and productions, instead of -standing, as we had hoped, on their summits. Besides the -useless loss of time which an attempt to ascend the river and -higher would have cost us, we had already been for some -days on half allowance of bread. This, although really -enough for reasonable men, was, after a hard day's march, -rather scanty food: a light stomach and an easy digestion -are good things to talk about, but very unpleasant in practice. - -5th. -- Before sunrise we commenced our descent. We -shot down the stream with great rapidity, generally at the -rate of ten knots an hour. In this one day we effected what -had cost us five-and-a-half hard days' labour in ascending. -On the 8th, we reached the Beagle after our twenty-one days' -expedition. Every one, excepting myself, had cause to be -dissatisfied; but to me the ascent afforded a most interesting -section of the great tertiary formation of Patagonia. - -On March 1st, 1833, and again on March 16th, 1834, the -Beagle anchored in Berkeley Sound, in East Falkland Island. -This archipelago is situated in nearly the same latitude with -the mouth of the Strait of Magellan; it covers a space of -one hundred and twenty by sixty geographical miles, and is -little more than half the size of Ireland. After the possession -of these miserable islands had been contested by France, -Spain, and England, they were left uninhabited. The government -of Buenos Ayres then sold them to a private individual, -but likewise used them, as old Spain had done before, -for a penal settlement. England claimed her right and -seized them. The Englishman who was left in charge of -the flag was consequently murdered. A British officer was -next sent, unsupported by any power: and when we arrived, -we found him in charge of a population, of which rather -more than half were runaway rebels and murderers. - -The theatre is worthy of the scenes acted on it. An undulating -land, with a desolate and wretched aspect, is everywhere -covered by a peaty soil and wiry grass, of one monotonous -brown colour. Here and there a peak or ridge -of grey quartz rock breaks through the smooth surface -Every one has heard of the climate of these regions; it -may be compared to that which is experienced at the height -of between one and two thousand feet, on the mountains of -North Wales; having however less sunshine and less frost -but more wind and rain. [4] - -16th. -- I will now describe a short excursion which -made round a part of this island. In the morning I started -with six horses and two Gauchos: the latter were capital -men for the purpose, and well accustomed to living on their -own resources. The weather was very boisterous and cold -with heavy hail-storms. We got on, however, pretty well -but, except the geology, nothing could be less interesting -than our day's ride. The country is uniformly the same -undulating moorland; the surface being covered by light -brown withered grass and a few very small shrubs, all -springing out of an elastic peaty soil. In the valleys here -and there might be seen a small flock of wild geese, and -everywhere the ground was so soft that the snipe were able -to feed. Besides these two birds there were few others. -There is one main range of hills, nearly two thousand feet -in height, and composed of quartz rock, the rugged and barren -crests of which gave us some trouble to cross. On the -south side we came to the best country for wild cattle; we -met, however, no great number, for they had been lately -much harassed. - -In the evening we came across a small herd. One of my -companions, St. Jago by name, soon separated a fat cow: -he threw the bolas, and it struck her legs, but failed in -becoming entangled. Then dropping his hat to mark the spot -where the balls were left, while at full gallop, he uncoiled -his lazo, and after a most severe chase, again came up to -the cow, and caught her round the horns. The other Gaucho -had gone on ahead with the spare horses, so that St. Jago -had some difficulty in killing the furious beast. He managed -to get her on a level piece of ground, by taking advantage -of her as often as she rushed at him; and when she -would not move, my horse, from having been trained, would -canter up, and with his chest give her a violent push. But -when on level ground it does not appear an easy job for -one man to kill a beast mad with terror. Nor would it be -so, if the horse, when left to itself without its rider, did -not soon learn, for its own safety, to keep the lazo tight, -so that, if the cow or ox moves forward, the horse moves -just as quickly forward; otherwise, it stands motionless -leaning on one side. This horse, however, was a young -one, and would not stand still, but gave in to the cow as she -struggled. It was admirable to see with what dexterity St. -Jago dodged behind the beast, till at last he contrived to -give the fatal touch to the main tendon of the hind leg -after which, without much difficulty, he drove his knife -into the head of the spinal marrow, and the cow dropped -as if struck by lightning. He cut off pieces of flesh with -the skin to it, but without any bones, sufficient for our -expedition. We then rode on to our sleeping-place, and -had for supper "carne con cuero," or meat roasted with the -skin on it. This is as superior to common beef as venison -is to mutton. A large circular piece taken from the back -is roasted on the embers with the hide downwards and is -the form of a saucer, so that none of the gravy is lost. -If any worthy alderman had supped with us that evening, -"carne con cuero," without doubt, would soon have been -celebrated in London. - -During the night it rained, and the next day (17th) was -very stormy, with much hail and snow. We rode across the -island to the neck of land which joins the Rincon del Toro -(the great peninsula at the S. W. extremity) to the rest of -the island. From the great number of cows which have -been killed, there is a large proportion of bulls. These wander -about single, or two and three together, and are very -savage. I never saw such magnificent beasts; they equalled -in the size of their huge heads and necks the Grecian marble -sculptures. Capt. Sulivan informs me that the hide of an -average-sized bull weighs forty-seven pounds, whereas a -hide of this weight, less thoroughly dried, is considered as -a very heavy one at Monte Video. The young bulls generally -run away, for a short distance; but the old ones do not -stir a step, except to rush at man and horse; and many -horses have been thus killed. An old bull crossed a boggy -stream, and took his stand on the opposite side to us; we -in vain tried to drive him away, and failing, were obliged -to make a large circuit. The Gauchos in revenge determined -to emasculate him and render him for the future -harmless. It was very interesting to see how art completely -mastered force. One lazo was thrown over his horns as he -rushed at the horse, and another round his hind legs: in a -minute the monster was stretched powerless on the ground. -After the lazo has once been drawn tightly round the horns -of a furious animal, it does not at first appear an easy thing -to disengage it again without killing the beast: nor, I -apprehend, would it be so if the man was by himself. By the -aid, however, of a second person throwing his lazo so as to -catch both hind legs, it is quickly managed: for the animal, -as long as its hind legs are kept outstretched, is quite -helpless, and the first man can with his hands loosen his lazo -from the horns, and then quietly mount his horse; but the -moment the second man, by backing ever so little, relaxes -the strain, the lazo slips off the legs of the struggling beast, -which then rises free, shakes himself, and vainly rushes at -his antagonist. - -During our whole ride we saw only one troop of wild -horses. These animals, as well as the cattle, were introduced -by the French in 1764, since which time both have greatly -increased. It is a curious fact, that the horses have never -left the eastern end of the island, although there is no natural -boundary to prevent them from roaming, and that part -of the island is not more tempting than the rest. The Gauchos -whom I asked, though asserting this to be the case, -were unable to account for it, except from the strong attachment -which horses have to any locality to which they are -accustomed. Considering that the island does not appear -fully stocked, and that there are no beasts of prey, I was -particularly curious to know what has checked their originally -rapid increase. That in a limited island some check -would sooner or later supervene, is inevitable; but why had -the increase of the horse been checked sooner than that of -the cattle? Capt. Sulivan has taken much pains for me -in this inquiry. The Gauchos employed here attribute it -chiefly to the stallions constantly roaming from place to -place, and compelling the mares to accompany them, whether -or not the young foals are able to follow. One Gaucho told -Capt. Sulivan that he had watched a stallion for a whole -hour, violently kicking and biting a mare till he forced -her to leave her foal to its fate. Capt. Sulivan can so far -corroborate this curious account, that he has several times -found young foals dead, whereas he has never found a dead -calf. Moreover, the dead bodies of full-grown horses are -more frequently found, as if more subject to disease or -accidents, than those of the cattle. From the softness of -the ground their hoofs often grow irregularly to a great -length, and this causes lameness. The predominant colours -are roan and iron-grey. All the horses bred here, both tame -and wild, are rather small-sized, though generally in good -condition; and they have lost so much strength, that they -are unfit to be used in taking wild cattle with the lazo: in -consequence, it is necessary to go to the great expense of -importing fresh horses from the Plata. At some future -period the southern hemisphere probably will have its breed -of Falkland ponies, as the northern has its Shetland breed. - -The cattle, instead of having degenerated like the horses -seem, as before remarked, to have increased in size; and -they are much more numerous than the horses. Capt. Sulivan -informs me that they vary much less in the general -form of their bodies and in the shape of their horns than -English cattle. In colour they differ much; and it is a -remarkable circumstance, that in different parts of this one -small island, different colours predominate. Round Mount -Usborne, at a height of from 1000 to 1500 feet above the sea, -about half of some of the herds are mouse or lead-coloured, -a tint which is not common in other parts of the island. -Near Port Pleasant dark brown prevails, whereas south of -Choiseul Sound (which almost divides the island into two -parts), white beasts with black heads and feet are the most -common: in all parts black, and some spotted animals may -be observed. Capt. Sulivan remarks, that the difference in -the prevailing colours was so obvious, that in looking for -the herds near Port Pleasant, they appeared from a long -distance like black spots, whilst south of Choiseul Sound -they appeared like white spots on the hill-sides. Capt. Sulivan -thinks that the herds do not mingle; and it is a singular -fact, that the mouse-coloured cattle, though living on the -high land, calve about a month earlier in the season that -the other coloured beasts on the lower land. It is interesting -thus to find the once domesticated cattle breaking -into three colours, of which some one colour would in all -probability ultimately prevail over the others, if the herds -were left undisturbed for the next several centuries. - -The rabbit is another animal which has been introduced; -and has succeeded very well; so that they abound over large -parts of the island. Yet, like the horses, they are confined -within certain limits; for they have not crossed the central -chain of hills, nor would they have extended even so far as -its base, if, as the Gauchos informed me, small colonies has -not been carried there. I should not have supposed that -these animals, natives of northern Africa, could have existed -in a climate so humid as this, and which enjoys so little -sunshine that even wheat ripens only occasionally. It is -asserted that in Sweden, which any one would have thought -a more favourable climate, the rabbit cannot live out of -doors. The first few pairs, moreover, had here to content -against pre-existing enemies, in the fox and some large -hawks. The French naturalists have considered the black variety -a distinct species, and called it Lepus Magellanicus. [5] -They imagined that Magellan, when talking of an animal -under the name of "conejos" in the Strait of Magellan, -referred to this species; but he was alluding to a small cavy, -which to this day is thus called by the Spaniards. The -Gauchos laughed at the idea of the black kind being different -from the grey, and they said that at all events it had -not extended its range any further than the grey kind; that -the two were never found separate; and that they readily -bred together, and produced piebald offspring. Of the latter -I now possess a specimen, and it is marked about the head -differently from the French specific description. This -circumstance shows how cautious naturalists should be in -making species; for even Cuvier, on looking at the skull -of one of these rabbits, thought it was probably distinct! - -The only quadruped native to the island [6]; is a large wolf- -like fox (Canis antarcticus), which is common to both East -and West Falkland. I have no doubt it is a peculiar species, -and confined to this archipelago; because many sealers, -Gauchos, and Indians, who have visited these islands, all -maintain that no such animal is found in any part of South -America. - -Molina, from a similarity in habits, thought that this -was the same with his "culpeu;" [7] but I have seen both, -and they are quite distinct. These wolves are well known -from Byron's account of their tameness and curiosity, which -the sailors, who ran into the water to avoid them, mistook -for fierceness. To this day their manners remain the same. -They have been observed to enter a tent, and actually pull -some meat from beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The -Gauchos also have frequently in the evening killed them, -by holding out a piece of meat in one hand, and in the other -a knife ready to stick them. As far as I am aware, there -is no other instance in any part of the world, of so small -a mass of broken land, distant from a continent, possessing -so large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself. Their -numbers have rapidly decreased; they are already banished -from that half of the island which lies to the eastward of -the neck of land between St. Salvador Bay and Berkeley -Sound. Within a very few years after these islands shall -have become regularly settled, in all probability this for -will be classed with the dodo, as an animal which has perished -from the face of the earth. - -At night (17th) we slept on the neck of land at the head -of Choiseul Sound, which forms the south-west peninsula. -The valley was pretty well sheltered from the cold wind, -but there was very little brushwood for fuel. The Gauchos, -however, soon found what, to my great surprise, made nearly -as hot a fire as coals; this was the skeleton of a bullock -lately killed, from which the flesh had been picked by the -carrion-hawks. They told me that in winter they often killed a -beast, cleaned the flesh from the bones with their knives, -and then with these same bones roasted the meat for their -suppers. - -18th. -- It rained during nearly the whole day. At night -we managed, however, with our saddle-cloths to keep ourselves -pretty well dry and warm; but the ground on which -we slept was on each occasion nearly in the state of a bog, -and there was not a dry spot to sit down on after our day's -ride. I have in another part stated how singular it is that -there should be absolutely no trees on these islands, although -Tierra del Fuego is covered by one large forest. The -largest bush in the island (belonging to the family of -Compositae) is scarcely so tall as our gorse. The best fuel is -afforded by a green little bush about the size of common -heath, which has the useful property of burning while fresh -and green. It was very surprising to see the Gauchos, in -the midst of rain and everything soaking wet, with nothing -more than a tinder-box and a piece of rag, immediately make -a fire. They sought beneath the tufts of grass and bushel -for a few dry twigs, and these they rubbed into fibres; then -surrounding them with coarser twigs, something like a bird's -nest, they put the rag with its spark of fire in the middle -and covered it up. The nest being then held up to the -wind, by degrees it smoked more and more, and at last -burst out in flames. I do not think any other method would -have had a chance of succeeding with such damp materials. - -19th. -- Each morning, from not having ridden for some -time previously, I was very stiff. I was surprised to hear -the Gauchos, who have from infancy almost lived on horseback, -say that, under similar circumstances, they always -suffer. St. Jago told me, that having been confined for three -months by illness, he went out hunting wild cattle, and in -consequence, for the next two days, his thighs were so stiff -that he was obliged to lie in bed. This shows that the Gauchos, -although they do not appear to do so, yet really must -exert much muscular effort in riding. The hunting will -cattle, in a country so difficult to pass as this is on account -of the swampy ground, must be very hard work. The -Gauchos say they often pass at full speed over ground which -would be impassable at a slower pace; in the same manner -as a man is able to skate over thin ice. When hunting, the -party endeavours to get as close as possible to the herd without -being discovered. Each man carries four or five pair of -the bolas; these he throws one after the other at as many -cattle, which, when once entangled, are left for some days -till they become a little exhausted by hunger and struggling. -They are then let free and driven towards a small herd of -tame animals, which have been brought to the spot on purpose. -From their previous treatment, being too much terrified -to leave the herd, they are easily driven, if their -strength last out, to the settlement. - -The weather continued so very bad that we determine -to make a push, and try to reach the vessel before night. -From the quantity of rain which had fallen, the surface -of the whole country was swampy. I suppose my horse fell -at least a dozen times, and sometimes the whole six horses -were floundering in the mud together. All the little streams -are bordered by soft peat, which makes it very difficult for -the horses to leap them without falling. To complete our -discomforts we were obliged to cross the head of a creek -of the sea, in which the water was as high as our horses' -backs; and the little waves, owing to the violence of the -wind, broke over us, and made us very wet and cold. Even -the iron-framed Gauchos professed themselves glad when -they reached the settlement, after our little excursion. - -The geological structure of these islands is in most -respects simple. The lower country consists of clay-slate -and sandstone, containing fossils, very closely related to, but -not identical with, those found in the Silurian formations -of Europe; the hills are formed of white granular quartz -rock. The strata of the latter are frequently arched with -perfect symmetry, and the appearance of some of the masses -is in consequence most singular. Pernety [8] has devoted -several pages to the description of a Hill of Ruins, the -successive strata of which he has justly compared to the -seats of an amphitheatre. The quartz rock must have been -quite pasty when it underwent such remarkable flexures -without being shattered into fragments. As the quartz -insensibly passes into the sandstone, it seems probable that -the former owes its origin to the sandstone having been -heated to such a degree that it became viscid, and upon cooling -crystallized. While in the soft state it must have been -pushed up through the overlying beds. - -In many parts of the island the bottoms of the valleys are -covered in an extraordinary manner by myriads of great -loose angular fragments of the quartz rock, forming "streams -of stones." These have been mentioned with surprise be -every voyager since the time of Pernety. The blocks are -not water-worn, their angles being only a little blunted; they -vary in size from one or two feet in diameter to ten, or even -more than twenty times as much. They are not thrown -together into irregular piles, but are spread out into level -sheets or great streams. It is not possible to ascertain their -thickness, but the water of small streamlets can be heard -trickling through the stones many feet below the surface. -The actual depth is probably great, because the crevices -between the lower fragments must long ago have been filled -up with sand. The width of these sheets of stones varied -from a few hundred feet to a mile; but the peaty soil daily -encroaches on the borders, and even forms islets wherever -a few fragments happen to lie close together. In a valley -south of Berkeley Sound, which some of our party called -the "great valley of fragments," it was necessary to cross -an uninterrupted band half a mile wide, by jumping from -one pointed stone to another. So large were the fragments, -that being overtaken by a shower of rain, I readily found -shelter beneath one of them. - -Their little inclination is the most remarkable circumstance -in these "streams of stones." On the hill-sides I have -seen them sloping at an angle of ten degrees with the horizon; -but in some of the level, broad-bottomed valleys, the -inclination is only just sufficient to be clearly perceived. -On so rugged a surface there was no means of measuring the -angle, but to give a common illustration, I may say that the -slope would not have checked the speed of an English mail-coach. -In some places, a continuous stream of these fragments -followed up the course of a valley, and even -extended to the very crest of the hill. On these crests huge -masses, exceeding in dimensions any small building, seemed -to stand arrested in their headlong course: there, also, the -curved strata of the archways lay piled on each other, like -the ruins of some vast and ancient cathedral. In endeavouring -to describe these scenes of violence one is tempted to pass -from one simile to another. We may imagine that streams -of white lava had flowed from many parts of the mountains -into the lower country, and that when solidified they had been -rent by some enormous convulsion into myriads of fragments. -The expression "streams of stones," which immediately -occurred to every one, conveys the same idea. These -scenes are on the spot rendered more striking by the contrast -of the low rounded forms of the neighbouring hills. - -I was interested by finding on the highest peak of one -range (about 700 feet above the sea) a great arched fragment, -lying on its convex side, or back downwards. Must -we believe that it was fairly pitched up in the air, and thus -turned? Or, with more probability, that there existed formerly -a part of the same range more elevated than the point -on which this monument of a great convulsion of nature now -lies. As the fragments in the valleys are neither rounded -nor the crevices filled up with sand, we must infer that the -period of violence was subsequent to the land having been -raised above the waters of the sea. In a transverse section -within these valleys, the bottom is nearly level, or rises but -very little towards either side. Hence the fragments appear -to have travelled from the head of the valley; but in reality -it seems more probable that they have been hurled down from -the nearest slopes; and that since, by a vibratory movement -of overwhelming force, [9] the fragments have been levelled -into one continuous sheet. If during the earthquake [10] which -in 1835 overthrew Concepcion, in Chile, it was thought wonderful -that small bodies should have been pitched a few -inches from the ground, what must we say to a movement -which has caused fragments many tons in weight, to move -onwards like so much sand on a vibrating board, and find -their level? I have seen, in the Cordillera of the Andes, the -evident marks where stupendous mountains have been broken -into pieces like so much thin crust, and the strata thrown of -their vertical edges; but never did any scene, like these -"streams of stones," so forcibly convey to my mind the idea -of a convulsion, of which in historical records we might in -vain seek for any counterpart: yet the progress of knowledge -will probably some day give a simple explanation of this -phenomenon, as it already has of the so long-thought -inexplicable transportal of the erratic boulders, which are -strewed over the plains of Europe. - -I have little to remark on the zoology of these islands. -have before described the carrion-vulture of Polyborus. -There are some other hawks, owls, and a few small land-birds. -The water-fowl are particularly numerous, and they -must formerly, from the accounts of the old navigators, -have been much more so. One day I observed a cormorant -playing with a fish which it had caught. Eight times -successively the bird let its prey go, then dived after it, and -although in deep water, brought it each time to the surface. -In the Zoological Gardens I have seen the otter treat a fish -in the same manner, much as a cat does a mouse: I do not -know of any other instance where dame Nature appears so -wilfully cruel. Another day, having placed myself between -a penguin (Aptenodytes demersa) and the water, I was much -amused by watching its habits. It was a brave bird; and till -reaching the sea, it regularly fought and drove me backwards. -Nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped him; every -inch he gained he firmly kept, standing close before me erect -and determined. When thus opposed he continually rolled -his head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the -power of distinct vision lay only in the anterior and basal -part of each eye. This bird is commonly called the jackass -penguin, from its habit, while on shore, of throwing its head -backwards, and making a loud strange noise, very like the -braying of an ass; but while at sea, and undisturbed, its note -is very deep and solemn, and is often heard in the night-time. -In diving, its little wings are used as fins; but on the land, -as front legs. When crawling, it may be said on four legs, -through the tussocks or on the side of a grassy cliff, it moves -so very quickly that it might easily be mistaken for a -quadruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes to the surface for -the purpose of breathing with such a spring, and dives again -so instantaneously, that I defy any one at first sight to be -sure that it was not a fish leaping for sport. - -Two kinds of geese frequent the Falklands. The upland -species (Anas Magellanica) is common, in pairs and in small -flocks, throughout the island. They do not migrate, but build -on the small outlying islets. This is supposed to be from -fear of the foxes: and it is perhaps from the same cause -that these birds, though very tame by day, are shy and will -in the dusk of the evening. They live entirely on vegetable -matter. - -The rock-goose, so called from living exclusively on the -sea-beach (Anas antarctica), is common both here and on -the west coast of America, as far north as Chile. In the deep -and retired channels of Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white -gander, invariably accompanied by his darker consort, and -standing close by each other on some distant rocky point, is -a common feature in the landscape. - -In these islands a great loggerheaded duck or goose (Anas -brachyptera), which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds, -is very abundant. These birds were in former days called, -from their extraordinary manner of paddling and splashing -upon the water, race-horses; but now they are named, much -more appropriately, steamers. Their wings are too small and -weak to allow of flight, but by their aid, partly swimming and -partly flapping the surface of the water, they move very -quickly. The manner is something like that by which the -common house-duck escapes when pursued by a dog; but I -am nearly sure that the steamer moves its wings alternately, -instead of both together, as in other birds. These clumsy, -loggerheaded ducks make such a noise and splashing, that the -effect is exceedingly curious. - -Thus we find in South America three birds which use their -wings for other purposes besides flight; the penguins as fins, -the steamer as paddles, and the ostrich as sails: and the -Apteryz of New Zealand, as well as its gigantic extinct -prototype the Deinornis, possess only rudimentary -representatives of wings. The steamer is able to dive only -to a very short distance. It feeds entirely on shell-fish -from the kelp and tidal rocks: hence the beak and head, for -the purpose of breaking them, are surprisingly heavy and -strong: the head is so strong that I have scarcely been able -to fracture it with my geological hammer; and all our sportsmen -soon discovered how tenacious these birds were of life. When in -the evening pluming themselves in a flock, they make the same -odd mixture of sounds which bull-frogs do within the tropics. - -In Tierra del Fuego, as well as in the Falkland Islands, -made many observations on the lower marine animals, [11] but -they are of little general interest. I will mention only one -class of facts, relating to certain zoophytes in the more highly -organized division of that class. Several genera (Flustra, -Eschara, Cellaria, Crisia, and others) agree in having singular -moveable organs (like those of Flustra avicularia, found -in the European seas) attached to their cells. The organ, in -the greater number of cases, very closely resembles the head -of a vulture; but the lower mandible can be opened much -wider than in a real bird's beak. The head itself possessed -considerable powers of movement, by means of a short neck. -In one zoophyte the head itself was fixed, but the lower jaw -free: in another it was replaced by a triangular hood, with -beautifully-fitted trap-door, which evidently answered to the -lower mandible. In the greater number of species, each cell -was provided with one head, but in others each cell had two. - -The young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines -contain quite immature polypi, yet the vulture-head -attached to them, though small, are in every respect perfect -When the polypus was removed by a needle from any of the -cells, these organs did not appear in the least affected. When -one of the vulture-like heads was cut off from the cell, the -lower mandible retained its power of opening and closing. -Perhaps the most singular part of their structure is, that -when there were more than two rows of cells on a branch, -the central cells were furnished with these appendages, of -only one-fourth the size of the outside ones. Their movements -varied according to the species; but in some I never -saw the least motion; while others, with the lower mandible -generally wide open, oscillated backwards and forwards at -the rate of about five seconds each turn, others moved rapidly -and by starts. When touched with a needle, the beak -generally seized the point so firmly, that the whole branch -might be shaken. - -These bodies have no relation whatever with the production -of the eggs or gemmules, as they are formed before the -young polypi appear in the cells at the end of the growing -branches; as they move independently of the polypi, and do -not appear to be in any way connected with them; and as -they differ in size on the outer and inner rows of cells, I have -little doubt, that in their functions, they are related rather -to the horny axis of the branches than to the polypi in the -cells. The fleshy appendage at the lower extremity of the -sea-pen (described at Bahia Blanca) also forms part of the -zoophyte, as a whole, in the same manner as the roots of a -tree form part of the whole tree, and not of the individual -leaf or flower-buds. - -In another elegant little coralline (Crisia?), each cell was -furnished with a long-toothed bristle, which had the power -of moving quickly. Each of these bristles and each of the -vulture-like heads generally moved quite independently of -the others, but sometimes all on both sides of a branch, -sometimes only those on one side, moved together -coinstantaneously, sometimes each moved in regular order one -after another. In these actions we apparently behold as perfect -a transmission of will in the zoophyte, though composed of -thousands of distinct polypi, as in any single animal. The -case, indeed, is not different from that of the sea-pens, which, -when touched, drew themselves into the sand on the coast of -Bahia Blanca. I will state one other instance of uniform -action, though of a very different nature, in a zoophyte -closely allied to Clytia, and therefore very simply organized. -Having kept a large tuft of it in a basin of salt-water, when -it was dark I found that as often as I rubbed any part of a -branch, the whole became strongly phosphorescent with a -green light: I do not think I ever saw any object more -beautifully so. But the remarkable circumstance was, that the -flashes of light always proceeded up the branches, from the -base towards the extremities. - -The examination of these compound animals was always -very interesting to me. What can be more remarkable that -to see a plant-like body producing an egg, capable of swimming -about and of choosing a proper place to adhere to, -which then sprouts into branches, each crowded with innumerable -distinct animals, often of complicated organizations. -The branches, moreover, as we have just seen, sometimes -possess organs capable of movement and independent of the -polypi. Surprising as this union of separate individuals in -common stock must always appear, every tree displays the -same fact, for buds must be considered as individual plants. -It is, however, natural to consider a polypus, furnished with -a mouth, intestines, and other organs, as a distinct individual, -whereas the individuality of a leaf-bud is not easily realised, -so that the union of separate individuals in a common body -is more striking in a coralline than in a tree. Our conception -of a compound animal, where in some respects the individuality -of each is not completed, may be aided, by reflecting -on the production of two distinct creatures by bisecting a -single one with a knife, or where Nature herself performs -the task of bisection. We may consider the polypi in a -zoophyte, or the buds in a tree, as cases where the division -of the individual has not been completely effected. Certainly -in the case of trees, and judging from analogy in that of -corallines, the individuals propagated by buds seem more -intimately related to each other, than eggs or seeds are to -their parents. It seems now pretty well established that -plants propagated by buds all partake of a common duration -of life; and it is familiar to every one, what singular and -numerous peculiarities are transmitted with certainty, by -buds, layers, and grafts, which by seminal propagation never -or only casually reappear. - -[1] The desserts of Syria are characterized, according to -Volney (tom. i. p. 351), by woody bushes, numerous rats, -gazelles and hares. In the landscape of Patagonia, the guanaco -replaces the gazelle, and the agouti the hare. - -[2] I noticed that several hours before any one of the condors -died, all the lice, with which it was infested, crawled to the -outside feathers. I was assured that this always happens. - -[3] London's Magazine of Nat. Hist., vol. vii. - -[4] From accounts published since our voyage, and more -especially from several interesting letters from Capt. Sulivan, -R. N., employed on the survey, it appears that we took an -exaggerated view of the badness of the climate on these -islands. But when I reflect on the almost universal covering -of peat, and on the fact of wheat seldom ripening here, I can -hardly believe that the climate in summer is so fine and dry -as it has lately been represented. - -[5] Lesson's Zoology of the Voyage of the Coquille, tom. i. -p. 168. All the early voyagers, and especially Bougainville, -distinctly state that the wolf-like fox was the only native -animal on the island. The distinction of the rabbit as a -species, is taken from peculiarities in the fur, from the -shape of the head, and from the shortness of the ears. I may -here observe that the difference between the Irish and English -hare rests upon nearly similar characters, only more strongly -marked. - -[6] I have reason, however, to suspect that there is a field- -mouse. The common European rat and mouse have roamed far from -the habitations of the settlers. The common hog has also run -wild on one islet; all are of a black colour: the boars are -very fierce, and have great trunks. - -[7] The "culpeu" is the Canis Magellanicus brought home by -Captain King from the Strait of Magellan. It is common in -Chile. - -[8] Pernety, Voyage aux Isles Malouines, p. 526. - -[9] "Nous n'avons pas ete moins saisis d'etonnement a la vue -de l'innombrable quantite de pierres de touts grandeurs, -bouleversees les unes sur les autres, et cependent rangees, -comme si elles avoient ete amoncelees negligemment pour remplir -des ravins. On ne se lassoit pas d'admirer les effets -prodigieux de la nature." -- Pernety, p. 526. - -[10] An inhabitant of Mendoza, and hence well capable of -judging, assured me that, during the several years he had -resided on these islands, he had never felt the slightest -shock of an earthquake. - -[11] I was surprised to find, on counting the eggs of a large -white Doris (this sea-slug was three and a half inches long), -how extraordinarily numerous they were. From two to five eggs -(each three-thousandths of an inch in diameter) were contained -in spherical little case. These were arranged two deep in -transverse rows forming a ribbon. The ribbon adhered by its -edge to the rock in an oval spire. One which I found, measured -nearly twenty inches in length and half in breadth. By counting -how many balls were contained in a tenth of an inch in the -row, and how many rows in an equal length of the ribbon, on -the most moderate computation there were six hundred thousand -eggs. Yet this Doris was certainly not very common; although -I was often searching under the stones, I saw only seven -individuals. No fallacy is more common with naturalists, -than that the numbers of an individual species depend on -its powers of propagation. - - - -CHAPTER X - -TIERRA DEL FUEGO - -Tierra del Fuego, first arrival -- Good Success Bay -- An -Account of the Fuegians on board -- Interview With the -Savages -- Scenery of the Forests -- Cape Horn -- Wigwam -Cove -- Miserable Condition of the Savages -- Famines -- -Cannibals -- Matricide -- Religious Feelings -- Great -Gale -- Beagle Channel -- Ponsonby Sound -- Build Wigwams -and settle the Fuegians -- Bifurcation of the Beagle -Channel -- Glaciers -- Return to the Ship -- Second Visit -in the Ship to the Settlement -- Equality of Condition -amongst the Natives. - - -DECEMBER 17th, 1832. -- Having now finished with -Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, I will describe -our first arrival in Tierra del Fuego. A little after -noon we doubled Cape St. Diego, and entered the famous -strait of Le Maire. We kept close to the Fuegian shore, but -the outline of the rugged, inhospitable Statenland was visible -amidst the clouds. In the afternoon we anchored in the Bay -of Good Success. While entering we were saluted in a manner -becoming the inhabitants of this savage land. A group -of Fuegians partly concealed by the entangled forest, were -perched on a wild point overhanging the sea; and as we -passed by, they sprang up and waving their tattered cloaks -sent forth a loud and sonorous shout. The savages followed -the ship, and just before dark we saw their fire, and again -heard their wild cry. The harbour consists of a fine piece -of water half surrounded by low rounded mountains of clay- -slate, which are covered to the water's edge by one dense -gloomy forest. A single glance at the landscape was sufficient -to show me how widely different it was from anything -I had ever beheld. At night it blew a gale of wind, and -heavy squalls from the mountains swept past us. It would -have been a bad time out at sea, and we, as well as others, -may call this Good Success Bay. - -In the morning the Captain sent a party to communicate -with the Fuegians. When we came within hail, one of the -four natives who were present advanced to receive us, and -began to shout most vehemently, wishing to direct us where -to land. When we were on shore the party looked rather -alarmed, but continued talking and making gestures with -great rapidity. It was without exception the most curious -and interesting spectacle I ever beheld: I could not have -believed how wide was the difference between savage and -civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and -domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater -power of improvement. The chief spokesman was old, and -appeared to be the head of the family; the three others were -powerful young men, about six feet high. The women and -children had been sent away. These Fuegians are a very -different race from the stunted, miserable wretches farther -westward; and they seem closely allied to the famous Patagonians -of the Strait of Magellan. Their only garment consists -of a mantle made of guanaco skin, with the wool outside: -this they wear just thrown over their shoulders, leaving -their persons as often exposed as covered. Their skin is of -a dirty coppery-red colour. - -The old man had a fillet of white feathers tied round his -head, which partly confined his black, coarse, and entangled -hair. His face was crossed by two broad transverse bars; -one, painted bright red, reached from ear to ear and included -the upper lip; the other, white like chalk, extended above -and parallel to the first, so that even his eyelids were thus -coloured. The other two men were ornamented by streaks -of black powder, made of charcoal. The party altogether -closely resembled the devils which come on the stage in plays -like Der Freischutz. - -Their very attitudes were abject, and the expression of -their countenances distrustful, surprised, and startled. After -we had presented them with some scarlet cloth, which they -immediately tied round their necks, they became good friends. -This was shown by the old man patting our breasts, -and making a chuckling kind of noise, as people do when -feeding chickens. I walked with the old man, and this -demonstration of friendship was repeated several times; it was -concluded by three hard slaps, which were given me on the -breast and back at the same time. He then bared his bosom -for me to return the compliment, which being done, he -seemed highly pleased. The language of these people, -according to our notions, scarcely deserves to be called -articulate. Captain Cook has compared it to a man clearing his -throat, but certainly no European ever cleared his throat -with so many hoarse, guttural, and clicking sounds. - -They are excellent mimics: as often as we coughed or -yawned, or made any odd motion, they immediately imitated -us. Some of our party began to squint and look awry; but -one of the young Fuegians (whose whole face was painted -black, excepting a white band across his eyes) succeeded in -making far more hideous grimaces. They could repeat with -perfect correctness each word in any sentence we addressed -them, and they remembered such words for some time. Yet -we Europeans all know how difficult it is to distinguish -apart the sounds in a foreign language. Which of us, for -instance, could follow an American Indian through a sentence -of more than three words? All savages appear to possess, to -an uncommon degree, this power of mimicry. I was told, -almost in the same words, of the same ludicrous habit among -the Caffres; the Australians, likewise, have long been notorious -for being able to imitate and describe the gait of any -man, so that he may be recognized. How can this faculty be -explained? is it a consequence of the more practised habits -of perception and keener senses, common to all men in a -savage state, as compared with those long civilized? - -When a song was struck up by our party, I thought the -Fuegians would have fallen down with astonishment. With -equal surprise they viewed our dancing; but one of the -young men, when asked, had no objection to a little waltzing. -Little accustomed to Europeans as they appeared to be, yet -they knew and dreaded our fire-arms; nothing would tempt -them to take a gun in their hands. They begged for knives, -calling them by the Spanish word "cuchilla." They explained -also what they wanted, by acting as if they had a -piece of blubber in their mouth, and then pretending to cut -instead of tear it. - -I have not as yet noticed the Fuegians whom we had on -board. During the former voyage of the Adventure and -Beagle in 1826 to 1830, Captain Fitz Roy seized on a party -of natives, as hostages for the loss of a boat, which had -been stolen, to the great jeopardy of a party employed on -the survey; and some of these natives, as well as a child -whom he bought for a pearl-button, he took with him to -England, determining to educate them and instruct them in -religion at his own expense. To settle these natives in their -own country, was one chief inducement to Captain Fitz Roy -to undertake our present voyage; and before the Admiralty -had resolved to send out this expedition, Captain Fitz Roy -had generously chartered a vessel, and would himself have -taken them back. The natives were accompanied by a missionary, -R. Matthews; of whom and of the natives, Captain -Fitz Roy has published a full and excellent account. Two -men, one of whom died in England of the small-pox, a boy -and a little girl, were originally taken; and we had now on -board, York Minster, Jemmy Button (whose name expresses -his purchase-money), and Fuegia Basket. York Minster -was a full-grown, short, thick, powerful man: his disposition -was reserved, taciturn, morose, and when excited violently -passionate; his affections were very strong towards a few -friends on board; his intellect good. Jemmy Button was a -universal favourite, but likewise passionate; the expression -of his face at once showed his nice disposition. He was -merry and often laughed, and was remarkably sympathetic -with any one in pain: when the water was rough, I was often -a little sea-sick, and he used to come to me and say in a -plaintive voice, "Poor, poor fellow!" but the notion, after -his aquatic life, of a man being sea-sick, was too ludicrous, -and he was generally obliged to turn on one side to hide a -smile or laugh, and then he would repeat his "Poor, poor -fellow!" He was of a patriotic disposition; and he liked to -praise his own tribe and country, in which he truly said there -were "plenty of trees," and he abused all the other tribes: -he stoutly declared that there was no Devil in his land. -Jemmy was short, thick, and fat, but vain of his personal -appearance; he used always to wear gloves, his hair was -neatly cut, and he was distressed if his well-polished shoes -were dirtied. He was fond of admiring himself in a looking -glass; and a merry-faced little Indian boy from the Rio -Negro, whom we had for some months on board, soon perceived -this, and used to mock him: Jemmy, who was always -rather jealous of the attention paid to this little boy, did not -at all like this, and used to say, with rather a contemptuous -twist of his head, "Too much skylark." It seems yet wonderful -to me, when I think over all his many good qualities -that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless -partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded -savages whom we first met here. Lastly, Fuegia Basket was -a nice, modest, reserved young girl, with a rather pleasing but -sometimes sullen expression, and very quick in learning anything, -especially languages. This she showed in picking up -some Portuguese and Spanish, when left on shore for only -a short time at Rio de Janeiro and Monte Video, and in her -knowledge of English. York Minster was very jealous of -any attention paid to her; for it was clear he determined to -marry her as soon as they were settled on shore. - -Although all three could both speak and understand a -good deal of English, it was singularly difficult to obtain -much information from them, concerning the habits of their -countrymen; this was partly owing to their apparent difficulty -in understanding the simplest alternative. Every one -accustomed to very young children, knows how seldom one -can get an answer even to so simple a question as whether a -thing is black or white; the idea of black or white seems -alternately to fill their minds. So it was with these Fuegians, -and hence it was generally impossible to find out, by cross -questioning, whether one had rightly understood anything -which they had asserted. Their sight was remarkably acute; -it is well known that sailors, from long practice, can make -out a distant object much better than a landsman; but both -York and Jemmy were much superior to any sailor on board: -several times they have declared what some distant object -has been, and though doubted by every one, they have proved -right, when it has been examined through a telescope. They -were quite conscious of this power; and Jemmy, when he -had any little quarrel with the officer on watch, would say, -"Me see ship, me no tell." - -It was interesting to watch the conduct of the savages, -when we landed, towards Jemmy Button: they immediately -perceived the difference between him and ourselves, and held -much conversation one with another on the subject. The -old man addressed a long harangue to Jemmy, which it -seems was to invite him to stay with them But Jemmy -understood very little of their language, and was, moreover, -thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen. When York Minster -afterwards came on shore, they noticed him in the -same way, and told him he ought to shave; yet he had not -twenty dwarf hairs on his face, whilst we all wore our -untrimmed beards. They examined the colour of his skin, and -compared it with ours. One of our arms being bared, they -expressed the liveliest surprise and admiration at its -whiteness, just in the same way in which I have seen the -ourangoutang do at the Zoological Gardens. We thought that they -mistook two or three of the officers, who were rather shorter -and fairer, though adorned with large beards, for the ladies -of our party. The tallest amongst the Fuegians was evidently -much pleased at his height being noticed. When placed -back to back with the tallest of the boat's crew, he -tried his best to edge on higher ground, and to stand on -tiptoe. He opened his mouth to show his teeth, and turned -his face for a side view; and all this was done with such -alacrity, that I dare say he thought himself the handsomest -man in Tierra del Fuego. After our first feeling of grave -astonishment was over, nothing could be more ludicrous -than the odd mixture of surprise and imitation which these -savages every moment exhibited. - - -The next day I attempted to penetrate some way into the -country. Tierra del Fuego may be described as a mountainous -land, partly submerged in the sea, so that deep inlets -and bays occupy the place where valleys should exist. The -mountain sides, except on the exposed western coast, are -covered from the water's edge upwards by one great forest. -The trees reach to an elevation of between 1000 and 1500 -feet, and are succeeded by a band of peat, with minute alpine -plants; and this again is succeeded by the line of perpetual -snow, which, according to Captain King, in the Strait of -Magellan descends to between 3000 and 4000 feet. To find -an acre of level land in any part of the country is most rare. -I recollect only one little flat piece near Port Famine, and -another of rather larger extent near Goeree Road. In both -places, and everywhere else, the surface is covered by a -thick bed of swampy peat. Even within the forest, the -ground is concealed by a mass of slowly putrefying vegetable -matter, which, from being soaked with water, yields to the -foot. - -Finding it nearly hopeless to push my way through the -wood, I followed the course of a mountain torrent. At first, -from the waterfalls and number of dead trees, I could hardly -crawl along; but the bed of the stream soon became a little -more open, from the floods having swept the sides. I continued -slowly to advance for an hour along the broken and -rocky banks, and was amply repaid by the grandeur of the -scene. The gloomy depth of the ravine well accorded with -the universal signs of violence. On every side were lying -irregular masses of rock and torn-up trees; other trees, -though still erect, were decayed to the heart and ready to -fall. The entangled mass of the thriving and the fallen -reminded me of the forests within the tropics -- yet there was -a difference: for in these still solitudes, Death, instead of -Life, seemed the predominant spirit. I followed the water-course -till I came to a spot where a great slip had cleared a -straight space down the mountain side. By this road I -ascended to a considerable elevation, and obtained a good -view of the surrounding woods. The trees all belong to -one kind, the Fagus betuloides; for the number of the other -species of Fagus and of the Winter's Bark, is quite -inconsiderable. This beech keeps its leaves throughout the year; -but its foliage is of a peculiar brownish-green colour, with -a tinge of yellow. As the whole landscape is thus coloured, -it has a sombre, dull appearance; nor is it often enlivened -by the rays of the sun. - -December 20th. -- One side of the harbour is formed by a -hill about 1500 feet high, which Captain Fitz Roy has called -after Sir J. Banks, in commemoration of his disastrous -excursion, which proved fatal to two men of his party, and -nearly so to Dr. Solander. The snow-storm, which was the -cause of their misfortune, happened in the middle of January, -corresponding to our July, and in the latitude of Durham! -I was anxious to reach the summit of this mountain -to collect alpine plants; for flowers of any kind in the lower -parts are few in number. We followed the same water-course -as on the previous day, till it dwindled away, and we -were then compelled to crawl blindly among the trees. -These, from the effects of the elevation and of the impetuous -winds, were low, thick and crooked. At length we reached -that which from a distance appeared like a carpet of fine -green turf, but which, to our vexation, turned out to be a -compact mass of little beech-trees about four or five feet -high. They were as thick together as box in the border of -a garden, and we were obliged to struggle over the flat but -treacherous surface. After a little more trouble we gained -the peat, and then the bare slate rock. - -A ridge connected this hill with another, distant some -miles, and more lofty, so that patches of snow were lying -on it. As the day was not far advanced, I determined to -walk there and collect plants along the road. It would have -been very hard work, had it not been for a well-beaten and -straight path made by the guanacos; for these animals, like -sheep, always follow the same line. When we reached the -hill we found it the highest in the immediate neighbourhood, -and the waters flowed to the sea in opposite directions. We -obtained a wide view over the surrounding country: to the -north a swampy moorland extended, but to the south we -had a scene of savage magnificence, well becoming Tierra -del Fuego. There was a degree of mysterious grandeur -in mountain behind mountain, with the deep intervening -valleys, all covered by one thick, dusky mass of forest. The -atmosphere, likewise, in this climate, where gale succeeds -gale, with rain, hail, and sleet, seems blacker than anywhere -else. In the Strait of Magellan looking due southward from -Port Famine, the distant channels between the mountains -appeared from their gloominess to lead beyond the confines -of this world. - -December 21st. -- The Beagle got under way: and on the -succeeding day, favoured to an uncommon degree by a fine -easterly breeze, we closed in with the Barnevelts, and running -past Cape Deceit with its stony peaks, about three -o'clock doubled the weather-beaten Cape Horn. The evening -was calm and bright, and we enjoyed a fine view of the -surrounding isles. Cape Horn, however, demanded his tribute, -and before night sent us a gale of wind directly in our teeth. -We stood out to sea, and on the second day again made the -land, when we saw on our weather-bow this notorious promontory -in its proper form -- veiled in a mist, and its dim -outline surrounded by a storm of wind and water. Great -black clouds were rolling across the heavens, and squalls -of rain, with hail, swept by us with such extreme violence, -that the Captain determined to run into Wigwam Cove. -This is a snug little harbour, not far from Cape Horn; and -here, at Christmas-eve, we anchored in smooth water. The -only thing which reminded us of the gale outside, was every -now and then a puff from the mountains, which made the -ship surge at her anchors. - -December 25th. -- Close by the Cove, a pointed hill, called -Kater's Peak, rises to the height of 1700 feet. The surrounding -islands all consist of conical masses of greenstone, -associated sometimes with less regular hills of baked and -altered clay-slate. This part of Tierra del Fuego may be -considered as the extremity of the submerged chain of -mountains already alluded to. The cove takes its name of -"Wigwam" from some of the Fuegian habitations; but every -bay in the neighbourhood might be so called with equal -propriety. The inhabitants, living chiefly upon shell-fish, are -obliged constantly to change their place of residence; but -they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from -the piles of old shells, which must often amount to many -tons in freight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long -distance by the bright green colour of certain plants, which -invariably grow on them. Among these may be enumerated -the wild celery and scurvy grass, two very serviceable plants, -the use of which has not been discovered by the natives. - -The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, -a haycock. It merely consists of a few broken branches -stuck in the ground, and very imperfectly thatched on one -side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. The whole cannot -be the work of an hour, and it is only used for a few days. -At Goeree Roads I saw a place where one of these naked -men had slept, which absolutely offered no more cover than -the form of a hare. The man was evidently living by himself, -and York Minster said he was "very bad man," and -that probably he had stolen something. On the west coast, -however, the wigwams are rather better, for they are covered -with seal-skins. We were detained here several days by the -bad weather. The climate is certainly wretched: the summer -solstice was now passed, yet every day snow fell on the -hills, and in the valleys there was rain, accompanied by -sleet. The thermometer generally stood about 45 degs., but in -the night fell to 38 or 40 degs. From the damp and boisterous -state of the atmosphere, not cheered by a gleam of sunshine, -one fancied the climate even worse than it really was. - -While going one day on shore near Wollaston Island, we -pulled alongside a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the -most abject and miserable creatures I anywhere beheld. On -the east coast the natives, as we have seen, have guanaco -cloaks, and on the west they possess seal-skins. Amongst -these central tribes the men generally have an otter-skin, or -some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handkerchief, -which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down -as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, and -according as the wind blows, it is shifted from side to side. -But these Fuegians in the canoe were quite naked, and even -one full-grown woman was absolutely so. It was raining -heavily, and the fresh water, together with the spray, trickled -down her body. In another harbour not far distant, a -woman, who was suckling a recently-born child, came one -day alongside the vessel, and remained there out of mere -curiosity, whilst the sleet fell and thawed on her naked -bosom, and on the skin of her naked baby! These poor -wretches were stunted in their growth, their hideous faces -bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, -their hair entangled, their voices discordant, and their -gestures violent. Viewing such men, one can hardly make one's -self believe that they are fellow-creatures, and inhabitants -of the same world. It is a common subject of conjecture -what pleasure in life some of the lower animals can enjoy: -how much more reasonably the same question may be asked -with respect to these barbarians! At night, five or six -human beings, naked and scarcely protected from the wind -and rain of this tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet -ground coiled up like animals. Whenever it is low water, -winter or summer, night or day, they must rise to pick shell-fish -from the rocks; and the women either dive to collect -sea-eggs, or sit patiently in their canoes, and with a baited -hair-line without any hook, jerk out little fish. If a seal is -killed, or the floating carcass of a putrid whale is discovered, -it is a feast; and such miserable food is assisted by a few -tasteless berries and fungi. - -They often suffer from famine: I heard Mr. Low, a sealing-master -intimately acquainted with the natives of this -country, give a curious account of the state of a party of -one hundred and fifty natives on the west coast, who were -very thin and in great distress. A succession of gales prevented -the women from getting shell-fish on the rocks, and -they could not go out in their canoes to catch seal. A small -party of these men one morning set out, and the other -Indians explained to him, that they were going a four days' -journey for food: on their return, Low went to meet them, -and he found them excessively tired, each man carrying -a great square piece of putrid whale's-blubber with a hole -in the middle, through which they put their heads, like the -Gauchos do through their ponchos or cloaks. As soon as -the blubber was brought into a wigwam, an old man cut off -thin slices, and muttering over them, broiled them for a -minute, and distributed them to the famished party, who -during this time preserved a profound silence. Mr. Low -believes that whenever a whale is cast on shore, the natives -bury large pieces of it in the sand, as a resource in time of -famine; and a native boy, whom he had on board, once -found a stock thus buried. The different tribes when at -war are cannibals. From the concurrent, but quite independent -evidence of the boy taken by Mr. Low, and of -Jemmy Button, it is certainly true, that when pressed in -winter by hunger, they kill and devour their old women -before they kill their dogs: the boy, being asked by Mr. -Low why they did this, answered, "Doggies catch otters, -old women no." This boy described the manner in which -they are killed by being held over smoke and thus choked; -he imitated their screams as a joke, and described the parts -of their bodies which are considered best to eat. Horrid -as such a death by the hands of their friends and relatives -must be, the fears of the old women, when hunger begins -to press, are more painful to think of; we are told that they -then often run away into the mountains, but that they are -pursued by the men and brought back to the slaughter-house -at their own firesides! - -Captain Fitz Roy could never ascertain that the Fuegians -have any distinct belief in a future life. They sometimes -bury their dead in caves, and sometimes in the mountain -forests; we do not know what ceremonies they perform. -Jemmy Button would not eat land-birds, because "eat dead -men": they are unwilling even to mention their dead friends. -We have no reason to believe that they perform any sort of -religious worship; though perhaps the muttering of the old -man before he distributed the putrid blubber to his famished -party, may be of this nature. Each family or tribe has a -wizard or conjuring doctor, whose office we could never -clearly ascertain. Jemmy believed in dreams, though not, as -I have said, in the devil: I do not think that our Fuegians -were much more superstitious than some of the sailors; for -an old quartermaster firmly believed that the successive -heavy gales, which we encountered off Cape Horn, were -caused by our having the Fuegians on board. The nearest -approach to a religious feeling which I heard of, was shown -by York Minster, who, when Mr. Bynoe shot some very -young ducklings as specimens, declared in the most solemn -manner, "Oh, Mr. Bynoe, much rain, snow, blow much." -This was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting -human food. In a wild and excited manner he also related, -that his brother, one day whilst returning to pick up some -dead birds which he had left on the coast, observed some -feathers blown by the wind. His brother said (York imitating -his manner), "What that?" and crawling onwards, -he peeped over the cliff, and saw "wild man" picking his -birds; he crawled a little nearer, and then hurled down a -great stone and killed him. York declared for a long time -afterwards storms raged, and much rain and snow fell. -As far as we could make out, he seemed to consider the -elements themselves as the avenging agents: it is evident in -this case, how naturally, in a race a little more advanced -in culture, the elements would become personified. What -the "bad wild men" were, has always appeared to me most -mysterious: from what York said, when we found the place -like the form of a hare, where a single man had slept the -night before, I should have thought that they were thieves -who had been driven from their tribes; but other obscure -speeches made me doubt this; I have sometimes imagined -that the most probable explanation was that they were -insane. - -The different tribes have no government or chief; yet -each is surrounded by other hostile tribes, speaking different -dialects, and separated from each other only by a deserted -border or neutral territory: the cause of their warfare appears -to be the means of subsistence. Their country is a -broken mass of wild rocks, lofty hills, and useless forests: -and these are viewed through mists and endless storms. The -habitable land is reduced to the stones on the beach; in -search of food they are compelled unceasingly to wander -from spot to spot, and so steep is the coast, that they can -only move about in their wretched canoes. They cannot -know the feeling of having a home, and still less that of -domestic affection; for the husband is to the wife a brutal -master to a laborious slave. Was a more horrid deed ever -perpetrated, than that witnessed on the west coast by Byron, -who saw a wretched mother pick up her bleeding dying -infant-boy, whom her husband had mercilessly dashed on the -stones for dropping a basket of sea-eggs! How little can -the higher powers of the mind be brought into play: what is -there for imagination to picture, for reason to compare, or -judgment to decide upon? to knock a limpet from the rock -does not require even cunning, that lowest power of the -mind. Their skill in some respects may be compared to the -instinct of animals; for it is not improved by experience: -the canoe, their most ingenious work, poor as it is, has -remained the same, as we know from Drake, for the last two -hundred and fifty years. - -Whilst beholding these savages, one asks, whence have -they come? What could have tempted, or what change compelled -a tribe of men, to leave the fine regions of the north, -to travel down the Cordillera or backbone of America, to -invent and build canoes, which are not used by the tribes -of Chile, Peru, and Brazil, and then to enter on one of the -most inhospitable countries within the limits of the globe? -Although such reflections must at first seize on the mind, yet -we may feel sure that they are partly erroneous. There is -no reason to believe that the Fuegians decrease in number; -therefore we must suppose that they enjoy a sufficient share -of happiness, of whatever kind it may be, to render life -worth having. Nature by making habit omnipotent, and its -effects hereditary, has fitted the Fuegian to the climate and -the productions of his miserable country. - - -After having been detained six days in Wigwam Cove by -very bad weather, we put to sea on the 30th of December. -Captain Fitz Roy wished to get westward to land York and -Fuegia in their own country. When at sea we had a constant -succession of gales, and the current was against us: we -drifted to 57 degs. 23' south. On the 11th of January, 1833, -by carrying a press of sail, we fetched within a few miles of -the great rugged mountain of York Minster (so called by -Captain Cook, and the origin of the name of the elder Fuegian), -when a violent squall compelled us to shorten sail -and stand out to sea. The surf was breaking fearfully on -the coast, and the spray was carried over a cliff estimated -to 200 feet in height. On the 12th the gale was very heavy, -and we did not know exactly where we were: it was a most -unpleasant sound to hear constantly repeated, "keep a good -look-out to leeward." On the 13th the storm raged with its -full fury: our horizon was narrowly limited by the sheets -of spray borne by the wind. The sea looked ominous, like -a dreary waving plain with patches of drifted snow: whilst -the ship laboured heavily, the albatross glided with its -expanded wings right up the wind. At noon a great sea broke -over us, and filled one of the whale boats, which was -obliged to be instantly cut away. The poor Beagle trembled -at the shock, and for a few minutes would not obey her helm; -but soon, like a good ship that she was, she righted and came -up to the wind again. Had another sea followed the first, -our fate would have been decided soon, and for ever. We -had now been twenty-four days trying in vain to get westward; -the men were worn out with fatigue, and they had not -had for many nights or days a dry thing to put on. Captain -Fitz Roy gave up the attempt to get westward by the outside -coast. In the evening we ran in behind False Cape Horn, -and dropped our anchor in forty-seven fathoms, fire flashing -from the windlass as the chain rushed round it. How delightful -was that still night, after having been so long involved -in the din of the warring elements! - -January 15th, 1833. -- The Beagle anchored in Goeree -Roads. Captain Fitz Roy having resolved to settle the Fuegians, -according to their wishes, in Ponsonby Sound, four -boats were equipped to carry them there through the Beagle -Channel. This channel, which was discovered by Captain -Fitz Roy during the last voyage, is a most remarkable feature -in the geography of this, or indeed of any other country: it -may be compared to the valley of Lochness in Scotland, with -its chain of lakes and friths. It is about one hundred and -twenty miles long, with an average breadth, not subject to -any very great variation, of about two miles; and is throughout -the greater part so perfectly straight, that the view, -bounded on each side by a line of mountains, gradually becomes -indistinct in the long distance. It crosses the southern -part of Tierra del Fuego in an east and west line, and -in the middle is joined at right angles on the south side by -an irregular channel, which has been called Ponsonby Sound. -This is the residence of Jemmy Button's tribe and family. - -19th. -- Three whale-boats and the yawl, with a party of -twenty-eight, started under the command of Captain Fitz -Roy. In the afternoon we entered the eastern mouth of the -channel, and shortly afterwards found a snug little cove -concealed by some surrounding islets. Here we pitched our -tents and lighted our fires. Nothing could look more comfortable -than this scene. The glassy water of the little harbour, -with the branches of the trees hanging over the rocky -beach, the boats at anchor, the tents supported by the crossed -oars, and the smoke curling up the wooded valley, formed a -picture of quiet retirement. The next day (20th) we smoothly -glided onwards in our little fleet, and came to a more inhabited -district. Few if any of these natives could ever -have seen a white man; certainly nothing could exceed their -astonishment at the apparition of the four boats. Fires were -lighted on every point (hence the name of Tierra del Fuego, -or the land of fire), both to attract our attention and to -spread far and wide the news. Some of the men ran for -miles along the shore. I shall never forget how wild and -savage one group appeared: suddenly four or five men came -to the edge of an overhanging cliff; they were absolutely -naked, and their long hair streamed about their faces; they -held rugged staffs in their hands, and, springing from the -ground, they waved their arms round their heads, and sent -forth the most hideous yells. - -At dinner-time we landed among a party of Fuegians. -At first they were not inclined to be friendly; for until the -Captain pulled in ahead of the other boats, they kept their -slings in their hands. We soon, however, delighted them by -trifling presents, such as tying red tape round their heads. -They liked our biscuit: but one of the savages touched with -his finger some of the meat preserved in tin cases which I -was eating, and feeling it soft and cold, showed as much disgust -at it, as I should have done at putrid blubber. Jemmy -was thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen, and declared his -own tribe were quite different, in which he was wofully -mistaken. It was as easy to please as it was difficult to -satisfy these savages. Young and old, men and children, never -ceased repeating the word "yammerschooner," which means -"give me." After pointing to almost every object, one after -the other, even to the buttons on our coats, and saying their -favourite word in as many intonations as possible, they would -then use it in a neuter sense, and vacantly repeat -"yammerschooner." After yammerschoonering for any article very -eagerly, they would by a simple artifice point to their young -women or little children, as much as to say, "If you will -not give it me, surely you will to such as these." - -At night we endeavoured in vain to find an uninhabited -cove; and at last were obliged to bivouac not far from a -party of natives. They were very inoffensive as long as they -were few in numbers, but in the morning (21st) being joined -by others they showed symptoms of hostility, and we thought -that we should have come to a skirmish. An European -labours under great disadvantages when treating with savages -like these, who have not the least idea of the power of -fire-arms. In the very act of levelling his musket he appears -to the savage far inferior to a man armed with a bow and -arrow, a spear, or even a sling. Nor is it easy to teach them -our superiority except by striking a fatal blow. Like wild -beasts, they do not appear to compare numbers; for each -individual, if attacked, instead of retiring, will endeavour to -dash your brains out with a stone, as certainly as a tiger -under similar circumstances would tear you. Captain Fitz -Roy on one occasion being very anxious, from good reasons, -to frighten away a small party, first flourished a cutlass near -them, at which they only laughed; he then twice fired his -pistol close to a native. The man both times looked astounded, -and carefully but quickly rubbed his head; he then -stared awhile, and gabbled to his companions, but he never -seemed to think of running away. We can hardly put ourselves -in the position of these savages, and understand their -actions. In the case of this Fuegian, the possibility of such -a sound as the report of a gun close to his ear could never -have entered his mind. He perhaps literally did not for a -second know whether it was a sound or a blow, and therefore -very naturally rubbed his head. In a similar manner, -when a savage sees a mark struck by a bullet, it may be some -time before he is able at all to understand how it is effected; -for the fact of a body being invisible from its velocity would -perhaps be to him an idea totally inconceivable. Moreover, -the extreme force of a bullet, that penetrates a hard substance -without tearing it, may convince the savage that it -has no force at all. Certainly I believe that many savages -of the lowest grade, such as these of Tierra del Fuego, have -seen objects struck, and even small animals killed by the -musket, without being in the least aware how deadly an -instrument it is. - -22nd. -- After having passed an unmolested night, in what -would appear to be neutral territory between Jemmy's tribe -and the people whom we saw yesterday, we sailed pleasantly -along. I do not know anything which shows more clearly -the hostile state of the different tribes, than these wide -border or neutral tracts. Although Jemmy Button well knew the -force of our party, he was, at first, unwilling to land amidst -the hostile tribe nearest to his own. He often told us how -the savage Oens men "when the leaf red," crossed the mountains -from the eastern coast of Tierra del Fuego, and made -inroads on the natives of this part of the country. It was -most curious to watch him when thus talking, and see his -eyes gleaming and his whole face assume a new and wild -expression. As we proceeded along the Beagle Channel, the -scenery assumed a peculiar and very magnificent character; -but the effect was much lessened from the lowness of the -point of view in a boat, and from looking along the valley, -and thus losing all the beauty of a succession of ridges. The -mountains were here about three thousand feet high, and -terminated in sharp and jagged points. They rose in one -unbroken sweep from the water's edge, and were covered to -the height of fourteen or fifteen hundred feet by the dusky- -coloured forest. It was most curious to observe, as far as -the eye could range, how level and truly horizontal the line -on the mountain side was, at which trees ceased to grow: it -precisely resembled the high-water mark of drift-weed on a -sea-beach. - -At night we slept close to the junction of Ponsonby Sound -with the Beagle Channel. A small family of Fuegians, who -were living in the cove, were quiet and inoffensive, and soon -joined our party round a blazing fire. We were well clothed, -and though sitting close to the fire were far from too warm; -yet these naked savages, though further off, were observed, -to our great surprise, to be streaming with perspiration at -undergoing such a roasting. They seemed, however, very -well pleased, and all joined in the chorus of the seamen's -songs: but the manner in which they were invariably a little -behindhand was quite ludicrous. - -During the night the news had spread, and early in the -morning (23rd) a fresh party arrived, belonging to the Tekenika, -or Jemmy's tribe. Several of them had run so fast that -their noses were bleeding, and their mouths frothed from -the rapidity with which they talked; and with their naked -bodies all bedaubed with black, white, [1] and red, they looked -like so many demoniacs who had been fighting. We then -proceeded (accompanied by twelve canoes, each holding four -or five people) down Ponsonby Sound to the spot where poor -Jemmy expected to find his mother and relatives. He had -already heard that his father was dead; but as he had had -a "dream in his head" to that effect, he did not seem to -care much about it, and repeatedly comforted himself with -the very natural reflection -- "Me no help it." He was not -able to learn any particulars regarding his father's death, as -his relations would not speak about it. - -Jemmy was now in a district well known to him, and -guided the boats to a quiet pretty cove named Woollya, -surrounded by islets, every one of which and every point had -its proper native name. We found here a family of Jemmy's -tribe, but not his relations: we made friends with them; -and in the evening they sent a canoe to inform Jemmy's -mother and brothers. The cove was bordered by some acres -of good sloping land, not covered (as elsewhere) either by -peat or by forest-trees. Captain Fitz Roy originally intended, -as before stated, to have taken York Minster and -Fuegia to their own tribe on the west coast; but as they -expressed a wish to remain here, and as the spot was singularly -favourable, Captain Fitz Roy determined to settle here the -whole party, including Matthews, the missionary. Five days -were spent in building for them three large wigwams, in -landing their goods, in digging two gardens, and sowing -seeds. - -The next morning after our arrival (the 24th) the Fuegians -began to pour in, and Jemmy's mother and brothers -arrived. Jemmy recognised the stentorian voice of one of -his brothers at a prodigious distance. The meeting was less -interesting than that between a horse, turned out into a field, -when he joins an old companion. There was no demonstration -of affection; they simply stared for a short time at -each other; and the mother immediately went to look after -her canoe. We heard, however, through York that the -mother has been inconsolable for the loss of Jemmy and had -searched everywhere for him, thinking that he might have -been left after having been taken in the boat. The women -took much notice of and were very kind to Fuegia. We had -already perceived that Jemmy had almost forgotten his own -language. I should think there was scarcely another human -being with so small a stock of language, for his English was -very imperfect. It was laughable, but almost pitiable, to -hear him speak to his wild brother in English, and then ask -him in Spanish ("no sabe?") whether he did not understand -him. - -Everything went on peaceably during the three next days -whilst the gardens were digging and wigwams building. We -estimated the number of natives at about one hundred and -twenty. The women worked hard, whilst the men lounged -about all day long, watching us. They asked for everything -they saw, and stole what they could. They were delighted -at our dancing and singing, and were particularly interested -at seeing us wash in a neighbouring brook; they did not pay -much attention to anything else, not even to our boats. Of -all the things which York saw, during his absence from his -country, nothing seems more to have astonished him than -an ostrich, near Maldonado: breathless with astonishment -he came running to Mr. Bynoe, with whom he was out walking --- "Oh, Mr. Bynoe, oh, bird all same horse!" Much as -our white skins surprised the natives, by Mr. Low's account -a negro-cook to a sealing vessel, did so more effectually, and -the poor fellow was so mobbed and shouted at that he would -never go on shore again. Everything went on so quietly -that some of the officers and myself took long walks in the -surrounding hills and woods. Suddenly, however, on the -27th, every woman and child disappeared. We were all uneasy -at this, as neither York nor Jemmy could make out -the cause. It was thought by some that they had been frightened -by our cleaning and firing off our muskets on the previous -evening; by others, that it was owing to offence taken -by an old savage, who, when told to keep further off, had -coolly spit in the sentry's face, and had then, by gestures -acted over a sleeping Fuegian, plainly showed, as it was said, -that he should like to cut up and eat our man. Captain -Fitz Roy, to avoid the chance of an encounter, which would -have been fatal to so many of the Fuegians, thought it advisable -for us to sleep at a cove a few miles distant. Matthews, -with his usual quiet fortitude (remarkable in a man -apparently possessing little energy of character), determined -to stay with the Fuegians, who evinced no alarm for themselves; -and so we left them to pass their first awful night. - -On our return in the morning (28th) we were delighted -to find all quiet, and the men employed in their canoes -spearing fish. Captain Fitz Roy determined to send the -yawl and one whale-boat back to the ship; and to proceed -with the two other boats, one under his own command (in -which he most kindly allowed me to accompany him), and -one under Mr. Hammond, to survey the western parts of -the Beagle Channel, and afterwards to return and visit the -settlement. The day to our astonishment was overpoweringly -hot, so that our skins were scorched: with this beautiful -weather, the view in the middle of the Beagle Channel -was very remarkable. Looking towards either hand, no object -intercepted the vanishing points of this long canal between -the mountains. The circumstance of its being an arm -of the sea was rendered very evident by several huge whales [2] -spouting in different directions. On one occasion I saw two -of these monsters, probably male and female, slowly swimming -one after the other, within less than a stone's throw -of the shore, over which the beech-tree extended its branches. -We sailed on till it was dark, and then pitched our tents -in a quiet creek. The greatest luxury was to find for our -beds a beach of pebbles, for they were dry and yielded to -the body. Peaty soil is damp; rock is uneven and hard; -sand gets into one's meat, when cooked and eaten boat-fashion; -but when lying in our blanket-bags, on a good bed of -smooth pebbles, we passed most comfortable nights. - -It was my watch till one o'clock. There is something -very solemn in these scenes. At no time does the consciousness -in what a remote corner of the world you are then -standing, come so strongly before the mind. Everything -tends to this effect; the stillness of the night is interrupted -only by the heavy breathing of the seamen beneath the tents, -and sometimes by the cry of a night-bird. The occasional -barking of a dog, heard in the distance, reminds one that it -is the land of the savage. - -January 20th. -- Early in the morning we arrived at the -point where the Beagle Channel divides into two arms; and -we entered the northern one. The scenery here becomes -even grander than before. The lofty mountains on the north -side compose the granitic axis, or backbone of the country -and boldly rise to a height of between three and four thousand -feet, with one peak above six thousand feet. They are -covered by a wide mantle of perpetual snow, and numerous -cascades pour their waters, through the woods, into the narrow -channel below. In many parts, magnificent glaciers extend -from the mountain side to the water's edge. It is -scarcely possible to imagine anything more beautiful than -the beryl-like blue of these glaciers, and especially as -contrasted with the dead white of the upper expanse of snow. -The fragments which had fallen from the glacier into the -water were floating away, and the channel with its icebergs -presented, for the space of a mile, a miniature likeness of -the Polar Sea. The boats being hauled on shore at our -dinner-hour, we were admiring from the distance of half a -mile a perpendicular cliff of ice, and were wishing that some -more fragments would fall. At last, down came a mass with -a roaring noise, and immediately we saw the smooth outline -of a wave travelling towards us. The men ran down as -quickly as they could to the boats; for the chance of their -being dashed to pieces was evident. One of the seamen just -caught hold of the bows, as the curling breaker reached it: -he was knocked over and over, but not hurt, and the boats -though thrice lifted on high and let fall again, received no -damage. This was most fortunate for us, for we were a -hundred miles distant from the ship, and we should have -been left without provisions or fire-arms. I had previously -observed that some large fragments of rock on the beach had -been lately displaced; but until seeing this wave, I did not -understand the cause. One side of the creek was formed -by a spur of mica-slate; the head by a cliff of ice about -forty feet high; and the other side by a promontory fifty -feet high, built up of huge rounded fragments of granite -and mica-slate, out of which old trees were growing. This -promontory was evidently a moraine, heaped up at a period -when the glacier had greater dimensions. - -When we reached the western mouth of this northern -branch of the Beagle Channel, we sailed amongst many unknown -desolate islands, and the weather was wretchedly bad. -We met with no natives. The coast was almost everywhere -so steep, that we had several times to pull many miles before -we could find space enough to pitch our two tents: one night -we slept on large round boulders, with putrefying sea-weed -between them; and when the tide rose, we had to get up and -move our blanket-bags. The farthest point westward which -we reached was Stewart Island, a distance of about one hundred -and fifty miles from our ship. We returned into the -Beagle Channel by the southern arm, and thence proceeded, -with no adventure, back to Ponsonby Sound. - -February 6th. -- We arrived at Woollya. Matthews gave -so bad an account of the conduct of the Fuegians, that Captain -Fitz Roy determined to take him back to the Beagle; -and ultimately he was left at New Zealand, where his brother -was a missionary. From the time of our leaving, a regular -system of plunder commenced; fresh parties of the natives -kept arriving: York and Jemmy lost many things, and Matthews -almost everything which had not been concealed underground. -Every article seemed to have been torn up and -divided by the natives. Matthews described the watch he -was obliged always to keep as most harassing; night and -day he was surrounded by the natives, who tried to tire him -out by making an incessant noise close to his head. One day -an old man, whom Matthews asked to leave his wigwam, -immediately returned with a large stone in his hand: another -day a whole party came armed with stones and stakes, and -some of the younger men and Jemmy's brother were crying: -Matthews met them with presents. Another party showed -by signs that they wished to strip him naked and pluck all -the hairs out of his face and body. I think we arrived just -in time to save his life. Jemmy's relatives had been so vain -and foolish, that they had showed to strangers their plunder, -and their manner of obtaining it. It was quite melancholy -leaving the three Fuegians with their savage countrymen; -but it was a great comfort that they had no personal -fears. York, being a powerful resolute man, was pretty sure -to get on well, together with his wife Fuegia. Poor Jemmy -looked rather disconsolate, and would then, I have little -doubt, have been glad to have returned with us. His own -brother had stolen many things from him; and as he remarked, -"What fashion call that:" he abused his countrymen, -"all bad men, no sabe (know) nothing" and, though -I never heard him swear before, "damned fools." Our three -Fuegians, though they had been only three years with civilized -men, would, I am sure, have been glad to have retained -their new habits; but this was obviously impossible. I fear -it is more than doubtful, whether their visit will have been -of any use to them. - -In the evening, with Matthews on board, we made sail -back to the ship, not by the Beagle Channel, but by the -southern coast. The boats were heavily laden and the sea -rough, and we had a dangerous passage. By the evening -of the 7th we were on board the Beagle after an absence of -twenty days, during which time we had gone three hundred -miles in the open boats. On the 11th, Captain Fitz Roy -paid a visit by himself to the Fuegians and found them going -on well; and that they had lost very few more things. - - -On the last day of February in the succeeding year (1834) -the Beagle anchored in a beautiful little cove at the eastern -entrance of the Beagle Channel. Captain Fitz Roy determined -on the bold, and as it proved successful, attempt to -beat against the westerly winds by the same route, which -we had followed in the boats to the settlement at Woollya. -We did not see many natives until we were near Ponsonby -Sound, where we were followed by ten or twelve canoes. The -natives did not at all understand the reason of our tacking, -and, instead of meeting us at each tack, vainly strove to -follow us in our zigzag course. I was amused at finding -what a difference the circumstance of being quite superior -in force made, in the interest of beholding these savages. -While in the boats I got to hate the very sound of their -voices, so much trouble did they give us. The first and last -word was "yammerschooner." When, entering some quiet -little cove, we have looked round and thought to pass a quiet -night, the odious word "yammerschooner" has shrilly sounded -from some gloomy nook, and then the little signal-smoke -has curled up to spread the news far and wide. On leaving -some place we have said to each other, "Thank heaven, we -have at last fairly left these wretches!" when one more faint -hallo from an all-powerful voice, heard at a prodigious -distance, would reach our ears, and clearly could we distinguish --- "yammerschooner." But now, the more Fuegians the merrier; -and very merry work it was. Both parties laughing, -wondering, gaping at each other; we pitying them, for giving -us good fish and crabs for rags, etc.; they grasping at the -chance of finding people so foolish as to exchange such splendid -ornaments for a good supper. It was most amusing to -see the undisguised smile of satisfaction with which one -young woman with her face painted black, tied several bits -of scarlet cloth round her head with rushes. Her husband, -who enjoyed the very universal privilege in this country of -possessing two wives, evidently became jealous of all the -attention paid to his young wife; and, after a consultation -with his naked beauties, was paddled away by them. - -Some of the Fuegians plainly showed that they had a fair -notion of barter. I gave one man a large nail (a most valuable -present) without making any signs for a return; but he -immediately picked out two fish, and handed them up on the -point of his spear. If any present was designed for one -canoe, and it fell near another, it was invariably given to the -right owner. The Fuegian boy, whom Mr. Low had on -board showed, by going into the most violent passion, that -he quite understood the reproach of being called a liar, which -in truth he was. We were this time, as on all former occasions, -much surprised at the little notice, or rather none -whatever, which was taken of many things, the use of which -must have been evident to the natives. Simple circumstances --- such as the beauty of scarlet cloth or blue beads, -the absence of women, our care in washing ourselves, -- excited -their admiration far more than any grand or complicated -object, such as our ship. Bougainville has well remarked -concerning these people, that they treat the "chefs -d'oeuvre de l'industrie humaine, comme ils traitent les loix -de la nature et ses phenomenes." - -On the 5th of March, we anchored in a cove at Woollya, -but we saw not a soul there. We were alarmed at this, for -the natives in Ponsonby Sound showed by gestures, that there -had been fighting; and we afterwards heard that the dreaded -Oens men had made a descent. Soon a canoe, with a little -flag flying, was seen approaching, with one of the men in it -washing the paint off his face. This man was poor Jemmy, --- now a thin, haggard savage, with long disordered hair, and -naked, except a bit of blanket round his waist. We did not -recognize him till he was close to us, for he was ashamed -of himself, and turned his back to the ship. We had left him -plump, fat, clean, and well-dressed; -- I never saw so complete -and grievous a change. As soon, however, as he was clothed, -and the first flurry was over, things wore a good appearance. -He dined with Captain Fitz Roy, and ate his dinner -as tidily as formerly. He told us that he had "too much" -(meaning enough) to eat, that he was not cold, that his -relations were very good people, and that he did not wish to go -back to England: in the evening we found out the cause of -this great change in Jemmy's feelings, in the arrival of his -young and nice-looking wife. With his usual good feeling -he brought two beautiful otter-skins for two of his best -friends, and some spear-heads and arrows made with his own -hands for the Captain. He said he had built a canoe for himself, -and he boasted that he could talk a little of his own -language! But it is a most singular fact, that he appears to -have taught all his tribe some English: an old man spontaneously -announced "Jemmy Button's wife." Jemmy had lost -all his property. He told us that York Minster had built -a large canoe, and with his wife Fuegia, [3] had several months -since gone to his own country, and had taken farewell by an -act of consummate villainy; he persuaded Jemmy and his -mother to come with him, and then on the way deserted them -by night, stealing every article of their property. - -Jemmy went to sleep on shore, and in the morning returned, -and remained on board till the ship got under way, -which frightened his wife, who continued crying violently -till he got into his canoe. He returned loaded with valuable -property. Every soul on board was heartily sorry to shake -hands with him for the last time. I do not now doubt that -he will be as happy as, perhaps happier than, if he had never -left his own country. Every one must sincerely hope that -Captain Fitz Roy's noble hope may be fulfilled, of being -rewarded for the many generous sacrifices which he made for -these Fuegians, by some shipwrecked sailor being protected -by the descendants of Jemmy Button and his tribe! When -Jemmy reached the shore, he lighted a signal fire, and the -smoke curled up, bidding us a last and long farewell, as the -ship stood on her course into the open sea. - -The perfect equality among the individuals composing the -Fuegian tribes must for a long time retard their civilization. -As we see those animals, whose instinct compels them to live -in society and obey a chief, are most capable of improvement, -so is it with the races of mankind. Whether we look -at it as a cause or a consequence, the more civilized always -have the most artificial governments. For instance, the -inhabitants of Otaheite, who, when first discovered, were -governed by hereditary kings, had arrived at a far higher grade -than another branch of the same people, the New Zealanders, --- who, although benefited by being compelled to turn their -attention to agriculture, were republicans in the most absolute -sense. In Tierra del Fuego, until some chief shall arise -with power sufficient to secure any acquired advantage, such -as the domesticated animals, it seems scarcely possible that -the political state of the country can be improved. At present, -even a piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds -and distributed; and no one individual becomes richer than -another. On the other hand, it is difficult to understand how -a chief can arise till there is property of some sort by which -he might manifest his superiority and increase his power. - -I believe, in this extreme part of South America, man -exists in a lower state of improvement than in any other part -of the world. The South Sea Islanders, of the two races -inhabiting the Pacific, are comparatively civilized. The -Esquimau in his subterranean hut, enjoys some of the comforts -of life, and in his canoe, when fully equipped, manifests -much skill. Some of the tribes of Southern Africa -prowling about in search of roots, and living concealed on -the wild and arid plains, are sufficiently wretched. The -Australian, in the simplicity of the arts of life, comes -nearest the Fuegian: he can, however, boast of his boomerang, -his spear and throwing-stick, his method of climbing trees, of -tracking animals, and of hunting. Although the Australian may be -superior in acquirements, it by no means follows that he is -likewise superior in mental capacity: indeed, from what I -saw of the Fuegians when on board and from what I have -read of the Australians, I should think the case was exactly -the reverse. - -[1] This substance, when dry, is tolerably compact, and of -little specific gravity: Professor Ehrenberg has examined -it: he states (Konig Akad. der Wissen: Berlin, Feb. 1845) -that it is composed of infusoria, including fourteen -polygastrica, and four phytolitharia. He says that they are -all inhabitants of fresh-water; this is a beautiful example -of the results obtainable through Professor Ehrenberg's -microscopic researches; for Jemmy Button told me that it is -always collected at the bottoms of mountain-brooks. It is, -moreover, a striking fact that in the geographical distribution -of the infusoria, which are well known to have very wide -ranges, that all the species in this substance, although -brought from the extreme southern point of Tierra del Fuego, -are old, known forms. - -[2] One day, off the East coast of Tierra del Fuego, we saw -a grand sight in several spermaceti whales jumping upright -quite out of the water, with the exception of their tail-fins. -As they fell down sideways, they splashed the water high up, -and the sound reverberated like a distant broadside. - -[3] Captain Sulivan, who, since his voyage in the Beagle, has -been employed on the survey of the Falkland Islands, heard -from a sealer in (1842?), that when in the western part of -the Strait of Magellan, he was astonished by a native woman -coming on board, who could talk some English. Without doubt -this was Fuega Basket. She lived (I fear the term probably -bears a double interpretation) some days on board. - - - -CHAPTER XI - -STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. -- CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN COASTS - -Strait of Magellan -- Port Famine -- Ascent of Mount Tarn -- -Forests -- Edible Fungus -- Zoology -- Great Sea-weed -- Leave -Tierra del Fuego -- Climate -- Fruit-trees and Productions -of the Southern Coasts -- Height of Snow-line on the -Cordillera -- Descent of Glaciers to the Sea -- Icebergs -formed -- Transportal of Boulders -- Climate and Productions -of the Antarctic Islands -- Preservation of Frozen Carcasses -- -Recapitulation. - - -IN THE end of May, 1834, we entered for a second time -the eastern mouth of the Strait of Magellan. The country -on both sides of this part of the Strait consists of -nearly level plains, like those of Patagonia. Cape Negro, a -little within the second Narrows, may be considered as the -point where the land begins to assume the marked features -of Tierra del Fuego. On the east coast, south of the Strait, -broken park-like scenery in a like manner connects these two -countries, which are opposed to each other in almost every -feature. It is truly surprising to find in a space of twenty -miles such a change in the landscape. If we take a rather -greater distance, as between Port Famine and Gregory Bay, -that is about sixty miles, the difference is still more -wonderful. At the former place, we have rounded mountains -concealed by impervious forests, which are drenched with the -rain, brought by an endless succession of gales; while at -Cape Gregory, there is a clear and bright blue sky over the -dry and sterile plains. The atmospheric currents, [1] although -rapid, turbulent, and unconfined by any apparent limits, yet -seem to follow, like a river in its bed, a regularly determined -course. - -During our previous visit (in January), we had an interview -at Cape Gregory with the famous so-called gigantic -Patagonians, who gave us a cordial reception. Their height -appears greater than it really is, from their large guanaco -mantles, their long flowing hair, and general figure: on an -average, their height is about six feet, with some men taller -and only a few shorter; and the women are also tall; altogether -they are certainly the tallest race which we anywhere -saw. In features they strikingly resemble the more northern -Indians whom I saw with Rosas, but they have a wilder and -more formidable appearance: their faces were much painted -with red and black, and one man was ringed and dotted with -white like a Fuegian. Captain Fitz Roy offered to take any -three of them on board, and all seemed determined to be of -the three. It was long before we could clear the boat; at -last we got on board with our three giants, who dined with -the Captain, and behaved quite like gentlemen, helping -themselves with knives, forks, and spoons: nothing was so much -relished as sugar. This tribe has had so much communication -with sealers and whalers that most of the men can speak a -little English and Spanish; and they are half civilized, and -proportionally demoralized. - -The next morning a large party went on shore, to barter -for skins and ostrich-feathers; fire-arms being refused, -tobacco was in greatest request, far more so than axes or -tools. The whole population of the toldos, men, women, and -children, were arranged on a bank. It was an amusing -scene, and it was impossible not to like the so-called giants, -they were so thoroughly good-humoured and unsuspecting: -they asked us to come again. They seem to like to have -Europeans to live with them; and old Maria, an important -woman in the tribe, once begged Mr. Low to leave any one -of his sailors with them. They spend the greater part of the -year here; but in summer they hunt along the foot of the -Cordillera: sometimes they travel as far as the Rio Negro -750 miles to the north. They are well stocked with horses, -each man having, according to Mr. Low, six or seven, and -all the women, and even children, their one own horse. In -the time of Sarmiento (1580), these Indians had bows and -arrows, now long since disused; they then also possessed -some horses. This is a very curious fact, showing the -extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in South America. -The horse was first landed at Buenos Ayres in 1537, and the -colony being then for a time deserted, the horse ran wild; [2] -in 1580, only forty-three years afterwards, we hear of them at -the Strait of Magellan! Mr. Low informs me, that a neighbouring -tribe of foot-Indians is now changing into horse-Indians: -the tribe at Gregory Bay giving them their worn-out horses, -and sending in winter a few of their best skilled men to hunt -for them. - -June 1st. -- We anchored in the fine bay of Port Famine. -It was now the beginning of winter, and I never saw a more -cheerless prospect; the dusky woods, piebald with snow, -could be only seen indistinctly, through a drizzling hazy -atmosphere. We were, however, lucky in getting two fine -days. On one of these, Mount Sarmiento, a distant mountain -6800 feet high, presented a very noble spectacle. I was -frequently surprised in the scenery of Tierra del Fuego, at the -little apparent elevation of mountains really lofty. I suspect -it is owing to a cause which would not at first be imagined, -namely, that the whole mass, from the summit to the water's -edge, is generally in full view. I remember having seen a -mountain, first from the Beagle Channel, where the whole -sweep from the summit to the base was full in view, and then -from Ponsonby Sound across several successive ridges; and -it was curious to observe in the latter case, as each fresh -ridge afforded fresh means of judging of the distance, how -the mountain rose in height. - -Before reaching Port Famine, two men were seen running -along the shore and hailing the ship. A boat was sent for -them. They turned out to be two sailors who had run away -from a sealing-vessel, and had joined the Patagonians. These -Indians had treated them with their usual disinterested -hospitality. They had parted company through accident, and -were then proceeding to Port Famine in hopes of finding -some ship. I dare say they were worthless vagabonds, but I -never saw more miserable-looking ones. They had been living -for some days on mussel-shells and berries, and their -tattered clothes had been burnt by sleeping so near their fires. -They had been exposed night and day, without any shelter, -to the late incessant gales, with rain, sleet, and snow, and yet -they were in good health. - -During our stay at Port Famine, the Fuegians twice came -and plagued us. As there were many instruments, clothes, -and men on shore, it was thought necessary to frighten them -away. The first time a few great guns were fired, when they -were far distant. It was most ludicrous to watch through a -glass the Indians, as often as the shot struck the water, take -up stones, and, as a bold defiance, throw them towards the -ship, though about a mile and a half distant! A boat was -sent with orders to fire a few musket-shots wide of them. -The Fuegians hid themselves behind the trees, and for every -discharge of the muskets they fired their arrows; all, however, -fell short of the boat, and the officer as he pointed at -them laughed. This made the Fuegians frantic with passion, -and they shook their mantles in vain rage. At last, seeing -the balls cut and strike the trees, they ran away, and we were -left in peace and quietness. During the former voyage the -Fuegians were here very troublesome, and to frighten them a -rocket was fired at night over their wigwams; it answered -effectually, and one of the officers told me that the clamour -first raised, and the barking of the dogs, was quite ludicrous -in contrast with the profound silence which in a minute or -two afterwards prevailed. The next morning not a single -Fuegian was in the neighbourhood. - -When the Beagle was here in the month of February, I -started one morning at four o'clock to ascend Mount Tarn, -which is 2600 feet high, and is the most elevated point in this -immediate district. We went in a boat to the foot of the -mountain (but unluckily not to the best part), and then -began our ascent. The forest commences at the line of high- -water mark, and during the first two hours I gave over all -hopes of reaching the summit. So thick was the wood, that -it was necessary to have constant recourse to the compass; -for every landmark, though in a mountainous country, was -completely shut out. In the deep ravines, the death-like -scene of desolation exceeded all description; outside it was -blowing a gale, but in these hollows, not even a breath of -wind stirred the leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, -and wet was every part, that not even the fungi, mosses, or -ferns could flourish. In the valleys it was scarcely possible -to crawl along, they were so completely barricaded by great -mouldering trunks, which had fallen down in every direction. -When passing over these natural bridges, one's course was -often arrested by sinking knee deep into the rotten wood; at -other times, when attempting to lean against a firm tree, one -was startled by finding a mass of decayed matter ready to -fall at the slightest touch. We at last found ourselves among -the stunted trees, and then soon reached the bare ridge, which -conducted us to the summit. Here was a view characteristic -of Tierra del Fuego; irregular chains of hills, mottled with -patches of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and arms of -the sea intersecting the land in many directions. The strong -wind was piercingly cold, and the atmosphere rather hazy, so -that we did not stay long on the top of the mountain. Our -descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent, for the -weight of the body forced a passage, and all the slips and -falls were in the right direction. - -I have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of -the evergreen forests, [3] in which two or three species of -trees grow, to the exclusion of all others. Above the forest -land, there are many dwarf alpine plants, which all spring -from the mass of peat, and help to compose it: these plants -are very remarkable from their close alliance with the species -growing on the mountains of Europe, though so many thousand -miles distant. The central part of Tierra del Fuego, where the -clay-slate formation occurs, is most favourable to the growth -of trees; on the outer coast the poorer granitic soil, and a -situation more exposed to the violent winds, do not allow of -their attaining any great size. Near Port Famine I have seen -more large trees than anywhere else: I measured a Winter's -Bark which was four feet six inches in girth, and several of -the beech were as much as thirteen feet. Captain King also -mentions a beech which was seven feet in diameter, seventeen -feet above the roots. - -There is one vegetable production deserving notice from -its importance as an article of food to the Fuegians. It is a -globular, bright-yellow fungus, which grows in vast numbers -on the beech-trees. When young it is elastic and turgid, with - -[picture] - -a smooth surface; but when mature it shrinks, becomes tougher, -and has its entire surface deeply pitted or honey-combed, -as represented in the accompanying woodcut. This fungus -belongs to a new and curious genus, [4] I found a second -species on another species of beech in Chile: and Dr. Hooker -informs me, that just lately a third species has been discovered -on a third species of beech in Van Diernan's Land. How singular -is this relationship between parasitical fungi and the trees -on which they grow, in distant parts of the world! In Tierra -del Fuego the fungus in its tough and mature state is collected -in large quantities by the women and children, and is eaten -un-cooked. It has a mucilaginous, slightly sweet taste, with -a faint smell like that of a mushroom. With the exception of -a few berries, chiefly of a dwarf arbutus, the natives eat -no vegetable food besides this fungus. In New Zealand, -before the introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern -were largely consumed; at the present time, I believe, Tierra -del Fuego is the only country in the world where a cryptogamic -plant affords a staple article of food. - -The zoology of Tierra del Fuego, as might have been -expected from the nature of its climate and vegetation, is -very poor. Of mammalia, besides whales and seals, there is -one bat, a kind of mouse (Reithrodon chinchilloides), two -true mice, a ctenomys allied to or identical with the tucutuco, -two foxes (Canis Magellanicus and C. Azarae), a sea-otter, -the guanaco, and a deer. Most of these animals inhabit only -the drier eastern parts of the country; and the deer has never -been seen south of the Strait of Magellan. Observing the -general correspondence of the cliffs of soft sandstone, mud, -and shingle, on the opposite sides of the Strait, and on some -intervening islands, one is strongly tempted to believe that the -land was once joined, and thus allowed animals so delicate -and helpless as the tucutuco and Reithrodon to pass over. -The correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any -junction; because such cliffs generally are formed by the -intersection of sloping deposits, which, before the elevation -of the land, had been accumulated near the then existing -shores. It is, however, a remarkable coincidence, that in the -two large islands cut off by the Beagle Channel from the -rest of Tierra del Fuego, one has cliffs composed of matter -that may be called stratified alluvium, which front similar -ones on the opposite side of the channel, -- while the other is -exclusively bordered by old crystalline rocks: in the former, -called Navarin Island, both foxes and guanacos occur; but in -the latter, Hoste Island, although similar in every respect, -and only separated by a channel a little more than half a mile -wide, I have the word of Jemmy Button for saying that -neither of these animals are found. - -The gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds: occasionally -the plaintive note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher -(Myiobius albiceps) may be heard, concealed near the summit -of the most lofty trees; and more rarely the loud strange -cry of a black wood-pecker, with a fine scarlet crest on its -head. A little, dusky-coloured wren (Scytalopus Magellanicus) -hops in a skulking manner among the entangled mass -of the fallen and decaying trunks. But the creeper (Oxyurus -tupinieri) is the commonest bird in the country. Throughout -the beech forests, high up and low down, in the most -gloomy, wet, and impenetrable ravines, it may be met with. -This little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it -really is, from its habit of following with seeming curiosity -any person who enters these silent woods: continually uttering -a harsh twitter, it flutters from tree to tree, within a few -feet of the intruder's face. It is far from wishing for the -modest concealment of the true creeper (Certhia familiaris); -nor does it, like that bird, run up the trunks of trees, but -industriously, after the manner of a willow-wren, hops about, -and searches for insects on every twig and branch. In the -more open parts, three or four species of finches, a thrush, -a starling (or Icterus), two Opetiorhynchi, and several hawks -and owls occur. - -The absence of any species whatever in the whole class of -Reptiles, is a marked feature in the zoology of this country, -as well as in that of the Falkland Islands. I do not ground -this statement merely on my own observation, but I heard it -from the Spanish inhabitants of the latter place, and from -Jemmy Button with regard to Tierra del Fuego. On the -banks of the Santa Cruz, in 50 degs. south, I saw a frog; and -it is not improbable that these animals, as well as lizards, may -be found as far south as the Strait of Magellan, where the -country retains the character of Patagonia; but within the -damp and cold limit of Tierra del Fuego not one occurs. -That the climate would not have suited some of the orders, -such as lizards, might have been foreseen; but with respect -to frogs, this was not so obvious. - -Beetles occur in very small numbers: it was long before I -could believe that a country as large as Scotland, covered -with vegetable productions and with a variety of stations, -could be so unproductive. The few which I found were -alpine species (Harpalidae and Heteromidae) living under -stones. The vegetable-feeding Chrysomelidae, so eminently -characteristic of the Tropics, are here almost entirely -absent; [5] I saw very few flies, butterflies, or bees, and no -crickets or Orthoptera. In the pools of water I found but a few -aquatic beetles, and not any fresh-water shells: Succinea at -first appears an exception; but here it must be called a -terrestrial shell, for it lives on the damp herbage far from the -water. Land-shells could be procured only in the same alpine -situations with the beetles. I have already contrasted the -climate as well as the general appearance of Tierra del -Fuego with that of Patagonia; and the difference is strongly -exemplified in the entomology. I do not believe they have -one species in common; certainly the general character of the -insects is widely different. - -If we turn from the land to the sea, we shall find the latter -as abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is -poorly so. In all parts of the world a rocky and partially -protected shore perhaps supports, in a given space, a greater -number of individual animals than any other station. There -is one marine production which, from its importance, is -worthy of a particular history. It is the kelp, or Macrocystis -pyrifera. This plant grows on every rock from low-water -mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the -channels. [6] I believe, during the voyages of the Adventure -and Beagle, not one rock near the surface was discovered -which was not buoyed by this floating weed. The good service -it thus affords to vessels navigating near this stormy -land is evident; and it certainly has saved many a one from -being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than to -see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great -breakers of the western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it -be ever so hard, can long resist. The stem is round, slimy, -and smooth, and seldom has a diameter of so much as an -inch. A few taken together are sufficiently strong to support -the weight of the large loose stones, to which in the inland -channels they grow attached; and yet some of these stones -were so heavy that when drawn to the surface, they could -scarcely be lifted into a boat by one person. Captain Cook, -in his second voyage, says, that this plant at Kerguelen Land -rises from a greater depth than twenty-four fathoms; "and -as it does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but makes a -very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards -spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well -warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of sixty -fathoms and upwards." I do not suppose the stem of any -other plant attains so great a length as three hundred and -sixty feet, as stated by Captain Cook. Captain Fitz Roy, -moreover, found it growing [7] up from the greater depth of -forty-five fathoms. The beds of this sea-weed, even when -of not great breadth, make excellent natural floating -breakwaters. It is quite curious to see, in an exposed harbour, -how soon the waves from the open sea, as they travel through -the straggling stems, sink in height, and pass into smooth -water. - -The number of living creatures of all Orders, whose existence -intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A great -volume might be written, describing the inhabitants of one -of these beds of sea-weed. Almost all the leaves, excepting -those that float on the surface, are so thickly incrusted with -corallines as to be of a white colour. We find exquisitely -delicate structures, some inhabited by simple hydra-like -polypi, others by more organized kinds, and beautiful compound -Ascidiae. On the leaves, also, various patelliform shells, -Trochi, uncovered molluscs, and some bivalves are attached. -Innumerable crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On -shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, -cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, beautiful -Holuthuriae, Planariae, and crawling nereidous animals of a -multitude of forms, all fall out together. Often as I recurred -to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover animals -of new and curious structures. In Chiloe, where the kelp -does not thrive very well, the numerous shells, corallines, and -crustacea are absent; but there yet remain a few of the -Flustraceae, and some compound Ascidiae; the latter, however, -are of different species from those in Tierra del Fuego: -we see here the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals -which use it as an abode. I can only compare these -great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere with the -terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any -country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe nearly so -many species of animals would perish as would here, from -the destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant -numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find -food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants -and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and porpoises, would -soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian savage, the miserable -lord of this miserable land, would redouble his cannibal -feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to exist. - -June 8th. -- We weighed anchor early in the morning and -left Port Famine. Captain Fitz Roy determined to leave the -Strait of Magellan by the Magdalen Channel, which had not -long been discovered. Our course lay due south, down that -gloomy passage which I have before alluded to as appearing -to lead to another and worse world. The wind was fair, but -the atmosphere was very thick; so that we missed much -curious scenery. The dark ragged clouds were rapidly driven -over the mountains, from their summits nearly down to their -bases. The glimpses which we caught through the dusky -mass were highly interesting; jagged points, cones of snow, -blue glaciers, strong outlines, marked on a lurid sky, were -seen at different distances and heights. In the midst of such -scenery we anchored at Cape Turn, close to Mount Sarmiento, -which was then hidden in the clouds. At the base of -the lofty and almost perpendicular sides of our little cove -there was one deserted wigwam, and it alone reminded us -that man sometimes wandered into these desolate regions. -But it would be difficult to imagine a scene where he seemed -to have fewer claims or less authority. The inanimate works -of nature -- rock, ice, snow, wind, and water -- all warring -with each other, yet combined against man -- here reigned in -absolute sovereignty. - -June 9th. -- In the morning we were delighted by seeing -the veil of mist gradually rise from Sarmiento, and display it -to our view. This mountain, which is one of the highest in -Tierra del Fuego, has an altitude of 6800 feet. Its base, for -about an eighth of its total height, is clothed by dusky woods, -and above this a field of snow extends to the summit. These -vast piles of snow, which never melt, and seem destined to -last as long as the world holds together, present a noble and -even sublime spectacle. The outline of the mountain was -admirably clear and defined. Owing to the abundance of -light reflected from the white and glittering surface, no -shadows were cast on any part; and those lines which intersected -the sky could alone be distinguished: hence the mass -stood out in the boldest relief. Several glaciers descended in -a winding course from the upper great expanse of snow to -the sea-coast: they may be likened to great frozen Niagaras; -and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice are full as beautiful -as the moving ones of water. By night we reached the western -part of the channel; but the water was so deep that no -anchorage could be found. We were in consequence obliged -to stand off and on in this narrow arm of the sea, during a -pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long. - -June 10th. -- In the morning we made the best of our way -into the open Pacific. The western coast generally consists -of low, rounded, quite barren hills of granite and greenstone. -Sir J. Narborough called one part South Desolation, because -it is "so desolate a land to behold:" and well indeed might -he say so. Outside the main islands, there are numberless -scattered rocks on which the long swell of the open ocean -incessantly rages. We passed out between the East and West -Furies; and a little farther northward there are so many -breakers that the sea is called the Milky Way. One sight of -such a coast is enough to make a landsman dream for a week -about shipwrecks, peril, and death; and with this sight we -bade farewell for ever to Tierra del Fuego. - -The following discussion on the climate of the southern -parts of the continent with relation to its productions, on -the snow-line, on the extraordinarily low descent of the -glaciers, and on the zone of perpetual congelation in -the antarctic islands, may be passed over by any one -not interested in these curious subjects, or the final -recapitulation alone may be read. I shall, however, here -give only an abstract, and must refer for details to the -Thirteenth Chapter and the Appendix of the former edition -of this work. - -On the Climate and Productions of Tierra del Fuego and -of the South-west Coast. -- The following table gives the -mean temperature of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, -and, for comparison, that of Dublin: -- - - Summer Winter Mean of Summer - Latitude Temp. Temp. and Winter ---------------------------------------------------------------- -Tierra del Fuego 53 38' S. 50 33.08 41.54 -Falkland Islands 51 38' S. 51 -- -- -Dublin 53 21' N. 59.54 39.2 49.37 - - -Hence we see that the central part of Tierra del Fuego is -colder in winter, and no less than 9.5 degs. less hot in -summer, than Dublin. According to von Buch, the mean -temperature of July (not the hottest month in the year) -at Saltenfiord in Norway, is as high as 57.8 degs., -and this place is actually 13 degs. nearer the pole -than Port Famine! [8] Inhospitable as this climate appears -to our feelings evergreen trees flourish luxuriantly under -it. Humming-birds may be seen sucking the flowers, and -parrots feeding on the seeds of the Winter's Bark, in lat. -55 degs. S. I have already remarked to what a degree the -sea swarms with living creatures; and the shells (such as -the Patellae, Fissurellae, Chitons, and Barnacles), -according to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, are of a much larger size -and of a more vigorous growth, than the analogous species in -the northern hemisphere. A large Voluta is abundant in -southern Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. At -Bahia Blanca, in lat. 39 degs. S., the most abundant shells were -three species of Oliva (one of large size), one or two Volutas, -and a Terebra. Now, these are amongst the best characterized -tropical forms. It is doubtful whether even one -small species of Oliva exists on the southern shores of -Europe, and there are no species of the two other genera. -If a geologist were to find in lat 39 degs. on the coast of -Portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three -species of Oliva, to a Voluta and Terebra, he would probably -assert that the climate at the period of their existence must -have been tropical; but judging from South America, such an -inference might be erroneous. - -The equable, humid, and windy climate of Tierra del -Fuego extends, with only a small increase of heat, for many -degrees along the west coast of the continent. The forests -for 600 miles northward of Cape Horn, have a very similar -aspect. As a proof of the equable climate, even for 300 or -400 miles still further northward, I may mention that in -Chiloe (corresponding in latitude with the northern parts -of Spain) the peach seldom produces fruit, whilst strawberries -and apples thrive to perfection. Even the crops of -barley and wheat [9] are often brought into the houses to be -dried and ripened. At Valdivia (in the same latitude of -40 degs., with Madrid) grapes and figs ripen, but are not -common; olives seldom ripen even partially, and oranges not at -all. These fruits, in corresponding latitudes in Europe, are -well known to succeed to perfection; and even in this continent, -at the Rio Negro, under nearly the same parallel -with Valdivia, sweet potatoes (convolvulus) are cultivated; -and grapes, figs, olives, oranges, water and musk melons, -produce abundant fruit. Although the humid and equable -climate of Chiloe, and of the coast northward and southward -of it, is so unfavourable to our fruits, yet the native -forests, from lat. 45 to 38 degs., almost rival in luxuriance -those of the glowing intertropical regions. Stately trees of -many kinds, with smooth and highly coloured barks, are loaded -by parasitical monocotyledonous plants; large and elegant -ferns are numerous, and arborescent grasses entwine the -trees into one entangled mass to the height of thirty or forty -feet above the ground. Palm-trees grow in lat 37 degs.; an -arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40 degs.; and -another closely allied kind, of great length, but not erect, -flourishes even as far south as 45 degs. S. - -An equable climate, evidently due to the large area of sea -compared with the land, seems to extend over the greater -part of the southern hemisphere; and, as a consequence, the -vegetation partakes of a semi-tropical character. Tree-ferns -thrive luxuriantly in Van Diemen's Land (lat. 45 degs.), and I -measured one trunk no less than six feet in circumference. -An arborescent fern was found by Forster in New Zealand -in 46 degs., where orchideous plants are parasitical on the -trees. In the Auckland Islands, ferns, according to Dr. -Dieffenbach [10] have trunks so thick and high that they may -be almost called tree-ferns; and in these islands, and even -as far south as lat. 55 degs. in the Macquarrie Islands, -parrots abound. - -On the Height of the Snow-line, and on the Descent of -the Glaciers in South America. -- For the detailed authorities -for the following table, I must refer to the former edition: -- - - Height in feet -Latitude of Snow-line Observer ----------------------------------------------------------------- -Equatorial region; mean result 15,748 Humboldt. -Bolivia, lat. 16 to 18 degs. S. 17,000 Pentland. -Central Chile, lat. 33 degs. S. 14,500 - 15,000 Gillies, and - the Author. -Chiloe, lat. 41 to 43 degs. S. 6,000 Officers of the - Beagle and the - Author. -Tierra del Fuego, 54 degs. S. 3,500 - 4,000 King. - - -As the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to -be determined by the extreme heat of the summer, rather than -by the mean temperature of the year, we ought not to be -surprised at its descent in the Strait of Magellan, where the -summer is so cool, to only 3500 or 4000 feet above the level of -the sea; although in Norway, we must travel to between lat. 67 -and 70 degs. N., that is, about 14 degs. nearer the pole, to meet -with perpetual snow at this low level. The difference in height, -namely, about 9000 feet, between the snow-line on the Cordillera -behind Chiloe (with its highest points ranging from -only 5600 to 7500 feet) and in central Chile [11] (a distance of -only 9 degs. of latitude), is truly wonderful. The land from the -southward of Chiloe to near Concepcion (lat. 37 degs.) is hidden -by one dense forest dripping with moisture. The sky is -cloudy, and we have seen how badly the fruits of southern -Europe succeed. In central Chile, on the other hand, a little -northward of Concepcion, the sky is generally clear, rain does -not fall for the seven summer months, and southern European -fruits succeed admirably; and even the sugar-cane has -been cultivated. [12] No doubt the plane of perpetual snow -undergoes the above remarkable flexure of 9000 feet, -unparalleled in other parts of the world, not far from the -latitude of Concepcion, where the land ceases to be covered -with forest-trees; for trees in South America indicate a rainy -climate, and rain a clouded sky and little heat in summer. - -The descent of glaciers to the sea must, I conceive, mainly -depend (subject, of course, to a proper supply of snow in the -upper region) on the lowness of the line of perpetual snow -on steep mountains near the coast. As the snow-line is so -low in Tierra del Fuego, we might have expected that many -of the glaciers would have reached the sea. Nevertheless, -I was astonished when I first saw a range, only from 3000 to -4000 feet in height, in the latitude of Cumberland, with every -valley filled with streams of ice descending to the sea-coast. -Almost every arm of the sea, which penetrates to the interior -higher chain, not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the coast -for 650 miles northwards, is terminated by "tremendous and -astonishing glaciers," as described by one of the officers on -the survey. Great masses of ice frequently fall from these -icy cliffs, and the crash reverberates like the broadside of a -man-of-war through the lonely channels. These falls, as -noticed in the last chapter, produce great waves which break -on the adjoining coasts. It is known that earthquakes frequently -cause masses of earth to fall from sea-cliffs: how -terrific, then, would be the effect of a severe shock (and such -occur here [13]) on a body like a glacier, already in motion, and -traversed by fissures! I can readily believe that the water -would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest channel, and -then, returning with an overwhelming force, would whirl -about huge masses of rock like so much chaff. In Eyre's -Sound, in the latitude of Paris, there are immense glaciers, -and yet the loftiest neighbouring mountain is only 6200 feet -high. In this Sound, about fifty icebergs were seen at one -time floating outwards, and one of them must have been at -least 168 feet in total height. Some of the icebergs were -loaded with blocks of no inconsiderable size, of granite and -other rocks, different from the clay-slate of the surrounding -mountains. The glacier furthest from the pole, surveyed -during the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, is in lat. -46 degs. 50', in the Gulf of Penas. It is 15 miles long, and in -one part 7 broad and descends to the sea-coast. But even a -few miles northward of this glacier, in Laguna de San - -[picture] - -Rafael, some Spanish missionaries [14] encountered "many -icebergs, some great, some small, and others middle-sized," in -a narrow arm of the sea, on the 22nd of the month corresponding -with our June, and in a latitude corresponding with -that of the Lake of Geneva! - -In Europe, the most southern glacier which comes down -to the sea is met with, according to Von Buch, on the coast -of Norway, in lat. 67 degs. Now, this is more than 20 degs. of -latitude, or 1230 miles, nearer the pole than the Laguna de San -Rafael. The position of the glaciers at this place and in the -Gulf of Penas may be put even in a more striking point of -view, for they descend to the sea-coast within 7.5 degs. of -latitude, or 450 miles, of a harbour, where three species of -Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, are the commonest shells, -within less than 9 degs. from where palms grow, within 4.5 degs. -of a region where the jaguar and puma range over the -plains, less than 2.5 degs. from arborescent grasses, and -(looking to the westward in the same hemisphere) less than -2 degs. from orchideous parasites, and within a single degree -of tree-ferns! - -These facts are of high geological interest with respect to -the climate of the northern hemisphere at the period when -boulders were transported. I will not here detail how simply -the theory of icebergs being charged with fragments of rock, -explain the origin and position of the gigantic boulders of -eastern Tierra del Fuego, on the high plain of Santa Cruz, -and on the island of Chiloe. In Tierra del Fuego, the greater -number of boulders lie on the lines of old sea-channels, now -converted into dry valleys by the elevation of the land. They -are associated with a great unstratified formation of mud -and sand, containing rounded and angular fragments of all -sizes, which has originated [15] in the repeated ploughing up of -the sea-bottom by the stranding of icebergs, and by the matter -transported on them. Few geologists now doubt that -those erratic boulders which lie near lofty mountains have -been pushed forward by the glaciers themselves, and that -those distant from mountains, and embedded in subaqueous -deposits, have been conveyed thither either on icebergs or -frozen in coast-ice. The connection between the transportal -of boulders and the presence of ice in some form, is strikingly -shown by their geographical distribution over the earth. -In South America they are not found further than 48 degs. of -latitude, measured from the southern pole; in North America -it appears that the limit of their transportal extends to -53.5 degs. from the northern pole; but in Europe to not more -than 40 degs. of latitude, measured from the same point. On the -other hand, in the intertropical parts of America, Asia, and -Africa, they have never been observed; nor at the Cape of Good -Hope, nor in Australia. [16] - -On the Climate and Productions of the Antarctic Islands. --- Considering the rankness of the vegetation in Tierra del -Fuego, and on the coast northward of it, the condition of the -islands south and south-west of America is truly surprising. -Sandwich Land, in the latitude of the north part of Scotland, -was found by Cook, during the hottest month of the -year, "covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow;" -and there seems to be scarcely any vegetation. Georgia, an -island 96 miles long and 10 broad, in the latitude of Yorkshire, -"in the very height of summer, is in a manner wholly -covered with frozen snow." It can boast only of moss, some -tufts of grass, and wild burnet; it has only one land-bird -(Anthus correndera), yet Iceland, which is 10 degs. nearer the -pole, has, according to Mackenzie, fifteen land-birds. The -South Shetland Islands, in the same latitude as the southern -half of Norway, possess only some lichens, moss, and a little -grass; and Lieut. Kendall [17] found the bay, in which he was -at anchor, beginning to freeze at a period corresponding with -our 8th of September. The soil here consists of ice and -volcanic ashes interstratified; and at a little depth beneath -the surface it must remain perpetually congealed, for Lieut. -Kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long -been buried, with the flesh and all the features perfectly -preserved. It is a singular fact, that on the two great -continents in the northern hemisphere (but not in the broken -land of Europe between them ), we have the zone of perpetually -frozen under-soil in a low latitude -- namely, in 56 degs. in -North America at the depth of three feet, [18] and in 62 degs. -in Siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen feet -- as the -result of a directly opposite condition of things to those -of the southern hemisphere. On the northern continents, the -winter is rendered excessively cold by the radiation from a -large area of land into a clear sky, nor is it moderated by -the warmth-bringing currents of the sea; the short summer, -on the other hand, is hot. In the Southern Ocean the winter -is not so excessively cold, but the summer is far less hot, -for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the ocean, -itself a bad absorbent of heat: and hence the mean temperature -of the year, which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed -under-soil, is low. It is evident that a rank vegetation, -which does not so much require heat as it does protection -from intense cold, would approach much nearer to this zone -of perpetual congelation under the equable climate of the -southern hemisphere, than under the extreme climate of the -northern continents. - -The case of the sailor's body perfectly preserved in the icy -soil of the South Shetland Islands (lat. 62 to 63 degs. S.), in a -rather lower latitude than that (lat. 64 degs. N.) under which -Pallas found the frozen rhinoceros in Siberia, is very -interesting. Although it is a fallacy, as I have endeavoured to -show in a former chapter, to suppose that the larger quadrupeds -require a luxuriant vegetation for their support, nevertheless -it is important to find in the South Shetland Islands -a frozen under-soil within 360 miles of the forest-clad islands -near Cape Horn, where, as far as the _bulk_ of vegetation is -concerned, any number of great quadrupeds might be supported. -The perfect preservation of the carcasses of the -Siberian elephants and rhinoceroses is certainly one of the -most wonderful facts in geology; but independently of the -imagined difficulty of supplying them with food from the -adjoining countries, the whole case is not, I think, so -perplexing as it has generally been considered. The plains of -Siberia, like those of the Pampas, appear to have been formed -under the sea, into which rivers brought down the bodies -of many animals; of the greater number of these, only the -skeletons have been preserved, but of others the perfect -carcass. Now, it is known that in the shallow sea on the Arctic -coast of America the bottom freezes, [19] and does not thaw in -spring so soon as the surface of the land, moreover at -greater depths, where the bottom of the sea does not freeze -the mud a few feet beneath the top layer might remain even -in summer below 32 degs., as in the case on the land with the -soil at the depth of a few feet. At still greater depths, the -temperature of the mud and water would probably not be low -enough to preserve the flesh; and hence, carcasses drifted -beyond the shallow parts near an Arctic coast, would have -only their skeletons preserved: now in the extreme northern -parts of Siberia bones are infinitely numerous, so that even -islets are said to be almost composed of them; [20] and those -islets lie no less than ten degrees of latitude north of the -place where Pallas found the frozen rhinoceros. On the other -hand, a carcass washed by a flood into a shallow part of the -Arctic Sea, would be preserved for an indefinite period, if it -were soon afterwards covered with mud sufficiently thick to -prevent the heat of the summer-water penetrating to it; and -if, when the sea-bottom was upraised into land, the covering -was sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer air -and sun thawing and corrupting it. - -Recapitulation. -- I will recapitulate the principal facts with -regard to the climate, ice-action, and organic productions of -the southern hemisphere, transposing the places in imagination -to Europe, with which we are so much better acquainted. -Then, near Lisbon, the commonest sea-shells, namely, three -species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, would have a -tropical character. In the southern provinces of France, -magnificent forests, intwined by arborescent grasses and with -the trees loaded with parasitical plants, would hide the face -of the land. The puma and the jaguar would haunt the -Pyrenees. In the latitude of Mont Blanc, but on an island as -far westward as Central North America, tree-ferns and -parasitical Orchideae would thrive amidst the thick woods. -Even as far north as central Denmark, humming-birds would be -seen fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding -amidst the evergreen woods; and in the sea there, we should -have a Voluta, and all the shells of large size and vigorous -growth. Nevertheless, on some islands only 360 miles northward -of our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a carcass buried -in the soil (or if washed into a shallow sea, and covered up -with mud) would be preserved perpetually frozen. If some -bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of these -islands, he would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic -icebergs, on some of which he would see great blocks of rock -borne far away from their original site. Another island of -large size in the latitude of southern Scotland, but twice as -far to the west, would be "almost wholly covered with -everlasting snow," and would have each bay terminated by -ice-cliffs, whence great masses would be yearly detached: this -island would boast only of a little moss, grass, and burnet, -and a titlark would be its only land inhabitant. From our -new Cape Horn in Denmark, a chain of mountains, scarcely -half the height of the Alps, would run in a straight line due -southward; and on its western flank every deep creek of the -sea, or fiord, would end in "bold and astonishing glaciers." -These lonely channels would frequently reverberate with the -falls of ice, and so often would great waves rush along their -coasts; numerous icebergs, some as tall as cathedrals, and -occasionally loaded with "no inconsiderable blocks of rock," -would be stranded on the outlying islets; at intervals violent -earthquakes would shoot prodigious masses of ice into the -waters below. Lastly, some missionaries attempting to penetrate -a long arm of the sea, would behold the not lofty surrounding -mountains, sending down their many grand icy streams -to the sea-coast, and their progress in the boats would -be checked by the innumerable floating icebergs, some small -and some great; and this would have occurred on our twenty- -second of June, and where the Lake of Geneva is now spread -out! [21] - -[1] The south-westerly breezes are generally very dry. -January 29th, being at anchor under Cape Gregory: a very -hard gale from W. by S., clear sky with few cumuli; -temperature 57 degs., dew-point 36 degs., -- difference -21 degs. On January 15th, at Port St. Julian: in the -morning, light winds with much rain, followed by a very -heavy squall with rain, -- settled into heavy gale with -large cumuli, -- cleared up, blowing very strong from S.S.W. -Temperature 60 degs., dew-point 42 degs., -- difference -18 degs. - -[2] Rengger, Natur. der Saeugethiere von Paraguay. S. 334. - -[3] Captain Fitz Roy informs me that in April (our October), -the leaves of those trees which grow near the base of the -mountains change colour, but not those on the more elevated -parts. I remember having read some observations, showing -that in England the leaves fall earlier in a warm and fine -autumn than in a late and cold one, The change in the colour -being here retarded in the more elevated, and therefore colder -situations, must he owing to the same general law of vegetation. -The trees of Tierra del Fuego during no part of the year -entirely shed their leaves. - -[4] Described from my specimens and notes by the Rev. J. M. -Berkeley, in the Linnean Transactions (vol. xix. p. 37), under -the name of Cyttaria Darwinii; the Chilean species is the -C. Berteroii. This genus is allied to Bulgaria. - -[5] I believe I must except one alpine Haltica, and a single -specimen of a Melasoma. Mr. Waterhouse informs me, that of -the Harpalidae there are eight or nine species -- the forms -of the greater number being very peculiar; of Heteromera, -four or five species; of Rhyncophora, six or seven; and of -the following families one species in each: Staphylinidae, -Elateridae, Cebrionidae, Melolonthidae. The species in the -other orders are even fewer. In all the orders, the scarcity -of the individuals is even more remarkable than that of the -species. Most of the Coleoptera have been carefully described -by Mr. Waterhouse in the Annals of Nat. Hist. - -[6] Its geographical range is remarkably wide; it is found -from the extreme southern islets near Cape Horn, as far -north on the eastern coast (according to information given -me by Mr. Stokes) as lat. 43 degs., -- but on the western -coast, as Dr. Hooker tells me, it extends to the R. San -Francisco in California, and perhaps even to Kamtschatka. -We thus have an immense range in latitude; and as Cook, -who must have been well acquainted with the species, found -it at Kerguelen Land, no less than 140 degs. in longitude. - -[7] Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. i. p. 363. -- It -appears that sea-weed grows extremely quick. -- Mr. Stephenson -found (Wilson's Voyage round Scotland, vol. ii. p. 228) that -a rock uncovered only at spring-tides, which had been chiselled -smooth in November, on the following May, that is, within -six months afterwards, was thickly covered with Fucus digitatus -two feet, and F. esculentus six feet, in length. - -[8] With regard to Tierra del Fuego, the results are deduced -from the observations of Capt. King (Geographical Journal, -1830), and those taken on board the Beagle. For the Falkland -Islands, I am indebted to Capt. Sulivan for the mean of the -mean temperature (reduced from careful observations at -midnight, 8 A.M., noon, and 8 P.M.) of the three hottest -months, viz., December, January, and February. The temperature -of Dublin is taken from Barton. - -[9] Agueros, Descrip. Hist. de la Prov. de Chiloe, 1791, p. 94. - -[10] See the German Translation of this Journal; and for the -other facts, Mr. Brown's Appendix to Flinders's Voyage. - - -[11] On the Cordillera of central Chile, I believe the -snow-line varies exceedingly in height in different summers. -I was assured that during one very dry and long summer, all -the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it attains the -prodigious height of 23,000 feet. It is probable that much -of the snow at these great heights is evaporated rather than -thawed. - -[12] Miers's Chile, vol. i. p. 415. It is said that the -sugar-cane grew at Ingenio, lat. 32 to 33 degs., but not in -sufficient quantity to make the manufacture profitable. In -the valley of Quillota, south of Ingenio, I saw some large -date palm trees. - -[13] Bulkeley's and Cummin's Faithful Narrative of the Loss -of the Wager. The earthquake happened August 25, 1741. - -[14] Agueros, Desc. Hist. de Chiloe, p. 227. - -[15] Geological Transactions, vol. vi. p. 415. - -[16] I have given details (the first, I believe, published) on -this subject in the first edition, and in the Appendix to it. -I have there shown that the apparent exceptions to the absence -of erratic boulders in certain countries, are due to erroneous -observations; several statements there given I have since -found confirmed by various authors. - -[17] Geographical Journal, 1830, pp. 65, 66. - -[18] Richardson's Append. to Back's Exped., and Humboldt's -Fragm. Asiat., tom. ii. p. 386. - -[19] Messrs. Dease and Simpson, in Geograph. Journ., vol. -viii. pp. 218 and 220. - -[20] Cuvier (Ossemens Fossiles, tom. i. p. 151), from Billing's -Voyage. - -[21] In the former edition and Appendix, I have given some -facts on the transportal of erratic boulders and icebergs -in the Atlantic Ocean. This subject has lately been treated -excellently by Mr. Hayes, in the Boston Journal (vol. iv. -p. 426). The author does not appear aware of a case published -by me (Geographical Journal, vol. ix. p. 528) of a gigantic -boulder embedded in an iceberg in the Antarctic Ocean, almost -certainly one hundred miles distant from any land, and -perhaps much more distant. In the Appendix I have discussed -at length the probability (at that time hardly thought of) -of icebergs, when stranded, grooving and polishing rocks, -like glaciers. This is now a very commonly received opinion; -and I cannot still avoid the suspicion that it is applicable -even to such cases as that of the Jura. Dr. Richardson has -assured me that the icebergs off North America push before -them pebbles and sand, and leave the submarine rocky flats -quite bare; it is hardly possible to doubt that such ledges -must be polished and scored in the direction of the set of -the prevailing currents. Since writing that Appendix, I have -seen in North Wales (London Phil. Mag., vol. xxi. p. 180) -the adjoining action of glaciers and floating icebergs. - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CENTRAL CHILE - -Valparaiso -- Excursion to the Foot of the Andes -- Structure -of the Land -- Ascend the Bell of Quillota -- Shattered -Masses of Greenstone -- Immense Valleys -- Mines -- State of -Miners -- Santiago -- Hot-baths of Cauquenes -- Gold-mines -- -Grinding-mills -- Perforated Stones -- Habits of the Puma -- El -Turco and Tapacolo -- Humming-birds. - - -JULY 23rd. -- The Beagle anchored late at night in the -bay of Valparaiso, the chief seaport of Chile. When -morning came, everything appeared delightful. After -Tierra del Fuego, the climate felt quite delicious -- the -atmosphere so dry, and the heavens so clear and blue with the -sun shining brightly, that all nature seemed sparkling with -life. The view from the anchorage is very pretty. The town is -built at the very foot of a range of hills, about 1600 feet -high, and rather steep. From its position, it consists of one -long, straggling street, which runs parallel to the beach, -and wherever a ravine comes down, the houses are piled up on -each side of it. The rounded hills, being only partially -protected by a very scanty vegetation, are worn into numberless -little gullies, which expose a singularly bright red soil. From -this cause, and from the low whitewashed houses with tile roofs, -the view reminded me of St. Cruz in Teneriffe. In a north- -westerly direction there are some fine glimpses of the Andes: -but these mountains appear much grander when viewed from -the neighbouring hills: the great distance at which they are -situated can then more readily be perceived. The volcano of -Aconcagua is particularly magnificent. This huge and irregularly -conical mass has an elevation greater than that of -Chimborazo; for, from measurements made by the officers in -the Beagle, its height is no less than 23,000 feet. The -Cordillera, however, viewed from this point, owe the greater -part of their beauty to the atmosphere through which they are -seen. When the sun was setting in the Pacific, it was -admirable to watch how clearly their rugged outlines could -be distinguished, yet how varied and how delicate were the -shades of their colour. - -I had the good fortune to find living here Mr. Richard -Corfield, an old schoolfellow and friend, to whose hospitality -and kindness I was greatly indebted, in having afforded me -a most pleasant residence during the Beagle's stay in Chile. -The immediate neighbourhood of Valparaiso is not very productive -to the naturalist. During the long summer the wind -blows steadily from the southward, and a little off shore, so -that rain never falls; during the three winter months, however, -it is sufficiently abundant. The vegetation in consequence -is very scanty: except in some deep valleys, there are -no trees, and only a little grass and a few low bushes are -scattered over the less steep parts of the hills. When we -reflect, that at the distance of 350 miles to the south, this -side of the Andes is completely hidden by one impenetrable -forest, the contrast is very remarkable. I took several long -walks while collecting objects of natural history. The country -is pleasant for exercise. There are many very beautiful flowers; -and, as in most other dry climates, the plants and shrubs -possess strong and peculiar odours -- even one's clothes by -brushing through them became scented. I did not cease from -wonder at finding each succeeding day as fine as the foregoing. -What a difference does climate make in the enjoyment -of life! How opposite are the sensations when viewing -black mountains half enveloped in clouds, and seeing -another range through the light blue haze of a fine day! The -one for a time may be very sublime; the other is all gaiety -and happy life. - -August 14th. -- I set out on a riding excursion, for the -purpose of geologizing the basal parts of the Andes, which -alone at this time of the year are not shut up by the winter -snow. Our first day's ride was northward along the sea-coast. -After dark we reached the Hacienda of Quintero, -the estate which formerly belonged to Lord Cochrane. My -object in coming here was to see the great beds of shells, -which stand some yards above the level of the sea, and are -burnt for lime. The proofs of the elevation of this whole -line of coast are unequivocal: at the height of a few hundred -feet old-looking shells are numerous, and I found some -at 1300 feet. These shells either lie loose on the surface, or -are embedded in a reddish-black vegetable mould. I was -much surprised to find under the microscope that this vegetable -mould is really marine mud, full of minute particles of -organic bodies. - -15th. -- We returned towards the valley of Quillota. The -country was exceedingly pleasant; just such as poets would -call pastoral: green open lawns, separated by small valleys -with rivulets, and the cottages, we may suppose of the shepherds -scattered on the hill-sides. We were obliged to cross -the ridge of the Chilicauquen. At its base there were many -fine evergreen forest-trees, but these flourished only in the -ravines, where there was running water. Any person who -had seen only the country near Valparaiso, would never have -imagined that there had been such picturesque spots in Chile. -As soon as we reached the brow of the Sierra, the valley of -Quillota was immediately under our feet. The prospect was -one of remarkable artificial luxuriance. The valley is very -broad and quite flat, and is thus easily irrigated in all parts. -The little square gardens are crowded with orange and olive -trees, and every sort of vegetable. On each side huge bare -mountains rise, and this from the contrast renders the patchwork -valley the more pleasing. Whoever called "Valparaiso" -the "Valley of Paradise," must have been thinking -of Quillota. We crossed over to the Hacienda de San Isidro, -situated at the very foot of the Bell Mountain. - -Chile, as may be seen in the maps, is a narrow strip of -land between the Cordillera and the Pacific; and this strip -is itself traversed by several mountain-lines, which in this -part run parallel to the great range. Between these outer -lines and the main Cordillera, a succession of level basins, -generally opening into each other by narrow passages, extend -far to the southward: in these, the principal towns are -situated, as San Felipe, Santiago, San Fernando. These basins -or plains, together with the transverse flat valleys (like that -of Quillota) which connect them with the coast, I have no -doubt are the bottoms of ancient inlets and deep bays, such -as at the present day intersect every part of Tierra del Fuego -and the western coast. Chile must formerly have resembled -the latter country in the configuration of its land and water. -The resemblance was occasionally shown strikingly when a -level fog-bank covered, as with a mantle, all the lower parts -of the country: the white vapour curling into the ravines, -beautifully represented little coves and bays; and here and -there a solitary hillock peeping up, showed that it had formerly -stood there as an islet. The contrast of these flat -valleys and basins with the irregular mountains, gave the -scenery a character which to me was new and very interesting. - -From the natural slope to seaward of these plains, they -are very easily irrigated, and in consequence singularly -fertile. Without this process the land would produce scarcely -anything, for during the whole summer the sky is cloudless. -The mountains and hills are dotted over with bushes and -low trees, and excepting these the vegetation is very scanty. -Each landowner in the valley possesses a certain portion of -hill-country, where his half-wild cattle, in considerable -numbers, manage to find sufficient pasture. Once every year -there is a grand "rodeo," when all the cattle are driven down, -counted, and marked, and a certain number separated to be -fattened in the irrigated fields. Wheat is extensively -cultivated, and a good deal of Indian corn: a kind of bean is, -however, the staple article of food for the common labourers. -The orchards produce an overflowing abundance of peaches -figs, and grapes. With all these advantages, the inhabitants -of the country ought to be much more prosperous than they -are. - -16th. -- The mayor-domo of the Hacienda was good enough -to give me a guide and fresh horses; and in the morning we -set out to ascend the Campana, or Bell Mountain, which is -6400 feet high. The paths were very bad, but both the -geology and scenery amply repaid the trouble. We reached -by the evening, a spring called the Agua del Guanaco, which -is situated at a great height. This must be an old name, -for it is very many years since a guanaco drank its waters. -During the ascent I noticed that nothing but bushes grew -on the northern slope, whilst on the southern slope there was -a bamboo about fifteen feet high. In a few places there were -palms, and I was surprised to see one at an elevation of at -least 4500 feet. These palms are, for their family, ugly trees. -Their stem is very large, and of a curious form, being thicker -in the middle than at the base or top. They are excessively -numerous in some parts of Chile, and valuable on account of -a sort of treacle made from the sap. On one estate near -Petorca they tried to count them, but failed, after having -numbered several hundred thousand. Every year in the early -spring, in August, very many are cut down, and when the -trunk is lying on the ground, the crown of leaves is lopped -off. The sap then immediately begins to flow from the upper -end, and continues so doing for some months: it is, however, -necessary that a thin slice should be shaved off from -that end every morning, so as to expose a fresh surface. A -good tree will give ninety gallons, and all this must have -been contained in the vessels of the apparently dry trunk. -It is said that the sap flows much more quickly on those -days when the sun is powerful; and likewise, that it is -absolutely necessary to take care, in cutting down the tree, -that it should fall with its head upwards on the side of the -hill; for if it falls down the slope, scarcely any sap will -flow; although in that case one would have thought that the -action would have been aided, instead of checked, by the force -of gravity. The sap is concentrated by boiling, and is then -called treacle, which it very much resembles in taste. - -We unsaddled our horses near the spring, and prepared to -pass the night. The evening was fine, and the atmosphere so -clear, that the masts of the vessels at anchor in the bay of -Valparaiso, although no less than twenty-six geographical -miles distant, could be distinguished clearly as little black -streaks. A ship doubling the point under sail, appeared as -a bright white speck. Anson expresses much surprise, in his -voyage, at the distance at which his vessels were discovered -from the coast; but he did not sufficiently allow for the height -of the land, and the great transparency of the air. - -The setting of the sun was glorious; the valleys being -black whilst the snowy peaks of the Andes yet retained a -ruby tint. When it was dark, we made a fire beneath a little -arbour of bamboos, fried our charqui (or dried slips of beef), -took our mate, and were quite comfortable. There is an -inexpressible charm in thus living in the open air. The evening -was calm and still; -- the shrill noise of the mountain -bizcacha, and the faint cry of a goatsucker, were occasionally -to be heard. Besides these, few birds, or even -insects, frequent these dry, parched mountains. - -August 17th. -- In the morning we climbed up the rough -mass of greenstone which crowns the summit. This rock, as -frequently happens, was much shattered and broken into -huge angular fragments. I observed, however, one remarkable -circumstance, namely, that many of the surfaces presented -every degree of freshness some appearing as if -broken the day before, whilst on others lichens had either -just become, or had long grown, attached. I so fully believed -that this was owing to the frequent earthquakes, that I felt -inclined to hurry from below each loose pile. As one might -very easily be deceived in a fact of this kind, I doubted its -accuracy, until ascending Mount Wellington, in Van Diemen's -Land, where earthquakes do not occur; and there I saw -the summit of the mountain similarly composed and similarly -shattered, but all the blocks appeared as if they had been -hurled into their present position thousands of years ago. - -We spent the day on the summit, and I never enjoyed one -more thoroughly. Chile, bounded by the Andes and the -Pacific, was seen as in a map. The pleasure from the scenery, -in itself beautiful, was heightened by the many reflections -which arose from the mere view of the Campana range with -its lesser parallel ones, and of the broad valley of Quillota -directly intersecting them. Who can avoid wondering at the -force which has upheaved these mountains, and even more -so at the countless ages which it must have required to have -broken through, removed, and levelled whole masses of them? -It is well in this case to call to mind the vast shingle and -sedimentary beds of Patagonia, which, if heaped on the -Cordillera, would increase its height by so many thousand feet. -When in that country, I wondered how any mountain-chain -could have supplied such masses, and not have been utterly -obliterated. We must not now reverse the wonder, and doubt -whether all-powerful time can grind down mountains -- even -the gigantic Cordillera -- into-gravel and mud. - -The appearance of the Andes was different from that -which I had expected. The lower line of the snow was of -course horizontal, and to this line the even summits of the -range seemed quite parallel. Only at long intervals, a group -of points or a single cone showed where a volcano had -existed, or does now exist. Hence the range resembled a -great solid wall, surmounted here and there by a tower, and -making a most perfect barrier to the country. - -Almost every part of the hill had been drilled by attempts -to open gold-mines: the rage for mining has left scarcely -a spot in Chile unexamined. I spent the evening as before, -talking round the fire with my two companions. The Guasos -of Chile, who correspond to the Gauchos of the Pampas, are, -however, a very different set of beings. Chile is the more -civilized of the two countries, and the inhabitants, in -consequence, have lost much individual character. Gradations -in rank are much more strongly marked: the Guaso does not -by any means consider every man his equal; and I was quite -surprised to find that my companions did not like to eat at -the same time with myself. This feeling of inequality is a -necessary consequence of the existence of an aristocracy of -wealth. It is said that some few of the greater landowners -possess from five to ten thousand pounds sterling per annum: -an inequality of riches which I believe is not met with in -any of the cattle-breeding countries eastward of the Andes. -A traveller does not here meet that unbounded hospitality -which refuses all payment, but yet is so kindly offered that -no scruples can be raised in accepting it. Almost every house -in Chile will receive you for the night, but a trifle is -expected to be given in the morning; even a rich man will -accept two or three shillings. The Gaucho, although he may be -a cutthroat, is a gentleman; the Guaso is in few respects -better, but at the same time a vulgar, ordinary fellow. The -two men, although employed much in the same manner, are -different in their habits and attire; and the peculiarities -of each are universal in their respective countries. The Gaucho -seems part of his horse, and scorns to exert himself except when -on his back: the Guaso may be hired to work as a labourer in -the fields. The former lives entirely on animal food; the latter -almost wholly on vegetable. We do not here see the white -boots, the broad drawers and scarlet chilipa; the picturesque -costume of the Pampas. Here, common trousers are protected -by black and green worsted leggings. The poncho, -however, is common to both. The chief pride of the Guaso -lies in his spurs, which are absurdly large. I measured one -which was six inches in the _diameter_ of the rowel, and the -rowel itself contained upwards of thirty points. The stirrups -are on the same scale, each consisting of a square, carved -block of wood, hollowed out, yet weighing three or four -pounds. The Guaso is perhaps more expert with the lazo -than the Gaucho; but, from the nature of the country, he -does not know the use of the bolas. - -August 18th. -- We descended the mountain, and passed -some beautiful little spots, with rivulets and fine trees. -Having slept at the same hacienda as before, we rode during the -two succeeding days up the valley, and passed through Quillota, -which is more like a collection of nursery-gardens than -a town. The orchards were beautiful, presenting one mass -of peach-blossoms. I saw, also, in one or two places the -date-palm; it is a most stately tree; and I should think a -group of them in their native Asiatic or African deserts must -be superb. We passed likewise San Felipe, a pretty straggling -town like Quillota. The valley in this part expands into -one of those great bays or plains, reaching to the foot of the -Cordillera, which have been mentioned as forming so curious -a part of the scenery of Chile. In the evening we reached -the mines of Jajuel, situated in a ravine at the flank of the -great chain. I stayed here five days. My host the superintendent -of the mine, was a shrewd but rather ignorant Cornish -miner. He had married a Spanish woman, and did not -mean to return home; but his admiration for the mines of -Cornwall remained unbounded. Amongst many other questions, -he asked me, "Now that George Rex is dead, how -many more of the family of Rexes are yet alive?" This Rex -certainly must be a relation of the great author Finis, who -wrote all books! - -These mines are of copper, and the ore is all shipped to -Swansea, to be smelted. Hence the mines have an aspect -singularly quiet, as compared to those in England: here no -smoke, furnaces, or great steam-engines, disturb the solitude -of the surrounding mountains. - -The Chilian government, or rather the old Spanish law, -encourages by every method the searching for mines. The -discoverer may work a mine on any ground, by paying five -shillings; and before paying this he may try, even in the -garden of another man, for twenty days. - -It is now well known that the Chilian method of mining -is the cheapest. My host says that the two principal -improvements introduced by foreigners have been, first, -reducing by previous roasting the copper pyrites -- which, -being the common ore in Cornwall, the English miners were -astounded on their arrival to find thrown away as useless: -secondly, stamping and washing the scoriae from the old -furnaces -- by which process particles of metal are recovered -in abundance. I have actually seen mules carrying to the -coast, for transportation to England, a cargo of such cinders. -But the first case is much the most curious. The Chilian -miners were so convinced that copper pyrites contained not -a particle of copper, that they laughed at the Englishmen -for their ignorance, who laughed in turn, and bought their -richest veins for a few dollars. It is very odd that, in a -country where mining had been extensively carried on for many -years, so simple a process as gently roasting the ore to expel -the sulphur previous to smelting it, had never been discovered. -A few improvements have likewise been introduced in some of the -simple machinery; but even to the present day, water is -removed from some mines by men carrying it up the shaft in -leathern bags! - -The labouring men work very hard. They have little time -allowed for their meals, and during summer and winter they -begin when it is light, and leave off at dark. They are paid -one pound sterling a month, and their food is given them: -this for breakfast consists of sixteen figs and two small loaves -of bread; for dinner, boiled beans; for supper, broken roasted -wheat grain. They scarcely ever taste meat; as, with the -twelve pounds per annum, they have to clothe themselves, and -support their families. The miners who work in the mine -itself have twenty-five shillings per month, and are allowed -a little charqui. But these men come down from their bleak -habitations only once in every fortnight or three weeks. - -During my stay here I thoroughly enjoyed scrambling -about these huge mountains. The geology, as might have -been expected, was very interesting. The shattered and -baked rocks, traversed by innumerable dykes of greenstone, -showed what commotions had formerly taken place. The -scenery was much the same as that near the Bell of Quillota --- dry barren mountains, dotted at intervals by bushes -with a scanty foliage. The cactuses, or rather opuntias -were here very numerous. I measured one of a spherical -figure, which, including the spines, was six feet and four -inches in circumference. The height of the common cylindrical, -branching kind, is from twelve to fifteen feet, and -the girth (with spines) of the branches between three and -four feet. - -A heavy fall of snow on the mountains prevented me -during the last two days, from making some interesting -excursions. I attempted to reach a lake which the inhabitants, -from some unaccountable reason, believe to be an arm -of the sea. During a very dry season, it was proposed to -attempt cutting a channel from it for the sake of the water, -but the padre, after a consultation, declared it was too -dangerous, as all Chile would be inundated, if, as generally -supposed, the lake was connected with the Pacific. We -ascended to a great height, but becoming involved in the -snow-drifts failed in reaching this wonderful lake, and had -some difficulty in returning. I thought we should have lost -our horses; for there was no means of guessing how deep -the drifts were, and the animals, when led, could only move -by jumping. The black sky showed that a fresh snow-storm -was gathering, and we therefore were not a little glad -when we escaped. By the time we reached the base the -storm commenced, and it was lucky for us that this did not -happen three hours earlier in the day. - -August 26th. -- We left Jajuel and again crossed the basin -of San Felipe. The day was truly Chilian: glaringly bright, -and the atmosphere quite clear. The thick and uniform -covering of newly fallen snow rendered the view of the volcano -of Aconcagua and the main chain quite glorious. We -were now on the road to Santiago, the capital of Chile. We -crossed the Cerro del Talguen, and slept at a little rancho. -The host, talking about the state of Chile as compared to -other countries, was very humble: "Some see with two eyes, -and some with one, but for my part I do not think that Chile -sees with any." - -August 27th. -- After crossing many low hills we descended -into the small land-locked plain of Guitron. In the basins, -such as this one, which are elevated from one thousand to -two thousand feet above the sea, two species of acacia, which -are stunted in their forms, and stand wide apart from each -other, grow in large numbers. These trees are never found -near the sea-coast; and this gives another characteristic -feature to the scenery of these basins. We crossed a low -ridge which separates Guitron from the great plain on which -Santiago stands. The view was here pre-eminently striking: -the dead level surface, covered in parts by woods of acacia, -and with the city in the distance, abutting horizontally -against the base of the Andes, whose snowy peaks were -bright with the evening sun. At the first glance of this -view, it was quite evident that the plain represented the -extent of a former inland sea. As soon as we gained the -level road we pushed our horses into a gallop, and reached -the city before it was dark. - -I stayed a week in Santiago, and enjoyed myself very -much. In the morning I rode to various places on the plain, -and in the evening dined with several of the English merchants, -whose hospitality at this place is well known. A -never-failing source of pleasure was to ascend the little -hillock of rock (St. Lucia) which projects in the middle of -the city. The scenery certainly is most striking, and, as I -have said, very peculiar. I am informed that this same -character is common to the cities on the great Mexican -platform. Of the town I have nothing to say in detail: it is -not so fine or so large as Buenos Ayres, but is built after the -same model. I arrived here by a circuit to the north; so I -resolved to return to Valparaiso by a rather longer excursion -to the south of the direct road. - -September 5th. -- By the middle of the day we arrived at -one of the suspension bridges, made of hide, which cross the -Maypu, a large turbulent river a few leagues southward of -Santiago. These bridges are very poor affairs. The road, -following the curvature of the suspending ropes, is made of -bundles of sticks placed close together. It was full of holes, -and oscillated rather fearfully, even with the weight of a -man leading his horse. In the evening we reached a comfortable -farm-house, where there were several very pretty -senoritas. They were much horrified at my having entered -one of their churches out of mere curiosity. They asked -me, "Why do you not become a Christian -- for our religion -is certain?" I assured them I was a sort of Christian; but -they would not hear of it -- appealing to my own words, "Do -not your padres, your very bishops, marry?" The absurdity -of a bishop having a wife particularly struck them: they -scarcely knew whether to be most amused or horror-struck -at such an enormity. - -6th. -- We proceeded due south, and slept at Rancagua. -The road passed over the level but narrow plain, bounded on -one side by lofty hills, and on the other by the Cordillera. -The next day we turned up the valley of the Rio Cachapual, -in which the hot-baths of Cauquenes, long celebrated for -their medicinal properties, are situated. The suspension -bridges, in the less frequented parts, are generally taken down -during the winter when the rivers are low. Such was the -case in this valley, and we were therefore obliged to cross -the stream on horseback. This is rather disagreeable, for -the foaming water, though not deep, rushes so quickly over -the bed of large rounded stones, that one's head becomes -quite confused, and it is difficult even to perceive whether -the horse is moving onward or standing still. In summer, -when the snow melts, the torrents are quite impassable; their -strength and fury are then extremely great, as might be -plainly seen by the marks which they had left. We reached -the baths in the evening, and stayed there five days, being -confined the two last by heavy rain. The buildings consist -of a square of miserable little hovels, each with a single table -and bench. They are situated in a narrow deep valley just -without the central Cordillera. It is a quiet, solitary spot, -with a good deal of wild beauty. - -The mineral springs of Cauquenes burst forth on a line of -dislocation, crossing a mass of stratified rock, the whole -of which betrays the action of heat. A considerable quantity -of gas is continually escaping from the same orifices with -the water. Though the springs are only a few yards apart, -they have very different temperature; and this appears to be -the result of an unequal mixture of cold water: for those -with the lowest temperature have scarcely any mineral taste. -After the great earthquake of 1822 the springs ceased, and -the water did not return for nearly a year. They were also -much affected by the earthquake of 1835; the temperature -being suddenly changed from 118 to 92 degs. [1] It seems probable -that mineral waters rising deep from the bowels of the earth, -would always be more deranged by subterranean disturbances -than those nearer the surface. The man who had charge of -the baths assured me that in summer the water is hotter and -more plentiful than in winter. The former circumstance I -should have expected, from the less mixture, during the dry -season, of cold water; but the latter statement appears very -strange and contradictory. The periodical increase during -the summer, when rain never falls, can, I think, only be -accounted for by the melting of the snow: yet the mountains -which are covered by snow during that season, are three or -four leagues distant from the springs. I have no reason to -doubt the accuracy of my informer, who, having lived on -the spot for several years, ought to be well acquainted with -the circumstance, -- which, if true, certainly is very curious: -for we must suppose that the snow-water, being conducted -through porous strata to the regions of heat, is again thrown -up to the surface by the line of dislocated and injected rocks -at Cauquenes; and the regularity of the phenomenon would -seem to indicate that in this district heated rock occurred at -a depth not very great. - -One day I rode up the valley to the farthest inhabited -spot. Shortly above that point, the Cachapual divides into -two deep tremendous ravines, which penetrate directly into -the great range. I scrambled up a peaked mountain, probably -more than six thousand feet high. Here, as indeed -everywhere else, scenes of the highest interest presented -themselves. It was by one of these ravines, that Pincheira -entered Chile and ravaged the neighbouring country. This -is the same man whose attack on an estancia at the Rio Negro -I have described. He was a renegade half-caste Spaniard, -who collected a great body of Indians together and established -himself by a stream in the Pampas, which place none -of the forces sent after him could ever discover. From this -point he used to sally forth, and crossing the Cordillera by -passes hitherto unattempted, he ravaged the farm-houses -and drove the cattle to his secret rendezvous. Pincheira was -a capital horseman, and he made all around him equally -good, for he invariably shot any one who hesitated to follow -him. It was against this man, and other wandering Indian -tribes, that Rosas waged the war of extermination. - -September 13th. -- We left the baths of Cauquenes, and, -rejoining the main road, slept at the Rio Clara. From this -place we rode to the town of San Fernando. Before arriving -there, the last land-locked basin had expanded into a great -plain, which extended so far to the south, that the snowy -summits of the more distant Andes were seen as if above the -horizon of the sea. San Fernando is forty leagues from Santiago; -and it was my farthest point southward; for we here -turned at right angles towards the coast. We slept at the -gold-mines of Yaquil, which are worked by Mr. Nixon, an -American gentleman, to whose kindness I was much indebted -during the four days I stayed at his house. The next -morning we rode to the mines, which are situated at the -distance of some leagues, near the summit of a lofty hill. On -the way we had a glimpse of the lake Tagua-tagua, celebrated -for its floating islands, which have been described by -M. Gay. [2] They are composed of the stalks of various dead -plants intertwined together, and on the surface of which -other living ones take root. Their form is generally circular, -and their thickness from four to six feet, of which the -greater part is immersed in the water. As the wind blows, -they pass from one side of the lake to the other, and often -carry cattle and horses as passengers. - -When we arrived at the mine, I was struck by the pale -appearance of many of the men, and inquired from Mr. -Nixon respecting their condition. The mine is 450 feet deep, -and each man brings up about 200 pounds weight of stone. -With this load they have to climb up the alternate notches cut -in the trunks of trees, placed in a zigzag line up the shaft. -Even beardless young men, eighteen and twenty years old, -with little muscular development of their bodies (they are -quite naked excepting drawers) ascend with this great load -from nearly the same depth. A strong man, who is not -accustomed to this labour, perspires most profusely, with -merely carrying up his own body. With this very severe -labour, they live entirely on boiled beans and bread. They -would prefer having bread alone; but their masters, finding -that they cannot work so hard upon this, treat them like -horses, and make them eat the beans. Their pay is here -rather more than at the mines of Jajuel, being from 24 to 28 -shillings per month. They leave the mine only once in three -weeks; when they stay with their families for two days. One -of the rules of this mine sounds very harsh, but answers -pretty well for the master. The only method of stealing gold -is to secrete pieces of the ore, and take them out as occasion -may offer. Whenever the major-domo finds a lump thus -hidden, its full value is stopped out of the wages of all the -men; who thus, without they all combine, are obliged to keep -watch over each other. - -When the ore is brought to the mill, it is ground into an -impalpable powder; the process of washing removes all the -lighter particles, and amalgamation finally secures the -gold-dust. The washing, when described, sounds a very simple -process; but it is beautiful to see how the exact adaptation of -the current of water to the specific gravity of the gold, so -easily separates the powdered matrix from the metal. The -mud which passes from the mills is collected into pools, where -it subsides, and every now and then is cleared out, and thrown -into a common heap. A great deal of chemical action then -commences, salts of various kinds effloresce on the surface, -and the mass becomes hard. After having been left for a year -or two, and then rewashed, it yields gold; and this process -may be repeated even six or seven times; but the gold each -time becomes less in quantity, and the intervals required (as -the inhabitants say, to generate the metal) are longer. There -can be no doubt that the chemical action, already mentioned, -each time liberates fresh gold from some combination. The -discovery of a method to effect this before the first grinding -would without doubt raise the value of gold-ores many fold. - -It is curious to find how the minute particles of gold, being -scattered about and not corroding, at last accumulate in -some quantity. A short time since a few miners, being out of -work, obtained permission to scrape the ground round the -house and mills; they washed the earth thus got together, and -so procured thirty dollars' worth of gold. This is an exact -counterpart of what takes place in nature. Mountains suffer -degradation and wear away, and with them the metallic veins -which they contain. The hardest rock is worn into impalpable -mud, the ordinary metals oxidate, and both are removed; -but gold, platina, and a few others are nearly indestructible, -and from their weight, sinking to the bottom, are left behind. -After whole mountains have passed through this grinding -mill, and have been washed by the hand of nature, the residue -becomes metalliferous, and man finds it worth his while to -complete the task of separation. - -Bad as the above treatment of the miners appears, it is -gladly accepted of by them; for the condition of the labouring -agriculturists is much worse. Their wages are lower, and -they live almost exclusively on beans. This poverty must be -chiefly owing to the feudal-like system on which the land is -tilled: the landowner gives a small plot of ground to the -labourer for building on and cultivating, and in return has -his services (or those of a proxy) for every day of his life, -without any wages. Until a father has a grown-up son, who -can by his labour pay the rent, there is no one, except on -occasional days, to take care of his own patch of ground. -Hence extreme poverty is very common among the labouring -classes in this country. - -There are some old Indian ruins in this neighbourhood, -and I was shown one of the perforated stones, which Molina -mentions as being found in many places in considerable -numbers. They are of a circular flattened form, from five to -six inches in diameter, with a hole passing quite through the -centre. It has generally been supposed that they were used -as heads to clubs, although their form does not appear at all -well adapted for that purpose. Burchell [3] states that some -of the tribes in Southern Africa dig up roots by the aid of a -stick pointed at one end, the force and weight of which are -increased by a round stone with a hole in it, into which the -other end is firmly wedged. It appears probable that the -Indians of Chile formerly used some such rude agricultural -instrument. - -One day, a German collector in natural history, of the -name of Renous, called, and nearly at the same time an old -Spanish lawyer. I was amused at being told the conversation -which took place between them. Renous speaks Spanish so -well, that the old lawyer mistook him for a Chilian. Renous -alluding to me, asked him what he thought of the King of -England sending out a collector to their country, to pick up -lizards and beetles, and to break stones? The old gentleman -thought seriously for some time, and then said, "It is not -well, -- _hay un gato encerrado aqui_ (there is a cat shut up -here). No man is so rich as to send out people to pick up -such rubbish. I do not like it: if one of us were to go and -do such things in England, do not you think the King of -England would very soon send us out of his country?" And -this old gentleman, from his profession, belongs to the better -informed and more intelligent classes! Renous himself, two -or three years before, left in a house at San Fernando some -caterpillars, under charge of a girl to feed, that they might -turn into butterflies. This was rumoured through the town, -and at last the padres and governor consulted together, and -agreed it must be some heresy. Accordingly, when Renous -returned, he was arrested. - -September 19th. -- We left Yaquil, and followed the flat -valley, formed like that of Quillota, in which the Rio -Tinderidica flows. Even at these few miles south of Santiago -the climate is much damper; in consequence there are fine -tracts of pasturage, which are not irrigated. (20th.) We l -followed this valley till it expanded into a great plain, which -reaches from the sea to the mountains west of Rancagua. -We shortly lost all trees and even bushes; so that the -inhabitants are nearly as badly off for firewood as those in -the Pampas. Never having heard of these plains, I was much -surprised at meeting with such scenery in Chile. The plains -belong to more than one series of different elevations, and -they are traversed by broad flat-bottomed valleys; both of -which circumstances, as in Patagonia, bespeak the action of -the sea on gently rising land. In the steep cliffs bordering -these valleys, there are some large caves, which no doubt -were originally formed by the waves: one of these is celebrated -under the name of Cueva del Obispo; having formerly -been consecrated. During the day I felt very unwell, and -from that time till the end of October did not recover. - -September 22nd. -- We continued to pass over green plains -without a tree. The next day we arrived at a house near -Navedad, on the sea-coast, where a rich Haciendero gave us -lodgings. I stayed here the two ensuing days, and although -very unwell, managed to collect from the tertiary formation -some marine shells. - -24th. -- Our course was now directed towards Valparaiso, -which with great difficulty I reached on the 27th, and was there -confined to my bed till the end of October. During this time -I was an inmate in Mr. Corfield's house, whose kindness to -me I do not know how to express. - - -I will here add a few observations on some of the animals -and birds of Chile. The Puma, or South American Lion, is -not uncommon. This animal has a wide geographical range; -being found from the equatorial forests, throughout the -deserts of Patagonia as far south as the damp and cold -latitudes (53 to 54 degs.) of Tierra del Fuego. I have seen its -footsteps in the Cordillera of central Chile, at an elevation of -at least 10,000 feet. In La Plata the puma preys chiefly on -deer, ostriches, bizcacha, and other small quadrupeds; it there -seldom attacks cattle or horses, and most rarely man. In -Chile, however, it destroys many young horses and cattle, -owing probably to the scarcity of other quadrupeds: I heard, -likewise, of two men and a woman who had been thus killed. -It is asserted that the puma always kills its prey by springing -on the shoulders, and then drawing back the head with one -of its paws, until the vertebrae break: I have seen in Patagonia -the skeletons of guanacos, with their necks thus -dislocated. - -The puma, after eating its fill, covers the carcass with -many large bushes, and lies down to watch it. This habit is -often the cause of its being discovered; for the condors -wheeling in the air every now and then descend to partake -of the feast, and being angrily driven away, rise all together -on the wing. The Chileno Guaso then knows there is a lion -watching his prey -- the word is given -- and men and dogs -hurry to the chase. Sir F. Head says that a Gaucho in the -pampas, upon merely seeing some condors wheeling in the -air, cried "A lion!" I could never myself meet with any one -who pretended to such powers of discrimination. It is asserted -that, if a puma has once been betrayed by thus watching -the carcass, and has then been hunted, it never resumes -this habit; but that, having gorged itself, it wanders far away. -The puma is easily killed. In an open country, it is first -entangled with the bolas, then lazoed, and dragged along the -ground till rendered insensible. At Tandeel (south of the -plata), I was told that within three months one hundred -were thus destroyed. In Chile they are generally driven up -bushes or trees, and are then either shot, or baited to death -by dogs. The dogs employed in this chase belong to a particular -breed, called Leoneros: they are weak, slight animals, -like long-legged terriers, but are born with a particular -instinct for this sport. The puma is described as being very -crafty: when pursued, it often returns on its former track, -and then suddenly making a spring on one side, waits there -till the dogs have passed by. It is a very silent animal, -uttering no cry even when wounded, and only rarely during -the breeding season. - -Of birds, two species of the genus Pteroptochos (megapodius -and albicollis of Kittlitz) are perhaps the most conspicuous. -The former, called by the Chilenos "el Turco," -is as large as a fieldfare, to which bird it has some alliance; -but its legs are much longer, tail shorter, and beak stronger: -its colour is a reddish brown. The Turco is not uncommon. -It lives on the ground, sheltered among the thickets which are -scattered over the dry and sterile hills. With its tail erect, -and stilt-like legs, it may be seen every now and then popping -from one bush to another with uncommon quickness. -It really requires little imagination to believe that the bird -is ashamed of itself, and is aware of its most ridiculous -figure. On first seeing it, one is tempted to exclaim, "A -vilely stuffed specimen has escaped from some museum, and has -come to life again!" It cannot be made to take flight without -the greatest trouble, nor does it run, but only hops. The -various loud cries which it utters when concealed amongst the -bushes, are as strange as its appearance. It is said to build -its nest in a deep hole beneath the ground. I dissected several -specimens: the gizzard, which was very muscular, contained -beetles, vegetable fibres, and pebbles. From this character, -from the length of its legs, scratching feet, membranous -covering to the nostrils, short and arched wings, this bird -seems in a certain degree to connect the thrushes with the -gallinaceous order. - -The second species (or P. albicollis) is allied to the first -in its general form. It is called Tapacolo, or "cover your -posterior;" and well does the shameless little bird deserve its -name; for it carries its tail more than erect, that is, inclined -backwards towards its head. It is very common, and frequents -the bottoms of hedge-rows, and the bushes scattered -over the barren hills, where scarcely another bird can exist. -In its general manner of feeding, of quickly hopping out of -the thickets and back again, in its desire of concealment, -unwillingness to take flight, and nidification, it bears a close -resemblance to the Turco; but its appearance is not quite so -ridiculous. The Tapacolo is very crafty: when frightened by -any person, it will remain motionless at the bottom of a bush, -and will then, after a little while, try with much address to -crawl away on the opposite side. It is also an active bird, and -continually making a noise: these noises are various and -strangely odd; some are like the cooing of doves, others like -the bubbling of water, and many defy all similes. The country -people say it changes its cry five times in the year -- -according to some change of season, I suppose. [4] - -Two species of humming-birds are common; Trochilus -forficatus is found over a space of 2500 miles on the west -coast, from the hot dry country of Lima, to the forests of -Tierra del Fuego -- where it may be seen flitting about in -snow-storms. In the wooded island of Chiloe, which has an -extremely humid climate, this little bird, skipping from side -to side amidst the dripping foliage, is perhaps more abundant -than almost any other kind. I opened the stomachs of several -specimens, shot in different parts of the continent, and in all, -remains of insects were as numerous as in the stomach of a -creeper. When this species migrates in the summer southward, -it is replaced by the arrival of another species coming -from the north. This second kind (Trochilus gigas) is a -very large bird for the delicate family to which it belongs: -when on the wing its appearance is singular. Like others -of the genus, it moves from place to place with a rapidity -which may be compared to that of Syrphus amongst flies, -and Sphinx among moths; but whilst hovering over a flower, -it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful movement, -totally different from that vibratory one common to most of -the species, which produces the humming noise. I never saw -any other bird where the force of its wings appeared (as in a -butterfly) so powerful in proportion to the weight of its body. -When hovering by a flower, its tail is constantly expanded -and shut like a fan, the body being kept in a nearly vertical -position. This action appears to steady and support the bird, -between the slow movements of its wings. Although flying -from flower to flower in search of food, its stomach generally -contained abundant remains of insects, which I suspect are -much more the object of its search than honey. The note of -this species, like that of nearly the whole family, is -extremely shrill. - -[1] Caldeleugh, in Philosoph. Transact. for 1836. - -[2] Annales des Sciences Naturelles, March, 1833. M. Gay, a -zealous and able naturalist, was then occupied in studying -every branch of natural history throughout the kingdom of -Chile. - -[3] Burchess's Travels, vol. ii. p. 45. - -[4] It is a remarkable fact, that Molina, though describing -in detail all the birds and animals of Chile, never once -mentions this genus, the species of which are so common, and -so remarkable in their habits. Was he at a loss how to -classify them, and did he consequently think that silence -was the more prudent course? It is one more instance of the -frequency of omissions by authors, on those very subjects -where it might have been least expected. - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -CHILOE AND CHONOS ISLANDS - -Chiloe -- General Aspect -- Boat Excursion -- Native -Indians -- Castro -- Tame Fox -- Ascend San Pedro -- Chonos -Archipelago -- Peninsula of Tres Montes -- Granitic -Range -- Boat-wrecked Sailors -- Low's Harbour -- Wild -Potato -- Formation of Peat -- Myopotamus, Otter and Mice -- -Cheucau and Barking-bird -- Opetiorhynchus -- Singular -Character of Ornithology -- Petrels. - - -NOVEMBER 10th. -- The Beagle sailed from Valparaiso -to the south, for the purpose of surveying the southern -part of Chile, the island of Chiloe, and the broken -land called the Chonos Archipelago, as far south as the -Peninsula of Tres Montes. On the 21st we anchored in the -bay of S. Carlos, the capital of Chiloe. - -This island is about ninety miles long, with a breadth of -rather less than thirty. The land is hilly, but not mountainous, -and is covered by one great forest, except where a few -green patches have been cleared round the thatched cottages. -From a distance the view somewhat resembles that of Tierra -del Fuego; but the woods, when seen nearer, are incomparably -more beautiful. Many kinds of fine evergreen trees, and -plants with a tropical character, here take the place of the -gloomy beech of the southern shores. In winter the climate -is detestable, and in summer it is only a little better. I -should think there are few parts of the world, within the -temperate regions, where so much rain falls. The winds are -very boisterous, and the sky almost always clouded: to have a -week of fine weather is something wonderful. It is even -difficult to get a single glimpse of the Cordillera: during -our first visit, once only the volcano of Osorno stood out in -bold relief, and that was before sunrise; it was curious to -watch, as the sun rose, the outline gradually fading away in -the glare of the eastern sky. - -The inhabitants, from their complexion and low stature; -appear to have three-fourths of Indian blood in their veins. -They are an humble, quiet, industrious set of men. Although -the fertile soil, resulting from the decomposition of the -volcanic rocks, supports a rank vegetation, yet the climate is -not favourable to any production which requires much sunshine -to ripen it. There is very little pasture for the larger -quadrupeds; and in consequence, the staple articles of food are -pigs, potatoes, and fish. The people all dress in strong -woollen garments, which each family makes for itself, and -dyes with indigo of a dark blue colour. The arts, however, -are in the rudest state; -- as may be seen in their strange -fashion of ploughing, their method of spinning, grinding -corn, and in the construction of their boats. The forests are -so impenetrable, that the land is nowhere cultivated except -near the coast and on the adjoining islets. Even where paths -exist, they are scarcely passable from the soft and swampy -state of the soil. The inhabitants, like those of Tierra del -Fuego, move about chiefly on the beach or in boats. Although -with plenty to eat, the people are very poor: there is no -demand for labour, and consequently the lower orders cannot -scrape together money sufficient to purchase even the smallest -luxuries. There is also a great deficiency of a circulating -medium. I have seen a man bringing on his back a bag of -charcoal, with which to buy some trifle, and another carrying -a plank to exchange for a bottle of wine. Hence every tradesman -must also be a merchant, and again sell the goods which -he takes in exchange. - -November 24th. -- The yawl and whale-boat were sent under -the command of Mr. (now Captain) Sulivan, to survey the -eastern or inland coast of Chiloe; and with orders to meet -the Beagle at the southern extremity of the island; to which -point she would proceed by the outside, so as thus to -circumnavigate the whole. I accompanied this expedition, but -instead of going in the boats the first day, I hired horses to -take me to Chacao, at the northern extremity of the island. -The road followed the coast; every now and then crossing -promontories covered by fine forests. In these shaded paths -it is absolutely necessary that the whole road should be made -of logs of wood, which are squared and placed by the side of -each other. From the rays of the sun never penetrating the -evergreen foliage, the ground is so damp and soft, that except -by this means neither man nor horse would be able to pass -along. I arrived at the village of Chacao shortly after the -tents belonging to the boats were pitched for the night. - -The land in this neighbourhood has been extensively -cleared, and there were many quiet and most picturesque -nooks in the forest. Chacao was formerly the principal port -in the island; but many vessels having been lost, owing to the -dangerous currents and rocks in the straits, the Spanish -government burnt the church, and thus arbitrarily compelled the -greater number of inhabitants to migrate to S. Carlos. We -had not long bivouacked, before the barefooted son of the -governor came down to reconnoitre us. Seeing the English -flag hoisted at the yawl's mast-head, he asked with the utmost -indifference, whether it was always to fly at Chacao. In several -places the inhabitants were much astonished at the -appearance of men-of-war's boats, and hoped and believed -it was the forerunner of a Spanish fleet, coming to recover -the island from the patriot government of Chile. All the -men in power, however, had been informed of our intended -visit, and were exceedingly civil. While we were eating our -supper, the governor paid us a visit. He had been a lieutenant- -colonel in the Spanish service, but now was miserably -poor. He gave us two sheep, and accepted in return two cotton -handkerchiefs, some brass trinkets, and a little tobacco. - -25th. -- Torrents of rain: we managed, however, to run -down the coast as far as Huapi-lenou. The whole of this -eastern side of Chiloe has one aspect; it is a plain, broken by -valleys and divided into little islands, and the whole thickly -covered with one impervious blackish-green forest. On the -margins there are some cleared spaces, surrounding the high- -roofed cottages. - -26th -- The day rose splendidly clear. The volcano of -Orsono was spouting out volumes of smoke. This most -beautiful mountain, formed like a perfect cone, and white -with snow, stands out in front of the Cordillera. Another -great volcano, with a saddle-shaped summit, also emitted -from its immense crater little jets of steam. Subsequently -we saw the lofty-peaked Corcovado -- well deserving the name -of "el famoso Corcovado." Thus we beheld, from one point -of view, three great active volcanoes, each about seven thousand -feet high. In addition to this, far to the south, there -were other lofty cones covered with snow, which, although -not known to be active, must be in their origin volcanic. -The line of the Andes is not, in this neighbourhood, nearly -so elevated as in Chile; neither does it appear to form so -perfect a barrier between the regions of the earth. This -great range, although running in a straight north and south -line, owing to an optical deception, always appeared more or -less curved; for the lines drawn from each peak to the -beholder's eye, necessarily converged like the radii of a -semicircle, and as it was not possible (owing to the clearness -of the atmosphere and the absence of all intermediate objects) -to judge how far distant the farthest peaks were off, -they appeared to stand in a flattish semicircle. - -Landing at midday, we saw a family of pure Indian extraction. -The father was singularly like York Minster; and some -of the younger boys, with their ruddy complexions, might -have been mistaken for Pampas Indians. Everything I have -seen, convinces me of the close connexion of the different -American tribes, who nevertheless speak distinct languages. -This party could muster but little Spanish, and talked to each -other in their own tongue. It is a pleasant thing to see the -aborigines advanced to the same degree of civilization, however -low that may be, which their white conquerors have -attained. More to the south we saw many pure Indians: -indeed, all the inhabitants of some of the islets retain their -Indian surnames. In the census of 1832, there were in Chiloe -and its dependencies forty-two thousand souls; the greater -number of these appear to be of mixed blood. Eleven thousand -retain their Indian surnames, but it is probable that not -nearly all of these are of a pure breed. Their manner of life -is the same with that of the other poor inhabitants, and they -are all Christians; but it is said that they yet retain some -strange superstitious ceremonies, and that they pretend to -hold communication with the devil in certain caves. Formerly, -every one convicted of this offence was sent to the -Inquisition at Lima. Many of the inhabitants who are not -included in the eleven thousand with Indian surnames, cannot -be distinguished by their appearance from Indians. -Gomez, the governor of Lemuy, is descended from noblemen -of Spain on both sides; but by constant intermarriages with -the natives the present man is an Indian. On the other hand -the governor of Quinchao boasts much of his purely kept -Spanish blood. - -We reached at night a beautiful little cove, north of the -island of Caucahue. The people here complained of want of -land. This is partly owing to their own negligence in not -clearing the woods, and partly to restrictions by the government, -which makes it necessary, before buying ever so small -a piece, to pay two shillings to the surveyor for measuring -each quadra (150 yards square), together with whatever -price he fixes for the value of the land. After his valuation -the land must be put up three times to auction, and if no one -bids more, the purchaser can have it at that rate. All these -exactions must be a serious check to clearing the ground, -where the inhabitants are so extremely poor. In most countries, -forests are removed without much difficulty by the aid -of fire; but in Chiloe, from the damp nature of the climate, -and the sort of trees, it is necessary first to cut them down. -This is a heavy drawback to the prosperity of Chiloe. In the -time of the Spaniards the Indians could not hold land; and a -family, after having cleared a piece of ground, might be -driven away, and the property seized by the government. -The Chilian authorities are now performing an act of justice -by making retribution to these poor Indians, giving to each -man, according to his grade of life, a certain portion of land. -The value of uncleared ground is very little. The government -gave Mr. Douglas (the present surveyor, who informed -me of these circumstances) eight and a half square miles of -forest near S. Carlos, in lieu of a debt; and this he sold for -350 dollars, or about 70 pounds sterling. - -The two succeeding days were fine, and at night we reached -the island of Quinchao. This neighbourhood is the most cultivated -part of the Archipelago; for a broad strip of land on -the coast of the main island, as well as on many of the smaller -adjoining ones, is almost completely cleared. Some of the -farm-houses seemed very comfortable. I was curious to -ascertain how rich any of these people might be, but Mr. -Douglas says that no one can be considered as possessing a -regular income. One of the richest landowners might possibly -accumulate, in a long industrious life, as much as 1000 pounds -sterling; but should this happen, it would all be stowed away -in some secret corner, for it is the custom of almost every -family to have a jar or treasure-chest buried in the ground. - -November 30th. -- Early on Sunday morning we reached -Castro, the ancient capital of Chiloe, but now a most forlorn -and deserted place. The usual quadrangular arrangement -of Spanish towns could be traced, but the streets and plaza -were coated with fine green turf, on which sheep were -browsing. The church, which stands in the middle, is entirely -built of plank, and has a picturesque and venerable appearance. -The poverty of the place may be conceived from the -fact, that although containing some hundreds of inhabitants, -one of our party was unable anywhere to purchase either a -pound of sugar or an ordinary knife. No individual possessed -either a watch or a clock; and an old man, who was supposed -to have a good idea of time, was employed to strike the -church bell by guess. The arrival of our boats was a rare -event in this quiet retired corner of the world; and nearly all -the inhabitants came down to the beach to see us pitch our -tents. They were very civil, and offered us a house; and one -man even sent us a cask of cider as a present. In the afternoon -we paid our respects to the governor -- a quiet old man, -who, in his appearance and manner of life, was scarcely -superior to an English cottager. At night heavy rain set in, -which was hardly sufficient to drive away from our tents the -large circle of lookers-on. An Indian family, who had come -to trade in a canoe from Caylen, bivouacked near us. They -had no shelter during the rain. In the morning I asked a -young Indian, who was wet to the skin, how he had passed -the night. He seemed perfectly content, and answered, "Muy -bien, senor." - -December 1st. -- We steered for the island of Lemuy. I -was anxious to examine a reported coal-mine which turned -out to be lignite of little value, in the sandstone (probably -of an ancient tertiary epoch) of which these islands are -composed. When we reached Lemuy we had much difficulty in -finding any place to pitch our tents, for it was spring-tide, -and the land was wooded down to the water's edge. In a -short time we were surrounded by a large group of the nearly -pure Indian inhabitants. They were much surprised at our -arrival, and said one to the other, "This is the reason we -have seen so many parrots lately; the cheucau (an odd red- -breasted little bird, which inhabits the thick forest, and utters -very peculiar noises) has not cried 'beware' for nothing." -They were soon anxious for barter. Money was scarcely -worth anything, but their eagerness for tobacco was something -quite extraordinary. After tobacco, indigo came next -in value; then capsicum, old clothes, and gunpowder. The -latter article was required for a very innocent purpose: each -parish has a public musket, and the gunpowder was wanted -for making a noise on their saint or feast days. - -The people here live chiefly on shell-fish and potatoes. At -certain seasons they catch also, in "corrales," or hedges -under water, many fish which are left on the mud-banks as -the tide falls. They occasionally possess fowls, sheep, goats, -pigs, horses, and cattle; the order in which they are here -mentioned, expressing their respective numbers. I never -saw anything more obliging and humble than the manners -of these people. They generally began with stating that -they were poor natives of the place, and not Spaniards -and that they were in sad want of tobacco and other comforts. -At Caylen, the most southern island, the sailors -bought with a stick of tobacco, of the value of three-halfpence, -two fowls, one of which, the Indian stated, had skin -between its toes, and turned out to be a fine duck; and with -some cotton handkerchiefs, worth three shillings, three sheep -and a large bunch of onions were procured. The yawl at -this place was anchored some way from the shore, and we -had fears for her safety from robbers during the night. Our -pilot, Mr. Douglas, accordingly told the constable of the -district that we always placed sentinels with loaded arms -and not understanding Spanish, if we saw any person in the -dark, we should assuredly shoot him. The constable, with -much humility, agreed to the perfect propriety of this -arrangement, and promised us that no one should stir out -of his house during that night. - -During the four succeeding days we continued sailing -southward. The general features of the country remained -the same, but it was much less thickly inhabited. On the -large island of Tanqui there was scarcely one cleared spot, -the trees on every side extending their branches over the -sea-beach. I one day noticed, growing on the sandstone -cliffs, some very fine plants of the panke (Gunnera scabra), -which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale. -The inhabitants eat the stalks, which are subacid, and tan -leather with the roots, and prepare a black dye from them. -The leaf is nearly circular, but deeply indented on its margin. -I measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter, -and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference! -The stalk is rather more than a yard high, and each -plant sends out four or five of these enormous leaves, -presenting together a very noble appearance. - -December 6th. -- We reached Caylen, called "el fin del -Cristiandad." In the morning we stopped for a few minutes -at a house on the northern end of Laylec, which was the -extreme point of South American Christendom, and a miserable -hovel it was. The latitude is 43 degs. 10', which is two -degrees farther south than the Rio Negro on the Atlantic -coast. These extreme Christians were very poor, and, under -the plea of their situation, begged for some tobacco. As a -proof of the poverty of these Indians, I may mention that -shortly before this, we had met a man, who had travelled -three days and a half on foot, and had as many to return, -for the sake of recovering the value of a small axe and a few -fish. How very difficult it must be to buy the smallest article, -when such trouble is taken to recover so small a debt. - -In the evening we reached the island of San Pedro, where -we found the Beagle at anchor. In doubling the point, two -of the officers landed to take a round of angles with the -theodolite. A fox (Canis fulvipes), of a kind said to be -peculiar to the island, and very rare in it, and which is a new -species, was sitting on the rocks. He was so intently absorbed -in watching the work of the officers, that I was able, -by quietly walking up behind, to knock him on the head -with my geological hammer. This fox, more curious or -more scientific, but less wise, than the generality of his -brethren, is now mounted in the museum of the Zoological -Society. - -We stayed three days in this harbour, on one of which -Captain Fitz Roy, with a party, attempted to ascend to the -summit of San Pedro. The woods here had rather a different -appearance from those on the northern part of the island. -The rock, also, being micaceous slate, there was no beach, -but the steep sides dipped directly beneath the water. The -general aspect in consequence was more like that of Tierra -del Fuego than of Chiloe. In vain we tried to gain the -summit: the forest was so impenetrable, that no one who -has not beheld it can imagine so entangled a mass of dying -and dead trunks. I am sure that often, for more than ten -minutes together, our feet never touched the ground, and -we were frequently ten or fifteen feet above it, so that the -seamen as a joke called out the soundings. At other times -we crept one after another on our hands and knees, under -the rotten trunks. In the lower part of the mountain, noble -trees of the Winter's Bark, and a laurel like the sassafras -with fragrant leaves, and others, the names of which I do -not know, were matted together by a trailing bamboo or cane. -Here we were more like fishes struggling in a net than any -other animal. On the higher parts, brushwood takes the -place of larger trees, with here and there a red cedar or an -alerce pine. I was also pleased to see, at an elevation of a -little less than 1000 feet, our old friend the southern beech. -They were, however, poor stunted trees, and I should think -that this must be nearly their northern limit. We ultimately -gave up the attempt in despair. - -December 10th. -- The yawl and whale-boat, with Mr. -Sulivan, proceeded on their survey, but I remained on board -the Beagle, which the next day left San Pedro for the southward. -On the 13th we ran into an opening in the southern -part of Guayatecas, or the Chonos Archipelago; and it was -fortunate we did so, for on the following day a storm, worthy -of Tierra del Fuego, raged with great fury. White massive -clouds were piled up against a dark blue sky, and across them -black ragged sheets of vapour were rapidly driven. The -successive mountain ranges appeared like dim shadows, and -the setting sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam, much -like that produced by the flame of spirits of wine. The water -was white with the flying spray, and the wind lulled and -roared again through the rigging: it was an ominous, sublime -scene. During a few minutes there was a bright rainbow, -and it was curious to observe the effect of the spray, -which being carried along the surface of the water, changed -the ordinary semicircle into a circle -- a band of prismatic -colours being continued, from both feet of the common arch -across the bay, close to the vessel's side: thus forming a -distorted, but very nearly entire ring. - -We stayed here three days. The weather continued bad: -but this did not much signify, for the surface of the land -in all these islands is all but impassable. The coast is so -very rugged that to attempt to walk in that direction requires -continued scrambling up and down over the sharp -rocks of mica-slate; and as for the woods, our faces, hands, -and shin-bones all bore witness to the maltreatment we -received, in merely attempting to penetrate their forbidden -recesses. - -December 18th. -- We stood out to sea. On the 20th we -bade farewell to the south, and with a fair wind turned the -ship's head northward. From Cape Tres Montes we sailed -pleasantly along the lofty weather-beaten coast, which is -remarkable for the bold outline of its hills, and the thick -covering of forest even on the almost precipitous flanks. The -next day a harbour was discovered, which on this dangerous -coast might be of great service to a distressed vessel. It -can easily be recognized by a hill 1600 feet high, which is -even more perfectly conical than the famous sugar-loaf at -Rio de Janeiro. The next day, after anchoring, I succeeded -in reaching the summit of this hill. It was a laborious -undertaking, for the sides were so steep that in some parts it -was necessary to use the trees as ladders. There were also -several extensive brakes of the Fuchsia, covered with its -beautiful drooping flowers, but very difficult to crawl through. -In these wild countries it gives much delight to gain the summit -of any mountain. There is an indefinite expectation of seeing -something very strange, which, however often it may be -balked, never failed with me to recur on each successive -attempt. Every one must know the feeling of triumph and -pride which a grand view from a height communicates to the -mind. In these little frequented countries there is also joined -to it some vanity, that you perhaps are the first man who ever -stood on this pinnacle or admired this view. - -A strong desire is always felt to ascertain whether any -human being has previously visited an unfrequented spot. -A bit of wood with a nail in it, is picked up and studied as -if it were covered with hieroglyphics. Possessed with this -feeling, I was much interested by finding, on a wild part of -the coast, a bed made of grass beneath a ledge of rock. Close -by it there had been a fire, and the man had used an axe. -The fire, bed, and situation showed the dexterity of an Indian; -but he could scarcely have been an Indian, for the race is -in this part extinct, owing to the Catholic desire of making -at one blow Christians and Slaves. I had at the time some -misgivings that the solitary man who had made his bed on -this wild spot, must have been some poor shipwrecked sailor, -who, in trying to travel up the coast, had here laid himself -down for his dreary night. - -December 28th. -- The weather continued very bad, but it -at last permitted us to proceed with the survey. The time -hung heavy on our hands, as it always did when we were -delayed from day to day by successive gales of wind. In -the evening another harbour was discovered, where we -anchored. Directly afterwards a man was seen waving a -shirt, and a boat was sent which brought back two seamen. -A party of six had run away from an American whaling -vessel, and had landed a little to the southward in a boat, -which was shortly afterwards knocked to pieces by the surf. -They had now been wandering up and down the coast for -fifteen months, without knowing which way to go, or where -they were. What a singular piece of good fortune it was -that this harbour was now discovered! Had it not been for -this one chance, they might have wandered till they had -grown old men, and at last have perished on this wild coast. -Their sufferings had been very great, and one of their party -had lost his life by falling from the cliffs. They were -sometimes obliged to separate in search of food, and this -explained the bed of the solitary man. Considering what they -had undergone, I think they had kept a very good reckoning of -time, for they had lost only four days. - -December 30th. -- We anchored in a snug little cove at the -foot of some high hills, near the northern extremity of Tres -Montes. After breakfast the next morning, a party ascended -one of these mountains, which was 2400 feet high. The -scenery was remarkable The chief part of the range was -composed of grand, solid, abrupt masses of granite, which -appeared as if they had been coeval with the beginning of -the world. The granite was capped with mica-slate, and this -in the lapse of ages had been worn into strange finger- -shaped points. These two formations, thus differing in their -outlines, agree in being almost destitute of vegetation. This -barrenness had to our eyes a strange appearance, from having -been so long accustomed to the sight of an almost universal -forest of dark-green trees. I took much delight in examining -the structure of these mountains. The complicated and lofty -ranges bore a noble aspect of durability -- equally profitless, -however, to man and to all other animals. Granite to the -geologist is classic ground: from its widespread limits, and its -beautiful and compact texture, few rocks have been more -anciently recognised. Granite has given rise, perhaps, to -more discussion concerning its origin than any other formation. -We generally see it constituting the fundamental rock, -and, however formed, we know it is the deepest layer in the -crust of this globe to which man has penetrated. The limit -of man's knowledge in any subject possesses a high interest, -which is perhaps increased by its close neighbourhood to the -realms of imagination. - -January 1st 1835. -- The new year is ushered in with the -ceremonies proper to it in these regions. She lays out no -false hopes: a heavy north-western gale, with steady rain, -bespeaks the rising year. Thank God, we are not destined -here to see the end of it, but hope then to be in the Pacific -Ocean, where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven, -- a -something beyond the clouds above our heads. - -The north-west winds prevailing for the next four days, -we only managed to cross a great bay, and then anchored in -another secure harbour. I accompanied the Captain in a -boat to the head of a deep creek. On the way the number of -seals which we saw was quite astonishing: every bit of flat -rock, and parts of the beach, were covered with them. There -appeared to be of a loving disposition, and lay huddled -together, fast asleep, like so many pigs; but even pigs would -have been ashamed of their dirt, and of the foul smell which -came from them. Each herd was watched by the patient but -inauspicious eyes of the turkey-buzzard. This disgusting bird, -with its bald scarlet head, formed to wallow in putridity, is -very common on the west coast, and their attendance on the -seals shows on what they rely for their food. We found the -water (probably only that of the surface) nearly fresh: this -was caused by the number of torrents which, in the form -of cascades, came tumbling over the bold granite mountains -into the sea. The fresh water attracts the fish, and these -bring many terns, gulls, and two kinds of cormorant. We -saw also a pair of the beautiful black-necked swans, and -several small sea-otters, the fur of which is held in such -high estimation. In returning, we were again amused by the -impetuous manner in which the heap of seals, old and young, -tumbled into the water as the boat passed. They did not -remain long under water, but rising, followed us with -outstretched necks, expressing great wonder and curiosity. - -7th. -- Having run up the coast, we anchored near the -northern end of the Chonos Archipelago, in Low's Harbour, -where we remained a week. The islands were here, as in -Chiloe, composed of a stratified, soft, littoral deposit; and -the vegetation in consequence was beautifully luxuriant. The -woods came down to the sea-beach, just in the manner of -an evergreen shrubbery over a gravel walk. We also enjoyed -from the anchorage a splendid view of four great snowy -cones of the Cordillera, including "el famoso Corcovado;" -the range itself had in this latitude so little height, that few -parts of it appeared above the tops of the neighbouring -islets. We found here a party of five men from Caylen, "el -fin del Cristiandad," who had most adventurously crossed in -their miserable boat-canoe, for the purpose of fishing, the -open space of sea which separates Chonos from Chiloe. These -islands will, in all probability, in a short time become peopled -like those adjoining the coast of Chiloe. - - -The wild potato grows on these islands in great abundance, -on the sandy, shelly soil near the sea-beach. The tallest -plant was four feet in height. The tubers were generally -small, but I found one, of an oval shape, two inches in -diameter: they resembled in every respect, and had the same -smell as English potatoes; but when boiled they shrunk much, -and were watery and insipid, without any bitter taste. They -are undoubtedly here indigenous: they grow as far south, -according to Mr. Low, as lat. 50 degs., and are called Aquinas by -the wild Indians of that part: the Chilotan Indians have a -different name for them. Professor Henslow, who has examined -the dried specimens which I brought home, says that -they are the same with those described by Mr. Sabine [1] from -Valparaiso, but that they form a variety which by some -botanists has been considered as specifically distinct. It is -remarkable that the same plant should be found on the sterile -mountains of central Chile, where a drop of rain does not -fall for more than six months, and within the damp forests -of these southern islands. - -In the central parts of the Chonos Archipelago (lat. 45 degs.), -the forest has very much the same character with that along -the whole west coast, for 600 miles southward to Cape Horn. -The arborescent grass of Chiloe is not found here; while the -beech of Tierra del Fuego grows to a good size, and forms a -considerable proportion of the wood; not, however, in the -same exclusive manner as it does farther southward. Cryptogamic -plants here find a most congenial climate. In the Strait -of Magellan, as I have before remarked, the country appears -too cold and wet to allow of their arriving at perfection; but -in these islands, within the forest, the number of species and -great abundance of mosses, lichens, and small ferns, is quite -extraordinary. [2] In Tierra del Fuego trees grow only on the -hill-sides; every level piece of land being invariably covered -by a thick bed of peat; but in Chiloe flat land supports the -most luxuriant forests. Here, within the Chonos Archipelago, -the nature of the climate more closely approaches that -of Tierra del Fuego than that of northern Chiloe; for every -patch of level ground is covered by two species of plants -(Astelia pumila and Donatia magellanica), which by their -joint decay compose a thick bed of elastic peat. - -In Tierra del Fuego, above the region of woodland, the -former of these eminently sociable plants is the chief agent -in the production of peat. Fresh leaves are always succeeding -one to the other round the central tap-root, the lower -ones soon decay, and in tracing a root downwards in the peat, -the leaves, yet holding their place, can be observed passing -through every stage of decomposition, till the whole becomes -blended in one confused mass. The Astelia is assisted by a -few other plants, -- here and there a small creeping Myrtus -(M. nummularia), with a woody stem like our cranberry and -with a sweet berry, -- an Empetrum (E. rubrum), like our -heath, -- a rush (Juncus grandiflorus), are nearly the only -ones that grow on the swampy surface. These plants, though -possessing a very close general resemblance to the English -species of the same genera, are different. In the more level -parts of the country, the surface of the peat is broken up into -little pools of water, which stand at different heights, and -appear as if artificially excavated. Small streams of water, -flowing underground, complete the disorganization of the -vegetable matter, and consolidate the whole. - -The climate of the southern part of America appears particularly -favourable to the production of peat. In the Falkland -Islands almost every kind of plant, even the coarse grass -which covers the whole surface of the land, becomes converted -into this substance: scarcely any situation checks its -growth; some of the beds are as much as twelve feet thick, -and the lower part becomes so solid when dry, that it will -hardly burn. Although every plant lends its aid, yet in most -parts the Astelia is the most efficient. It is rather a singular -circumstance, as being so very different from what occurs -in Europe, that I nowhere saw moss forming by its decay -any portion of the peat in South America. With respect to -the northern limit, at which the climate allows of that peculiar -kind of slow decomposition which is necessary for its -production, I believe that in Chiloe (lat. 41 to 42 degs.), -although there is much swampy ground, no well-characterized peat -occurs: but in the Chonos Islands, three degrees farther -southward, we have seen that it is abundant. On the eastern -coast in La Plata (lat. 35 degs.) I was told by a Spanish -resident who had visited Ireland, that he had often sought for -this substance, but had never been able to find any. He showed -me, as the nearest approach to it which he had discovered, a -black peaty soil, so penetrated with roots as to allow of an -extremely slow and imperfect combustion. - - -The zoology of these broken islets of the Chonos Archipelago -is, as might have been expected, very poor. Of quadrupeds -two aquatic kinds are common. The Myopotamus -Coypus (like a beaver, but with a round tail) is well known -from its fine fur, which is an object of trade throughout the -tributaries of La Plata. It here, however, exclusively frequents -salt water; which same circumstance has been mentioned -as sometimes occurring with the great rodent, the -Capybara. A small sea-otter is very numerous; this animal -does not feed exclusively on fish, but, like the seals, draws a -large supply from a small red crab, which swims in shoals -near the surface of the water. Mr. Bynoe saw one in Tierra -del Fuego eating a cuttle-fish; and at Low's Harbour, another -was killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large volute -shell. At one place I caught in a trap a singular little mouse -(M. brachiotis); it appeared common on several of the islets, -but the Chilotans at Low's Harbour said that it was not found -in all. What a succession of chances, [3] or what changes of -level must have been brought into play, thus to spread these -small animals throughout this broken archipelago! - -In all parts of Chiloe and Chonos, two very strange birds -occur, which are allied to, and replace, the Turco and Tapacolo -of central Chile. One is called by the inhabitants -"Cheucau" (Pteroptochos rubecula): it frequents the most -gloomy and retired spots within the damp forests. Sometimes, -although its cry may be heard close at hand, let a person -watch ever so attentively he will not see the cheucau; at -other times, let him stand motionless and the red-breasted -little bird will approach within a few feet in the most familiar -manner. It then busily hops about the entangled mass of -rotting cones and branches, with its little tail cocked upwards. -The cheucau is held in superstitious fear by the Chilotans, on -account of its strange and varied cries. There are three -very distinct cries: One is called "chiduco," and is an omen -of good; another, "huitreu," which is extremely unfavourable; -and a third, which I have forgotten. These words are -given in imitation of the noises; and the natives are in some -things absolutely governed by them. The Chilotans assuredly -have chosen a most comical little creature for their prophet. -An allied species, but rather larger, is called by the natives -"Guid-guid" (Pteroptochos Tarnii), and by the English the -barking-bird. This latter name is well given; for I defy any -one at first to feel certain that a small dog is not yelping -somewhere in the forest. Just as with the cheucau, a person -will sometimes hear the bark close by, but in vain many -endeavour by watching, and with still less chance by beating -the bushes, to see the bird; yet at other times the guid-guid -fearlessly comes near. Its manner of feeding and its general -habits are very similar to those of the cheucau. - -On the coast, [4] a small dusky-coloured bird (Opetiorhynchus -Patagonicus) is very common. It is remarkable from -its quiet habits; it lives entirely on the sea-beach, like a -sandpiper. Besides these birds only few others inhabit this -broken land. In my rough notes I describe the strange -noises, which, although frequently heard within these gloomy -forests, yet scarcely disturb the general silence. The yelping -of the guid-guid, and the sudden whew-whew of the -cheucau, sometimes come from afar off, and sometimes from -close at hand; the little black wren of Tierra del Fuego -occasionally adds its cry; the creeper (Oxyurus) follows the -intruder screaming and twittering; the humming-bird may -be seen every now and then darting from side to side, and -emitting, like an insect, its shrill chirp; lastly, from the top -of some lofty tree the indistinct but plaintive note of the -white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius) may be noticed. -From the great preponderance in most countries of certain -common genera of birds, such as the finches, one feels at -first surprised at meeting with the peculiar forms above -enumerated, as the commonest birds in any district. In central -Chile two of them, namely, the Oxyurus and Scytalopus, occur, -although most rarely. When finding, as in this case, -animals which seem to play so insignificant a part in the great -scheme of nature, one is apt to wonder why they were -created. - -But it should always be recollected, that in some other -country perhaps they are essential members of society, or -at some former period may have been so. If America -south of 37 degs. were sunk beneath the waters of the ocean, -these two birds might continue to exist in central Chile for -a long period, but it is very improbable that their numbers -would increase. We should then see a case which must inevitably -have happened with very many animals. - -These southern seas are frequented by several species of -Petrels: the largest kind, Procellaria gigantea, or nelly -(quebrantahuesos, or break-bones, of the Spaniards), is a common -bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. -In its habits and manner of flight, there is a very close -resemblance with the albatross; and as with the albatross, a -person may watch it for hours together without seeing on -what it feeds. The "break-bones" is, however, a rapacious -bird, for it was observed by some of the officers at Port St. -Antonio chasing a diver, which tried to escape by diving -and flying, but was continually struck down, and at last -killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. Julian these great -petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls. A second -species (Puffinus cinereus), which is common to Europe, -Cape Horn, and the coast of Peru, is of much smaller size -than the P. gigantea, but, like it, of a dirty black colour. It -generally frequents the inland sounds in very large flocks: -I do not think I ever saw so many birds of any other sort -together, as I once saw of these behind the island of Chiloe. -Hundreds of thousands flew in an irregular line for several -hours in one direction. When part of the flock settled on the -water the surface was blackened, and a noise proceeded from -them as of human beings talking in the distance. - -There are several other species of petrels, but I will only -mention one other kind, the Pelacanoides Berardi which -offers an example of those extraordinary cases, of a bird -evidently belonging to one well-marked family, yet both in -its habits and structure allied to a very distinct tribe. This -bird never leaves the quiet inland sounds. When disturbed -it dives to a distance, and on coming to the surface, with the -same movement takes flight. After flying by a rapid movement -of its short wings for a space in a straight line, it drops, -as if struck dead, and dives again. The form of its beak and -nostrils, length of foot, and even the colouring of its plumage, -show that this bird is a petrel: on the other hand, its -short wings and consequent little power of flight, its form -of body and shape of tail, the absence of a hind toe to its -foot, its habit of diving, and its choice of situation, make it -at first doubtful whether its relationship is not equally close -with the auks. It would undoubtedly be mistaken for an auk, -when seen from a distance, either on the wing, or when diving -and quietly swimming about the retired channels of -Tierra del Fuego. - -[1] Horticultural Transact., vol. v. p. 249. Mr. Caldeleugh -sent home two tubers, which, being well manured, even the -first season produced numerous potatoes and an abundance of -leaves. See Humboldt's interesting discussion on this plant, -which it appears was unknown in Mexico, -- in Polit. Essay -on New Spain, book iv. chap. ix. - -[2] By sweeping with my insect-net, I procured from these -situations a considerable number of minute insects, of the -family of Staphylinidae, and others allied to Pselaphus, -and minute Hymenoptera. But the most characteristic family -in number, both of individuals and species, throughout the -more open parts of Chiloe and Chonos is that of Telephoridae. - -[3] It is said that some rapacious birds bring their prey -alive to their nests. If so, in the course of centuries, -every now and then, one might escape from the young birds. -Some such agency is necessary, to account for the distribution -of the smaller gnawing animals on islands not very near each other. - -[4] I may mention, as a proof of how great a difference there -is between the seasons of the wooded and the open parts of -this coast, that on September 20th, in lat. 34 degs., these -birds had young ones in the nest, while among the Chonos -Islands, three months later in the summer, they were only -laying, the difference in latitude between these two places -being about 700 miles. - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -CHILOE AND CONCEPCION: GREAT EARTHQUAKE - -San Carlos, Chiloe -- Osorno in eruption, contemporaneously -with Aconcagua and Coseguina -- Ride to Cucao -- Impenetrable -Forests -- Valdivia Indians -- Earthquake -- Concepcion -- -Great Earthquake -- Rocks fissured -- Appearance of the -former Towns -- The Sea Black and Boiling -- Direction of -the Vibrations -- Stones twisted round -- Great Wave -- -Permanent Elevation of the Land -- Area of Volcanic -Phenomena -- The connection between the Elevatory and -Eruptive Forces -- Cause of Earthquakes -- Slow Elevation of -Mountain-chains. - - -ON JANUARY the 15th we sailed from Low's Harbour, -and three days afterwards anchored a second time in -the bay of S. Carlos in Chiloe. On the night of the -19th the volcano of Osorno was in action. At midnight the -sentry observed something like a large star, which gradually -increased in size till about three o'clock, when it presented -a very magnificent spectacle. By the aid of a glass, dark -objects, in constant succession, were seen, in the midst of a -great glare of red light, to be thrown up and to fall down. -The light was sufficient to cast on the water a long bright -reflection. Large masses of molten matter seem very commonly -to be cast out of the craters in this part of the Cordillera. -I was assured that when the Corcovado is in eruption, -great masses are projected upwards and are seen to burst in -the air, assuming many fantastical forms, such as trees: -their size must be immense, for they can be distinguished -from the high land behind S. Carlos, which is no less than -ninety-three miles from the Corcovado. In the morning the -volcano became tranquil. - -I was surprised at hearing afterwards that Aconcagua in -Chile, 480 miles northwards, was in action on the same night; -and still more surprised to hear that the great eruption of -Coseguina (2700 miles north of Aconcagua), accompanied by -an earthquake felt over a 1000 miles, also occurred within -six hours of this same time. This coincidence is the more -remarkable, as Coseguina had been dormant for twenty-six -years; and Aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action. -It is difficult even to conjecture whether this coincidence was -accidental, or shows some subterranean connection. If Vesuvius, -Etna, and Hecla in Iceland (all three relatively nearer -each other than the corresponding points in South America), -suddenly burst forth in eruption on the same night, the -coincidence would be thought remarkable; but it is far more -remarkable in this case, where the three vents fall on the same -great mountain-chain, and where the vast plains along the -entire eastern coast, and the upraised recent shells along -more than 2000 miles on the western coast, show in how -equable and connected a manner the elevatory forces have acted. - -Captain Fitz Roy being anxious that some bearings should -be taken on the outer coast of Chiloe, it was planned that -Mr. King and myself should ride to Castro, and thence across -the island to the Capella de Cucao, situated on the west -coast. Having hired horses and a guide, we set out on -the morning of the 22nd. We had not proceeded far, before -we were joined by a woman and two boys, who were bent on -the same journey. Every one on this road acts on a "hail -fellow well met" fashion; and one may here enjoy the privilege, -so rare in South America, of travelling without fire-arms. -At first, the country consisted of a succession of hills -and valleys: nearer to Castro it became very level. The road -itself is a curious affair; it consists in its whole length, -with the exception of very few parts, of great logs of wood, -which are either broad and laid longitudinally, or narrow and -placed transversely. In summer the road is not very bad; but in -winter, when the wood is rendered slippery from rain, travelling -is exceedingly difficult. At that time of the year, the -ground on each side becomes a morass, and is often overflowed: -hence it is necessary that the longitudinal logs -should be fastened down by transverse poles, which are -pegged on each side into the earth. These pegs render a fall -from a horse dangerous, as the chance of alighting on one of -them is not small. It is remarkable, however, how active -custom has made the Chilotan horses. In crossing bad parts, -where the logs had been displaced, they skipped from one -to the other, almost with the quickness and certainty of a -dog. On both hands the road is bordered by the lofty forest- -trees, with their bases matted together by canes. When -occasionally a long reach of this avenue could be beheld, it -presented a curious scene of uniformity: the white line of logs, -narrowing in perspective, became hidden by the gloomy forest, -or terminated in a zigzag which ascended some steep hill. - -Although the distance from S. Carlos to Castro is only -twelve leagues in a straight line, the formation of the road -must have been a great labour. I was told that several people -had formerly lost their lives in attempting to cross the -forest. The first who succeeded was an Indian, who cut his -way through the canes in eight days, and reached S. Carlos: -he was rewarded by the Spanish government with a grant of -land. During the summer, many of the Indians wander -about the forests (but chiefly in the higher parts, where the -woods are not quite so thick) in search of the half-wild cattle -which live on the leaves of the cane and certain trees. It -was one of these huntsmen who by chance discovered, a few -years since, an English vessel, which had been wrecked on the -outer coast. The crew were beginning to fail in provisions, -and it is not probable that, without the aid of this man, they -would ever have extricated themselves from these scarcely -penetrable woods. As it was, one seaman died on the march, -from fatigue. The Indians in these excursions steer by the -sun; so that if there is a continuance of cloudy weather, they -can not travel. - -The day was beautiful, and the number of trees which -were in full flower perfumed the air; yet even this could -hardly dissipate the effects of the gloomy dampness of the -forest. Moreover, the many dead trunks that stand like -skeletons, never fail to give to these primeval woods a -character of solemnity, absent in those of countries long -civilized. Shortly after sunset we bivouacked for the night. Our -female companion, who was rather good-looking, belonged to -one of the most respectable families in Castro: she rode, -however, astride, and without shoes or stockings. I was -surprised at the total want of pride shown by her and her -brother. They brought food with them, but at all our meals sat -watching Mr. King and myself whilst eating, till we were -fairly shamed into feeding the whole party. The night was -cloudless; and while lying in our beds, we enjoyed the sight -(and it is a high enjoyment) of the multitude of stars which -illumined the darkness of the forest. - -January 23rd. -- We rose early in the morning, and reached -the pretty quiet town of Castro by two o'clock. The old governor -had died since our last visit, and a Chileno was acting -in his place. We had a letter of introduction to Don Pedro, -whom we found exceedingly hospitable and kind, and more -disinterested than is usual on this side of the continent. The -next day Don Pedro procured us fresh horses, and offered -to accompany us himself. We proceeded to the south -- generally -following the coast, and passing through several hamlets, -each with its large barn-like chapel built of wood. At -Vilipilli, Don Pedro asked the commandant to give us a guide -to Cucao. The old gentleman offered to come himself; but -for a long time nothing would persuade him that two Englishmen -really wished to go to such an out-of-the-way place -as Cucao. We were thus accompanied by the two greatest -aristocrats in the country, as was plainly to be seen in the -manner of all the poorer Indians towards them. At Chonchi -we struck across the island, following intricate winding -paths, sometimes passing through magnificent forests, and -sometimes through pretty cleared spots, abounding with corn -and potato crops. This undulating woody country, partially -cultivated, reminded me of the wilder parts of England, and -therefore had to my eye a most fascinating aspect. At Vilinco, -which is situated on the borders of the lake of Cucao, -only a few fields were cleared; and all the inhabitants appeared -to be Indians. This lake is twelve miles long, and -runs in an east and west direction. From local circumstances, -the sea-breeze blows very regularly during the day, -and during the night it falls calm: this has given rise to -strange exaggerations, for the phenomenon, as described to -us at S. Carlos, was quite a prodigy. - -The road to Cucao was so very bad that we determined to -embark in a _periagua_. The commandant, in the most authoritative -manner, ordered six Indians to get ready to pull -us over, without deigning to tell them whether they would -be paid. The periagua is a strange rough boat, but the crew -were still stranger: I doubt if six uglier little men ever got -into a boat together. They pulled, however, very well and -cheerfully. The stroke-oarsman gabbled Indian, and uttered -strange cries, much after the fashion of a pig-driver driving -his pigs. We started with a light breeze against us, but yet -reached the Capella de Cucao before it was late. The country -on each side of the lake was one unbroken forest. In the -same periagua with us, a cow was embarked. To get so -large an animal into a small boat appears at first a difficulty, -but the Indians managed it in a minute. They brought the -cow alongside the boat, which was heeled towards her; then -placing two oars under her belly, with their ends resting on -the gunwale, by the aid of these levers they fairly tumbled -the poor beast heels over head into the bottom of the boat, -and then lashed her down with ropes. At Cucao we found -an uninhabited hovel (which is the residence of the padre -when he pays this Capella a visit), where, lighting a fire, we -cooked our supper, and were very comfortable. - -The district of Cucao is the only inhabited part on the -whole west coast of Chiloe. It contains about thirty or forty -Indian families, who are scattered along four or five miles -of the shore. They are very much secluded from the rest of -Chiloe, and have scarcely any sort of commerce, except -sometimes in a little oil, which they get from seal-blubber. -They are tolerably dressed in clothes of their own manufacture, -and they have plenty to eat. They seemed, however, -discontented, yet humble to a degree which it was quite painful -to witness. These feelings are, I think, chiefly to be -attributed to the harsh and authoritative manner in which -they are treated by their rulers. Our companions, although -so very civil to us, behaved to the poor Indians as if they -had been slaves, rather than free men. They ordered provisions -and the use of their horses, without ever condescending -to say how much, or indeed whether the owners should -be paid at all. In the morning, being left alone with these -poor people, we soon ingratiated ourselves by presents of -cigars and mate. A lump of white sugar was divided between -all present, and tasted with the greatest curiosity. The -Indians ended all their complaints by saying, "And it is only -because we are poor Indians, and know nothing; but it was -not so when we had a King." - -The next day after breakfast, we rode a few miles northward -to Punta Huantamo. The road lay along a very broad -beach, on which, even after so many fine days, a terrible surf -was breaking. I was assured that after a heavy gale, the -roar can be heard at night even at Castro, a distance of no -less than twenty-one sea-miles across a hilly and wooded -country. We had some difficulty in reaching the point, owing -to the intolerably bad paths; for everywhere in the shade -the ground soon becomes a perfect quagmire. The point -itself is a bold rocky hill. It is covered by a plant allied, I -believe, to Bromelia, and called by the inhabitants Chepones. -In scrambling through the beds, our hands were very much -scratched. I was amused by observing the precaution our -Indian guide took, in turning up his trousers, thinking that -they were more delicate than his own hard skin. This plant -bears a fruit, in shape like an artichoke, in which a number -of seed-vessels are packed: these contain a pleasant sweet -pulp, here much esteemed. I saw at Low's Harbour the -Chilotans making chichi, or cider, with this fruit: so true is -it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost everywhere man finds -means of preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable -kingdom. The savages, however, of Tierra del Fuego, -and I believe of Australia, have not advanced thus far in -the arts. - -The coast to the north of Punta Huantamo is exceedingly -rugged and broken, and is fronted by many breakers, on -which the sea is eternally roaring. Mr. King and myself -were anxious to return, if it had been possible, on foot along -this coast; but even the Indians said it was quite -impracticable. We were told that men have crossed by striking -directly through the woods from Cucao to S. Carlos, but -never by the coast. On these expeditions, the Indians carry -with them only roasted corn, and of this they eat sparingly -twice a day. - -26th. -- Re-embarking in the periagua, we returned across -the lake, and then mounted our horses. The whole of Chiloe -took advantage of this week of unusually fine weather, to -clear the ground by burning. In every direction volumes of -smoke were curling upwards. Although the inhabitants were -so assiduous in setting fire to every part of the wood, yet -I did not see a single fire which they had succeeded in making -extensive. We dined with our friend the commandant, -and did not reach Castro till after dark. The next morning -we started very early. After having ridden for some time, -we obtained from the brow of a steep hill an extensive view -(and it is a rare thing on this road) of the great forest. -Over the horizon of trees, the volcano of Corcovado, and -the great flat-topped one to the north, stood out in proud -pre-eminence: scarcely another peak in the long range -showed its snowy summit. I hope it will be long before I -forget this farewell view of the magnificent Cordillera fronting -Chiloe. At night we bivouacked under a cloudless sky, -and the next morning reached S. Carlos. We arrived on the -right day, for before evening heavy rain commenced. - -February 4th. -- Sailed from Chiloe. During the last week -I made several short excursions. One was to examine a -great bed of now-existing shells, elevated 350 feet above -the level of the sea: from among these shells, large forest- -trees were growing. Another ride was to P. Huechucucuy. -I had with me a guide who knew the country far too well; -for he would pertinaciously tell me endless Indian names for -every little point, rivulet, and creek. In the same manner as -in Tierra del Fuego, the Indian language appears singularly -well adapted for attaching names to the most trivial features -of the land. I believe every one was glad to say farewell -to Chiloe; yet if we could forget the gloom and ceaseless -rain of winter, Chiloe might pass for a charming island. -There is also something very attractive in the simplicity and -humble politeness of the poor inhabitants. - -We steered northward along shore, but owing to thick -weather did not reach Valdivia till the night of the 8th. The -next morning the boat proceeded to the town, which is distant -about ten miles. We followed the course of the river, -occasionally passing a few hovels, and patches of ground -cleared out of the otherwise unbroken forest; and sometimes -meeting a canoe with an Indian family. The town is situated -on the low banks of the stream, and is so completely -buried in a wood of apple-trees that the streets are merely -paths in an orchard I have never seen any country, where -apple-trees appeared to thrive so well as in this damp part of -South America: on the borders of the roads there were -many young trees evidently self-grown. In Chiloe the inhabitants -possess a marvellously short method of making an -orchard. At the lower part of almost every branch, small, -conical, brown, wrinkled points project: these are always -ready to change into roots, as may sometimes be seen, where -any mud has been accidentally splashed against the tree. A -branch as thick as a man's thigh is chosen in the early spring, -and is cut off just beneath a group of these points, all the -smaller branches are lopped off, and it is then placed about -two feet deep in the ground. During the ensuing summer -the stump throws out long shoots, and sometimes even bears -fruit: I was shown one which had produced as many as -twenty-three apples, but this was thought very unusual. In -the third season the stump is changed (as I have myself -seen) into a well-wooded tree, loaded with fruit. An old -man near Valdivia illustrated his motto, "Necesidad es la -madre del invencion," by giving an account of the several -useful things he manufactured from his apples. After making -cider, and likewise wine, he extracted from the refuse a -white and finely flavoured spirit; by another process he -procured a sweet treacle, or, as he called it, honey. His -children and pigs seemed almost to live, during this season of -the year, in his orchard. - -February 11th. -- I set out with a guide on a short ride, in -which, however, I managed to see singularly little, either -of the geology of the country or of its inhabitants. There -is not much cleared land near Valdivia: after crossing a -river at the distance of a few miles, we entered the forest, and -then passed only one miserable hovel, before reaching our -sleeping-place for the night. The short difference in latitude, -of 150 miles, has given a new aspect to the forest compared -with that of Chiloe. This is owing to a slightly -different proportion in the kinds of trees. The evergreens -do not appear to be quite so numerous, and the forest in -consequence has a brighter tint. As in Chiloe, the lower -parts are matted together by canes: here also another kind -(resembling the bamboo of Brazil and about twenty feet in -height) grows in clusters, and ornaments the banks of some -of the streams in a very pretty manner. It is with this plant -that the Indians make their chuzos, or long tapering spears. -Our resting-house was so dirty that I preferred sleeping -outside: on these journeys the first night is generally very -uncomfortable, because one is not accustomed to the tickling -and biting of the fleas. I am sure, in the morning, there -was not a space on my legs the size of a shilling which had -not its little red mark where the flea had feasted. - -12th. -- We continued to ride through the uncleared forest; -only occasionally meeting an Indian on horseback, or a troop -of fine mules bringing alerce-planks and corn from the southern -plains. In the afternoon one of the horses knocked up: -we were then on a brow of a hill, which commanded a fine -view of the Llanos. The view of these open plains was very -refreshing, after being hemmed in and buried in the wilderness -of trees. The uniformity of a forest soon becomes very -wearisome. This west coast makes me remember with pleasure -the free, unbounded plains of Patagonia; yet, with the -true spirit of contradiction, I cannot forget how sublime is -the silence of the forest. The Llanos are the most fertile -and thickly peopled parts of the country, as they possess the -immense advantage of being nearly free from trees. Before -leaving the forest we crossed some flat little lawns, around -which single trees stood, as in an English park: I have often -noticed with surprise, in wooded undulatory districts, that -the quite level parts have been destitute of trees. On account -of the tired horse, I determined to stop at the Mission -of Cudico, to the friar of which I had a letter of introduction. -Cudico is an intermediate district between the forest -and the Llanos. There are a good many cottages, with -patches of corn and potatoes, nearly all belonging to Indians. -The tribes dependent on Valdivia are "reducidos y cristianos." -The Indians farther northward, about Arauco and -Imperial, are still very wild, and not converted; but they -have all much intercourse with the Spaniards. The padre -said that the Christian Indians did not much like coming -to mass, but that otherwise they showed respect for religion. -The greatest difficulty is in making them observe the ceremonies -of marriage. The wild Indians take as many wives -as they can support, and a cacique will sometimes have more -than ten: on entering his house, the number may be told by -that of the separate fires. Each wife lives a week in turn -with the cacique; but all are employed in weaving ponchos, -etc., for his profit. To be the wife of a cacique, is an honour -much sought after by the Indian women. - -The men of all these tribes wear a coarse woolen poncho: -those south of Valdivia wear short trousers, and those north -of it a petticoat, like the chilipa of the Gauchos. All have -their long hair bound by a scarlet fillet, but with no other -covering on their heads. These Indians are good-sized men; -their cheek-bones are prominent, and in general appearance -they resemble the great American family to which they belong; -but their physiognomy seemed to me to be slightly -different from that of any other tribe which I had before -seen. Their expression is generally grave, and even austere, -and possesses much character: this may pass either for honest -bluntness or fierce determination. The long black hair, -the grave and much-lined features, and the dark complexion, -called to my mind old portraits of James I. On the road we -met with none of that humble politeness so universal in -Chiloe. Some gave their "mari-mari" (good morning) with -promptness, but the greater number did not seem inclined to -offer any salute. This independence of manners is probably -a consequence of their long wars, and the repeated victories -which they alone, of all the tribes in America, have gained -over the Spaniards. - -I spent the evening very pleasantly, talking with the -padre. He was exceedingly kind and hospitable; and coming -from Santiago, had contrived to surround himself with some -few comforts. Being a man of some little education, he bitterly -complained of the total want of society. With no particular -zeal for religion, no business or pursuit, how completely -must this man's life be wasted! The next day, on -our return, we met seven very wild-looking Indians, of whom -some were caciques that had just received from the Chilian -government their yearly small stipend for having long remained -faithful. They were fine-looking men, and they rode -one after the other, with most gloomy faces. An old cacique, -who headed them, had been, I suppose, more excessively -drunk than the rest, for he seemed extremely grave and -very crabbed. Shortly before this, two Indians joined us, -who were travelling from a distant mission to Valdivia -concerning some lawsuit. One was a good-humoured old man, -but from his wrinkled beardless face looked more like an -old woman than a man. I frequently presented both of them -with cigars; and though ready to receive them, and I dare -say grateful, they would hardly condescend to thank me. A -Chilotan Indian would have taken off his hat, and given his -"Dios le page!" The travelling was very tedious, both -from the badness of the roads, and from the number of great -fallen trees, which it was necessary either to leap over or to -avoid by making long circuits. We slept on the road, and -next morning reached Valdivia, whence I proceeded on -board. - -A few days afterwards I crossed the bay with a party of -officers, and landed near the fort called Niebla. The buildings -were in a most ruinous state, and the gun-carriages -quite rotten. Mr. Wickham remarked to the commanding -officer, that with one discharge they would certainly all fall -to pieces. The poor man, trying to put a good face upon it, -gravely replied, "No, I am sure, sir, they would stand -two!" The Spaniards must have intended to have made this -place impregnable. There is now lying in the middle of the -courtyard a little mountain of mortar, which rivals in hardness -the rock on which it is placed. It was brought from -Chile, and cost 7000 dollars. The revolution having broken -out, prevented its being applied to any purpose, and now it -remains a monument of the fallen greatness of Spain. - -I wanted to go to a house about a mile and a half distant, -but my guide said it was quite impossible to penetrate the -wood in a straight line. He offered, however, to lead me, by -following obscure cattle-tracks, the shortest way: the walk, -nevertheless, took no less than three hours! This man is -employed in hunting strayed cattle; yet, well as he must -know the woods, he was not long since lost for two whole -days, and had nothing to eat. These facts convey a good -idea of the impracticability of the forests of these countries. -A question often occurred to me -- how long does any vestige -of a fallen tree remain? This man showed me one which -a party of fugitive royalists had cut down fourteen years -ago; and taking this as a criterion, I should think a bole a -foot and a half in diameter would in thirty years be changed -into a heap of mould. - -February 20th. -- This day has been memorable in the -annals of Valdivia, for the most severe earthquake experienced -by the oldest inhabitant. I happened to be on shore, -and was lying down in the wood to rest myself. It came on -suddenly, and lasted two minutes, but the time appeared -much longer. The rocking of the ground was very sensible. -The undulations appeared to my companion and myself to -come from due east, whilst others thought they proceeded -from south-west: this shows how difficult it sometimes is to -perceive the directions of the vibrations. There was no -difficulty in standing upright, but the motion made me almost -giddy: it was something like the movement of a vessel in a -little cross-ripple, or still more like that felt by a person -skating over thin ice, which bends under the weight of his body. -A bad earthquake at once destroys our oldest associations: -the earth, the very emblem of solidity, has moved beneath -our feet like a thin crust over a fluid; -- one second of time -has created in the mind a strange idea of insecurity, which -hours of reflection would not have produced. In the forest, -as a breeze moved the trees, I felt only the earth tremble, but -saw no other effect. Captain Fitz Roy and some officers -were at the town during the shock, and there the scene was -more striking; for although the houses, from being built of -wood, did not fall, they were violently shaken, and the boards -creaked and rattled together. The people rushed out of -doors in the greatest alarm. It is these accompaniments that -create that perfect horror of earthquakes, experienced by all -who have thus seen, as well as felt, their effects. Within the -forest it was a deeply interesting, but by no means an awe- -exciting phenomenon. The tides were very curiously affected. -The great shock took place at the time of low water; -and an old woman who was on the beach told me that the -water flowed very quickly, but not in great waves, to high- -water mark, and then as quickly returned to its proper level; -this was also evident by the line of wet sand. The same kind -of quick but quiet movement in the tide happened a few -years since at Chiloe, during a slight earthquake, and created -much causeless alarm. In the course of the evening there -were many weaker shocks, which seemed to produce in the -harbour the most complicated currents, and some of great -strength. - - -March 4th. -- We entered the harbour of Concepcion. While -the ship was beating up to the anchorage, I landed on the -island of Quiriquina. The mayor-domo of the estate quickly -rode down to tell me the terrible news of the great earthquake -of the 20th: -- "That not a house in Concepcion or -Talcahuano (the port) was standing; that seventy villages -were destroyed; and that a great wave had almost washed -away the ruins of Talcahuano." Of this latter statement I -soon saw abundant proofs -- the whole coast being strewed -over with timber and furniture as if a thousand ships had -been wrecked. Besides chairs, tables, book-shelves, etc., in -great numbers, there were several roofs of cottages, which -had been transported almost whole. The storehouses at Talcahuano -had been burst open, and great bags of cotton, yerba, -and other valuable merchandise were scattered on the shore. -During my walk round the island, I observed that numerous -fragments of rock, which, from the marine productions adhering -to them, must recently have been lying in deep water, -had been cast up high on the beach; one of these was six feet -long, three broad, and two thick. - -The island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming -power of the earthquake, as the beach did that of the consequent -great wave. The ground in many parts was fissured -in north and south lines, perhaps caused by the yielding of -the parallel and steep sides of this narrow island. Some of -the fissures near the cliffs were a yard wide. Many enormous -masses had already fallen on the beach; and the inhabitants -thought that when the rains commenced far greater slips would -happen. The effect of the vibration on the hard primary slate, -which composes the foundation of the island, was still more -curious: the superficial parts of some narrow ridges were as -completely shivered as if they had been blasted by gunpowder. -This effect, which was rendered conspicuous by the -fresh fractures and displaced soil, must be confined to near -the surface, for otherwise there would not exist a block of -solid rock throughout Chile; nor is this improbable, as it is -known that the surface of a vibrating body is affected -differently from the central part. It is, perhaps, owing to this -same reason, that earthquakes do not cause quite such terrific -havoc within deep mines as would be expected. I believe this -convulsion has been more effectual in lessening the size of -the island of Quiriquina, than the ordinary wear-and-tear -of the sea and weather during the course of a whole century. - -The next day I landed at Talcahuano, and afterwards rode -to Concepcion. Both towns presented the most awful yet -interesting spectacle I ever beheld. To a person who had -formerly know them, it possibly might have been still more -impressive; for the ruins were so mingled together, and the -whole scene possessed so little the air of a habitable place, -that it was scarcely possible to imagine its former condition. -The earthquake commenced at half-past eleven o'clock in the -forenoon. If it had happened in the middle of the night, the -greater number of the inhabitants (which in this one province -must amount to many thousands) must have perished, -instead of less than a hundred: as it was, the invariable -practice of running out of doors at the first trembling of the -ground, alone saved them. In Concepcion each house, or -row of houses, stood by itself, a heap or line of ruins; but in -Talcahuano, owing to the great wave, little more than one -layer of bricks, tiles, and timber with here and there part of -a wall left standing, could be distinguished. From this -circumstance Concepcion, although not so completely desolated, -was a more terrible, and if I may so call it, picturesque sight. -The first shock was very sudden. The mayor-domo at Quiriquina -told me, that the first notice he received of it, was -finding both the horse he rode and himself, rolling together -on the ground. Rising up, he was again thrown down. He -also told me that some cows which were standing on the steep -side of the island were rolled into the sea. The great wave -caused the destruction of many cattle; on one low island -near the head of the bay, seventy animals were washed off -and drowned. It is generally thought that this has been the -worst earthquake ever recorded in Chile; but as the very -severe ones occur only after long intervals, this cannot easily -be known; nor indeed would a much worse shock have made -any difference, for the ruin was now complete. Innumerable -small tremblings followed the great earthquake, and within -the first twelve days no less than three hundred were counted. - -After viewing Concepcion, I cannot understand how the -greater number of inhabitants escaped unhurt. The houses -in many parts fell outwards; thus forming in the middle of -the streets little hillocks of brickwork and rubbish. Mr. -Rouse, the English consul, told us that he was at breakfast -when the first movement warned him to run out. He had -scarcely reached the middle of the courtyard, when one side -of his house came thundering down. He retained presence -of mind to remember, that if he once got on the top of that -part which had already fallen, he would be safe. Not being -able from the motion of the ground to stand, he crawled up -on his hands and knees; and no sooner had he ascended this -little eminence, than the other side of the house fell in, the -great beams sweeping close in front of his head. With his -eyes blinded, and his mouth choked with the cloud of dust -which darkened the sky, at last he gained the street. As -shock succeeded shock, at the interval of a few minutes, no -one dared approach the shattered ruins, and no one knew -whether his dearest friends and relations were not perishing -from the want of help. Those who had saved any property -were obliged to keep a constant watch, for thieves -prowled about, and at each little trembling of the ground, -with one hand they beat their breasts and cried "Misericordia!" -and then with the other filched what they could -from the ruins. The thatched roofs fell over the fires, and -flames burst forth in all parts. Hundreds knew themselves -ruined, and few had the means of providing food for the day. - -Earthquakes alone are sufficient to destroy the prosperity -of any country. If beneath England the now inert subterranean -forces should exert those powers, which most assuredly -in former geological ages they have exerted, how completely -would the entire condition of the country be changed! -What would become of the lofty houses, thickly packed cities, -great manufactories, the beautiful public and private edifices? -If the new period of disturbance were first to commence -by some great earthquake in the dead of the night, -how terrific would be the carnage! England would at once -be bankrupt; all papers, records, and accounts would from -that moment be lost. Government being unable to collect -the taxes, and failing to maintain its authority, the hand of -violence and rapine would remain uncontrolled. In every -large town famine would go forth, pestilence and death following -in its train. - -Shortly after the shock, a great wave was seen from the -distance of three or four miles, approaching in the middle -of the bay with a smooth outline; but along the shore it tore -up cottages and trees, as it swept onwards with irresistible -force. At the head of the bay it broke in a fearful line of -white breakers, which rushed up to a height of 23 vertical -feet above the highest spring-tides. Their force must have -been prodigious; for at the Fort a cannon with its carriage, -estimated at four tons in weight, was moved 15 feet inwards. -A schooner was left in the midst of the ruins, 200 yards -from the beach. The first wave was followed by two others, -which in their retreat carried away a vast wreck of floating -objects. In one part of the bay, a ship was pitched high -and dry on shore, was carried off, again driven on shore, and -again carried off. In another part, two large vessels anchored -near together were whirled about, and their cables were thrice -wound round each other; though anchored at a depth of 36 -feet, they were for some minutes aground. The great wave -must have travelled slowly, for the inhabitants of Talcahuano -had time to run up the hills behind the town; and -some sailors pulled out seaward, trusting successfully to their -boat riding securely over the swell, if they could reach it -before it broke. One old woman with a little boy, four or -five years old, ran into a boat, but there was nobody to row -it out: the boat was consequently dashed against an anchor -and cut in twain; the old woman was drowned, but the child -was picked up some hours afterwards clinging to the wreck. -Pools of salt-water were still standing amidst the ruins of -the houses, and children, making boats with old tables and -chairs, appeared as happy as their parents were miserable. -It was, however, exceedingly interesting to observe, how -much more active and cheerful all appeared than could have -been expected. It was remarked with much truth, that from -the destruction being universal, no one individual was humbled -more than another, or could suspect his friends of coldness --- that most grievous result of the loss of wealth. Mr. Rouse, -and a large party whom he kindly took under his protection, -lived for the first week in a garden beneath some apple-trees. -At first they were as merry as if it had been a picnic; but -soon afterwards heavy rain caused much discomfort, for they -were absolutely without shelter. - -In Captain Fitz Roy's excellent account of the earthquake, -it is said that two explosions, one like a column of smoke and -another like the blowing of a great whale, were seen in the -bay. The water also appeared everywhere to be boiling; and -it "became black, and exhaled a most disagreeable sulphureous -smell." These latter circumstances were observed in the -Bay of Valparaiso during the earthquake of 1822; they may, -I think, be accounted for, by the disturbance of the mud at -the bottom of the sea containing organic matter in decay. In -the Bay of Callao, during a calm day, I noticed, that as the -ship dragged her cable over the bottom, its course was marked -by a line of bubbles. The lower orders in Talcahuano thought -that the earthquake was caused by some old Indian women, -who two years ago, being offended, stopped the volcano of -Antuco. This silly belief is curious, because it shows that -experience has taught them to observe, that there exists a -relation between the suppressed action of the volcanos, and -the trembling of the ground. It was necessary to apply the -witchcraft to the point where their perception of cause and -effect failed; and this was the closing of the volcanic vent. -This belief is the more singular in this particular instance, -because, according to Captain Fitz Roy, there is reason to -believe that Antuco was noways affected. - -The town of Concepcion was built in the usual Spanish -fashion, with all the streets running at right angles to each -other; one set ranging S.W. by W., and the other set N.W. -by N. The walls in the former direction certainly stood -better than those in the latter; the greater number of the -masses of brickwork were thrown down towards the N.E. -Both these circumstances perfectly agree with the general -idea, of the undulations having come from the S.W., in which -quarter subterranean noises were also heard; for it is evident -that the walls running S.W. and N.E. which presented their -ends to the point whence the undulations came, would be -much less likely to fall than those walls which, running N.W. -and S.E., must in their whole lengths have been at the same -instant thrown out of the perpendicular; for the undulations, -coming from the S.W., must have extended in N.W. and -S.E. waves, as they passed under the foundations. This may -be illustrated by placing books edgeways on a carpet, and -then, after the manner suggested by Michell, imitating the -undulations of an earthquake: it will be found that they fall -with more or less readiness, according as their direction more -or less nearly coincides with the line of the waves. The -fissures in the ground generally, though not uniformly, extended -in a S.E. and N.W. direction, and therefore corresponded -to the lines of undulation or of principal flexure. Bearing in -mind all these circumstances, which so clearly point to the -S.W. as the chief focus of disturbance, it is a very interesting -fact that the island of S. Maria, situated in that quarter, was, -during the general uplifting of the land, raised to nearly -three times the height of any other part of the coast. - -The different resistance offered by the walls, according to -their direction, was well exemplified in the case of the -Cathedral. The side which fronted the N.E. presented a grand -pile of ruins, in the midst of which door-cases and masses -of timber stood up, as if floating in a stream. Some of the -angular blocks of brickwork were of great dimensions; and -they were rolled to a distance on the level plaza, like -fragments of rock at the base of some high mountain. The side -walls (running S.W. and N.E.), though exceedingly fractured, -yet remained standing; but the vast buttresses (at -right angles to them, and therefore parallel to the walls that -fell) were in many cases cut clean off, as if by a chisel, and -hurled to the ground. Some square ornaments on the coping -of these same walls, were moved by the earthquake into -a diagonal position. A similar circumstance was observed -after an earthquake at Valparaiso, Calabria, and other places, -including some of the ancient Greek temples. [1] This twisting -displacement, at first appears to indicate a vorticose -movement beneath each point thus affected; but this is highly -improbable. May it not be caused by a tendency in each stone -to arrange itself in some particular position, with respect -to the lines of vibration, -- in a manner somewhat similar to -pins on a sheet of paper when shaken? Generally speaking, -arched doorways or windows stood much better than any -other part of the buildings. Nevertheless, a poor lame old -man, who had been in the habit, during trifling shocks, of -crawling to a certain doorway, was this time crushed to -pieces. - -I have not attempted to give any detailed description of -the appearance of Concepcion, for I feel that it is quite -impossible to convey the mingled feelings which I experienced. -Several of the officers visited it before me, but their -strongest language failed to give a just idea of the scene of -desolation. It is a bitter and humiliating thing to see works, -which have cost man so much time and labour, overthrown in one -minute; yet compassion for the inhabitants was almost instantly -banished, by the surprise in seeing a state of things produced -in a moment of time, which one was accustomed to attribute -to a succession of ages. In my opinion, we have scarcely beheld, -since leaving England, any sight so deeply interesting. - -In almost every severe earthquake, the neighbouring waters -of the sea are said to have been greatly agitated. The -disturbance seems generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to -have been of two kinds: first, at the instant of the shock, -the water swells high up on the beach with a gentle motion, -and then as quietly retreats; secondly, some time afterwards, -the whole body of the sea retires from the coast, and then -returns in waves of overwhelming force. The first movement -seems to be an immediate consequence of the earthquake -affecting differently a fluid and a solid, so that their -respective levels are slightly deranged: but the second case -is a far more important phenomenon. During most earthquakes, -and especially during those on the west coast of -America, it is certain that the first great movement of the -waters has been a retirement. Some authors have attempted -to explain this, by supposing that the water retains its level, -whilst the land oscillates upwards; but surely the water close -to the land, even on a rather steep coast, would partake of the -motion of the bottom: moreover, as urged by Mr. Lyell, -similar movements of the sea have occurred at islands far -distant from the chief line of disturbance, as was the case -with Juan Fernandez during this earthquake, and with -Madeira during the famous Lisbon shock. I suspect (but the -subject is a very obscure one) that a wave, however produced, -first draws the water from the shore, on which it is advancing -to break: I have observed that this happens with the little -waves from the paddles of a steam-boat. It is remarkable -that whilst Talcahuano and Callao (near Lima), both situated -at the head of large shallow bays, have suffered during -every severe earthquake from great waves, Valparaiso, -seated close to the edge of profoundly deep water, has never -been overwhelmed, though so often shaken by the severest -shocks. From the great wave not immediately following the -earthquake, but sometimes after the interval of even half an -hour, and from distant islands being affected similarly with -the coasts near the focus of the disturbance, it appears that -the wave first rises in the offing; and as this is of general -occurrence, the cause must be general: I suspect we must -look to the line, where the less disturbed waters of the deep -ocean join the water nearer the coast, which has partaken -of the movements of the land, as the place where the great -wave is first generated; it would also appear that the wave -is larger or smaller, according to the extent of shoal water -which has been agitated together with the bottom on which it -rested. - - -The most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent -elevation of the land, it would probably be far more -correct to speak of it as the cause. There can be no doubt -that the land round the Bay of Concepcion was upraised -two or three feet; but it deserves notice, that owing to the -wave having obliterated the old lines of tidal action on the -sloping sandy shores, I could discover no evidence of this -fact, except in the united testimony of the inhabitants, that -one little rocky shoal, now exposed, was formerly covered -with water. At the island of S. Maria (about thirty miles -distant) the elevation was greater; on one part, Captain Fitz -Roy founds beds of putrid mussel-shells _still adhering to the -rocks_, ten feet above high-water mark: the inhabitants had -formerly dived at lower-water spring-tides for these shells. -The elevation of this province is particularly interesting, -from its having been the theatre of several other violent -earthquakes, and from the vast numbers of sea-shells scattered -over the land, up to a height of certainly 600, and I -believe, of 1000 feet. At Valparaiso, as I have remarked, -similar shells are found at the height of 1300 feet: it is -hardly possible to doubt that this great elevation has been -effected by successive small uprisings, such as that which -accompanied or caused the earthquake of this year, and likewise -by an insensibly slow rise, which is certainly in progress on -some parts of this coast. - -The island of Juan Fernandez, 360 miles to the N.E., was, -at the time of the great shock of the 20th, violently shaken, -so that the trees beat against each other, and a volcano burst -forth under water close to the shore: these facts are remarkable -because this island, during the earthquake of 1751, was -then also affected more violently than other places at an equal -distance from Concepcion, and this seems to show some -subterranean connection between these two points. Chiloe, about -340 miles southward of Concepcion, appears to have been -shaken more strongly than the intermediate district of Valdivia, -where the volcano of Villarica was noways affected, -whilst in the Cordillera in front of Chiloe, two of the volcanos -burst-forth at the same instant in violent action. These -two volcanos, and some neighbouring ones, continued for a -long time in eruption, and ten months afterwards were -again influenced by an earthquake at Concepcion. Some -men, cutting wood near the base of one of these volcanos, -did not perceive the shock of the 20th, although the whole -surrounding Province was then trembling; here we have an -eruption relieving and taking the place of an earthquake, -as would have happened at Concepcion, according to the -belief of the lower orders, if the volcano at Antuco had not -been closed by witchcraft. Two years and three-quarters -afterwards, Valdivia and Chiloe were again shaken, more -violently than on the 20th, and an island in the Chonos -Archipelago was permanently elevated more than eight feet. -It will give a better idea of the scale of these phenomena, if -(as in the case of the glaciers) we suppose them to have -taken place at corresponding distances in Europe: -- then -would the land from the North Sea to the Mediterranean -have been violently shaken, and at the same instant of time a -large tract of the eastern coast of England would have been -permanently elevated, together with some outlying islands, -- a -train of volcanos on the coast of Holland would have burst -forth in action, and an eruption taken place at the bottom of -the sea, near the northern extremity of Ireland -- and lastly, -the ancient vents of Auvergne, Cantal, and Mont d'Or would -each have sent up to the sky a dark column of smoke, and -have long remained in fierce action. Two years and three- -quarters afterwards, France, from its centre to the English -Channel, would have been again desolated by an earthquake -and an island permanently upraised in the Mediterranean. - -The space, from under which volcanic matter on the 20th -was actually erupted, is 720 miles in one line, and 400 miles -in another line at right angles to the first: hence, in all -probability, a subterranean lake of lava is here stretched out, -of nearly double the area of the Black Sea. From the intimate -and complicated manner in which the elevatory and eruptive -forces were shown to be connected during this train of -phenomena, we may confidently come to the conclusion, that the -forces which slowly and by little starts uplift continents, and -those which at successive periods pour forth volcanic matter -from open orifices, are identical. From many reasons, I -believe that the frequent quakings of the earth on this line -of coast are caused by the rending of the strata, necessarily -consequent on the tension of the land when upraised, and -their injection by fluidified rock. This rending and injection -would, if repeated often enough (and we know that earthquakes -repeatedly affect the same areas in the same manner), -form a chain of hills; -- and the linear island of S. Mary, -which was upraised thrice the height of the neighbouring -country, seems to be undergoing this process. I believe that -the solid axis of a mountain, differs in its manner of formation -from a volcanic hill, only in the molten stone having -been repeatedly injected, instead of having been repeatedly -ejected. Moreover, I believe that it is impossible to explain -the structure of great mountain-chains, such as that of the -Cordillera, were the strata, capping the injected axis of -plutonic rock, have been thrown on their edges along several -parallel and neighbouring lines of elevation, except on this -view of the rock of the axis having been repeatedly injected, -after intervals sufficiently long to allow the upper parts or -wedges to cool and become solid; -- for if the strata had been -thrown into their present highly inclined, vertical, and even -inverted positions, by a single blow, the very bowels of the -earth would have gushed out; and instead of beholding abrupt -mountain-axes of rock solidified under great pressure, deluges -of lava would have flowed out at innumerable points on every -line of elevation. [2] - -[1] M. Arago in L'Institut, 1839, p. 337. See also Miers's -Chile, vol. i. p. 392; also Lyell's Principles of Geology, -chap. xv., book ii. - -[2] For a full account of the volcanic phenomena which -accompanied the earthquake of the 20th, and for the conclusions -deducible from them, I must refer to Volume V. of the Geological -Transactions. - - - -CHAPTER XV - -PASSAGE OF THE CORDILLERA - -Valparaiso -- Portillo Pass -- Sagacity of Mules -- Mountain- -torrents -- Mines, how discovered -- Proofs of the gradual -Elevation of the Cordillera -- Effect of Snow on Rocks -- -Geological Structure of the two main Ranges, their distinct -Origin and Upheaval -- Great Subsidence -- Red Snow -- -Winds -- Pinnacles of Snow -- Dry and clear Atmosphere -- -Electricity -- Pampas -- Zoology of the opposite Side of -the Andes -- Locusts -- Great Bugs -- Mendoza -- Uspallata -Pass -- Silicified Trees buried as they grew -- Incas Bridge -- -Badness of the Passes exaggerated -- Cumbre -- Casuchas -- -Valparaiso. - - -MARCH 7th, 1835. -- We stayed three days at Concepcion, -and then sailed for Valparaiso. The wind -being northerly, we only reached the mouth of the -harbour of Concepcion before it was dark. Being very near -the land, and a fog coming on, the anchor was dropped. -Presently a large American whaler appeared alongside of us; -and we heard the Yankee swearing at his men to keep quiet, -whilst he listened for the breakers. Captain Fitz Roy hailed -him, in a loud clear voice, to anchor where he then was. The -poor man must have thought the voice came from the shore: -such a Babel of cries issued at once from the ship -- every -one hallooing out, "Let go the anchor! veer cable! shorten -sail!" It was the most laughable thing I ever heard. If -the ship's crew had been all captains, and no men, there could -not have been a greater uproar of orders. We afterwards -found that the mate stuttered: I suppose all hands were -assisting him in giving his orders. - -On the 11th we anchored at Valparaiso, and two days -afterwards I set out to cross the Cordillera. I proceeded to -Santiago, where Mr. Caldcleugh most kindly assisted me in -every possible way in making the little preparations which -were necessary. In this part of Chile there are two passes -across the Andes to Mendoza: the one most commonly used, -namely, that of Aconcagua or Uspallata -- is situated some -way to the north; the other, called the Portillo, is to the -south, and nearer, but more lofty and dangerous. - -March 18th. -- We set out for the Portillo pass. Leaving -Santiago we crossed the wide burnt-up plain on which that -city stands, and in the afternoon arrived at the Maypu, one -of the principal rivers in Chile. The valley, at the point -where it enters the first Cordillera, is bounded on each side -by lofty barren mountains; and although not broad, it is very -fertile. Numerous cottages were surrounded by vines, and by -orchards of apple, nectarine, and peach-trees -- their boughs -breaking with the weight of the beautiful ripe fruit. In the -evening we passed the custom-house, where our luggage was -examined. The frontier of Chile is better guarded by the -Cordillera, than by the waters of the sea. There are very -few valleys which lead to the central ranges, and the -mountains are quite impassable in other parts by beasts of -burden. The custom-house officers were very civil, which -was perhaps partly owing to the passport which the President -of the Republic had given me; but I must express my admiration -at the natural politeness of almost every Chileno. In -this instance, the contrast with the same class of men in -most other countries was strongly marked. I may mention -an anecdote with which I was at the time much pleased: we -met near Mendoza a little and very fat negress, riding astride -on a mule. She had a _goitre_ so enormous that it was scarcely -possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two -companions almost instantly, by way of apology, made the -common salute of the country by taking off their hats. Where -would one of the lower or higher classes in Europe, have -shown such feeling politeness to a poor and miserable object -of a degraded race? - -At night we slept at a cottage. Our manner of travelling -was delightfully independent. In the inhabited parts we -bought a little firewood, hired pasture for the animals, and -bivouacked in the corner of the same field with them. Carrying -an iron pot, we cooked and ate our supper under a -cloudless sky, and knew no trouble. My companions were -Mariano Gonzales, who had formerly accompanied me in -Chile, and an "arriero," with his ten mules and a "madrina." -The madrina (or godmother) is a most important personage: - -She is an old steady mare, with a little bell round her neck; -and wherever she goes, the mules, like good children, follow -her. The affection of these animals for their madrinas saves -infinite trouble. If several large troops are turned into one -field to graze, in the morning the muleteers have only to lead -the madrinas a little apart, and tinkle their bells; although -there may be two or three hundred together, each mule -immediately knows the bell of its own madrina, and comes to -her. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule; for if -detained for several hours by force, she will, by the power -of smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the -madrina, for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief -object of affection. The feeling, however, is not of an -individual nature; for I believe I am right in saying that any -animal with a bell will serve as a madrina. In a troop each -animal carries on a level road, a cargo weighing 416 pounds -(more than 29 stone), but in a mountainous country 100 -pounds less; yet with what delicate slim limbs, without any -proportional bulk of muscle, these animals support so great -a burden! The mule always appears to me a most surprising -animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, memory, -obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular endurance, -and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to -indicate that art has here outdone nature. Of our ten animals, -six were intended for riding, and four for carrying cargoes, -each taking turn about. We carried a good deal of food in -case we should be snowed up, as the season was rather late -for passing the Portillo. - -March 19th. -- We rode during this day to the last, and -therefore most elevated, house in the valley. The number of -inhabitants became scanty; but wherever water could be -brought on the land, it was very fertile. All the main valleys -in the Cordillera are characterized by having, on both sides, a -fringe or terrace of shingle and sand, rudely stratified, and -generally of considerable thickness. These fringes evidently -once extended across the valleys and were united; and the -bottoms of the valleys in northern Chile, where there are no -streams, are thus smoothly filled up. On these fringes the -roads are generally carried, for their surfaces are even, and -they rise, with a very gentle slope up the valleys: hence, also, -they are easily cultivated by irrigation. They may be traced -up to a height of between 7000 and 9000 feet, where they -become hidden by the irregular piles of debris. At the lower -end or mouths of the valleys, they are continuously united to -those land-locked plains (also formed of shingle) at the foot -of the main Cordillera, which I have described in a former -chapter as characteristic of the scenery of Chile, and which -were undoubtedly deposited when the sea penetrated Chile, as -it now does the more southern coasts. No one fact in the -geology of South America, interested me more than these -terraces of rudely-stratified shingle. They precisely resemble -in composition the matter which the torrents in each valley -would deposit, if they were checked in their course by any -cause, such as entering a lake or arm of the sea; but the -torrents, instead of depositing matter, are now steadily at -work wearing away both the solid rock and these alluvial -deposits, along the whole line of every main valley and side -valley. It is impossible here to give the reasons, but I am -convinced that the shingle terraces were accumulated, during -the gradual elevation of the Cordillera, by the torrents -delivering, at successive levels, their detritus on the -beachheads of long narrow arms of the sea, first high up the -valleys, then lower and lower down as the land slowly rose. If -this be so, and I cannot doubt it, the grand and broken chain -of the Cordillera, instead of having been suddenly thrown up, -as was till lately the universal, and still is the common -opinion of geologists, has been slowly upheaved in mass, in the -same gradual manner as the coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific -have risen within the recent period. A multitude of facts in the -structure of the Cordillera, on this view receive a simple -explanation. - -The rivers which flow in these valleys ought rather to be -called mountain-torrents. Their inclination is very great, -and their water the colour of mud. The roar which the -Maypu made, as it rushed over the great rounded fragments, -was like that of the sea. Amidst the din of rushing waters, -the noise from the stones, as they rattled one over another, -was most distinctly audible even from a distance. This rattling -noise, night and day, may be heard along the whole -course of the torrent. The sound spoke eloquently to the -geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones, which, -striking against each other, made the one dull uniform sound, -were all hurrying in one direction. It was like thinking on -time, where the minute that now glides past is irrevocable. -So was it with these stones; the ocean is their eternity, and -each note of that wild music told of one more step towards -their destiny. - -It is not possible for the mind to comprehend, except by -a slow process, any effect which is produced by a cause repeated -so often, that the multiplier itself conveys an idea, -not more definite than the savage implies when he points to -the hairs of his head. As often as I have seen beds of mud, -sand, and shingle, accumulated to the thickness of many -thousand feet, I have felt inclined to exclaim that causes, -such as the present rivers and the present beaches, could -never have ground down and produced such masses. But, on -the other hand, when listening to the rattling noise of these -torrents, and calling to mind that whole races of animals have -passed away from the face of the earth, and that during this -whole period, night and day, these stones have gone rattling -onwards in their course, I have thought to myself, can any -mountains, any continent, withstand such waste? - -In this part of the valley, the mountains on each side were -from 3000 to 6000 or 8000 feet high, with rounded outlines -and steep bare flanks. The general colour of the rock was -dullish purple, and the stratification very distinct. If the -scenery was not beautiful, it was remarkable and grand. We -met during the day several herds of cattle, which men were -driving down from the higher valleys in the Cordillera. This -sign of the approaching winter hurried our steps, more than -was convenient for geologizing. The house where we slept -was situated at the foot of a mountain, on the summit of -which are the mines of S. Pedro de Nolasko. Sir F. Head -marvels how mines have been discovered in such extraordinary -situations, as the bleak summit of the mountain of S. -Pedro de Nolasko. In the first place, metallic veins in this -country are generally harder than the surrounding strata: -hence, during the gradual wear of the hills, they project -above the surface of the ground. Secondly, almost every -labourer, especially in the northern parts of Chile, understands -something about the appearance of ores. In the great -mining provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapo, firewood is very -scarce, and men search for it over every hill and dale; and -by this means nearly all the richest mines have there been -discovered. Chanuncillo, from which silver to the value of -many hundred thousand pounds has been raised in the course -of a few years, was discovered by a man who threw a stone -at his loaded donkey, and thinking that it was very heavy, he -picked it up, and found it full of pure silver: the vein -occurred at no great distance, standing up like a wedge of -metal. The miners, also, taking a crowbar with them, often -wander on Sundays over the mountains. In this south part -of Chile, the men who drive cattle into the Cordillera, and -who frequent every ravine where there is a little pasture, are -the usual discoverers. - -20th. -- As we ascended the valley, the vegetation, with -the exception of a few pretty alpine flowers, became exceedingly -scanty, and of quadrupeds, birds, or insects, scarcely -one could be seen. The lofty mountains, their summits -marked with a few patches of snow, stood well separated -from each other, the valleys being filled up with an immense -thickness of stratified alluvium. The features in the scenery -of the Andes which struck me most, as contrasted with the -other mountain chains with which I am acquainted, were, -- -the flat fringes sometimes expanding into narrow plains on -each side of the valleys, -- the bright colours, chiefly red and -purple, of the utterly bare and precipitous hills of porphyry, -the grand and continuous wall-like dykes, -- the plainly- -divided strata which, where nearly vertical, formed the -picturesque and wild central pinnacles, but where less inclined, -composed the great massive mountains on the outskirts of the -range, -- and lastly, the smooth conical piles of fine and -brightly coloured detritus, which sloped up at a high angle -from the base of the mountains, sometimes to a height of -more than 2000 feet. - -I frequently observed, both in Tierra del Fuego and within -the Andes, that where the rock was covered during the greater -part of the year with snow, it was shivered in a very -extraordinary manner into small angular fragments. Scoresby [1] -has observed the same fact in Spitzbergen. The case -appears to me rather obscure: for that part of the mountain -which is protected by a mantle of snow, must be less subject -to repeated and great changes of temperature than any other -part. I have sometimes thought, that the earth and fragments -of stone on the surface, were perhaps less effectually -removed by slowly percolating snow-water [2] than by rain, and -therefore that the appearance of a quicker disintegration of -the solid rock under the snow, was deceptive. Whatever the -cause may be, the quantity of crumbling stone on the Cordillera -is very great. Occasionally in the spring, great masses -of this detritus slide down the mountains, and cover the -snow-drifts in the valleys, thus forming natural ice-houses. -We rode over one, the height of which was far below the -limit of perpetual snow. - -As the evening drew to a close, we reached a singular -basin-like plain, called the Valle del Yeso. It was covered -by a little dry pasture, and we had the pleasant sight of a -herd of cattle amidst the surrounding rocky deserts. The -valley takes its name of Yeso from a great bed, I should think -at least 2000 feet thick, of white, and in some parts quite -pure, gypsum. We slept with a party of men, who were -employed in loading mules with this substance, which is used -in the manufacture of wine. We set out early in the morning -(21st), and continued to follow the course of the river, which -had become very small, till we arrived at the foot of the ridge, -that separates the waters flowing into the Pacific and Atlantic -Oceans. The road, which as yet had been good with a steady -but very gradual ascent, now changed into a steep zigzag -track up the great range, dividing the republics of Chile -and Mendoza. - -I will here give a very brief sketch of the geology of the -several parallel lines forming the Cordillera. Of these lines, -there are two considerably higher than the others; namely, -on the Chilian side, the Peuquenes ridge, which, where the -road crosses it, is 13,210 feet above the sea; and the Portillo -ridge, on the Mendoza side, which is 14,305 feet. The lower -beds of the Peuquenes ridge, and of the several great lines -to the westward of it, are composed of a vast pile, many -thousand feet in thickness, of porphyries which have flowed as -submarine lavas, alternating with angular and rounded fragments -of the same rocks, thrown out of the submarine craters. -These alternating masses are covered in the central parts, -by a great thickness of red sandstone, conglomerate, and -calcareous clay-slate, associated with, and passing into, -prodigious beds of gypsum. In these upper beds shells are -tolerably frequent; and they belong to about the period of the -lower chalk of Europe. It is an old story, but not the less -wonderful, to hear of shells which were once crawling on the -bottom of the sea, now standing nearly 14,000 feet above its -level. The lower beds in this great pile of strata, have been -dislocated, baked, crystallized and almost blended together, -through the agency of mountain masses of a peculiar white -soda-granitic rock. - -The other main line, namely, that of the Portillo, is of a -totally different formation: it consists chiefly of grand bare -pinnacles of a red potash-granite, which low down on the -western flank are covered by a sandstone, converted by the -former heat into a quartz-rock. On the quartz, there rest -beds of a conglomerate several thousand feet in thickness, -which have been upheaved by the red granite, and dip at an -angle of 45 degs. towards the Peuquenes line. I was astonished -to find that this conglomerate was partly composed of pebbles, -derived from the rocks, with their fossil shells, of the -Peuquenes range; and partly of red potash-granite, like that -of the Portillo. Hence we must conclude, that both the Peuquenes -and Portillo ranges were partially upheaved and exposed -to wear and tear, when the conglomerate was forming; -but as the beds of the conglomerate have been thrown off at -an angle of 45 degs. by the red Portillo granite (with the -underlying sandstone baked by it), we may feel sure, that the -greater part of the injection and upheaval of the already -partially formed Portillo line, took place after the -accumulation of the conglomerate, and long after the elevation -of the Peuquenes ridge. So that the Portillo, the loftiest line -in this part of the Cordillera, is not so old as the less lofty -line of the Peuquenes. Evidence derived from an inclined stream -of lava at the eastern base of the Portillo, might be adduced -to show, that it owes part of its great height to elevations of -a still later date. Looking to its earliest origin, the red -granite seems to have been injected on an ancient pre-existing -line of white granite and mica-slate. In most parts, perhaps in -all parts, of the Cordillera, it may be concluded that each line -has been formed by repeated upheavals and injections; and -that the several parallel lines are of different ages. Only -thus can we gain time, at all sufficient to explain the truly -astonishing amount of denudation, which these great, though -comparatively with most other ranges recent, mountains have -suffered. - -Finally, the shells in the Peuquenes or oldest ridge, prove, -as before remarked, that it has been upraised 14,000 feet -since a Secondary period, which in Europe we are accustomed -to consider as far from ancient; but since these shells -lived in a moderately deep sea, it can be shown that the area -now occupied by the Cordillera, must have subsided several -thousand feet -- in northern Chile as much as 6000 feet -- so -as to have allowed that amount of submarine strata to have -been heaped on the bed on which the shells lived. The proof -is the same with that by which it was shown, that at a much -later period, since the tertiary shells of Patagonia lived, -there must have been there a subsidence of several hundred -feet, as well as an ensuing elevation. Daily it is forced home -on the mind of the geologist, that nothing, not even the wind -that blows, is so unstable as the level of the crust of this -earth. - -I will make only one other geological remark: although -the Portillo chain is here higher than the Peuquenes, the -waters draining the intermediate valleys, have burst through -it. The same fact, on a grander scale, has been remarked in -the eastern and loftiest line of the Bolivian Cordillera, -through which the rivers pass: analogous facts have also -been observed in other quarters of the world. On the supposition -of the subsequent and gradual elevation of the Portillo -line, this can be understood; for a chain of islets would -at first appear, and, as these were lifted up, the tides would -be always wearing deeper and broader channels between them. -At the present day, even in the most retired Sounds on the -coast of Tierra del Fuego, the currents in the transverse -breaks which connect the longitudinal channels, are very -strong, so that in one transverse channel even a small vessel -under sail was whirled round and round. - - -About noon we began the tedious ascent of the Peuquenes -ridge, and then for the first time experienced some little -difficulty in our respiration. The mules would halt every fifty -yards, and after resting for a few seconds the poor willing -animals started of their own accord again. The short breathing -from the rarefied atmosphere is called by the Chilenos -"puna;" and they have most ridiculous notions concerning -its origin. Some say "all the waters here have puna;" others -that "where there is snow there is puna;" -- and this no -doubt is true. The only sensation I experienced was a slight -tightness across the head and chest, like that felt on leaving -a warm room and running quickly in frosty weather. There -was some imagination even in this; for upon finding fossil -shells on the highest ridge, I entirely forgot the puna in my -delight. Certainly the exertion of walking was extremely -great, and the respiration became deep and laborious: I am -told that in Potosi (about 13,000 feet above the sea) strangers -do not become thoroughly accustomed to the atmosphere for -an entire year. The inhabitants all recommend onions for -the puna; as this vegetable has sometimes been given in -Europe for pectoral complaints, it may possibly be of real -service: -- for my part I found nothing so good as the fossil -shells! - -When about half-way up we met a large party with seventy -loaded mules. It was interesting to hear the wild cries -of the muleteers, and to watch the long descending string -of the animals; they appeared so diminutive, there being -nothing but the black mountains with which they could be -compared. When near the summit, the wind, as generally -happens, was impetuous and extremely cold. On each side of -the ridge, we had to pass over broad bands of perpetual -snow, which were now soon to be covered by a fresh layer. -When we reached the crest and looked backwards, a glorious -view was presented. The atmosphere resplendently clear; -the sky an intense blue; the profound valleys; the wild -broken forms: the heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse -of ages; the bright-coloured rocks, contrasted with the quiet -mountains of snow, all these together produced a scene no -one could have imagined. Neither plant nor bird, excepting -a few condors wheeling around the higher pinnacles, distracted -my attention from the inanimate mass. I felt glad -that I was alone: it was like watching a thunderstorm, or -hearing in full orchestra a chorus of the Messiah. - -On several patches of the snow I found the Protococcus -nivalis, or red snow, so well known from the accounts of -Arctic navigators. My attention was called to it, by observing -the footsteps of the mules stained a pale red, as if their -hoofs had been slightly bloody. I at first thought that it was -owing to dust blown from the surrounding mountains of red -porphyry; for from the magnifying power of the crystals -of snow, the groups of these microscopical plants appeared -like coarse particles. The snow was coloured only where it -had thawed very rapidly, or had been accidentally crushed. -A little rubbed on paper gave it a faint rose tinge mingled -with a little brick-red. I afterwards scraped some off the -paper, and found that it consisted of groups of little spheres -in colourless cases, each of the thousandth part of an inch in -diameter. - -The wind on the crest of the Peuquenes, as just remarked, -is generally impetuous and very cold: it is said [3] to blow -steadily from the westward or Pacific side. As the observations -have been chiefly made in summer, this wind must be -an upper and return current. The Peak of Teneriffe, with -a less elevation, and situated in lat. 28 degs., in like manner -falls within an upper return stream. At first it appears rather -surprising, that the trade-wind along the northern parts of -Chile and on the coast of Peru, should blow in so very southerly -a direction as it does; but when we reflect that the Cordillera, -running in a north and south line, intercepts, like a -great wall, the entire depth of the lower atmospheric current, -we can easily see that the trade-wind must be drawn northward, -following the line of mountains, towards the equatorial -regions, and thus lose part of that easterly movement which -it otherwise would have gained from the earth's rotation. At -Mendoza, on the eastern foot of the Andes, the climate is -said to be subject to long calms, and to frequent though false -appearances of gathering rain-storms: we may imagine that -the wind, which coming from the eastward is thus banked up -by the line of mountains, would become stagnant and irregular -in its movements. - -Having crossed the Peuquenes, we descended into a mountainous -country, intermediate between the two main ranges, -and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now -in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not -under 11,000 feet, and the vegetation in consequence exceedingly -scanty. The root of a small scrubby plant served as -fuel, but it made a miserable fire, and the wind was -piercingly cold. Being quite tired with my days work, I -made up my bed as quickly as I could, and went to sleep. -About midnight I observed the sky became suddenly clouded: -I awakened the arriero to know if there was any danger of -bad weather; but he said that without thunder and lightning -there was no risk of a heavy snow-storm. The peril is -imminent, and the difficulty of subsequent escape great, to -any one overtaken by bad weather between the two ranges. -A certain cave offers the only place of refuge: Mr. Caldcleugh, -who crossed on this same day of the month, was -detained there for some time by a heavy fall of snow. Casuchas, -or houses of refuge, have not been built in this pass -as in that of Uspallata, and, therefore, during the autumn, -the Portillo is little frequented. I may here remark that -within the main Cordillera rain never falls, for during the -summer the sky is cloudless, and in winter snow-storms alone -occur. - -At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from -the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower -temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being -the converse of that of a Papin's digester. Hence the potatoes, -after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, -were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire -all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the -potatoes were not cooked. I found out this, by overhearing -my two companions discussing the cause, they had come -to the simple conclusion, "that the cursed pot [which was a -new one] did not choose to boil potatoes." - -March 22nd. -- After eating our potatoless breakfast, we -travelled across the intermediate tract to the foot of the -Portillo range. In the middle of summer cattle are brought -up here to graze; but they had now all been removed: even -the greater number of the Guanacos had decamped, knowing -well that if overtaken here by a snow-storm, they would be -caught in a trap. We had a fine view of a mass of mountains -called Tupungato, the whole clothed with unbroken -snow, in the midst of which there was a blue patch, no -doubt a glacier; -- a circumstance of rare occurrence in these -mountains. Now commenced a heavy and long climb, similar -to that of the Peuquenes. Bold conical hills of red -granite rose on each hand; in the valleys there were several -broad fields of perpetual snow. These frozen masses, during -the process of thawing, had in some parts been converted -into pinnacles or columns, [4] which, as they were high and -close together, made it difficult for the cargo mules to pass. -On one of these columns of ice, a frozen horse was sticking -as on a pedestal, but with its hind legs straight up in -the air. The animal, I suppose, must have fallen with its -head downward into a hole, when the snow was continuous, -and afterwards the surrounding parts must have been -removed by the thaw. - -When nearly on the crest of the Portillo, we were enveloped -in a falling cloud of minute frozen spicula. This was -very unfortunate, as it continued the whole day, and quite -intercepted our view. The pass takes its name of Portillo, -from a narrow cleft or doorway on the highest ridge, -through which the road passes. From this point, on a clear -day, those vast plains which uninterruptedly extend to the -Atlantic Ocean can be seen. We descended to the upper -limit of vegetation, and found good quarters for the night -under the shelter of some large fragments of rock. We met -here some passengers, who made anxious inquiries about the -state of the road. Shortly after it was dark the clouds suddenly -cleared away, and the effect was quite magical. The -great mountains, bright with the full moon, seemed impending -over us on all sides, as over a deep crevice: one morning, -very early, I witnessed the same striking effect. As -soon as the clouds were dispersed it froze severely; but as -there was no wind, we slept very comfortably. - -The increased brilliancy of the moon and stars at this -elevation, owing to the perfect transparency of the atmosphere, -was very remarkable. Travelers having observed -the difficulty of judging heights and distances amidst lofty -mountains, have generally attributed it to the absence of -objects of comparison. It appears to me, that it is fully as -much owing to the transparency of the air confounding -objects at different distances, and likewise partly to the -novelty of an unusual degree of fatigue arising from a little -exertion, -- habit being thus opposed to the evidence of the -senses. I am sure that this extreme clearness of the air -gives a peculiar character to the landscape, all objects -appearing to be brought nearly into one plane, as in a drawing -or panorama. The transparency is, I presume, owing to -the equable and high state of atmospheric dryness. This -dryness was shown by the manner in which woodwork -shrank (as I soon found by the trouble my geological hammer -gave me); by articles of food, such as bread and sugar, -becoming extremely hard; and by the preservation of the -skin and parts of the flesh of the beasts, which had perished -on the road. To the same cause we must attribute the singular -facility with which electricity is excited. My flannel -waistcoat, when rubbed in the dark, appeared as if it had -been washed with phosphorus, -- every hair on a dog's back -crackled; -- even the linen sheets, and leathern straps of the -saddle, when handled, emitted sparks. - -March 23rd. -- The descent on the eastern side of the Cordillera -is much shorter or steeper than on the Pacific side; -in other words, the mountains rise more abruptly from the -plains than from the alpine country of Chile. A level and -brilliantly white sea of clouds was stretched out beneath our -feet, shutting out the view of the equally level Pampas. We -soon entered the band of clouds, and did not again emerge -from it that day. About noon, finding pasture for the animals -and bushes for firewood at Los Arenales, we stopped -for the night. This was near the uppermost limit of bushes, -and the elevation, I suppose, was between seven and eight -thousand feet. - -I was much struck with the marked difference between -the vegetation of these eastern valleys and those on the -Chilian side: yet the climate, as well as the kind of soil, is -nearly the same, and the difference of longitude very trifling. -The same remark holds good with the quadrupeds, and in -a lesser degree with the birds and insects. I may instance the -mice, of which I obtained thirteen species on the shores of -the Atlantic, and five on the Pacific, and not one of them -is identical. We must except all those species, which habitually -or occasionally frequent elevated mountains; and certain -birds, which range as far south as the Strait of Magellan. -This fact is in perfect accordance with the geological -history of the Andes; for these mountains have existed as -a great barrier since the present races of animals have -appeared; and therefore, unless we suppose the same species -to have been created in two different places, we ought not to -expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on -the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores -of the ocean. In both cases, we must leave out of the question -those kinds which have been able to cross the barrier, -whether of solid rock or salt-water. [5] - -A great number of the plants and animals were absolutely -the same as, or most closely allied to, those of Patagonia. -We here have the agouti, bizcacha, three species of armadillo, -the ostrich, certain kinds of partridges and other birds, -none of which are ever seen in Chile, but are the characteristic -animals of the desert plains of Patagonia. We have -likewise many of the same (to the eyes of a person who is -not a botanist) thorny stunted bushes, withered grass, and -dwarf plants. Even the black slowly crawling beetles are -closely similar, and some, I believe, on rigorous examination, -absolutely identical. It had always been to me a subject of -regret, that we were unavoidably compelled to give up the -ascent of the S. Cruz river before reaching the mountains: -I always had a latent hope of meeting with some great -change in the features of the country; but I now feel sure, -that it would only have been following the plains of Patagonia -up a mountainous ascent. - -March 24th. -- Early in the morning I climbed up a mountain -on one side of the valley, and enjoyed a far extended -view over the Pampas. This was a spectacle to which I had -always looked forward with interest, but I was disappointed: -at the first glance it much resembled a distant view of the -ocean, but in the northern parts many irregularities were -soon distinguishable. The most striking feature consisted -in the rivers, which, facing the rising sun, glittered like -silver threads, till lost in the immensity of the distance. At -midday we descended the valley, and reached a hovel, where -an officer and three soldiers were posted to examine passports. -One of these men was a thoroughbred Pampas -Indian: he was kept much for the same purpose as a bloodhound, -to track out any person who might pass by secretly, -either on foot or horseback. Some years ago, a passenger -endeavoured to escape detection, by making a long circuit -over a neighbouring mountain; but this Indian, having by -chance crossed his track, followed it for the whole day over -dry and very stony hills, till at last he came on his prey -hidden in a gully. We here heard that the silvery clouds, -which we had admired from the bright region above, had -poured down torrents of rain. The valley from this point -gradually opened, and the hills became mere water-worn -hillocks compared to the giants behind: it then expanded -into a gently sloping plain of shingle, covered with low trees -and bushes. This talus, although appearing narrow, must be -nearly ten miles wide before it blends into the apparently -dead level Pampas. We passed the only house in this -neighbourhood, the Estancia of Chaquaio: and at sunset we pulled -up in the first snug corner, and there bivouacked. - -March 25th. -- I was reminded of the Pampas of Buenos -Ayres, by seeing the disk of the rising sun, intersected by an -horizon level as that of the ocean. During the night a heavy -dew fell, a circumstance which we did not experience within -the Cordillera. The road proceeded for some distance due -east across a low swamp; then meeting the dry plain, it -turned to the north towards Mendoza. The distance is two -very long days' journey. Our first day's journey was called -fourteen leagues to Estacado, and the second seventeen to -Luxan, near Mendoza. The whole distance is over a level -desert plain, with not more than two or three houses. The -sun was exceedingly powerful, and the ride devoid of all -interest. There is very little water in this "traversia," and -in our second day's journey we found only one little pool. -Little water flows from the mountains, and it soon becomes -absorbed by the dry and porous soil; so that, although we -travelled at the distance of only ten or fifteen miles from -the outer range of the Cordillera, we did not cross a single -stream. In many parts the ground was incrusted with a -saline efflorescence; hence we had the same salt-loving -plants which are common near Bahia Blanca. The landscape -has a uniform character from the Strait of Magellan, -along the whole eastern coast of Patagonia, to the Rio Colorado; -and it appears that the same kind of country extends -inland from this river, in a sweeping line as far as San Luis -and perhaps even further north. To the eastward of this -curved line lies the basin of the comparatively damp and -green plains of Buenos Ayres. The sterile plains of Mendoza -and Patagonia consist of a bed of shingle, worn smooth -and accumulated by the waves of the sea while the Pampas, -covered by thistles, clover, and grass, have been formed by -the ancient estuary mud of the Plata. - -After our two days' tedious journey, it was refreshing to -see in the distance the rows of poplars and willows growing -round the village and river of Luxan. Shortly before we -arrived at this place, we observed to the south a ragged cloud -of dark reddish-brown colour. At first we thought that it -was smoke from some great fire on the plains; but we soon -found that it was a swarm of locusts. They were flying -northward; and with the aid of a light breeze, they overtook -us at a rate of ten or fifteen miles an hour. The main body -filled the air from a height of twenty feet, to that, as it -appeared, of two or three thousand above the ground; "and the -sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of many -horses running to battle:" or rather, I should say, like a -strong breeze passing through the rigging of a ship. The -sky, seen through the advanced guard, appeared like a mezzotinto -engraving, but the main body was impervious to sight; -they were not, however, so thick together, but that they -could escape a stick waved backwards and forwards. When -they alighted, they were more numerous than the leaves in -the field, and the surface became reddish instead of being -green: the swarm having once alighted, the individuals flew -from side to side in all directions. Locusts are not an uncommon -pest in this country: already during the season, several -smaller swarms had come up from the south, where, as -apparently in all other parts of the world, they are bred in -the deserts. The poor cottagers in vain attempted by lighting -fires, by shouts, and by waving branches to avert the -attack. This species of locust closely resembles, and perhaps -is identical with, the famous Gryllus migratorius of the East. - -We crossed the Luxan, which is a river of considerable -size, though its course towards the sea-coast is very -imperfectly known: it is even doubtful whether, in passing over -the plains, it is not evaporated and lost. We slept in the -village of Luxan, which is a small place surrounded by gardens, -and forms the most southern cultivated district in the -Province of Mendoza; it is five leagues south of the capital. -At night I experienced an attack (for it deserves no less a -name) of the _Benchuca_, a species of Reduvius, the great -black bug of the Pampas. It is most disgusting to feel soft -wingless insects, about an inch long, crawling over one's -body. Before sucking they are quite thin, but afterwards -they become round and bloated with blood, and in this state -are easily crushed. One which I caught at Iquique, (for they -are found in Chile and Peru,) was very empty. When placed -on a table, and though surrounded by people, if a finger was -presented, the bold insect would immediately protrude its -sucker, make a charge, and if allowed, draw blood. No pain -was caused by the wound. It was curious to watch its body -during the act of sucking, as in less than ten minutes it -changed from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form. -This one feast, for which the benchuca was indebted to one -of the officers, kept it fat during four whole months; but, -after the first fortnight, it was quite ready to have another -suck. - -March 27th. -- We rode on to Mendoza. The country was -beautifully cultivated, and resembled Chile. This neighbourhood -is celebrated for its fruit; and certainly nothing could -appear more flourishing than the vineyards and the orchards -of figs, peaches, and olives. We bought water-melons nearly -twice as large as a man's head, most deliciously cool and -well-flavoured, for a halfpenny apiece; and for the value of -threepence, half a wheelbarrowful of peaches. The cultivated -and enclosed part of this province is very small; there -is little more than that which we passed through between -Luxan and the capital. The land, as in Chile, owes its fertility -entirely to artificial irrigation; and it is really wonderful -to observe how extraordinarily productive a barren -traversia is thus rendered. - -We stayed the ensuing day in Mendoza. The prosperity -of the place has much declined of late years. The inhabitants -say "it is good to live in, but very bad to grow rich in." -The lower orders have the lounging, reckless manners of the -Gauchos of the Pampas; and their dress, riding-gear, and -habits of life, are nearly the same. To my mind the town -had a stupid, forlorn aspect. Neither the boasted alameda, -nor the scenery, is at all comparable with that of Santiago; -but to those who, coming from Buenos Ayres, have just -crossed the unvaried Pampas, the gardens and orchards must -appear delightful. Sir F. Head, speaking of the inhabitants, -says, "They eat their dinners, and it is so very hot, they go -to sleep -- and could they do better?" I quite agree with -Sir F. Head: the happy doom of the Mendozinos is to eat, -sleep and be idle. - - -March 29th. -- We set out on our return to Chile, by the -Uspallata pass situated north of Mendoza. We had to cross -a long and most sterile traversia of fifteen leagues. The -soil in parts was absolutely bare, in others covered by -numberless dwarf cacti, armed with formidable spines, and called -by the inhabitants "little lions." There were, also, a few -low bushes. Although the plain is nearly three thousand feet -above the sea, the sun was very powerful; and the heat as -well as the clouds of impalpable dust, rendered the travelling -extremely irksome. Our course during the day lay nearly -parallel to the Cordillera, but gradually approaching them. -Before sunset we entered one of the wide valleys, or rather -bays, which open on the plain: this soon narrowed into a -ravine, where a little higher up the house of Villa Vicencio -is situated. As we had ridden all day without a drop of -water, both our mules and selves were very thirsty, and we -looked out anxiously for the stream which flows down this -valley. It was curious to observe how gradually the water -made its appearance: on the plain the course was quite dry; -by degrees it became a little damper; then puddles of water -appeared; these soon became connected; and at Villa Vicencio -there was a nice little rivulet. - -30th. -- The solitary hovel which bears the imposing name -of Villa Vicencio, has been mentioned by every traveller who -has crossed the Andes. I stayed here and at some neighbouring -mines during the two succeeding days. The geology -of the surrounding country is very curious. The Uspallata -range is separated from the main Cordillera by a long narrow -plain or basin, like those so often mentioned in Chile, -but higher, being six thousand feet above the sea. This -range has nearly the same geographical position with respect -to the Cordillera, which the gigantic Portillo line has, but it -is of a totally different origin: it consists of various kinds -of submarine lava, alternating with volcanic sandstones and -other remarkable sedimentary deposits; the whole having a -very close resemblance to some of the tertiary beds on the -shores of the Pacific. From this resemblance I expected to -find silicified wood, which is generally characteristic of those -formations. I was gratified in a very extraordinary manner. -In the central part of the range, at an elevation of about -seven thousand feet, I observed on a bare slope some snow-white -projecting columns. These were petrified trees, eleven -being silicified, and from thirty to forty converted into -coarsely-crystallized white calcareous spar. They were abruptly -broken off, the upright stumps projecting a few feet -above the ground. The trunks measured from three to five -feet each in circumference. They stood a little way apart -from each other, but the whole formed one group. Mr. Robert -Brown has been kind enough to examine the wood: he -says it belongs to the fir tribe, partaking of the character -of the Araucarian family, but with some curious points of -affinity with the yew. The volcanic sandstone in which the -trees were embedded, and from the lower part of which they -must have sprung, had accumulated in successive thin layers -around their trunks; and the stone yet retained the impression -of the bark. - -It required little geological practice to interpret the -marvellous story which this scene at once unfolded; though I -confess I was at first so much astonished that I could -scarcely believe the plainest evidence. I saw the spot where -a cluster of fine trees once waved their branches on the -shores of the Atlantic, when that ocean (now driven back -700 miles) came to the foot of the Andes. I saw that they -had sprung from a volcanic soil which had been raised above -the level of the sea, and that subsequently this dry land, -with its upright trees, had been let down into the depths of -the ocean. In these depths, the formerly dry land was -covered by sedimentary beds, and these again by enormous -streams of submarine lava -- one such mass attaining the -thickness of a thousand feet; and these deluges of molten -stone and aqueous deposits five times alternately had been -spread out. The ocean which received such thick masses, -must have been profoundly deep; but again the subterranean -forces exerted themselves, and I now beheld the bed of -that ocean, forming a chain of mountains more than seven -thousand feet in height. Nor had those antagonistic forces -been dormant, which are always at work wearing down the -surface of the land; the great piles of strata had been -intersected by many wide valleys, and the trees now changed -into silex, were exposed projecting from the volcanic soil, -now changed into rock, whence formerly, in a green and -budding state, they had raised their lofty heads. Now, -all is utterly irreclaimable and desert; even the lichen cannot -adhere to the stony casts of former trees. Vast, and -scarcely comprehensible as such changes must ever appear, -yet they have all occurred within a period, recent when -compared with the history of the Cordillera; and the Cordillera -itself is absolutely modern as compared with many -of the fossiliferous strata of Europe and America. - -April 1st. -- We crossed the Upsallata range, and at night -slept at the custom-house -- the only inhabited spot on the -plain. Shortly before leaving the mountains, there was a -very extraordinary view; red, purple, green, and quite white -sedimentary rocks, alternating with black lavas, were broken -up and thrown into all kinds of disorder by masses of porphyry -of every shade of colour, from dark brown to the -brightest lilac. It was the first view I ever saw, which -really resembled those pretty sections which geologists make -of the inside of the earth. - -The next day we crossed the plain, and followed the course -of the same great mountain stream which flows by Luxan. -Here it was a furious torrent, quite impassable, and appeared -larger than in the low country, as was the case with the rivulet -of Villa Vicencio. On the evening of the succeeding day, -we reached the Rio de las Vacas, which is considered the -worst stream in the Cordillera to cross. As all these rivers -have a rapid and short course, and are formed by the melting -of the snow, the hour of the day makes a considerable difference -in their volume. In the evening the stream is muddy -and full, but about daybreak it becomes clearer, and much -less impetuous. This we found to be the case with the Rio -Vacas, and in the morning we crossed it with little difficulty. - -The scenery thus far was very uninteresting, compared -with that of the Portillo pass. Little can be seen beyond the -bare walls of the one grand flat-bottomed valley, which the -road follows up to the highest crest. The valley and -the huge rocky mountains are extremely barren: during the -two previous nights the poor mules had absolutely nothing -to eat, for excepting a few low resinous bushes, scarcely a -plant can be seen. In the course of this day we crossed some -of the worst passes in the Cordillera, but their danger has -been much exaggerated. I was told that if I attempted to -pass on foot, my head would turn giddy, and that there was -no room to dismount; but I did not see a place where any -one might not have walked over backwards, or got off his -mule on either side. One of the bad passes, called _las -Animas_ (the souls), I had crossed, and did not find out -till a day afterwards, that it was one of the awful dangers. -No doubt there are many parts in which, if the mule should -stumble, the rider would be hurled down a great precipice; -but of this there is little chance. I dare say, in the spring, -the "laderas," or roads, which each year are formed anew -across the piles of fallen detritus, are very bad; but from -what I saw, I suspect the real danger is nothing. With -cargo-mules the case is rather different, for the loads project -so far, that the animals, occasionally running against -each other, or against a point of rock, lose their balance, and -are thrown down the precipices. In crossing the rivers -I can well believe that the difficulty may be very great: at -this season there was little trouble, but in the summer they -must be very hazardous. I can quite imagine, as Sir F. -Head describes, the different expressions of those who _have_ -passed the gulf, and those who _are_ passing. I never heard -of any man being drowned, but with loaded mules it frequently -happens. The arriero tells you to show your mule -the best line, and then allow her to cross as she likes: the -cargo-mule takes a bad line, and is often lost. - -April 4th. -- From the Rio de las Vacas to the Puente del -Incas, half a day's journey. As there was pasture for the -mules, and geology for me, we bivouacked here for the -night. When one hears of a natural Bridge, one pictures -to one's self some deep and narrow ravine, across which a -bold mass of rock has fallen; or a great arch hollowed out -like the vault of a cavern. Instead of this, the Incas -Bridge consists of a crust of stratified shingle cemented -together by the deposits of the neighbouring hot springs. It -appears, as if the stream had scooped out a channel on one -side, leaving an overhanging ledge, which was met by earth -and stones falling down from the opposite cliff. Certainly -an oblique junction, as would happen in such a case, was -very distinct on one side. The Bridge of the Incas is by -no means worthy of the great monarchs whose name it -bears. - -5th. -- We had a long day's ride across the central ridge, -from the Incas Bridge to the Ojos del Agua, which are situated -near the lowest _casucha_ on the Chilian side. These -casuchas are round little towers, with steps outside to reach -the floor, which is raised some feet above the ground on account -of the snow-drifts. They are eight in number, and -under the Spanish government were kept during the winter -well stored with food and charcoal, and each courier had a -master-key. Now they only answer the purpose of caves, or -rather dungeons. Seated on some little eminence, they are -not, however, ill suited to the surrounding scene of desolation. -The zigzag ascent of the Cumbre, or the partition of -the waters, was very steep and tedious; its height, according -to Mr. Pentland, is 12,454 feet. The road did not pass over -any perpetual snow, although there were patches of it on -both hands. The wind on the summit was exceedingly cold, -but it was impossible not to stop for a few minutes to admire, -again and again, the colour of the heavens, and the -brilliant transparency of the atmosphere. The scenery was -grand: to the westward there was a fine chaos of mountains, -divided by profound ravines. Some snow generally falls before -this period of the season, and it has even happened that -the Cordillera have been finally closed by this time. But -we were most fortunate. The sky, by night and by day, was -cloudless, excepting a few round little masses of vapour, that -floated over the highest pinnacles. I have often seen these -islets in the sky, marking the position of the Cordillera, -when the far-distant mountains have been hidden beneath -the horizon. - -April 6th. -- In the morning we found some thief had -stolen one of our mules, and the bell of the madrina. We -therefore rode only two or three miles down the valley, and -stayed there the ensuing day in hopes of recovering the mule, -which the arriero thought had been hidden in some ravine. -The scenery in this part had assumed a Chilian character: -the lower sides of the mountains, dotted over with the pale -evergreen Quillay tree, and with the great chandelier-like -cactus, are certainly more to be admired than the bare eastern -valleys; but I cannot quite agree with the admiration -expressed by some travellers. The extreme pleasure, I suspect, -is chiefly owing to the prospect of a good fire and of a -good supper, after escaping from the cold regions above: and -I am sure I most heartily participated in these feelings. - -8th. -- We left the valley of the Aconcagua, by which we -had descended, and reached in the evening a cottage near the -Villa del St. Rosa. The fertility of the plain was delightful: -the autumn being advanced, the leaves of many of the -fruit-trees were falling; and of the labourers, -- some were -busy in drying figs and peaches on the roofs of their cottages, -while others were gathering the grapes from the vineyards. -It was a pretty scene; but I missed that pensive stillness -which makes the autumn in England indeed the evening -of the year. On the 10th we reached Santiago, where I received -a very kind and hospitable reception from Mr. Caldcleugh. -My excursion only cost me twenty-four days, and -never did I more deeply enjoy an equal space of time. A -few days afterwards I returned to Mr. Corfield's house at -Valparaiso. - -[1] Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 122. - -[2] I have heard it remarked in Shropshire that the water, when -the Severn is flooded from long-continued rain, is much more -turbid than when it proceeds from the snow melting in the Welsh -mountains. D'Orbigny (tom. i. p. 184), in explaining the cause -of the various colours of the rivers in South America, remarks -that those with blue or clear water have there source in the -Cordillera, where the snow melts. - -[3] Dr. Gillies in Journ. of Nat. and Geograph. Science, Aug., -1830. This author gives the heights of the Passes. - -[4] This structure in frozen snow was long since observed by -Scoresby in the icebergs near Spitzbergen, and, lately, with -more care, by Colonel Jackson (Journ. of Geograph. Soc., vol. v. -p. 12) on the Neva. Mr. Lyell (Principles, vol. iv. p. 360) has -compared the fissures by which the columnar structure seems to -be determined, to the joints that traverse nearly all rocks, but -which are best seen in the non-stratified masses. I may observe, -that in the case of the frozen snow, the columnar structure must -be owing to a "metamorphic" action, and not to a process during -deposition. - -[5] This is merely an illustration of the admirable laws, first -laid down by Mr. Lyell, on the geographical distribution of -animals, as influenced by geological changes. The whole -reasoning, of course, is founded on the assumption of the -immutability of species; otherwise the difference in the species -in the two regions might be considered as superinduced during a -length of time. - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -NORTHERN CHILE AND PERU - -Coast-road to Coquimbo -- Great Loads carried by the Miners -- -Coquimbo -- Earthquake -- Step-formed Terrace -- Absence of -recent Deposits -- Contemporaneousness of the Tertiary -Formations -- Excursion up the Valley -- Road to Guasco -- -Deserts -- Valley of Copiapo -- Rain and Earthquakes -- -Hydrophobia -- The Despoblado -- Indian Ruins -- Probable -Change of Climate -- River-bed arched by an Earthquake -- -Cold Gales of Wind -- Noises from a Hill -- Iquique -- Salt -Alluvium -- Nitrate of Soda -- Lima -- Unhealthy Country -- -Ruins of Callao, overthrown by an Earthquake -- Recent -Subsidence -- Elevated Shells on San Lorenzo, their -decomposition -- Plain with embedded Shells and fragments -of Pottery -- Antiquity of the Indian Race. - - -APRIL 27th. -- I set out on a journey to Coquimbo, and -thence through Guasco to Copiapo, where Captain -Fitz Roy kindly offered to pick me up in the Beagle. -The distance in a straight line along the shore northward is -only 420 miles; but my mode of travelling made it a very -long journey. I bought four horses and two mules, the -latter carrying the luggage on alternate days. The six -animals together only cost the value of twenty-five pounds -sterling, and at Copiapo I sold them again for twenty-three. -We travelled in the same independent manner as before, -cooking our own meals, and sleeping in the open air. As -we rode towards the Vino del Mar, I took a farewell view -of Valparaiso, and admired its picturesque appearance. For -geological purposes I made a detour from the high road -to the foot of the Bell of Quillota. We passed through an -alluvial district rich in gold, to the neighbourhood of Limache, -where we slept. Washing for gold supports the inhabitants -of numerous hovels, scattered along the sides of -each little rivulet; but, like all those whose gains are -uncertain, they are unthrifty in all their habits, and -consequently poor. - -28th. -- In the afternoon we arrived at a cottage at the -foot of the Bell mountain. The inhabitants were freeholders, -which is not very usual in Chile. They supported themselves -on the produce of a garden and a little field, but were -very poor. Capital is here so deficient, that the people are -obliged to sell their green corn while standing in the field, -in order to buy necessaries for the ensuing year. Wheat in -consequence was dearer in the very district of its production -than at Valparaiso, where the contractors live. The next -day we joined the main road to Coquimbo. At night there -was a very light shower of rain: this was the first drop that -had fallen since the heavy rain of September 11th and 12th, -which detained me a prisoner at the Baths of Cauquenes. -The interval was seven and a half months; but the rain this -year in Chile was rather later than usual. The distant Andes -were now covered by a thick mass of snow, and were a glorious -sight. - -May 2nd. -- The road continued to follow the coast, at no -great distance from the sea. The few trees and bushes which -are common in central Chile decreased rapidly in numbers, -and were replaced by a tall plant, something like a yucca in -appearance. The surface of the country, on a small scale, -was singularly broken and irregular; abrupt little peaks of -rock rising out of small plains or basins. The indented coast -and the bottom of the neighbouring sea, studded with breakers, -would, if converted into dry land, present similar forms; -and such a conversion without doubt has taken place in the -part over which we rode. - -3rd. -- Quilimari to Conchalee. The country became more -and more barren. In the valleys there was scarcely sufficient -water for any irrigation; and the intermediate land was -quite bare, not supporting even goats. In the spring, after -the winter showers, a thin pasture rapidly springs up, and -cattle are then driven down from the Cordillera to graze -for a short time. It is curious to observe how the seeds of -the grass and other plants seem to accommodate themselves, -as if by an acquired habit, to the quantity of rain which -falls upon different parts of this coast. One shower far -northward at Copiapo produces as great an effect on the -vegetation, as two at Guasco, and three or four in this -district. At Valparaiso a winter so dry as greatly to injure -the pasture, would at Guasco produce the most unusual -abundance. Proceeding northward, the quantity of rain does -not appear to decrease in strict proportion to the latitude. -At Conchalee, which is only 67 miles north of Valparaiso, -rain is not expected till the end of May; whereas at Valparaiso -some generally falls early in April: the annual quantity -is likewise small in proportion to the lateness of the -season at which it commences. - -4th. -- Finding the coast-road devoid of interest of any -kind, we turned inland towards the mining district and -valley of Illapel. This valley, like every other in Chile, is -level, broad, and very fertile: it is bordered on each side, -either by cliffs of stratified shingle, or by bare rocky -mountains. Above the straight line of the uppermost irrigating -ditch, all is brown as on a high road; while all below is of as -bright a green as verdigris, from the beds of alfalfa, a kind -of clover. We proceeded to Los Hornos, another mining -district, where the principal hill was drilled with holes, like -a great ants'-nest. The Chilian miners are a peculiar race -of men in their habits. Living for weeks together in the -most desolate spots, when they descend to the villages on -feast-days, there is no excess of extravagance into which -they do not run. They sometimes gain a considerable sum, -and then, like sailors with prize-money, they try how soon -they can contrive to squander it. They drink excessively, -buy quantities of clothes, and in a few days return penniless -to their miserable abodes, there to work harder than beasts -of burden. This thoughtlessness, as with sailors, is evidently -the result of a similar manner of life. Their daily food is -found them, and they acquire no habits of carefulness: moreover, -temptation and the means of yielding to it are placed -in their power at the same time. On the other hand, in -Cornwall, and some other parts of England, where the system -of selling part of the vein is followed, the miners, from -being obliged to act and think for themselves, are a singularly -intelligent and well-conducted set of men. - -The dress of the Chilian miner is peculiar and rather -picturesque He wears a very long shirt of some dark-coloured -baize, with a leathern apron; the whole being fastened -round his waist by a bright-coloured sash. His trousers are -very broad, and his small cap of scarlet cloth is made to fit -the head closely. We met a party of these miners in full -costume, carrying the body of one of their companions to be -buried. They marched at a very quick trot, four men supporting -the corpse. One set having run as hard as they -could for about two hundred yards, were relieved by four -others, who had previously dashed on ahead on horseback. -Thus they proceeded, encouraging each other by wild cries: -altogether the scene formed a most strange funeral. - -We continued travelling northward, in a zigzag line; -sometimes stopping a day to geologize. The country was so -thinly inhabited, and the track so obscure, that we often had -difficulty in finding our way. On the 12th I stayed at some -mines. The ore in this case was not considered particularly -good, but from being abundant it was supposed the mine -would sell for about thirty or forty thousand dollars (that is, -6000 or 8000 pounds sterling); yet it had been bought by -one of the English Associations for an ounce of gold (3l. -8s.). The ore is yellow pyrites, which, as I have already -remarked, before the arrival of the English, was not supposed -to contain a particle of copper. On a scale of profits nearly -as great as in the above instance, piles of cinders, abounding -with minute globules of metallic copper, were purchased; -yet with these advantages, the mining associations, as is well -known, contrived to lose immense sums of money. The folly -of the greater number of the commissioners and shareholders -amounted to infatuation; -- a thousand pounds per annum -given in some cases to entertain the Chilian authorities; -libraries of well-bound geological books; miners brought out -for particular metals, as tin, which are not found in Chile; -contracts to supply the miners with milk, in parts where -there are no cows; machinery, where it could not possibly -be used; and a hundred similar arrangements, bore witness -to our absurdity, and to this day afford amusement to the -natives. Yet there can be no doubt, that the same capital -well employed in these mines would have yielded an immense -return, a confidential man of business, a practical -miner and assayer, would have been all that was required. - -Captain Head has described the wonderful load which -the "Apires," truly beasts of burden, carry up from the -deepest mines. I confess I thought the account exaggerated: -so that I was glad to take an opportunity of weighing one -of the loads, which I picked out by hazard. It required -considerable exertion on my part, when standing directly over -it, to lift it from the ground. The load was considered under -weight when found to be 197 pounds. The apire had carried -this up eighty perpendicular yards, -- part of the way by -a steep passage, but the greater part up notched poles, placed -in a zigzag line up the shaft. According to the general -regulation, the apire is not allowed to halt for breath, except -the mine is six hundred feet deep. The average load is -considered as rather more than 200 pounds, and I have been -assured that one of 300 pounds (twenty-two stone and a half) -by way of a trial has been brought up from the deepest mine! -At this time the apires were bringing up the usual load -twelve times in the day; that is 2400 pounds from eighty -yards deep; and they were employed in the intervals in breaking -and picking ore. - -These men, excepting from accidents, are healthy, and appear -cheerful. Their bodies are not very muscular. They -rarely eat meat once a week, and never oftener, and then only -the hard dry charqui. Although with a knowledge that the -labour was voluntary, it was nevertheless quite revolting to -see the state in which they reached the mouth of the mine; -their bodies bent forward, leaning with their arms on the -steps, their legs bowed, their muscles quivering, the -perspiration streaming from their faces over their breasts, -their nostrils distended, the corners of their mouth forcibly -drawn back, and the expulsion of their breath most laborious. -Each time they draw their breath, they utter an articulate -cry of "ay-ay," which ends in a sound rising from deep in -the chest, but shrill like the note of a fife. After staggering -to the pile of ore, they emptied the "carpacho;" in two or -three seconds recovering their breath, they wiped the sweat -from their brows, and apparently quite fresh descended the -mine again at a quick pace. This appears to me a wonderful -instance of the amount of labour which habit, for it can be -nothing else, will enable a man to endure. - -In the evening, talking with the _mayor-domo_ of these -mines about the number of foreigners now scattered over -the whole country, he told me that, though quite a young -man, he remembers when he was a boy at school at -Coquimbo, a holiday being given to see the captain of an -English ship, who was brought to the city to speak to the -governor. He believes that nothing would have induced -any boy in the school, himself included, to have gone close -to the Englishman; so deeply had they been impressed with -an idea of the heresy, contamination, and evil to be derived -from contact with such a person. To this day they relate -the atrocious actions of the bucaniers; and especially of -one man, who took away the figure of the Virgin Mary, and -returned the year after for that of St. Joseph, saying it -was a pity the lady should not have a husband. I heard -also of an old lady who, at a dinner at Coquimbo, remarked -how wonderfully strange it was that she should have lived -to dine in the same room with an Englishman; for she -remembered as a girl, that twice, at the mere cry of "Los -Ingleses," every soul, carrying what valuables they could, -had taken to the mountains. - -14th. -- We reached Coquimbo, where we stayed a few -days. The town is remarkable for nothing but its extreme -quietness. It is said to contain from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants. -On the morning of the 17th it rained lightly, the first time -this year, for about five hours. The farmers, who plant -corn near the sea-coast where the atmosphere is most humid, -taking advantage of this shower, would break up the ground; -after a second they would put the seed in; and if a third -shower should fall, they would reap a good harvest in the -spring. It was interesting to watch the effect of this trifling -amount of moisture. Twelve hours afterwards the ground -appeared as dry as ever; yet after an interval of ten days, -all the hills were faintly tinged with green patches; the -grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full -inch in length. Before this shower every part of the surface -was bare as on a high road. - -In the evening, Captain Fitz Roy and myself were dining -with Mr. Edwards, an English resident well known for his -hospitality by all who have visited Coquimbo, when a sharp -earthquake happened. I heard the forecoming rumble, but -from the screams of the ladies, the running of the servants, -and the rush of several of the gentlemen to the doorway, I -could not distinguish the motion. Some of the women afterwards -were crying with terror, and one gentleman said he -should not be able to sleep all night, or if he did, it would -only be to dream of falling houses. The father of this person -had lately lost all his property at Talcahuano, and he -himself had only just escaped a falling roof at Valparaiso, -in 1822. He mentioned a curious coincidence which then -happened: he was playing at cards, when a German, one of -the party, got up, and said he would never sit in a room in -these countries with the door shut, as owing to his having -done so, he had nearly lost his life at Copiapo. Accordingly -he opened the door; and no sooner had he done this, than he -cried out, "Here it comes again!" and the famous shock -commenced. The whole party escaped. The danger in an -earthquake is not from the time lost in opening the door, but -from the chance of its becoming jammed by the movement -of the walls. - -It is impossible to be much surprised at the fear which -natives and old residents, though some of them known to -be men of great command of mind, so generally experience -during earthquakes. I think, however, this excess of panic -may be partly attributed to a want of habit in governing -their fear, as it is not a feeling they are ashamed of. Indeed, -the natives do not like to see a person indifferent. I -heard of two Englishmen who, sleeping in the open air during -a smart shock, knowing that there was no danger, did not -rise. The natives cried out indignantly, "Look at those -heretics, they do not even get out of their beds!" - - -I spent some days in examining the step-formed terraces -of shingle, first noticed by Captain B. Hall, and believed -by Mr. Lyell to have been formed by the sea, during the -gradual rising of the land. This certainly is the true -explanation, for I found numerous shells of existing species -on these terraces. Five narrow, gently sloping, fringe-like -terraces rise one behind the other, and where best developed -are formed of shingle: they front the bay, and sweep up both -sides of the valley. At Guasco, north of Coquimbo, the -phenomenon is displayed on a much grander scale, so as to -strike with surprise even some of the inhabitants. The terraces -are there much broader, and may be called plains, in -some parts there are six of them, but generally only five; -they run up the valley for thirty-seven miles from the coast. -These step-formed terraces or fringes closely resemble those -in the valley of S. Cruz, and, except in being on a smaller -scale, those great ones along the whole coast-line of Patagonia. -They have undoubtedly been formed by the denuding -power of the sea, during long periods of rest in the -gradual elevation of the continent. - -Shells of many existing species not only lie on the surface -of the terraces at Coquimbo (to a height of 250 feet), -but are embedded in a friable calcareous rock, which in some -places is as much as between twenty and thirty feet in -thickness, but is of little extent. These modern beds rest on an -ancient tertiary formation containing shells, apparently all -extinct. Although I examined so many hundred miles of -coast on the Pacific, as well as Atlantic side of the continent, -I found no regular strata containing sea-shells of -recent species, excepting at this place, and at a few points -northward on the road to Guasco. This fact appears to me -highly remarkable; for the explanation generally given by -geologists, of the absence in any district of stratified -fossiliferous deposits of a given period, namely, that the -surface then existed as dry land, is not here applicable; for we -know from the shells strewed on the surface and embedded -in loose sand or mould that the land for thousands of miles -along both coasts has lately been submerged. The explanation, -no doubt, must be sought in the fact, that the whole -southern part of the continent has been for a long time -slowly rising; and therefore that all matter deposited along -shore in shallow water, must have been soon brought up -and slowly exposed to the wearing action of the sea-beach; -and it is only in comparatively shallow water that the greater -number of marine organic beings can flourish, and in such -water it is obviously impossible that strata of any great -thickness can accumulate. To show the vast power of the -wearing action of sea-beaches, we need only appeal to the -great cliffs along the present coast of Patagonia, and to the -escarpments or ancient sea-cliffs at different levels, one -above another, on that same line of coast. - -The old underlying tertiary formation at Coquimbo, -appears to be of about the same age with several deposits -on the coast of Chile (of which that of Navedad is the -principal one), and with the great formation of Patagonia. -Both at Navedad and in Patagonia there is evidence, that -since the shells (a list of which has been seen by Professor -E. Forbes) there entombed were living, there has been a -subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing -elevation. It may naturally be asked, how it comes that, -although no extensive fossiliferous deposits of the recent -period, nor of any period intermediate between it and the -ancient tertiary epoch, have been preserved on either side of -the continent, yet that at this ancient tertiary epoch, -sedimentary matter containing fossil remains, should have been -deposited and preserved at different points in north and -south lines, over a space of 1100 miles on the shores of the -Pacific, and of at least 1350 miles on the shores of the -Atlantic, and in an east and west line of 700 miles across the -widest part of the continent? I believe the explanation is -not difficult, and that it is perhaps applicable to nearly -analogous facts observed in other quarters of the world. -Considering the enormous power of denudation which the sea -possesses, as shown by numberless facts, it is not probable -that a sedimentary deposit, when being upraised, could pass -through the ordeal of the beach, so as to be preserved in -sufficient masses to last to a distant period, without it were -originally of wide extent and of considerable thickness: now -it is impossible on a moderately shallow bottom, which -alone is favourable to most living creatures, that a thick -and widely extended covering of sediment could be spread -out, without the bottom sank down to receive the successive -layers. This seems to have actually taken place at about -the same period in southern Patagonia and Chile, though -these places are a thousand miles apart. Hence, if prolonged -movements of approximately contemporaneous subsidence -are generally widely extensive, as I am strongly -inclined to believe from my examination of the Coral Reefs -of the great oceans -- or if, confining our view to South -America, the subsiding movements have been co-extensive -with those of elevation, by which, within the same period -of existing shells, the shores of Peru, Chile, Tierra del -Fuego, Patagonia, and La Plata have been upraised -- then -we can see that at the same time, at far distant points, -circumstances would have been favourable to the formation of -fossiliferous deposits of wide extent and of considerable -thickness; and such deposits, consequently, would have a -good chance of resisting the wear and tear of successive -beach-lines, and of lasting to a future epoch. - - -May 21st. -- I set out in company with Don Jose Edwards -to the silver-mine of Arqueros, and thence up the valley of -Coquimbo. Passing through a mountainous country, we -reached by nightfall the mines belonging to Mr. Edwards. -I enjoyed my night's rest here from a reason which will not -be fully appreciated in England, namely, the absence of -fleas! The rooms in Coquimbo swarm with them; but they -will not live here at the height of only three or four -thousand feet: it can scarcely be the trifling diminution -of temperature, but some other cause which destroys these -troublesome insects at this place. The mines are now in a -bad state, though they formerly yielded about 2000 pounds -in weight of silver a year. It has been said that "a person -with a copper-mine will gain; with silver he may gain; but -with gold he is sure to lose." This is not true: all the large -Chilian fortunes have been made by mines of the more -precious metals. A short time since an English physician -returned to England from Copiapo, taking with him the -profits of one share of a silver-mine, which amounted to -about 24,000 pounds sterling. No doubt a copper-mine with -care is a sure game, whereas the other is gambling, or rather -taking a ticket in a lottery. The owners lose great quantities -of rich ores; for no precautions can prevent robberies. -I heard of a gentleman laying a bet with another, that one -of his men should rob him before his face. The ore when -brought out of the mine is broken into pieces, and the useless -stone thrown on one side. A couple of the miners who -were thus employed, pitched, as if by accident, two fragments -away at the same moment, and then cried out for a joke -"Let us see which rolls furthest." The owner, who was -standing by, bet a cigar with his friend on the race. The -miner by this means watched the very point amongst the -rubbish where the stone lay. In the evening he picked it -up and carried it to his master, showing him a rich mass of -silver-ore, and saying, "This was the stone on which you -won a cigar by its rolling so far." - -May 23rd. -- We descended into the fertile valley of Coquimbo, -and followed it till we reached an Hacienda belonging -to a relation of Don Jose, where we stayed the next day. -I then rode one day's journey further, to see what were -declared to be some petrified shells and beans, which latter -turned out to be small quartz pebbles. We passed through -several small villages; and the valley was beautifully -cultivated, and the whole scenery very grand. We were here -near the main Cordillera, and the surrounding hills were -lofty. In all parts of northern Chile, fruit trees produce -much more abundantly at a considerable height near the -Andes than in the lower country. The figs and grapes of -this district are famous for their excellence, and are -cultivated to a great extent. This valley is, perhaps, the most -productive one north of Quillota. I believe it contains, -including Coquimbo, 25,000 inhabitants. The next day I -returned to the Hacienda, and thence, together with Don -Jose, to Coquimbo. - -June 2nd. -- We set out for the valley of Guasco, following -the coast-road, which was considered rather less desert than -the other. Our first day's ride was to a solitary house, called -Yerba Buena, where there was pasture for our horses. The -shower mentioned as having fallen, a fortnight ago, only -reached about half-way to Guasco; we had, therefore, in the -first part of our journey a most faint tinge of green, which -soon faded quite away. Even where brightest, it was scarcely -sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding -flowers of the spring of other countries. While travelling -through these deserts one feels like a prisoner shut up in -a gloomy court, who longs to see something green and to -smell a moist atmosphere. - -June 3rd. -- Yerba Buena to Carizal. During the first part -of the day we crossed a mountainous rocky desert, and afterwards -a long deep sandy plain, strewed with broken sea-shells. -There was very little water, and that little saline: -the whole country, from the coast to the Cordillera, is an -uninhabited desert. I saw traces only of one living animal in -abundance, namely, the shells of a Bulimus, which were -collected together in extraordinary numbers on the driest -spots. In the spring one humble little plant sends out a few -leaves, and on these the snails feed. As they are seen only -very early in the morning, when the ground is slightly damp -with dew, the Guascos believe that they are bred from it. I -have observed in other places that extremely dry and sterile -districts, where the soil is calcareous, are extraordinarily -favourable to land-shells. At Carizal there were a few cottages, -some brackish water, and a trace of cultivation: but it -was with difficulty that we purchased a little corn and straw -for our horses. - -4th. -- Carizal to Sauce. We continued to ride over desert -plains, tenanted by large herds of guanaco. We crossed also -the valley of Chaneral; which, although the most fertile one -between Guasco and Coquimbo, is very narrow, and produces -so little pasture, that we could not purchase any for our -horses. At Sauce we found a very civil old gentleman, -superintendent of a copper-smelting furnace. As an especial -favour, he allowed me to purchase at a high price an armful -of dirty straw, which was all the poor horses had for supper -after their long day's journey. Few smelting-furnaces are -now at work in any part of Chile; it is found more profitable, -on account of the extreme scarcity of firewood, and from -the Chilian method of reduction being so unskilful, to ship the -ore for Swansea. The next day we crossed some mountains -to Freyrina, in the valley of Guasco. During each day's ride -further northward, the vegetation became more and more -scanty; even the great chandelier-like cactus was here -replaced by a different and much smaller species. During the -winter months, both in northern Chile and in Peru, a uniform -bank of clouds hangs, at no great height, over the Pacific. -From the mountains we had a very striking view of this -white and brilliant aerial-field, which sent arms up the -valleys, leaving islands and promontories in the same manner, as -the sea does in the Chonos archipelago and in Tierra del Fuego. - -We stayed two days at Freyrina. In the valley of Guasco -there are four small towns. At the mouth there is the port, a -spot entirely desert, and without any water in the immediate -neighbourhood. Five leagues higher up stands Freyrina, a -long straggling village, with decent whitewashed houses. -Again, ten leagues further up Ballenar is situated, and above -this Guasco Alto, a horticultural village, famous for its dried -fruit. On a clear day the view up the valley is very fine; the -straight opening terminates in the far-distant snowy Cordillera; -on each side an infinity of crossing-lines are blended -together in a beautiful haze. The foreground is singular -from the number of parallel and step-formed terraces; and -the included strip of green valley, with its willow-bushes, is -contrasted on both hands with the naked hills. That the -surrounding country was most barren will be readily believed, -when it is known that a shower of rain had not fallen during -the last thirteen months. The inhabitants heard with the -greatest envy of the rain at Coquimbo; from the appearance -of the sky they had hopes of equally good fortune, which, a -fortnight afterwards, were realized. I was at Copiapo at the -time; and there the people, with equal envy, talked of the -abundant rain at Guasco. After two or three very dry years, -perhaps with not more than one shower during the whole -time, a rainy year generally follows; and this does more harm -than even the drought. The rivers swell, and cover with -gravel and sand the narrow strips of ground, which alone are -fit for cultivation. The floods also injure the irrigating -ditches. Great devastation had thus been caused three years -ago. - -June 8th. -- We rode on to Ballenar, which takes its name -from Ballenagh in Ireland, the birthplace of the family of -O'Higgins, who, under the Spanish government, were presidents -and generals in Chile. As the rocky mountains on each -hand were concealed by clouds, the terrace-like plains gave -to the valley an appearance like that of Santa Cruz in -Patagonia. After spending one day at Ballenar I set out, on the -10th, for the upper part of the valley of Copiapo. We rode -all day over an uninteresting country. I am tired of repeating -the epithets barren and sterile. These words, however, -as commonly used, are comparative; I have always applied -them to the plains of Patagonia, which can boast of spiny -bushes and some tufts of grass; and this is absolute fertility, -as compared with northern Chile. Here again, there are not -many spaces of two hundred yards square, where some little -bush, cactus or lichen, may not be discovered by careful -examination; and in the soil seeds lie dormant ready to -spring up during the first rainy winter. In Peru real deserts -occur over wide tracts of country. In the evening we -arrived at a valley, in which the bed of the streamlet was -damp: following it up, we came to tolerably good water. -During the night, the stream, from not being evaporated -and absorbed so quickly, flows a league lower down than -during the day. Sticks were plentiful for firewood, so that -it was a good place to bivouac for us; but for the poor animals -there was not a mouthful to eat. - -June 11th. -- We rode without stopping for twelve hours -till we reached an old smelting-furnace, where there was -water and firewood; but our horses again had nothing to eat, -being shut up in an old courtyard. The line of road was -hilly, and the distant views interesting, from the varied -colours of the bare mountains. It was almost a pity to see -the sun shining constantly over so useless a country; such -splendid weather ought to have brightened fields and pretty -gardens. The next day we reached the valley of Copiapo. -I was heartily glad of it; for the whole journey was a continued -source of anxiety; it was most disagreeable to hear, -whilst eating our own suppers, our horses gnawing the posts -to which they were tied, and to have no means of relieving -their hunger. To all appearance, however, the animals -were quite fresh; and no one could have told that they had -eaten nothing for the last fifty-five hours. - -I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Bingley, who received -me very kindly at the Hacienda of Potrero Seco. This -estate is between twenty and thirty miles long, but very narrow, -being generally only two fields wide, one on each side -the river. In some parts the estate is of no width, that is -to say, the land cannot be irrigated, and therefore is -valueless, like the surrounding rocky desert. The small quantity -of cultivated land in the whole line of valley, does not so -much depend on inequalities of level, and consequent unfitness -for irrigation, as on the small supply of water. The -river this year was remarkably full: here, high up the valley, -it reached to the horse's belly, and was about fifteen yards -wide, and rapid; lower down it becomes smaller and smaller, -and is generally quite lost, as happened during one period -of thirty years, so that not a drop entered the sea. The -inhabitants watch a storm over the Cordillera with great -interest; as one good fall of snow provides them with water -for the ensuing year. This is of infinitely more consequence -than rain in the lower country. Rain, as often as it falls, -which is about once in every two or three years, is a great -advantage, because the cattle and mules can for some time -afterwards find a little pasture in the mountains. But without -snow on the Andes, desolation extends throughout the -valley. It is on record that three times nearly all the -inhabitants have been obliged to emigrate to the south. This -year there was plenty of water, and every man irrigated his -ground as much as he chose; but it has frequently been -necessary to post soldiers at the sluices, to see that each -estate took only its proper allowance during so many hours -in the week. The valley is said to contain 12,000 souls, but -its produce is sufficient only for three months in the year; -the rest of the supply being drawn from Valparaiso and the -south. Before the discovery of the famous silver-mines of -Chanuncillo, Copiapo was in a rapid state of decay; but now -it is in a very thriving condition; and the town, which was -completely overthrown by an earthquake, has been rebuilt. - -The valley of Copiapo, forming a mere ribbon of green -in a desert, runs in a very southerly direction; so that it is -of considerable length to its source in the Cordillera. The -valleys of Guasco and Copiapo may both be considered as -long narrow islands, separated from the rest of Chile by -deserts of rock instead of by salt water. Northward of -these, there is one other very miserable valley, called Paposo, -which contains about two hundred souls; and then there -extends the real desert of Atacama -- a barrier far worse -than the most turbulent ocean. After staying a few days at -Potrero Seco, I proceeded up the valley to the house of Don -Benito Cruz, to whom I had a letter of introduction. I found -him most hospitable; indeed it is impossible to bear too -strong testimony to the kindness with which travellers are -received in almost every part of South America. The next -day I hired some mules to take me by the ravine of Jolquera -into the central Cordillera. On the second night the -weather seemed to foretell a storm of snow or rain, and whilst -lying in our beds we felt a trifling shock of an earthquake. - -The connection between earthquakes and the weather has -been often disputed: it appears to me to be a point of great -interest, which is little understood. Humboldt has remarked -in one part of the Personal Narrative, [1] that it would be -difficult for any person who had long resided in New Andalusia, -or in Lower Peru, to deny that there exists some connection -between these phenomena: in another part, however -he seems to think the connection fanciful. At Guayaquil -it is said that a heavy shower in the dry season is invariably -followed by an earthquake. In Northern Chile, from the -extreme infrequency of rain, or even of weather foreboding -rain, the probability of accidental coincidences becomes very -small; yet the inhabitants are here most firmly convinced of -some connection between the state of the atmosphere and of -the trembling of the ground: I was much struck by this -when mentioning to some people at Copiapo that there had -been a sharp shock at Coquimbo: they immediately cried out, -"How fortunate! there will be plenty of pasture there this -year." To their minds an earthquake foretold rain as surely -as rain foretold abundant pasture. Certainly it did so happen -that on the very day of the earthquake, that shower of -rain fell, which I have described as in ten days' time producing -a thin sprinkling of grass. At other times rain has -followed earthquakes at a period of the year when it is a -far greater prodigy than the earthquake itself: this happened -after the shock of November, 1822, and again in 1829, at -Valparaiso; also after that of September, 1833, at Tacna. -A person must be somewhat habituated to the climate of -these countries to perceive the extreme improbability of rain -falling at such seasons, except as a consequence of some law -quite unconnected with the ordinary course of the weather. -In the cases of great volcanic eruptions, as that of Coseguina, -where torrents of rain fell at a time of the year most -unusual for it, and "almost unprecedented in Central -America," it is not difficult to understand that the volumes -of vapour and clouds of ashes might have disturbed the -atmospheric equilibrium. Humboldt extends this view to -the case of earthquakes unaccompanied by eruptions; but I -can hardly conceive it possible, that the small quantity of -aeriform fluids which then escape from the fissured ground, -can produce such remarkable effects. There appears much -probability in the view first proposed by Mr. P. Scrope, that -when the barometer is low, and when rain might naturally -be expected to fall, the diminished pressure of the atmosphere -over a wide extent of country, might well determine -the precise day on which the earth, already stretched to the -utmost by the subterranean forces, should yield, crack, and -consequently tremble. It is, however, doubtful how far this -idea will explain the circumstances of torrents of rain falling -in the dry season during several days, after an earthquake -unaccompanied by an eruption; such cases seem to -bespeak some more intimate connection between the atmospheric -and subterranean regions. - -Finding little of interest in this part of the ravine, we -retraced our steps to the house of Don Benito, where I stayed -two days collecting fossil shells and wood. Great prostrate -silicified trunks of trees, embedded in a conglomerate, were -extraordinarily numerous. I measured one, which was fifteen -feet in circumference: how surprising it is that every -atom of the woody matter in this great cylinder should have -been removed and replaced by silex so perfectly, that each -vessel and pore is preserved! These trees flourished at about -the period of our lower chalk; they all belonged to the fir- -tribe. It was amusing to hear the inhabitants discussing the -nature of the fossil shells which I collected, almost in the -same terms as were used a century ago in Europe, -- namely, -whether or not they had been thus "born by nature." My -geological examination of the country generally created a -good deal of surprise amongst the Chilenos: it was long -before they could be convinced that I was not hunting for -mines. This was sometimes troublesome: I found the most -ready way of explaining my employment, was to ask them -how it was that they themselves were not curious concerning -earthquakes and volcanos? -- why some springs were hot and -others cold? -- why there were mountains in Chile, and not -a hill in La Plata? These bare questions at once satisfied -and silenced the greater number; some, however (like a few -in England who are a century behindhand), thought that all -such inquiries were useless and impious; and that it was -quite sufficient that God had thus made the mountains. - -An order had recently been issued that all stray dogs -should be killed, and we saw many lying dead on the road. A -great number had lately gone mad, and several men had been -bitten and had died in consequence. On several occasions -hydrophobia has prevailed in this valley. It is remarkable -thus to find so strange and dreadful a disease, appearing -time after time in the same isolated spot. It has been -remarked that certain villages in England are in like manner -much more subject to this visitation than others. Dr. Unanue -states that hydrophobia was first known in South -America in 1803: this statement is corroborated by Azara -and Ulloa having never heard of it in their time. Dr. Unanue -says that it broke out in Central America, and slowly -travelled southward. It reached Arequipa in 1807; and it is -said that some men there, who had not been bitten, were -affected, as were some negroes, who had eaten a bullock -which had died of hydrophobia. At Ica forty-two people thus -miserably perished. The disease came on between twelve -and ninety days after the bite; and in those cases where it -did come on, death ensued invariably within five days. After -1808, a long interval ensued without any cases. On inquiry, -I did not hear of hydrophobia in Van Diemen's Land, or in -Australia; and Burchell says, that during the five years he -was at the Cape of Good Hope, he never heard of an instance -of it. Webster asserts that at the Azores hydrophobia has -never occurred; and the same assertion has been made with -respect to Mauritius and St. Helena. [2] In so strange a disease -some information might possibly be gained by considering -the circumstances under which it originates in distant climates; -for it is improbable that a dog already bitten, should -have been brought to these distant countries. - -At night, a stranger arrived at the house of Don Benito, -and asked permission to sleep there. He said he had been -wandering about the mountains for seventeen days, having -lost his way. He started from Guasco, and being accustomed -to travelling in the Cordillera, did not expect any difficulty -in following the track to Copiapo; but he soon became -involved in a labyrinth of mountains, whence he could not -escape. Some of his mules had fallen over precipices, and he -had been in great distress. His chief difficulty arose from -not knowing where to find water in the lower country, so that -he was obliged to keep bordering the central ranges. - -We returned down the valley, and on the 22nd reached -the town of Copiapo. The lower part of the valley is broad, -forming a fine plain like that of Quillota. The town covers -a considerable space of ground, each house possessing a garden: -but it is an uncomfortable place, and the dwellings are -poorly furnished. Every one seems bent on the one object -of making money, and then migrating as quickly as possible. -All the inhabitants are more or less directly concerned with -mines; and mines and ores are the sole subjects of conversation. -Necessaries of all sorts are extremely dear; as the -distance from the town to the port is eighteen leagues, and -the land carriage very expensive. A fowl costs five or six -shillings; meat is nearly as dear as in England; firewood, -or rather sticks, are brought on donkeys from a distance of -two and three days' journey within the Cordillera; and pasturage -for animals is a shilling a day: all this for South -America is wonderfully exorbitant. - - -June 26th. -- I hired a guide and eight mules to take me -into the Cordillera by a different line from my last excursion. -As the country was utterly desert, we took a cargo -and a half of barley mixed with chopped straw. About two -leagues above the town a broad valley called the "Despoblado," -or uninhabited, branches off from that one by which -we had arrived. Although a valley of the grandest dimensions, -and leading to a pass across the Cordillera, yet it is -completely dry, excepting perhaps for a few days during -some very rainy winter. The sides of the crumbling mountains -were furrowed by scarcely any ravines; and the bottom -of the main valley, filled with shingle, was smooth and nearly -level. No considerable torrent could ever have flowed down -this bed of shingle; for if it had, a great cliff-bounded -channel, as in all the southern valleys, would assuredly have -been formed. I feel little doubt that this valley, as well as -those mentioned by travellers in Peru, were left in the state we -now see them by the waves of the sea, as the land slowly rose. I -observed in one place, where the Despoblado was joined by a -ravine (which in almost any other chain would have been -called a grand valley), that its bed, though composed merely -of sand and gravel, was higher than that of its tributary. -A mere rivulet of water, in the course of an hour, would have -cut a channel for itself; but it was evident that ages had -passed away, and no such rivulet had drained this great -tributary. It was curious to behold the machinery, if such a -term may be used, for the drainage, all, with the last trifling -exception, perfect, yet without any signs of action. Every one -must have remarked how mud-banks, left by the retiring tide, -imitate in miniature a country with hill and dale; and here -we have the original model in rock, formed as the continent -rose during the secular retirement of the ocean, instead of -during the ebbing and flowing of the tides. If a shower of -rain falls on the mud-bank, when left dry, it deepens the -already-formed shallow lines of excavation; and so it is with -the rain of successive centuries on the bank of rock and soil, -which we call a continent. - -We rode on after it was dark, till we reached a side ravine -with a small well, called "Agua amarga." The water -deserved its name, for besides being saline it was most -offensively putrid and bitter; so that we could not force -ourselves to drink either tea or mate. I suppose the distance -from the river of Copiapo to this spot was at least twenty-five -or thirty English miles; in the whole space there was not a -single drop of water, the country deserving the name of desert -in the strictest sense. Yet about half way we passed some old -Indian ruins near Punta Gorda: I noticed also in front of -some of the valleys, which branch off from the Despoblado, -two piles of stones placed a little way apart, and directed so -as to point up the mouths of these small valleys. My companions -knew nothing about them, and only answered my -queries by their imperturbable "quien sabe?" - -I observed Indian ruins in several parts of the Cordillera: -the most perfect which I saw, were the Ruinas de Tambillos, -in the Uspallata Pass. Small square rooms were there huddled -together in separate groups: some of the doorways were -yet standing; they were formed by a cross slab of stone only -about three feet high. Ulloa has remarked on the lowness of -the doors in the ancient Peruvian dwellings. These houses, -when perfect, must have been capable of containing a -considerable number of persons. Tradition says, that they were -used as halting-places for the Incas, when they crossed the -mountains. Traces of Indian habitations have been discovered -in many other parts, where it does not appear probable -that they were used as mere resting-places, but yet where -the land is as utterly unfit for any kind of cultivation, as it -is near the Tambillos or at the Incas Bridge, or in the Portillo -Pass, at all which places I saw ruins. In the ravine of -Jajuel, near Aconcagua, where there is no pass, I heard of -remains of houses situated at a great height, where it is -extremely cold and sterile. At first I imagined that these -buildings had been places of refuge, built by the Indians on -the first arrival of the Spaniards; but I have since been -inclined to speculate on the probability of a small change of -climate. - -In this northern part of Chile, within the Cordillera, old -Indian houses are said to be especially numerous: by digging -amongst the ruins, bits of woollen articles, instruments of -precious metals, and heads of Indian corn, are not unfrequently -discovered: an arrow-head made of agate, and of -precisely the same form with those now used in Tierra del -Fuego, was given me. I am aware that the Peruvian Indians -now frequently inhabit most lofty and bleak situations; but -at Copiapo I was assured by men who had spent their lives in -travelling through the Andes, that there were very many -(muchisimas) buildings at heights so great as almost to border -upon the perpetual snow, and in parts where there exist -no passes, and where the land produces absolutely nothing, -and what is still more extraordinary, where there is no water. -Nevertheless it is the opinion of the people of the country -(although they are much puzzled by the circumstance), that, -from the appearance of the houses, the Indians must have -used them as places of residence. In this valley, at Punta -Gorda, the remains consisted of seven or eight square little -rooms, which were of a similar form with those at Tambillos, -but built chiefly of mud, which the present inhabitants cannot, -either here or, according to Ulloa, in Peru, imitate in -durability. They were situated in the most conspicuous and -defenceless position, at the bottom of the flat broad valley. -There was no water nearer than three or four leagues, and -that only in very small quantity, and bad: the soil was -absolutely sterile; I looked in vain even for a lichen adhering -to the rocks. At the present day, with the advantage of beasts -of burden, a mine, unless it were very rich, could scarcely -be worked here with profit. Yet the Indians formerly chose -it as a place of residence! If at the present time two or -three showers of rain were to fall annually, instead of one, -as now is the case during as many years, a small rill of water -would probably be formed in this great valley; and then, by -irrigation (which was formerly so well understood by the -Indians), the soil would easily be rendered sufficiently -productive to support a few families. - -I have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of -South America has been elevated near the coast at least from -400 to 500, and in some parts from 1000 to 1300 feet, since -the epoch of existing shells; and further inland the rise -possibly may have been greater. As the peculiarly arid character -of the climate is evidently a consequence of the height of the -Cordillera, we may feel almost sure that before the later -elevations, the atmosphere could not have been so completely -drained of its moisture as it now is; and as the rise has been -gradual, so would have been the change in climate. On this -notion of a change of climate since the buildings were -inhabited, the ruins must be of extreme antiquity, but I do -not think their preservation under the Chilian climate any -great difficulty. We must also admit on this notion (and -this perhaps is a greater difficulty) that man has inhabited -South America for an immensely long period, inasmuch as -any change of climate effected by the elevation of the land -must have been extremely gradual. At Valparaiso, within -the last 220 years, the rise has been somewhat less than 19 -feet: at Lima a sea-beach has certainly been upheaved from -80 to 90 feet, within the Indo-human period: but such small -elevations could have had little power in deflecting the -moisture-bringing atmospheric currents. Dr. Lund, however, -found human skeletons in the caves of Brazil, the appearance -of which induced him to believe that the Indian race has -existed during a vast lapse of time in South America. - -When at Lima, I conversed on these subjects [3] with Mr. -Gill, a civil engineer, who had seen much of the interior -country. He told me that a conjecture of a change of climate -had sometimes crossed his mind; but that he thought -that the greater portion of land, now incapable of cultivation, -but covered with Indian ruins, had been reduced to this state -by the water-conduits, which the Indians formerly constructed -on so wonderful a scale, having been injured by -neglect and by subterranean movements. I may here mention, -that the Peruvians actually carried their irrigating -streams in tunnels through hills of solid rock. Mr. Gill told -me, he had been employed professionally to examine one: -he found the passage low, narrow, crooked, and not of uniform -breadth, but of very considerable length. Is it not -most wonderful that men should have attempted such operations, -without the use of iron or gunpowder? Mr. Gill also -mentioned to me a most interesting, and, as far as I am -aware, quite unparalleled case, of a subterranean disturbance -having changed the drainage of a country. Travelling from -Casma to Huaraz (not very far distant from Lima), he -found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient -cultivation but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of -a considerable river, whence the water for irrigation had -formerly been conducted. There was nothing in the appearance -of the water-course to indicate that the river had not flowed -there a few years previously; in some parts, beds of sand and -gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had been -worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about 40 -yards in breadth and 8 feet deep. It is self-evident that a -person following up the course of a stream, will always -ascend at a greater or less inclination: Mr. Gill, therefore, -was much astonished, when walking up the bed of this -ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down hill. He -imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about 40 or -50 feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence -that a ridge had been uplifted right across the old bed of a -stream. From the moment the river-course was thus arched, -the water must necessarily have been thrown back, and a new -channel formed. From that moment, also, the neighbouring -plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a -desert. - -June 27th. -- We set out early in the morning, and by midday -reached the ravine of Paypote, where there is a tiny rill -of water, with a little vegetation, and even a few algarroba -trees, a kind of mimosa. From having firewood, a smelting- -furnace had formerly been built here: we found a solitary -man in charge of it, whose sole employment was hunting -guanacos. At night it froze sharply; but having plenty of -wood for our fire, we kept ourselves warm. - -28th. -- We continued gradually ascending, and the valley -now changed into a ravine. During the day we saw several -guanacos, and the track of the closely-allied species, the -Vicuna: this latter animal is pre-eminently alpine in its -habits; it seldom descends much below the limit of perpetual -snow, and therefore haunts even a more lofty and sterile -situation than the guanaco. The only other animal which we -saw in any number was a small fox: I suppose this animal -preys on the mice and other small rodents, which, as long as -there is the least vegetation, subsist in considerable numbers -in very desert places. In Patagonia, even on the borders of -the salinas, where a drop of fresh water can never be found, -excepting dew, these little animals swarm. Next to lizards, -mice appear to be able to support existence on the smallest -and driest portions of the earth -- even on islets in the midst -of great oceans. - -The scene on all sides showed desolation, brightened and -made palpable by a clear, unclouded sky. For a time such -scenery is sublime, but this feeling cannot last, and then it -becomes uninteresting. We bivouacked at the foot of the -"primera linea," or the first line of the partition of waters. -The streams, however, on the east side do not flow to the -Atlantic, but into an elevated district, in the middle of which -there is a large saline, or salt lake; thus forming a little -Caspian Sea at the height, perhaps, of ten thousand feet. Where -we slept, there were some considerable patches of snow, but -they do not remain throughout the year. The winds in these -lofty regions obey very regular laws every day a fresh -breeze blows up the valley, and at night, an hour or two after -sunset, the air from the cold regions above descends as -through a funnel. This night it blew a gale of wind, and the -temperature must have been considerably below the freezing- -point, for water in a vessel soon became a block of ice. No -clothes seemed to oppose any obstacle to the air; I suffered -very much from the cold, so that I could not sleep, and in -the morning rose with my body quite dull and benumbed. - -In the Cordillera further southward, people lose their lives -from snow-storms; here, it sometimes happens from another -cause. My guide, when a boy of fourteen years old, was -passing the Cordillera with a party in the month of May; -and while in the central parts, a furious gale of wind arose, -so that the men could hardly cling on their mules, and stones -were flying along the ground. The day was cloudless, and -not a speck of snow fell, but the temperature was low. It is -probable that the thermometer could not have stood very -many degrees below the freezing-point, but the effect on -their bodies, ill protected by clothing, must have been in -proportion to the rapidity of the current of cold air. The gale -lasted for more than a day; the men began to lose their -strength, and the mules would not move onwards. My guide's -brother tried to return, but he perished, and his body was -found two years afterwards, Lying by the side of his mule -near the road, with the bridle still in his hand. Two other -men in the party lost their fingers and toes; and out of two -hundred mules and thirty cows, only fourteen mules escaped -alive. Many years ago the whole of a large party are supposed -to have perished from a similar cause, but their bodies -to this day have never been discovered. The union of a -cloudless sky, low temperature, and a furious gale of wind, -must be, I should think, in all parts of the world an unusual -occurrence. - -June 29th -- We gladly travelled down the valley to our -former night's lodging, and thence to near the Agua amarga. -On July 1st we reached the valley of Copiapo. The smell of -the fresh clover was quite delightful, after the scentless air -of the dry, sterile Despoblado. Whilst staying in the town I -heard an account from several of the inhabitants, of a hill -in the neighbourhood which they called "El Bramador," -- the -roarer or bellower. I did not at the time pay sufficient -attention to the account; but, as far as I understood, the hill -was covered by sand, and the noise was produced only when -people, by ascending it, put the sand in motion. The same -circumstances are described in detail on the authority of -Seetzen and Ehrenberg, [4] as the cause of the sounds which -have been heard by many travellers on Mount Sinai near the -Red Sea. One person with whom I conversed had himself -heard the noise: he described it as very surprising; and he -distinctly stated that, although he could not understand how -it was caused, yet it was necessary to set the sand rolling -down the acclivity. A horse walking over dry coarse sand, -causes a peculiar chirping noise from the friction of the -particles; a circumstance which I several times noticed on the -coast of Brazil. - -Three days afterwards I heard of the Beagle's arrival at -the Port, distant eighteen leagues from the town. There is -very little land cultivated down the valley; its wide expanse -supports a wretched wiry grass, which even the donkeys can -hardly eat. This poorness of the vegetation is owing to the -quantity of saline matter with which the soil is impregnated. -The Port consists of an assemblage of miserable little hovels, -situated at the foot of a sterile plain. At present, as the -river contains water enough to reach the sea, the inhabitants -enjoy the advantage of having fresh water within a mile and -a half. On the beach there were large piles of merchandise, -and the little place had an air of activity. In the evening -I gave my adios, with a hearty good-will, to my companion -Mariano Gonzales, with whom I had ridden so many leagues -in Chile. The next morning the Beagle sailed for Iquique. - -July 12th. -- We anchored in the port of Iquique, in lat. -20 degs. 12', on the coast of Peru. The town contains about a -thousand inhabitants, and stands on a little plain of sand at -the foot of a great wall of rock, 2000 feet in height, here -forming the coast. The whole is utterly desert. A light -shower of rain falls only once in very many years; and the -ravines consequently are filled with detritus, and the -mountain-sides covered by piles of fine white sand, even to a -height of a thousand feet. During this season of the year a -heavy bank of clouds, stretched over the ocean, seldom rises -above the wall of rocks on the coast. The aspect of the place -was most gloomy; the little port, with its few vessels, and -small group of wretched houses, seemed overwhelmed and out of -all proportion with the rest of the scene. - -The inhabitants live like persons on board a ship: every -necessary comes from a distance: water is brought in boats -from Pisagua, about forty miles northward, and is sold at -the rate of nine reals (4s. 6d.) an eighteen-gallon cask: I -bought a wine-bottle full for threepence. In like manner -firewood, and of course every article of food, is imported. -Very few animals can be maintained in such a place: on the -ensuing morning I hired with difficulty, at the price of four -pounds sterling, two mules and a guide to take me to the -nitrate of soda works. These are at present the support of -Iquique. This salt was first exported in 1830: in one year an -amount in value of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, -was sent to France and England. It is principally used as a -manure and in the manufacture of nitric acid: owing to its -deliquescent property it will not serve for gunpowder. Formerly -there were two exceedingly rich silver-mines in this -neighbourhood, but their produce is now very small. - -Our arrival in the offing caused some little apprehension. -Peru was in a state of anarchy; and each party having -demanded a contribution, the poor town of Iquique was in -tribulation, thinking the evil hour was come. The people -had also their domestic troubles; a short time before, three -French carpenters had broken open, during the same night, -the two churches, and stolen all the plate: one of the robbers, -however, subsequently confessed, and the plate was recovered. -The convicts were sent to Arequipa, which though the capital -of this province, is two hundred leagues distant, the government -there thought it a pity to punish such useful workmen, -who could make all sorts of furniture; and accordingly -liberated them. Things being in this state, the churches were -again broken open, but this time the plate was not recovered. -The inhabitants became dreadfully enraged, and declaring -that none but heretics would thus "eat God Almighty," proceeded -to torture some Englishmen, with the intention of -afterwards shooting them. At last the authorities interfered, -and peace was established. - - -13th. -- In the morning I started for the saltpetre-works, -a distance of fourteen leagues. Having ascended the steep -coast-mountains by a zigzag sandy track, we soon came in -view of the mines of Guantajaya and St. Rosa. These two -small villages are placed at the very mouths of the mines; -and being perched up on hills, they had a still more unnatural -and desolate appearance than the town of Iquique. We did -not reach the saltpetre-works till after sunset, having ridden -all day across an undulating country, a complete and utter -desert. The road was strewed with the bones and dried skins -of many beasts of burden which had perished on it from -fatigue. Excepting the Vultur aura, which preys on the -carcasses, I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. -On the coast-mountains, at the height of about 2000 feet -where during this season the clouds generally hang, a very -few cacti were growing in the clefts of rock; and the loose -sand was strewed over with a lichen, which lies on the surface -quite unattached. This plant belongs to the genus -Cladonia, and somewhat resembles the reindeer lichen. In -some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, -as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. Further -inland, during the whole ride of fourteen leagues, I saw only -one other vegetable production, and that was a most minute -yellow lichen, growing on the bones of the dead mules. This -was the first true desert which I had seen: the effect on me -was not impressive; but I believe this was owing to my -having become gradually accustomed to such scenes, as I -rode northward from Valparaiso, through Coquimbo, to Copiapo. -The appearance of the country was remarkable, from -being covered by a thick crust of common salt, and of a -stratified saliferous alluvium, which seems to have been -deposited as the land slowly rose above the level of the sea. -The salt is white, very hard, and compact: it occurs in water -worn nodules projecting from the agglutinated sand, and is -associated with much gypsum. The appearance of this superficial -mass very closely resembled that of a country after -snow, before the last dirty patches are thawed. The existence -of this crust of a soluble substance over the whole face of -the country, shows how extraordinarily dry the climate must -have been for a long period. - -At night I slept at the house of the owner of one of the -saltpetre mines. The country is here as unproductive as -near the coast; but water, having rather a bitter and brackish -taste, can be procured by digging wells. The well at this -house was thirty-six yards deep: as scarcely any rain falls, -it is evident the water is not thus derived; indeed if it were, -it could not fail to be as salt as brine, for the whole -surrounding country is incrusted with various saline substances. -We must therefore conclude that it percolates under ground -from the Cordillera, though distant many leagues. In that -direction there are a few small villages, where the inhabitants, -having more water, are enabled to irrigate a little land, -and raise hay, on which the mules and asses, employed in -carrying the saltpetre, are fed. The nitrate of soda was now -selling at the ship's side at fourteen shillings per hundred -pounds: the chief expense is its transport to the sea-coast. -The mine consists of a hard stratum, between two and three -feet thick, of the nitrate mingled with a little of the sulphate -of soda and a good deal of common salt. It lies close beneath -the surface, and follows for a length of one hundred and -fifty miles the margin of a grand basin or plain; this, from -its outline, manifestly must once have been a lake, or more -probably an inland arm of the sea, as may be inferred from -the presence of iodic salts in the saline stratum. The surface -of the plain is 3300 feet above the Pacific. - - -19th. -- We anchored in the Bay of Callao, the seaport of -Lima, the capital of Peru. We stayed here six weeks but -from the troubled state of public affairs, I saw very little of -the country. During our whole visit the climate was far -from being so delightful, as it is generally represented. A -dull heavy bank of clouds constantly hung over the land, so -that during the first sixteen days I had only one view of the -Cordillera behind Lima. These mountains, seen in stages, -one above the other, through openings in the clouds, had a -very grand appearance. It is almost become a proverb, that -rain never falls in the lower part of Peru. Yet this can -hardly be considered correct; for during almost every day of -our visit there was a thick drizzling mist, which was sufficient -to make the streets muddy and one's clothes damp: this the -people are pleased to call Peruvian dew. That much rain -does not fall is very certain, for the houses are covered only -with flat roofs made of hardened mud; and on the mole shiploads -of wheat were piled up, being thus left for weeks together -without any shelter. - -I cannot say I liked the very little I saw of Peru: in -summer, however, it is said that the climate is much pleasanter. -In all seasons, both inhabitants and foreigners suffer -from severe attacks of ague. This disease is common on the -whole coast of Peru, but is unknown in the interior. The -attacks of illness which arise from miasma never fail to appear -most mysterious. So difficult is it to judge from the -aspect of a country, whether or not it is healthy, that if a -person had been told to choose within the tropics a situation -appearing favourable for health, very probably he would -have named this coast. The plain round the outskirts of -Callao is sparingly covered with a coarse grass, and in some -parts there are a few stagnant, though very small, pools of -water. The miasma, in all probability, arises from these: -for the town of Arica was similarly circumstanced, and its -healthiness was much improved by the drainage of some -little pools. Miasma is not always produced by a luxuriant -vegetation with an ardent climate; for many parts of Brazil, -even where there are marshes and a rank vegetation, are -much more healthy than this sterile coast of Peru. The -densest forests in a temperate climate, as in Chiloe, do not -seem in the slightest degree to affect the healthy condition -of the atmosphere. - -The island of St. Jago, at the Cape de Verds, offers another -strongly marked instance of a country, which any one -would have expected to find most healthy, being very much -the contrary. I have described the bare and open plains as -supporting, during a few weeks after the rainy season, a thin -vegetation, which directly withers away and dries up: at this -period the air appears to become quite poisonous; both natives -and foreigners often being affected with violent fevers. -On the other hand, the Galapagos Archipelago, in the Pacific, -with a similar soil, and periodically subject to the same -process of vegetation, is perfectly healthy. Humboldt has -observed, that, "under the torrid zone, the smallest marshes -are the most dangerous, being surrounded, as at Vera Cruz -and Carthagena, with an arid and sandy soil, which raises -the temperature of the ambient air." [5] On the coast of Peru, -however, the temperature is not hot to any excessive degree; -and perhaps in consequence, the intermittent fevers are not -of the most malignant order. In all unhealthy countries the -greatest risk is run by sleeping on shore. Is this owing to -the state of the body during sleep, or to a greater abundance -of miasma at such times? It appears certain that those -who stay on board a vessel, though anchored at only a short -distance from the coast, generally suffer less than those -actually on shore. On the other hand, I have heard of one -remarkable case where a fever broke out among the crew of -a man-of-war some hundred miles off the coast of Africa, -and at the same time one of those fearful periods [6] of death -commenced at Sierra Leone. - -No state in South America, since the declaration of -independence, has suffered more from anarchy than Peru. At -the time of our visit, there were four chiefs in arms contending -for supremacy in the government: if one succeeded -in becoming for a time very powerful, the others coalesced -against him; but no sooner were they victorious, than they -were again hostile to each other. The other day, at the -Anniversary of the Independence, high mass was performed, the -President partaking of the sacrament: during the _Te Deum -laudamus_, instead of each regiment displaying the Peruvian -flag, a black one with death's head was unfurled. Imagine -a government under which such a scene could be ordered, on -such an occasion, to be typical of their determination of -fighting to death! This state of affairs happened at a time -very unfortunately for me, as I was precluded from taking -any excursions much beyond the limits of the town. The -barren island of St. Lorenzo, which forms the harbour, was -nearly the only place where one could walk securely. The -upper part, which is upwards of 1000 feet in height, during -this season of the year (winter), comes within the lower -limit of the clouds; and in consequence, an abundant cryptogamic -vegetation, and a few flowers cover the summit. On -the hills near Lima, at a height but little greater, the ground -is carpeted with moss, and beds of beautiful yellow lilies, -called Amancaes. This indicates a very much greater degree -of humidity, than at a corresponding height at Iquique. -Proceeding northward of Lima, the climate becomes damper, -till on the banks of the Guayaquil, nearly under the equator, -we find the most luxuriant forests. The change, however, -from the sterile coast of Peru to that fertile land is described -as taking place rather abruptly in the latitude of Cape Blanco, -two degrees south of Guayaquil. - -Callao is a filthy, ill-built, small seaport. The inhabitants, -both here and at Lima, present every imaginable shade of -mixture, between European, Negro, and Indian blood. They -appear a depraved, drunken set of people. The atmosphere -is loaded with foul smells, and that peculiar one, which may -be perceived in almost every town within the tropics, was -here very strong. The fortress, which withstood Lord Cochrane's -long siege, has an imposing appearance. But the -President, during our stay, sold the brass guns, and proceeded -to dismantle parts of it. The reason assigned was, -that he had not an officer to whom he could trust so important -a charge. He himself had good reason for thinking -so, as he had obtained the presidentship by rebelling while -in charge of this same fortress. After we left South America, -he paid the penalty in the usual manner, by being conquered, -taken prisoner, and shot. - -Lima stands on a plain in a valley, formed during the -gradual retreat of the sea. It is seven miles from Callao, -and is elevated 500 feet above it; but from the slope being -very gradual, the road appears absolutely level; so that when -at Lima it is difficult to believe one has ascended even one -hundred feet: Humboldt has remarked on this singularly deceptive -case. Steep barren hills rise like islands from the -plain, which is divided, by straight mud-walls, into large -green fields. In these scarcely a tree grows excepting a few -willows, and an occasional clump of bananas and of oranges. -The city of Lima is now in a wretched state of decay: the -streets are nearly unpaved; and heaps of filth are piled up -in all directions, where the black gallinazos, tame as poultry, -pick up bits of carrion. The houses have generally an upper -story, built on account of the earthquakes, of plastered -woodwork but some of the old ones, which are now used by several -families, are immensely large, and would rival in suites -of apartments the most magnificent in any place. Lima, the -City of the Kings, must formerly have been a splendid town. -The extraordinary number of churches gives it, even at the -present day, a peculiar and striking character, especially -when viewed from a short distance. - -One day I went out with some merchants to hunt in the -immediate vicinity of the city. Our sport was very poor; -but I had an opportunity of seeing the ruins of one of the -ancient Indian villages, with its mound like a natural hill in -the centre. The remains of houses, enclosures, irrigating -streams, and burial mounds, scattered over this plain, cannot -fail to give one a high idea of the condition and number of -the ancient population. When their earthenware, woollen -clothes, utensils of elegant forms cut out of the hardest rocks, -tools of copper, ornaments of precious stones, palaces, and -hydraulic works, are considered, it is impossible not to respect -the considerable advance made by them in the arts of -civilization. The burial mounds, called Huacas, are really -stupendous; although in some places they appear to be natural -hills incased and modelled. - -There is also another and very different class of ruins, -which possesses some interest, namely, those of old Callao, -overwhelmed by the great earthquake of 1746, and its -accompanying wave. The destruction must have been more -complete even than at Talcahuano. Quantities of shingle -almost conceal the foundations of the walls, and vast masses -of brickwork appear to have been whirled about like pebbles -by the retiring waves. It has been stated that the land subsided -during this memorable shock: I could not discover any -proof of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the -form of the coast must certainly have undergone some change -since the foundation of the old town; as no people in their -senses would willingly have chosen for their building place, -the narrow spit of shingle on which the ruins now stand. -Since our voyage, M. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, -by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the coast -both north and south of Lima has certainly subsided. - -On the island of San Lorenzo, there are very satisfactory -proofs of elevation within the recent period; this of course -is not opposed to the belief, of a small sinking of the ground -having subsequently taken place. The side of this island -fronting the Bay of Callao, is worn into three obscure terraces, -the lower one of which is covered by a bed a mile in -length, almost wholly composed of shells of eighteen species, -now living in the adjoining sea. The height of this bed is -eighty-five feet. Many of the shells are deeply corroded, and -have a much older and more decayed appearance than those -at the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These -shells are associated with much common salt, a little sulphate -of lime (both probably left by the evaporation of the -spray, as the land slowly rose), together with sulphate of -soda and muriate of lime. They rest on fragments of the -underlying sandstone, and are covered by a few inches thick -of detritus. The shells, higher up on this terrace could be -traced scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable -powder; and on an upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, -and likewise at some considerably higher points, I found a -layer of saline powder of exactly similar appearance, and -lying in the same relative position. I have no doubt that this -upper layer originally existed as a bed of shells, like that on -the eighty-five-feet ledge; but it does not now contain even a -trace of organic structure. The powder has been analyzed -for me by Mr. T. Reeks; it consists of sulphates and muriates -both of lime and soda, with very little carbonate of -lime. It is known that common salt and carbonate of lime -left in a mass for some time together, partly decompose each -other; though this does not happen with small quantities in -solution. As the half-decomposed shells in the lower parts -are associated with much common salt, together with some -of the saline substances composing the upper saline layer, -and as these shells are corroded and decayed in a remarkable -manner, I strongly suspect that this double decomposition -has here taken place. The resultant salts, however, ought -to be carbonate of soda and muriate of lime, the latter is -present, but not the carbonate of soda. Hence I am led to -imagine that by some unexplained means, the carbonate of -soda becomes changed into the sulphate. It is obvious that -the saline layer could not have been preserved in any country -in which abundant rain occasionally fell: on the other -hand, this very circumstance, which at first sight appears so -highly favourable to the long preservation of exposed shells, -has probably been the indirect means, through the common -salt not having been washed away, of their decomposition -and early decay. - -I was much interested by finding on the terrace, at the -height of eighty-five feet, _embedded_ amidst the shells and -much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited -rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn: I compared -these relics with similar ones taken out of the Huacas, or old -Peruvian tombs, and found them identical in appearance. -On the mainland in front of San Lorenzo, near Bellavista, -there is an extensive and level plain about a hundred feet -high, of which the lower part is formed of alternating layers -of sand and impure clay, together with some gravel, and the -surface, to the depth of from three to six feet, of a reddish -loam, containing a few scattered sea-shells and numerous -small fragments of coarse red earthenware, more abundant -at certain spots than at others. At first I was inclined to -believe that this superficial bed, from its wide extent and -smoothness, must have been deposited beneath the sea; but -I afterwards found in one spot, that it lay on an artificial -floor of round stones. It seems, therefore, most probable -that at a period when the land stood at a lower level there -was a plain very similar to that now surrounding Callao, -which being protected by a shingle beach, is raised but very -little above the level of the sea. On this plain, with its -underlying red-clay beds, I imagine that the Indians -manufactured their earthen vessels; and that, during some -violent earthquake, the sea broke over the beach, and converted -the plain into a temporary lake, as happened round Callao in -1713 and 1746. The water would then have deposited mud, -containing fragments of pottery from the kilns, more abundant -at some spots than at others, and shells from the sea. -This bed, with fossil earthenware, stands at about the -same height with the shells on the lower terrace of San -Lorenzo, in which the cotton-thread and other relics were -embedded. - -Hence we may safely conclude, that within the Indo-human -period there has been an elevation, as before alluded to, of -more than eighty-five feet; for some little elevation must -have been lost by the coast having subsided since the old -maps were engraved. At Valparaiso, although in the 220 -years before our visit, the elevation cannot have exceeded -nineteen feet, yet subsequently to 1817, there has been a rise, -partly insensible and partly by a start during the shock of -1822, of ten or eleven feet. The antiquity of the Indo-human -race here, judging by the eighty-five feet rise of the land -since the relics were embedded, is the more remarkable, as on -the coast of Patagonia, when the land stood about the same -number of feet lower, the Macrauchenia was a living beast; -but as the Patagonian coast is some way distant from the -Cordillera, the rising there may have been slower than here. -At Bahia Blanca, the elevation has been only a few feet -since the numerous gigantic quadrupeds were there entombed; -and, according to the generally received opinion, -when these extinct animals were living, man did not exist. -But the rising of that part of the coast of Patagonia, is -perhaps no way connected with the Cordillera, but rather with -a line of old volcanic rocks in Banda Oriental, so that it -may have been infinitely slower than on the shores of Peru. -All these speculations, however, must be vague; for who will -pretend to say that there may not have been several periods -of subsidence, intercalated between the movements of elevation; -for we know that along the whole coast of Patagonia, -there have certainly been many and long pauses in -the upward action of the elevatory forces. - -[1] Vol. iv. p. 11, and vol. ii. p. 217. For the remarks on -Guayaquil, see Silliman's Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 384. For those -on Tacna by Mr. Hamilton, see Trans. of British Association, -1840. For those on Coseguina see Mr. Caldcleugh in Phil. Trans., -1835. In the former edition I collected several references on -the coincidences between sudden falls in the barometer and -earthquakes; and between earthquakes and meteors. - -[2] Observa. sobre el Clima de Lima, p. 67. -- Azara's Travels, -vol. i. p. 381. -- Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 28. -- Burchell's -Travels, vol. ii. p. 524. -- Webster's Description of the -Azores, p. 124. -- Voyage a l'Isle de France par un Officer du -Roi, tom. i. p. 248. -- Description of St. Helena, p. 123. - -[3] Temple, in his travels through Upper Peru, or Bolivia, in -going from Potosi to Oruro, says, "I saw many Indian villages or -dwellings in ruins, up even to the very tops of the mountains, -attesting a former population where now all is desolate." He -makes similar remarks in another place; but I cannot tell -whether this desolation has been caused by a want of population, -or by an altered condition of the land. - -[4] Edinburgh, Phil. Journ., Jan., 1830, p. 74; and April, 1830, -p. 258 -- also Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 438; and Bengal -Journ., vol. vii. p. 324. - -[5] Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, vol. iv. -p. 199. - -[6] A similar interesting case is recorded in the Madras -Medical Quart. Journ., 1839, p. 340. Dr. Ferguson, in his -admirable Paper (see 9th vol. of Edinburgh Royal Trans.), -shows clearly that the poison is generated in the drying -process; and hence that dry hot countries are often the most -unhealthy. - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO - -The whole Group Volcanic -- Numbers of Craters -- Leafless -Bushes Colony at Charles Island -- James Island -- Salt-lake in -Crater -- Natural History of the Group -- Ornithology, curious -Finches -- Reptiles -- Great Tortoises, habits of -- Marine -Lizard, feeds on Sea-weed -- Terrestrial Lizard, burrowing -habits, herbivorous -- Importance of Reptiles in the -Archipelago -- Fish, Shells, Insects -- Botany -- American Type -of Organization -- Differences in the Species or Races on -different Islands -- Tameness of the Birds -- Fear of Man, an -acquired Instinct. - - -SEPTEMBER 15th. -- This archipelago consists of ten -principal islands, of which five exceed the others in -size. They are situated under the Equator, and between -five and six hundred miles westward of the coast of -America. They are all formed of volcanic rocks; a few -fragments of granite curiously glazed and altered by the -heat, can hardly be considered as an exception. Some of -the craters, surmounting the larger islands, are of immense -size, and they rise to a height of between three and four -thousand feet. Their flanks are studded by innumerable -smaller orifices. I scarcely hesitate to affirm, that there -must be in the whole archipelago at least two thousand -craters. These consist either of lava or scoriae, or of finely- -stratified, sandstone-like tuff. Most of the latter are -beautifully symmetrical; they owe their origin to eruptions of -volcanic mud without any lava: it is a remarkable circumstance -that every one of the twenty-eight tuff-craters which -were examined, had their southern sides either much lower -than the other sides, or quite broken down and removed. As -all these craters apparently have been formed when standing -in the sea, and as the waves from the trade wind and the -swell from the open Pacific here unite their forces on the -southern coasts of all the islands, this singular uniformity -in the broken state of the craters, composed of the soft and -yielding tuff, is easily explained. - -Considering that these islands are placed directly under -the equator, the climate is far from being excessively hot; -this seems chiefly caused by the singularly low temperature -of the surrounding water, brought here by the great southern - - -[map] - - -Polar current. Excepting during one short season, very -little rain falls, and even then it is irregular; but the clouds -generally hang low. Hence, whilst the lower parts of the -islands are very sterile, the upper parts, at a height of a -thousand feet and upwards, possess a damp climate and a -tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially the case -on the windward sides of the islands, which first receive and -condense the moisture from the atmosphere. - -In the morning (17th) we landed on Chatham Island, -which, like the others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, -broken here and there by scattered hillocks, the remains -of former craters. Nothing could be less inviting than the -first appearance. A broken field of black basaltic lava, -thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed by great -fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sun-burnt brushwood, -which shows little signs of life. The dry and parched -surface, being heated by the noon-day sun, gave to the air -a close and sultry feeling, like that from a stove: we fancied -even that the bushes smelt unpleasantly. Although I diligently -tried to collect as many plants as possible, I succeeded -in getting very few; and such wretched-looking little -weeds would have better become an arctic than an equatorial -Flora. The brushwood appears, from a short distance, as -leafless as our trees during winter; and it was some time -before I discovered that not only almost every plant was -now in full leaf, but that the greater number were in flower. -The commonest bush is one of the Euphorbiaceae: an acacia -and a great odd-looking cactus are the only trees which -afford any shade. After the season of heavy rains, the islands -are said to appear for a short time partially green. The -volcanic island of Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects -under nearly similar conditions, is the only other -country where I have seen a vegetation at all like this of -the Galapagos Islands. - -The Beagle sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored -in several bays. One night I slept on shore on a part of the -island, where black truncated cones were extraordinarily -numerous: from one small eminence I counted sixty of -them, all surmounted by craters more or less perfect. The -greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scoriae -or slags, cemented together: and their height above the plain -of lava was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet; none -had been very lately active. The entire surface of this part -of the island seems to have been permeated, like a sieve, by -the subterranean vapours: here and there the lava, whilst -soft, has been blown into great bubbles; and in other parts, -the tops of caverns similarly formed have fallen in, leaving -circular pits with steep sides. From the regular form of the -many craters, they gave to the country an artificial appearance, -which vividly reminded me of those parts of Staffordshire, -where the great iron-foundries are most numerous. -The day was glowing hot, and the scrambling over the rough -surface and through the intricate thickets, was very fatiguing; -but I was well repaid by the strange Cyclopean scene. -As I was walking along I met two large tortoises, each of -which must have weighed at least two hundred pounds: one -was eating a piece of cactus, and as I approached, it stared -at me and slowly walked away; the other gave a deep hiss, -and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, surrounded by -the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, seemed to -my fancy like some antediluvian animals. The few dull- -coloured birds cared no more for me than they did for the -great tortoises. - -23rd. -- The Beagle proceeded to Charles Island. This -archipelago has long been frequented, first by the bucaniers, -and latterly by whalers, but it is only within the last six -years, that a small colony has been established here. The -inhabitants are between two and three hundred in number; -they are nearly all people of colour, who have been banished -for political crimes from the Republic of the Equator, of -which Quito is the capital. The settlement is placed about -four and a half miles inland, and at a height probably of a -thousand feet. In the first part of the road we passed -through leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. Higher up, -the woods gradually became greener; and as soon as we -crossed the ridge of the island, we were cooled by a fine -southerly breeze, and our sight refreshed by a green and -thriving vegetation. In this upper region coarse grasses and -ferns abound; but there are no tree-ferns: I saw nowhere -any member of the palm family, which is the more singular, -as 360 miles northward, Cocos Island takes its name from -the number of cocoa-nuts. The houses are irregularly scattered -over a flat space of ground, which is cultivated with -sweet potatoes and bananas. It will not easily be imagined -how pleasant the sight of black mud was to us, after having -been so long, accustomed to the parched soil of Peru and -northern Chile. The inhabitants, although complaining of -poverty, obtain, without much trouble, the means of subsistence. -In the woods there are many wild pigs and goats; -but the staple article of animal food is supplied by the -tortoises. Their numbers have of course been greatly reduced -in this island, but the people yet count on two days' -hunting giving them food for the rest of the week. It is -said that formerly single vessels have taken away as many -as seven hundred, and that the ship's company of a frigate -some years since brought down in one day two hundred -tortoises to the beach. - -September 29th. -- We doubled the south-west extremity of -Albemarle Island, and the next day were nearly becalmed -between it and Narborough Island. Both are covered with -immense deluges of black naked lava, which have flowed either -over the rims of the great caldrons, like pitch over the -rim of a pot in which it has been boiled, or have burst forth -from smaller orifices on the flanks; in their descent they -have spread over miles of the sea-coast. On both of these -islands, eruptions are known to have taken place; and in -Albemarle, we saw a small jet of smoke curling from the -summit of one of the great craters. In the evening we -anchored in Bank's Cove, in Albemarle Island. The next -morning I went out walking. To the south of the broken -tuff-crater, in which the Beagle was anchored, there was -another beautifully symmetrical one of an elliptic form; its -longer axis was a little less than a mile, and its depth about -500 feet. At its bottom there was a shallow lake, in the -middle of which a tiny crater formed an islet. The day was -overpoweringly hot, and the lake looked clear and blue: I -hurried down the cindery slope, and, choked with dust, -eagerly tasted the water -- but, to my sorrow, I found it salt -as brine. - -The rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards, -between three and four feet long; and on the hills, an ugly -yellowish-brown species was equally common. We saw many of this -latter kind, some clumsily running out of the way, and others -shuffling into their burrows. I shall presently describe in -more detail the habits of both these reptiles. The whole of -this northern part of Albemarle Island is miserably sterile. - -October 8th. -- We arrived at James Island: this island, as -well as Charles Island, were long since thus named after our -kings of the Stuart line. Mr. Bynoe, myself, and our servants -were left here for a week, with provisions and a tent, -whilst the Beagle went for water. We found here a party -of Spaniards, who had been sent from Charles Island to dry -fish, and to salt tortoise-meat. About six miles inland, and -at the height of nearly 2000 feet, a hovel had been built in -which two men lived, who were employed in catching tortoises, -whilst the others were fishing on the coast. I paid -this party two visits, and slept there one night. As in the -other islands, the lower region was covered by nearly leafless -bushes, but the trees were here of a larger growth than -elsewhere, several being two feet and some even two feet nine -inches in diameter. The upper region being kept damp by -the clouds, supports a green and flourishing vegetation. So -damp was the ground, that there were large beds of a coarse -cyperus, in which great numbers of a very small water-rail -lived and bred. While staying in this upper region, we lived -entirely upon tortoise-meat: the breast-plate roasted (as the -Gauchos do _carne con cuero_), with the flesh on it, is very -good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but -otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent. - -One day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in -their whale-boat to a salina, or lake from which salt is -procured. After landing, we had a very rough walk over a -rugged field of recent lava, which has almost surrounded a -tuff-crater, at the bottom of which the salt-lake lies. The -water is only three or four inches deep, and rests on a layer -of beautifully crystallized, white salt. The lake is quite -circular, and is fringed with a border of bright green succulent -plants; the almost precipitous walls of the crater are clothed -with wood, so that the scene was altogether both picturesque -and curious. A few years since, the sailors belonging to a -sealing-vessel murdered their captain in this quiet spot; and -we saw his skull lying among the bushes. - -During the greater part of our stay of a week, the sky -was cloudless, and if the trade-wind failed for an hour, the -heat became very oppressive. On two days, the thermometer -within the tent stood for some hours at 93 degs.; but in the open -air, in the wind and sun, at only 85 degs. The sand was extremely -hot; the thermometer placed in some of a brown colour -immediately rose to 137 degs., and how much above that -it would have risen, I do not know, for it was not graduated -any higher. The black sand felt much hotter, so that -even in thick boots it was quite disagreeable to walk over it. - - -The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, -and well deserves attention. Most of the organic productions -are aboriginal creations, found nowhere else; there is even -a difference between the inhabitants of the different islands; -yet all show a marked relationship with those of America, -though separated from that continent by an open space of -ocean, between 500 and 600 miles in width. The archipelago -is a little world within itself, or rather a satellite attached -to America, whence it has derived a few stray colonists, and -has received the general character of its indigenous -productions. Considering the small size of the islands, we feel -the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, -and at their confined range. Seeing every height crowned -with its crater, and the boundaries of most of the lava- -streams still distinct, we are led to believe that within a -period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was here -spread out. Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be -brought somewhat near to that great fact -- that mystery of -mysteries -- the first appearance of new beings on this earth. - -Of terrestrial mammals, there is only one which must be -considered as indigenous, namely, a mouse (Mus Galapagoensis), -and this is confined, as far as I could ascertain, to -Chatham Island, the most easterly island of the group. It -belongs, as I am informed by Mr. Waterhouse, to a division -of the family of mice characteristic of America. At James -Island, there is a rat sufficiently distinct from the common -kind to have been named and described by Mr. Waterhouse; -but as it belongs to the old-world division of the family, and -as this island has been frequented by ships for the last hundred -and fifty years, I can hardly doubt that this rat is -merely a variety produced by the new and peculiar climate, -food, and soil, to which it has been subjected. Although no -one has a right to speculate without distinct facts, yet even -with respect to the Chatham Island mouse, it should be borne -in mind, that it may possibly be an American species imported -here; for I have seen, in a most unfrequented part of -the Pampas, a native mouse living in the roof of a newly -built hovel, and therefore its transportation in a vessel is -not improbable: analogous facts have been observed by Dr. -Richardson in North America. - -Of land-birds I obtained twenty-six kinds, all peculiar to -the group and found nowhere else, with the exception of one -lark-like finch from North America (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), -which ranges on that continent as far north as 54 degs., and -generally frequents marshes. The other twenty-five birds -consist, firstly, of a hawk, curiously intermediate in structure -between a buzzard and the American group of carrion-feeding -Polybori; and with these latter birds it agrees most -closely in every habit and even tone of voice. Secondly, -there are two owls, representing the short-eared and white -barn-owls of Europe. Thirdly, a wren, three tyrant-flycatchers -(two of them species of Pyrocephalus, one or both of -which would be ranked by some ornithologists as only varieties), -and a dove -- all analogous to, but distinct from, American -species. Fourthly, a swallow, which though differing -from the Progne purpurea of both Americas, only in being -rather duller colored, smaller, and slenderer, is considered -by Mr. Gould as specifically distinct. Fifthly, there are three -species of mocking thrush -- a form highly characteristic of -America. The remaining land-birds form a most singular -group of finches, related to each other in the structure of -their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage: there are -thirteen species, which Mr. Gould has divided into four -sub-groups. All these species are peculiar to this archipelago; -and so is the whole group, with the exception of one species -of the sub-group Cactornis, lately brought from Bow Island, -in the Low Archipelago. Of Cactornis, the two species may -be often seen climbing about the flowers of the great cactus- -trees; but all the other species of this group of finches, -mingled together in flocks, feed on the dry and sterile ground -of the lower districts. The males of all, or certainly of the -greater number, are jet black; and the females (with perhaps -one or two exceptions) are brown. The most curious fact is -the perfect gradation in the size of the beaks in the different -species of Geospiza, from one as large as that of a hawfinch -to that of a chaffinch, and (if Mr. Gould is right in including -his sub-group, Certhidea, in the main group) even to -that of a warbler. The largest beak in the genus Geospiza -is shown in Fig. 1, and the smallest in Fig. 3; but instead of -there being only one intermediate species, with a beak of -the size shown in Fig. 2, there are no less than six species -with insensibly graduated beaks. The beak of the sub-group -Certhidea, is shown in Fig. 4. The beak of Cactornis is - - -[picture] - -1. Geospiza magnirostris. 2. Geospiza fortis. -3. Geospiza parvula. 4. Certhidea olivasea. - - -somewhat like that of a starling, and that of the fourth -sub-group, Camarhynchus, is slightly parrot-shaped. Seeing this -gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately -related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an -original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had -been taken and modified for different ends. In a like manner -it might be fancied that a bird originally a buzzard, had been -induced here to undertake the office of the carrion-feeding -Polybori of the American continent. - -Of waders and water-birds I was able to get only eleven -kinds, and of these only three (including a rail confined to -the damp summits of the islands) are new species. Considering -the wandering habits of the gulls, I was surprised to -find that the species inhabiting these islands is peculiar, but -allied to one from the southern parts of South America. -The far greater peculiarity of the land-birds, namely, -twenty-five out of twenty-six, being new species, or at least -new races, compared with the waders and web-footed birds, is -in accordance with the greater range which these latter -orders have in all parts of the world. We shall hereafter -see this law of aquatic forms, whether marine or fresh-water, -being less peculiar at any given point of the earth's -surface than the terrestrial forms of the same classes, -strikingly illustrated in the shells, and in a lesser degree in -the insects of this archipelago. - -Two of the waders are rather smaller than the same species -brought from other places: the swallow is also smaller, -though it is doubtful whether or not it is distinct from its -analogue. The two owls, the two tyrant-catchers (Pyrocephalus) -and the dove, are also smaller than the analogous -but distinct species, to which they are most nearly related; -on the other hand, the gull is rather larger. The two owls, -the swallow, all three species of mocking-thrush, the dove -in its separate colours though not in its whole plumage, the -Totanus, and the gull, are likewise duskier coloured than -their analogous species; and in the case of the mocking- -thrush and Totanus, than any other species of the two genera. -With the exception of a wren with a fine yellow breast, -and of a tyrant-flycatcher with a scarlet tuft and breast, none -of the birds are brilliantly coloured, as might have been -expected in an equatorial district. Hence it would appear -probable, that the same causes which here make the immigrants -of some peculiar species smaller, make most of the -peculiar Galapageian species also smaller, as well as very -generally more dusky coloured. All the plants have a -wretched, weedy appearance, and I did not see one beautiful -flower. The insects, again, are small-sized and dull-coloured, -and, as Mr. Waterhouse informs me, there is nothing in their -general appearance which would have led him to imagine -that they had come from under the equator. [1] The birds, -plants, and insects have a desert character, and are not more -brilliantly coloured than those from southern Patagonia; we -may, therefore, conclude that the usual gaudy colouring of -the intertropical productions, is not related either to the -heat or light of those zones, but to some other cause, perhaps -to the conditions of existence being generally favourable -to life. - - -We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which gives -the most striking character to the zoology of these islands. -The species are not numerous, but the numbers of individuals -of each species are extraordinarily great. There is one -small lizard belonging to a South American genus, and two -species (and probably more) of the Amblyrhynchus -- a genus -confined to the Galapagos Islands. There is one snake which -is numerous; it is identical, as I am informed by M. Bibron, -with the Psammophis Temminckii from Chile. [2] Of sea- -turtle I believe there are more than one species, and of -tortoises there are, as we shall presently show, two or three -species or races. Of toads and frogs there are none: I was -surprised at this, considering how well suited for them the -temperate and damp upper woods appeared to be. It recalled -to my mind the remark made by Bory St. Vincent, [3] -namely, that none of this family are found on any of the -volcanic islands in the great oceans. As far as I can ascertain -from various works, this seems to hold good throughout the -Pacific, and even in the large islands of the Sandwich -archipelago. Mauritius offers an apparent exception, where I -saw the Rana Mascariensis in abundance: this frog is said -now to inhabit the Seychelles, Madagascar, and Bourbon; -but on the other hand, Du Bois, in his voyage in 1669, states -that there were no reptiles in Bourbon except tortoises; and -the Officier du Roi asserts that before 1768 it had been -attempted, without success, to introduce frogs into Mauritius --- I presume for the purpose of eating: hence it may be well -doubted whether this frog is an aboriginal of these islands. -The absence of the frog family in the oceanic islands is the -more remarkable, when contrasted with the case of lizards, -which swarm on most of the smallest islands. May this difference -not be caused, by the greater facility with which the -eggs of lizards, protected by calcareous shells might be -transported through salt-water, than could the slimy spawn -of frogs? - -I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo -nigra, formerly called Indica), which has been so frequently -alluded to. These animals are found, I believe, on all the -islands of the archipelago; certainly on the greater number. -They frequent in preference the high damp parts, but they -likewise live in the lower and arid districts. I have already -shown, from the numbers which have been caught in a single -day, how very numerous they must be. Some grow to an -immense size: Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, and vice-governor -of the colony, told us that he had seen several so large, -that it required six or eight men to lift them from the -ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred -pounds of meat. The old males are the largest, the females -rarely growing to so great a size: the male can readily be -distinguished from the female by the greater length of its -tail. The tortoises which live on those islands where there -is no water, or in the lower and arid parts of the others, feed -chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those which frequent the -higher and damp regions, eat the leaves of various trees, a -kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, -and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen (Usnera plicata), -that hangs from the boughs of the trees. - -The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, -and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone -possess springs, and these are always situated towards the -central parts, and at a considerable height. The tortoises, -therefore, which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty, -are obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence broad and -well-beaten paths branch off in every direction from the -wells down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards by following -them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I landed -at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled -so methodically along well-chosen tracks. Near the springs -it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these huge -creatures, one set eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched -necks, and another set returning, after having -drunk their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, -quite regardless of any spectator, he buries his head in the -water above his eyes, and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, -at the rate of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say -each animal stays three or four days in the neighbourhood -of the water, and then returns to the lower country; but -they differed respecting the frequency of these visits. The -animal probably regulates them according to the nature of -the food on which it has lived. It is, however, certain, that -tortoises can subsist even on these islands where there is no -other water than what falls during a few rainy days in the -year. - -I believe it is well ascertained, that the bladder of the frog -acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence: -such seems to be the case with the tortoise. For some -time after a visit to the springs, their urinary bladders are -distended with fluid, which is said gradually to decrease in -volume, and to become less pure. The inhabitants, when -walking in the lower district, and overcome with thirst, often -take advantage of this circumstance, and drink the contents -of the bladder if full: in one I saw killed, the fluid was quite -limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The -inhabitants, however, always first drink the water in the -pericardium, which is described as being best. - -The tortoises, when purposely moving towards any point, -travel by night and day, and arrive at their journey's end -much sooner than would be expected. The inhabitants, from -observing marked individuals, consider that they travel a -distance of about eight miles in two or three days. One large -tortoise, which I watched, walked at the rate of sixty yards -in ten minutes, that is 360 yards in the hour, or four miles a -day, -- allowing a little time for it to eat on the road. During -the breeding season, when the male and female are together, -the male utters a hoarse roar or bellowing, which, it is said, -can be heard at the distance of more than a hundred yards. -The female never uses her voice, and the male only at these -times; so that when the people hear this noise, they know -that the two are together. They were at this time (October) -laying their eggs. The female, where the soil is sandy, deposits -them together, and covers them up with sand; but -where the ground is rocky she drops them indiscriminately -in any hole: Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a fissure. The -egg is white and spherical; one which I measured was seven -inches and three-eighths in circumference, and therefore -larger than a hen's egg. The young tortoises, as soon as they -are hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the carrion- -feeding buzzard. The old ones seem generally to die from -accidents, as from falling down precipices: at least, several -of the inhabitants told me, that they never found one dead -without some evident cause. - -The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely -deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking close -behind them. I was always amused when overtaking one of -these great monsters, as it was quietly pacing along, to see -how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head -and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a -heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on their -backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their -shells, they would rise up and walk away; -- but I found it -very difficult to keep my balance. The flesh of this animal is -largely employed, both fresh and salted; and a beautifully -clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, -the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see -inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is -thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated and it is said to -recover soon from this strange operation. In order to secure -the tortoise, it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle, for -they are often able to get on their legs again. - -There can be little doubt that this tortoise is an aboriginal -inhabitant of the Galapagos; for it is found on all, or nearly -all, the islands, even on some of the smaller ones where there -is no water; had it been an imported species, this would -hardly have been the case in a group which has been so little -frequented. Moreover, the old Bucaniers found this tortoise -in greater numbers even than at present: Wood and Rogers -also, in 1708, say that it is the opinion of the Spaniards, that -it is found nowhere else in this quarter of the world. It is -now widely distributed; but it may be questioned whether -it is in any other place an aboriginal. The bones of a tortoise -at Mauritius, associated with those of the extinct Dodo, -have generally been considered as belonging to this tortoise; -if this had been so, undoubtedly it must have been there -indigenous; but M. Bibron informs me that he believes that -it was distinct, as the species now living there certainly is. - -The Amblyrhynchus, a remarkable genus of lizards, is confined -to this archipelago; there are two species, resembling - -[picture] - -each other in general form, one being terrestrial and the -other aquatic. This latter species (A. cristatus) was first -characterized by Mr. Bell, who well foresaw, from its short, -broad head, and strong claws of equal length, that its habits -of life would turn out very peculiar, and different from those -of its nearest ally, the Iguana. It is extremely common on all -the islands throughout the group, and lives exclusively on the -rocky sea-beaches, being never found, at least I never saw -one, even ten yards in-shore. It is a hideous-looking creature, -of a dirty black colour, stupid, and sluggish in its movements. -The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard, -but there are some even four feet long; a large one weighed -twenty pounds: on the island of Albemarle they seem to -grow to a greater size than elsewhere. Their tails are flattened -sideways, and all four feet partially webbed. They are -occasionally seen some hundred yards from the shore, -swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his Voyage says, -"They go to sea in herds a-fishing, and sun themselves on -the rocks; and may be called alligators in miniature." It -must not, however, be supposed that they live on fish. When -in the water this lizard swims with perfect ease and quickness, -by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail --- the legs being motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. -A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight attached -to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when, an hour -afterwards, he drew up the line, it was quite active. Their -limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over -the rugged and fissured masses of lava, which everywhere form -the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of -these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black -rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with -outstretched legs. - -I opened the stomachs of several, and found them largely -distended with minced sea-weed (Ulvae), which grows in -thin foliaceous expansions of a bright green or a dull red -colour. I do not recollect having observed this sea-weed in -any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to believe -it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from -the coast. If such be the case, the object of these animals -occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach -contained nothing but the sea-weed. Mr. Baynoe, however, found -a piece of crab in one; but this might have got in accidentally, -in the same manner as I have seen a caterpillar, in -the midst of some lichen, in the paunch of a tortoise. The -intestines were large, as in other herbivorous animals. The -nature of this lizard's food, as well as the structure of its -tail and feet, and the fact of its having been seen voluntarily -swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; -yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, that -when frightened it will not enter the water. Hence it is -easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging -the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch -hold of their tails than jump into the water. They do not -seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened -they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. I threw one -several times as far as I could, into a deep pool left by the -retiring tide; but it invariably returned in a direct line to -the spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom, with a -very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided -itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it -arrived near the edge, but still being under water, it tried to -conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some -crevice. As soon as it thought the danger was past, it -crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away as quickly -as it could. I several times caught this same lizard, by driving -it down to a point, and though possessed of such perfect -powers of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it to -enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in -the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of -apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance, -that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, -whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous -sharks. Hence, probably, urged by a fixed and hereditary -instinct that the shore is its place of safety, whatever the -emergency may be, it there takes refuge. - -During our visit (in October), I saw extremely few small -individuals of this species, and none I should think under -a year old. From this circumstance it seems probable that -the breeding season had not then commenced. I asked several -of the inhabitants if they knew where it laid its eggs: -they said that they knew nothing of its propagation, although -well acquainted with the eggs of the land kind -- a fact, -considering how very common this lizard is, not a little -extraordinary. - -We will now turn to the terrestrial species (A. Demarlii), -with a round tail, and toes without webs. This lizard, -instead of being found like the other on all the islands, is -confined to the central part of the archipelago, namely to -Albemarle, James, Barrington, and Indefatigable islands. To -the southward, in Charles, Hood, and Chatham islands, and -to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and Abingdon, I -neither saw nor heard of any. It would appear as if it had -been created in the centre of the archipelago, and thence had -been dispersed only to a certain distance. Some of these -lizards inhabit the high and damp parts of the islands, but -they are much more numerous in the lower and sterile -districts near the coast. I cannot give a more forcible proof -of their numbers, than by stating that when we were left at -James Island, we could not for some time find a spot free -from their burrows on which to pitch our single tent. Like -their brothers the sea-kind, they are ugly animals, of a -yellowish orange beneath, and of a brownish red colour above: -from their low facial angle they have a singularly stupid -appearance. They are, perhaps, of a rather less size than the -marine species; but several of them weighed between ten and -fifteen pounds. In their movements they are lazy and half -torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along with -their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They often -stop, and doze for a minute or two, with closed eyes and hind -legs spread out on the parched soil. - -They inhabit burrows, which they sometimes make between -fragments of lava, but more generally on level patches of the -soft sandstone-like tuff. The holes do not appear to be very -deep, and they enter the ground at a small angle; so that -when walking over these lizard-warrens, the soil is constantly -giving way, much to the annoyance of the tired walker. This -animal, when making its burrow, works alternately the opposite -sides of its body. One front leg for a short time -scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, -which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of -the hole. That side of the body being tired, the other takes -up the task, and so on alternately. I watched one for a long -time, till half its body was buried; I then walked up and pulled -it by the tail, at this it was greatly astonished, and soon -shuffled up to see what was the matter; and then stared me -in the face, as much as to say, "What made you pull my -tail?" - -They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; -if frightened, they rush to them with a most awkward -gait. Except when running down hill, they cannot move -very fast, apparently from the lateral position of their legs. -They are not at all timorous: when attentively watching any -one, they curl their tails, and, raising themselves on their -front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a quick movement, -and try to look very fierce; but in reality they are not at all -so: if one just stamps on the ground, down go their tails, -and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have frequently -observed small fly-eating lizards, when watching anything, -nod their heads in precisely the same manner; but I do not -at all know for what purpose. If this Amblyrhynchus is held -and plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely; but -I caught many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. -If two are placed on the ground and held together, they will -fight, and bite each other till blood is drawn. - -The individuals, and they are the greater number, which -inhabit the lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water -throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent -cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off -by the wind. I several times threw a piece to two or three -of them when together; and it was amusing enough to see -them trying to seize and carry it away in their mouths, like -so many hungry dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, -but do not chew their food. The little birds are aware -how harmless these creatures are: I have seen one of the -thick-billed finches picking at one end of a piece of cactus -(which is much relished by all the animals of the lower -region), whilst a lizard was eating at the other end; and -afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped -on the back of the reptile. - -I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of -vegetable fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of -an acacia. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid -and astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees -I have seen these lizards and the huge tortoises feeding -together. To obtain the acacia-leaves they crawl up the low -stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see a pair quietly -browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet above the -ground. These lizards, when cooked, yield a white meat, -which is liked by those whose stomachs soar above all -prejudices. - -Humboldt has remarked that in intertropical South -America, all lizards which inhabit dry regions are esteemed -delicacies for the table. The inhabitants state that those -which inhabit the upper damp parts drink water, but that -the others do not, like the tortoises, travel up for it from -the lower sterile country. At the time of our visit, the -females had within their bodies numerous, large, elongated -eggs, which they lay in their burrows: the inhabitants seek -them for food. - -These two species of Amblyrhynchus agree, as I have -already stated, in their general structure, and in many of -their habits. Neither have that rapid movement, so -characteristic of the genera Lacerta and Iguana. They are both -herbivorous, although the kind of vegetation on which they -feed is so very different. Mr. Bell has given the name to the -genus from the shortness of the snout: indeed, the form of -the mouth may almost be compared to that of the tortoise: -one is led to suppose that this is an adaptation to their -herbivorous appetites. It is very interesting thus to find a -well-characterized genus, having its marine and terrestrial -species, belonging to so confined a portion of the world. The -aquatic species is by far the most remarkable, because it is -the only existing lizard which lives on marine vegetable -productions. As I at first observed, these islands are not so -remarkable for the number of the species of reptiles, as for -that of the individuals, when we remember the well-beaten -paths made by the thousands of huge tortoises -- the many -turtles -- the great warrens of the terrestrial Amblyrhynchus --- and the groups of the marine species basking on the coast- -rocks of every island -- we must admit that there is no other -quarter of the world where this Order replaces the herbivorous -mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. The geologist -on hearing this will probably refer back in his mind to the -Secondary epochs, when lizards, some herbivorous, some -carnivorous, and of dimensions comparable only with our -existing whales, swarmed on the land and in the sea. It is, -therefore, worthy of his observation, that this archipelago, -instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation, -cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid, and, for -an equatorial region, remarkably temperate. - -To finish with the zoology: the fifteen kinds of sea-fish -which I procured here are all new species; they belong to -twelve genera, all widely distributed, with the exception of -Prionotus, of which the four previously known species live -on the eastern side of America. Of land-shells I collected -sixteen kinds (and two marked varieties), of which, with the -exception of one Helix found at Tahiti, all are peculiar to -this archipelago: a single fresh-water shell (Paludina) is -common to Tahiti and Van Diemen's Land. Mr. Cuming, -before our voyage procured here ninety species of sea-shells, -and this does not include several species not yet specifically -examined, of Trochus, Turbo, Monodonta, and Nassa. He -has been kind enough to give me the following interesting -results: Of the ninety shells, no less than forty-seven are -unknown elsewhere -- a wonderful fact, considering how -widely distributed sea-shells generally are. Of the forty- -three shells found in other parts of the world, twenty-five -inhabit the western coast of America, and of these eight are -distinguishable as varieties; the remaining eighteen (including -one variety) were found by Mr. Cuming in the Low -Archipelago, and some of them also at the Philippines. This -fact of shells from islands in the central parts of the Pacific -occurring here, deserves notice, for not one single sea-shell is -known to be common to the islands of that ocean and to the -west coast of America. The space of open sea running north -and south off the west coast, separates two quite distinct -conchological provinces; but at the Galapagos Archipelago -we have a halting-place, where many new forms have been -created, and whither these two great conchological provinces -have each sent up several colonists. The American province -has also sent here representative species; for there is a -Galapageian species of Monoceros, a genus only found on the -west coast of America; and there are Galapageian species -of Fissurella and Cancellaria, genera common on the west -coast, but not found (as I am informed by Mr. Cuming) in -the central islands of the Pacific. On the other hand, there -are Galapageian species of Oniscia and Stylifer, genera common -to the West Indies and to the Chinese and Indian seas, -but not found either on the west coast of America or in the -central Pacific. I may here add, that after the comparison -by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells from -the eastern and western coasts of America, only one single -shell was found in common, namely, the Purpura patula, -which inhabits the West Indies, the coast of Panama, -and the Galapagos. We have, therefore, in this quarter -of the world, three great conchological sea-provinces, quite -distinct, though surprisingly near each other, being separated -by long north and south spaces either of land or of -open sea. - -I took great pains in collecting the insects, but excepting -Tierra del Fuego, I never saw in this respect so poor a country. -Even in the upper and damp region I procured very few, -excepting some minute Diptera and Hymenoptera, mostly of -common mundane forms. As before remarked, the insects, -for a tropical region, are of very small size and dull colours. -Of beetles I collected twenty-five species (excluding a -Dermestes and Corynetes imported, wherever a ship touches); -of these, two belong to the Harpalidae, two to the -Hydrophilidae, nine to three families of the Heteromera, and the -remaining twelve to as many different families. This -circumstance of insects (and I may add plants), where few in -number, belonging to many different families, is, I believe, -very general. Mr. Waterhouse, who has published [4] an -account of the insects of this archipelago, and to whom I am -indebted for the above details, informs me that there are -several new genera: and that of the genera not new, one -or two are American, and the rest of mundane distribution. -With the exception of a wood-feeding Apate, and of one or -probably two water-beetles from the American continent, -all the species appear to be new. - -The botany of this group is fully as interesting as the -zoology. Dr. J. Hooker will soon publish in the "Linnean -Transactions" a full account of the Flora, and I am much -indebted to him for the following details. Of flowering -plants there are, as far as at present is known, 185 species, -and 40 cryptogamic species, making altogether 225; of this -number I was fortunate enough to bring home 193. Of the -flowering plants, 100 are new species, and are probably confined -to this archipelago. Dr. Hooker conceives that, of the -plants not so confined, at least 10 species found near the -cultivated ground at Charles Island, have been imported. -It is, I think, surprising that more American species have -not been introduced naturally, considering that the distance -is only between 500 and 600 miles from the continent, and -that (according to Collnet, p. 58) drift-wood, bamboos, canes, -and the nuts of a palm, are often washed on the south-eastern -shores. The proportion of 100 flowering plants out of 183 -(or 175 excluding the imported weeds) being new, is sufficient, -I conceive, to make the Galapagos Archipelago a distinct -botanical province; but this Flora is not nearly so -peculiar as that of St. Helena, nor, as I am informed by -Dr. Hooker, of Juan Fernandez. The peculiarity of the -Galapageian Flora is best shown in certain families; -- thus -there are 21 species of Compositae, of which 20 are peculiar -to this archipelago; these belong to twelve genera, and of -these genera no less than ten are confined to the archipelago! -Dr. Hooker informs me that the Flora has an undoubtedly -Western American character; nor can he detect in it any -affinity with that of the Pacific. If, therefore, we except the -eighteen marine, the one fresh-water, and one land-shell, -which have apparently come here as colonists from the -central islands of the Pacific, and likewise the one distinct -Pacific species of the Galapageian group of finches, we see -that this archipelago, though standing in the Pacific Ocean, -is zoologically part of America. - -If this character were owing merely to immigrants from -America, there would be little remarkable in it; but we see -that a vast majority of all the land animals, and that more -than half of the flowering plants, are aboriginal productions -It was most striking to be surrounded by new birds, new -reptiles, new shells, new insects, new plants, and yet by -innumerable trifling details of structure, and even by the tones -of voice and plumage of the birds, to have the temperate plains -of Patagonia, or rather the hot dry deserts of Northern Chile, -vividly brought before my eyes. Why, on these small points -of land, which within a late geological period must have -been covered by the ocean, which are formed by basaltic lava, -and therefore differ in geological character from the American -continent, and which are placed under a peculiar climate, --- why were their aboriginal inhabitants, associated, I may -add, in different proportions both in kind and number from -those on the continent, and therefore acting on each other -in a different manner -- why were they created on American -types of organization? It is probable that the islands of the -Cape de Verd group resemble, in all their physical conditions, -far more closely the Galapagos Islands, than these latter -physically resemble the coast of America, yet the aboriginal -inhabitants of the two groups are totally unlike; those of the -Cape de Verd Islands bearing the impress of Africa, as -the inhabitants of the Galapagos Archipelago are stamped -with that of America. - -I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature -in the natural history of this archipelago; it is, that -the different islands to a considerable extent are inhabited by -a different set of beings. My attention was first called to -this fact by the Vice-Governor, Mr. Lawson, declaring that -the tortoises differed from the different islands, and that he -could with certainty tell from which island any one was -brought. I did not for some time pay sufficient attention -to this statement, and I had already partially mingled together -the collections from two of the islands. I never -dreamed that islands, about 50 or 60 miles apart, and most of -them in sight of each other, formed of precisely the same -rocks, placed under a quite similar climate, rising to a nearly -equal height, would have been differently tenanted; but we -shall soon see that this is the case. It is the fate of most -voyagers, no sooner to discover what is most interesting in -any locality, than they are hurried from it; but I ought, -perhaps, to be thankful that I obtained sufficient materials to -establish this most remarkable fact in the distribution of -organic beings. - -The inhabitants, as I have said, state that they can distinguish -the tortoises from the different islands; and that -they differ not only in size, but in other characters. Captain -Porter has described [5] those from Charles and from the nearest -island to it, namely, Hood Island, as having their shells -in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, whilst -the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and -have a better taste when cooked. M. Bibron, moreover, -informs me that he has seen what he considers two distinct -species of tortoise from the Galapagos, but he does not know -from which islands. The specimens that I brought from -three islands were young ones: and probably owing to this -cause neither Mr. Gray nor myself could find in them any -specific differences. I have remarked that the marine -Amblyrhynchus was larger at Albemarle Island than elsewhere; -and M. Bibron informs me that he has seen two distinct -aquatic species of this genus; so that the different -islands probably have their representative species or races -of the Amblyrhynchus, as well as of the tortoise. My attention -was first thoroughly aroused, by comparing together -the numerous specimens, shot by myself and several other -parties on board, of the mocking-thrushes, when, to my -astonishment, I discovered that all those from Charles Island -belonged to one species (Mimus trifasciatus) all from -Albemarle Island to M. parvulus; and all from James and -Chatham Islands (between which two other islands are situated, -as connecting links) belonged to M. melanotis. These -two latter species are closely allied, and would by some -ornithologists be considered as only well-marked races or -varieties; but the Mimus trifasciatus is very distinct. -Unfortunately most of the specimens of the finch tribe were -mingled together; but I have strong reasons to suspect that -some of the species of the sub-group Geospiza are confined -to separate islands. If the different islands have their -representatives of Geospiza, it may help to explain the -singularly large number of the species of this sub-group in this -one small archipelago, and as a probable consequence of their -numbers, the perfectly graduated series in the size of their -beaks. Two species of the sub-group Cactornis, and two of -the Camarhynchus, were procured in the archipelago; and -of the numerous specimens of these two sub-groups shot by -four collectors at James Island, all were found to belong to -one species of each; whereas the numerous specimens shot -either on Chatham or Charles Island (for the two sets were -mingled together) all belonged to the two other species: -hence we may feel almost sure that these islands possess -their respective species of these two sub-groups. In land- -shells this law of distribution does not appear to hold good. -In my very small collection of insects, Mr. Waterhouse -remarks, that of those which were ticketed with their locality, -not one was common to any two of the islands. - -If we now turn to the Flora, we shall find the aboriginal -plants of the different islands wonderfully different. I give -all the following results on the high authority of my friend -Dr. J. Hooker. I may premise that I indiscriminately collected -everything in flower on the different islands, and fortunately -kept my collections separate. Too much confidence, -however, must not be placed in the proportional results, as -the small collections brought home by some other naturalists -though in some respects confirming the results, plainly show -that much remains to be done in the botany of this group: -the Leguminosae, moreover, has as yet been only approximately -worked out: -- - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Number of - Species - confined - to the - Number of Number of Galapagos - species species Number Archipelago - Total found in confined confined but found -Name Number other to the to the on more -of of parts of Galapagos one than the -Island Species the world Archipelago island one island ----------------------------------------------------------------- -James 71 33 38 30 8 -Albemarle 4 18 26 22 4 -Chatham 32 16 16 12 4 -Charles 68 39 29 21 8 - (or 29, if - the probably - imported - plants be - subtracted.) ----------------------------------------------------------------- - -Hence we have the truly wonderful fact, that in James -Island, of the thirty-eight Galapageian plants, or those found -in no other part of the world, thirty are exclusively confined -to this one island; and in Albemarle Island, of the twenty- -six aboriginal Galapageian plants, twenty-two are confined -to this one island, that is, only four are at present known to -grow in the other islands of the archipelago; and so on, as -shown in the above table, with the plants from Chatham and -Charles Islands. This fact will, perhaps, be rendered even -more striking, by giving a few illustrations: -- thus, Scalesia, -a remarkable arborescent genus of the Compositae, is confined -to the archipelago: it has six species: one from Chatham, -one from Albemarle, one from Charles Island, two from -James Island, and the sixth from one of the three latter -islands, but it is not known from which: not one of these six -species grows on any two islands. Again, Euphorbia, a mundane -or widely distributed genus, has here eight species, of -which seven are confined to the archipelago, and not one -found on any two islands: Acalypha and Borreria, both mundane -genera, have respectively six and seven species, none -of which have the same species on two islands, with the -exception of one Borreria, which does occur on two islands. -The species of the Compositae are particularly local; and Dr. -Hooker has furnished me with several other most striking -illustrations of the difference of the species on the different -islands. He remarks that this law of distribution holds good -both with those genera confined to the archipelago, and those -distributed in other quarters of the world: in like manner -we have seen that the different islands have their proper -species of the mundane genus of tortoise, and of the widely -distributed American genus of the mocking-thrush, as well -as of two of the Galapageian sub-groups of finches, and -almost certainly of the Galapageian genus Amblyrhynchus. - -The distribution of the tenants of this archipelago would -not be nearly so wonderful, if, for instance, one island had -a mocking-thrush, and a second island some other quite distinct -genus, -- if one island had its genus of lizard, and a -second island another distinct genus, or none whatever; -- or -if the different islands were inhabited, not by representative -species of the same genera of plants, but by totally different -genera, as does to a certain extent hold good: for, to give -one instance, a large berry-bearing tree at James Island has -no representative species in Charles Island. But it is the -circumstance, that several of the islands possess their own -species of the tortoise, mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous -plants, these species having the same general habits, -occupying analogous situations, and obviously filling the -same place in the natural economy of this archipelago, that -strikes me with wonder. It may be suspected that some of -these representative species, at least in the case of the -tortoise and of some of the birds, may hereafter prove to be -only well-marked races; but this would be of equally great -interest to the philosophical naturalist. I have said that most -of the islands are in sight of each other: I may specify that -Charles Island is fifty miles from the nearest part of Chatham -Island, and thirty-three miles from the nearest part of -Albemarle Island. Chatham Island is sixty miles from the -nearest part of James Island, but there are two intermediate -islands between them which were not visited by me. James -Island is only ten miles from the nearest part of Albemarle -Island, but the two points where the collections were made -are thirty-two miles apart. I must repeat, that neither the -nature of the soil, nor height of the land, nor the climate, -nor the general character of the associated beings, and -therefore their action one on another, can differ much in the -different islands. If there be any sensible difference in their -climates, it must be between the Windward group (namely, -Charles and Chatham Islands), and that to leeward; but -there seems to be no corresponding difference in the productions -of these two halves of the archipelago. - -The only light which I can throw on this remarkable difference -in the inhabitants of the different islands, is, that -very strong currents of the sea running in a westerly and -W.N.W. direction must separate, as far as transportal by the -sea is concerned, the southern islands from the northern -ones; and between these northern islands a strong N.W. current -was observed, which must effectually separate James -and Albemarle Islands. As the archipelago is free to a -most remarkable degree from gales of wind, neither the -birds, insects, nor lighter seeds, would be blown from island -to island. And lastly, the profound depth of the ocean between -the islands, and their apparently recent (in a geological -sense) volcanic origin, render it highly unlikely that they -were ever united; and this, probably, is a far more important -consideration than any other, with respect to the geographical -distribution of their inhabitants. Reviewing the facts -here given, one is astonished at the amount of creative force, -if such an expression may be used, displayed on these small, -barren, and rocky islands; and still more so, at its diverse -yet analogous action on points so near each other. I have -said that the Galapagos Archipelago might be called a satellite -attached to America, but it should rather be called a -group of satellites, physically similar, organically distinct, -yet intimately related to each other, and all related in a -marked, though much lesser degree, to the great American -continent. - -I will conclude my description of the natural history of -these islands, by giving an account of the extreme tameness -of the birds. - -This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; -namely, to the mocking-thrushes, the finches, wrens, tyrant- -flycatchers, the dove, and carrion-buzzard. All of them are -often approached sufficiently near to be killed with a switch, -and sometimes, as I myself tried, with a cap or hat. A gun -is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle I pushed a -hawk off the branch of a tree. One day, whilst lying down, -a mocking-thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of -the shell of a tortoise, which I held in my hand, and began -very quietly to sip the water; it allowed me to lift it from -the ground whilst seated on the vessel: I often tried, and -very nearly succeeded, in catching these birds by their legs. -Formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer than at -present. Cowley (in the year 1684) says that the "Turtledoves -were so tame, that they would often alight on our hats -and arms, so as that we could take them alive, they not fearing -man, until such time as some of our company did fire at -them, whereby they were rendered more shy." Dampier -also, in the same year, says that a man in a morning's walk -might kill six or seven dozen of these doves. At present, -although certainly very tame, they do not alight on people's -arms, nor do they suffer themselves to be killed in such large -numbers. It is surprising that they have not become wilder; -for these islands during the last hundred and fifty years have -been frequently visited by bucaniers and whalers; and the -sailors, wandering through the wood in search of tortoises, -always take cruel delight in knocking down the little birds. -These birds, although now still more persecuted, do not -readily become wild. In Charles Island, which had then -been colonized about six years, I saw a boy sitting by a well -with a switch in his hand, with which he killed the doves -and finches as they came to drink. He had already procured -a little heap of them for his dinner, and he said that he had -constantly been in the habit of waiting by this well for the -same purpose. It would appear that the birds of this -archipelago, not having as yet learnt that man is a more -dangerous animal than the tortoise or the Amblyrhynchus, -disregard him, in the same manner as in England shy birds, such -as magpies, disregard the cows and horses grazing in our fields. - -The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of birds -with a similar disposition. The extraordinary tameness of -the little Opetiorhynchus has been remarked by Pernety, -Lesson, and other voyagers. It is not, however, peculiar to -that bird: the Polyborus, snipe, upland and lowland goose, -thrush, bunting, and even some true hawks, are all more or -less tame. As the birds are so tame there, where foxes, -hawks, and owls occur, we may infer that the absence of all -rapacious animals at the Galapagos, is not the cause of their -tameness here. The upland geese at the Falklands show, by -the precaution they take in building on the islets, that they -are aware of their danger from the foxes; but they are not -by this rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the -birds, especially of the water-fowl, is strongly contrasted with -the habits of the same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for -ages past they have been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. -In the Falklands, the sportsman may sometimes kill more -of the upland geese in one day than he can carry home; -whereas in Tierra del Fuego it is nearly as difficult to kill -one, as it is in England to shoot the common wild goose. - -In the time of Pernety (1763), all the birds there appear -to have been much tamer than at present; he states that the -Opetiorhynchus would almost perch on his finger; and that -with a wand he killed ten in half an hour. At that period -the birds must have been about as tame as they now are at -the Galapagos. They appear to have learnt caution more -slowly at these latter islands than at the Falklands, where -they have had proportionate means of experience; for besides -frequent visits from vessels, those islands have been at -intervals colonized during the entire period. Even formerly, -when all the birds were so tame, it was impossible by Pernety's -account to kill the black-necked swan -- a bird of -passage, which probably brought with it the wisdom learnt -in foreign countries. - -I may add that, according to Du Bois, all the birds at -Bourbon in 1571-72, with the exception of the flamingoes -and geese, were so extremely tame, that they could be caught -by the hand, or killed in any number with a stick. Again, -at Tristan d'Acunha in the Atlantic, Carmichael [6] states that -the only two land-birds, a thrush and a bunting, were "so -tame as to suffer themselves to be caught with a hand-net." -From these several facts we may, I think, conclude, first, that -the wildness of birds with regard to man, is a particular -instinct directed against _him_, and not dependent upon any -general degree of caution arising from other sources of -danger; secondly, that it is not acquired by individual birds -in a short time, even when much persecuted; but that in the -course of successive generations it becomes hereditary. With -domesticated animals we are accustomed to see new mental -habits or instincts acquired or rendered hereditary; but with -animals in a state of nature, it must always be most difficult -to discover instances of acquired hereditary knowledge. In -regard to the wildness of birds towards man, there is no way -of accounting for it, except as an inherited habit: -comparatively few young birds, in any one year, have been -injured by man in England, yet almost all, even nestlings, are -afraid of him; many individuals, on the other hand, both at the -Galapagos and at the Falklands, have been pursued and -injured by man, yet have not learned a salutary dread of -him. We may infer from these facts, what havoc the introduction -of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, -before the instincts of the indigenous inhabitants have -become adapted to the stranger's craft or power. - -[1] The progress of research has shown that some of these birds, -which were then thought to be confined to the islands, occur on -the American continent. The eminent ornithologist, Mr. Sclater, -informs me that this is the case with the Strix punctatissima -and Pyrocephalus nanus; and probably with the Otus Galapagoensis -and Zenaida Galapagoensis: so that the number of endemic birds -is reduced to twenty-three, or probably to twenty-one. Mr. -Sclater thinks that one or two of these endemic forms should be -ranked rather as varieties than species, which always seemed to -me probable. - -[2] This is stated by Dr. Gunther (Zoolog. Soc. Jan 24th, -1859) to be a peculiar species, not known to inhabit any other -country. - -[3] Voyage aux Quatre Iles d'Afrique. With respect to the -Sandwich Islands, see Tyerman and Bennett's Journal, vol. i. -p. 434. For Mauritius, see Voyage par un Officier, etc., -part i. p. 170. There are no frogs in the Canary Islands -(Webb et Berthelot, Hist. Nat. des Iles Canaries). I saw -none at St. Jago in the Cape de Verds. There are none at -St. Helena. - -[4] Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. xvi. p. 19. - -[5] Voyage in the U. S. ship Essex, vol. i. p. 215. - -[6] Linn. Trans., vol. xii. p. 496. The most anomalous fact on -this subject which I have met with is the wildness of the small -birds in the Arctic parts of North America (as described by -Richardson, Fauna Bor., vol. ii. p. 332), where they are said -never to be persecuted. This case is the more strange, because -it is asserted that some of the same species in their winter- -quarters in the United States are tame. There is much, as Dr. -Richardson well remarks, utterly inexplicable connected with the -different degrees of shyness and care with which birds conceal -their nests. How strange it is that the English wood-pigeon, -generally so wild a bird, should very frequently rear its young -in shrubberies close to houses! - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -TAHITI AND NEW ZEALAND - -Pass through the Low Archipelago -- Tahiti -- Aspect -- -Vegetation on the Mountains -- View of Eimeo -- Excursion into -the Interior -- Profound Ravines -- Succession of Waterfalls -- -Number of wild useful Plants -- Temperance of the Inhabitants -- -Their moral state -- Parliament convened -- New Zealand -- Bay -of Islands -- Hippahs -- Excursion to Waimate -- Missionary -Establishment -- English Weeds now run wild -- Waiomio -- -Funeral of a New Zealand Woman -- Sail for Australia. - - -OCTOBER 20th. -- The survey of the Galapagos Archipelago -being concluded, we steered towards Tahiti -and commenced our long passage of 3200 miles. In -the course of a few days we sailed out of the gloomy and -clouded ocean-district which extends during the winter far -from the coast of South America. We then enjoyed bright -and clear weather, while running pleasantly along at the -rate of 150 or 160 miles a day before the steady trade-wind. -The temperature in this more central part of the Pacific is -higher than near the American shore. The thermometer in -the poop cabin, by night and day, ranged between 80 and -83 degs., which feels very pleasant; but with one degree or two -higher, the heat becomes oppressive. We passed through -the Low or Dangerous Archipelago, and saw several of -those most curious rings of coral land, just rising above the -water's edge, which have been called Lagoon Islands. A -long and brilliantly white beach is capped by a margin of -green vegetation; and the strip, looking either way, rapidly -narrows away in the distance, and sinks beneath the horizon -From the mast-head a wide expanse of smooth water can be -seen within the ring. These low hollow coral islands bear -no proportion to the vast ocean out of which they abruptly -rise; and it seems wonderful, that such weak invaders are -not overwhelmed, by the all-powerful and never-tiring waves -of that great sea, miscalled the Pacific. - -November 15th. -- At daylight, Tahiti, an island which -must for ever remain classical to the voyager in the South -Sea, was in view. At a distance the appearance was not -attractive. The luxuriant vegetation of the lower part could -not yet be seen, and as the clouds rolled past, the wildest -and most precipitous peaks showed themselves towards the -centre of the island. As soon as we anchored in Matavai -Bay, we were surrounded by canoes. This was our Sunday, -but the Monday of Tahiti: if the case had been reversed, -we should not have received a single visit; for the injunction -not to launch a canoe on the sabbath is rigidly obeyed. -After dinner we landed to enjoy all the delights produced -by the first impressions of a new country, and that country -the charming Tahiti. A crowd of men, women, and children, -was collected on the memorable Point Venus, ready to -receive us with laughing, merry faces. They marshalled -us towards the house of Mr. Wilson, the missionary of the -district, who met us on the road, and gave us a very friendly -reception. After sitting a very short time in his house, we -separated to walk about, but returned there in the evening. - -The land capable of cultivation, is scarcely in any part -more than a fringe of low alluvial soil, accumulated round -the base of the mountains, and protected from the waves of -the sea by a coral reef, which encircles the entire line of -coast. Within the reef there is an expanse of smooth water, -like that of a lake, where the canoes of the natives can ply -with safety and where ships anchor. The low land which -comes down to the beach of coral-sand, is covered by the -most beautiful productions of the intertropical regions. In -the midst of bananas, orange, cocoa-nut, and bread-fruit -trees, spots are cleared where yams, sweet potatoes, and -sugar-cane, and pine-apples are cultivated. Even the brushwood -is an imported fruit-tree, namely, the guava, which -from its abundance has become as noxious as a weed. In -Brazil I have often admired the varied beauty of the -bananas, palms, and orange-trees contrasted together; and -here we also have the bread-fruit, conspicuous from its large, -glossy, and deeply digitated leaf. It is admirable to behold -groves of a tree, sending forth its branches with the vigour -of an English oak, loaded with large and most nutritious -fruit. However seldom the usefulness of an object can -account for the pleasure of beholding it, in the case of these -beautiful woods, the knowledge of their high productiveness -no doubt enters largely into the feeling of admiration. The -little winding paths, cool from the surrounding shade, led -to the scattered houses; the owners of which everywhere -gave us a cheerful and most hospitable reception. - -I was pleased with nothing so much as with the inhabitants. -There is a mildness in the expression of their countenances -which at once banishes the idea of a savage; and -intelligence which shows that they are advancing in -civilization. The common people, when working, keep the upper -part of their bodies quite naked; and it is then that the -Tahitians are seen to advantage. They are very tall, broad- -shouldered, athletic, and well-proportioned. It has been -remarked, that it requires little habit to make a dark skin -more pleasing and natural to the eye of an European than -his own colour. A white man bathing by the side of a -Tahitian, was like a plant bleached by the gardener's art -compared with a fine dark green one growing vigorously in -the open fields. Most of the men are tattooed, and the ornaments -follow the curvature of the body so gracefully, that -they have a very elegant effect. One common pattern, varying -in its details, is somewhat like the crown of a palm-tree. -It springs from the central line of the back, and gracefully -curls round both sides. The simile may be a fanciful one, -but I thought the body of a man thus ornamented was like -the trunk of a, noble tree embraced by a delicate creeper. - -Many of the elder people had their feet covered with -small figures, so placed as to resemble a sock. This fashion, -however, is partly gone by, and has been succeeded by others. -Here, although fashion is far from immutable, every one -must abide by that prevailing in his youth. An old man -has thus his age for ever stamped on his body, and he cannot -assume the airs of a young dandy. The women are tattooed -in the same manner as the men, and very commonly on their -fingers. One unbecoming fashion is now almost universal: -namely, shaving the hair from the upper part of the head, -in a circular form, so as to leave only an outer ring. The -missionaries have tried to persuade the people to change this -habit; but it is the fashion, and that is a sufficient answer -at Tahiti, as well as at Paris. I was much disappointed in -the personal appearance of the women: they are far inferior -in every respect to the men. The custom of wearing a white -or scarlet flower in the back of the head, or through a small -hole in each ear, is pretty. A crown of woven cocoa-nut -leaves is also worn as a shade for the eyes. The women -appear to be in greater want of some becoming costume even -than the men. - -Nearly all the natives understand a little English -- that is, -they know the names of common things; and by the aid of -this, together with signs, a lame sort of conversation could -be carried on. In returning in the evening to the boat, we -stopped to witness a very pretty scene. Numbers of children -were playing on the beach, and had lighted bonfires -which illumined the placid sea and surrounding trees; -others, in circles, were singing Tahitian verses. We seated -ourselves on the sand, and joined their party. The songs -were impromptu, and I believe related to our arrival: one -little girl sang a line, which the rest took up in parts, -forming a very pretty chorus. The whole scene made us -unequivocally aware that we were seated on the shores of an -island in the far-famed South Sea. - -17th. -- This day is reckoned in the log-book as Tuesday -the 17th, instead of Monday the 16th, owing to our, so far, -successful chase of the sun. Before breakfast the ship was -hemmed in by a flotilla of canoes; and when the natives -were allowed to come on board, I suppose there could not -have been less than two hundred. It was the opinion of -every one that it would have been difficult to have picked out -an equal number from any other nation, who would have -given so little trouble. Everybody brought something for -sale: shells were the main articles of trade. The Tahitians -now fully understand the value of money, and prefer it to -old clothes or other articles. The various coins, however, of -English and Spanish denomination puzzle them, and they -never seemed to think the small silver quite secure until -changed into dollars. Some of the chiefs have accumulated -considerable sums of money. One chief, not long since, -offered 800 dollars (about 160 pounds sterling) for a small -vessel; and frequently they purchase whale-boats and horses at -the rate of from 50 to 100 dollars. - -After breakfast I went on shore, and ascended the nearest -slope to a height of between two and three thousand feet. -The outer mountains are smooth and conical, but steep; and -the old volcanic rocks, of which they are formed, have been -cut through by many profound ravines, diverging from the -central broken parts of the island to the coast. Having -crossed the narrow low girt of inhabited and fertile land, -I followed a smooth steep ridge between two of the deep -ravines. The vegetation was singular, consisting almost -exclusively of small dwarf ferns, mingled higher up, with -coarse grass; it was not very dissimilar from that on some -of the Welsh hills, and this so close above the orchard of -tropical plants on the coast was very surprising. At the -highest point, which I reached, trees again appeared. Of -the three zones of comparative luxuriance, the lower one -owes its moisture, and therefore fertility, to its flatness; -for, being scarcely raised above the level of the sea, the water -from the higher land drains away slowly. The intermediate -zone does not, like the upper one, reach into a damp and -cloudy atmosphere, and therefore remains sterile. The -woods in the upper zone are very pretty, tree-ferns replacing -the cocoa-nuts on the coast. It must not, however, be -supposed that these woods at all equal in splendour the -forests of Brazil. The vast numbers of productions, which -characterize a continent, cannot be expected to occur in -an island. - -From the highest point which I attained, there was a good -view of the distant island of Eimeo, dependent on the same -sovereign with Tahiti. On the lofty and broken pinnacles, -white massive clouds were piled up, which formed an island -in the blue sky, as Eimeo itself did in the blue ocean. The -island, with the exception of one small gateway, is completely -encircled by a reef. At this distance, a narrow but well- -defined brilliantly white line was alone visible, where the -waves first encountered the wall of coral. The mountains -rose abruptly out of the glassy expanse of the lagoon, included -within this narrow white line, outside which the heaving -waters of the ocean were dark-coloured. The view was -striking: it may aptly be compared to a framed engraving, -where the frame represents the breakers, the marginal paper -the smooth lagoon, and the drawing the island itself. When -in the evening I descended from the mountain, a man, whom -I had pleased with a trifling gift, met me, bringing with him -hot roasted bananas, a pine-apple, and cocoa-nuts. After -walking under a burning sun, I do not know anything more -delicious than the milk of a young cocoa-nut. Pine-apples -are here so abundant that the people eat them in the same -wasteful manner as we might turnips. They are of an excellent -flavor -- perhaps even better than those cultivated in -England; and this I believe is the highest compliment which -can be paid to any fruit. Before going on board, Mr. Wilson -interpreted for me to the Tahitian who had paid me so adroit -an attention, that I wanted him and another man to accompany -me on a short excursion into the mountains. - -18th. -- In the morning I came on shore early, bringing -with me some provisions in a bag, and two blankets for myself -and servant. These were lashed to each end of a long -pole, which was alternately carried by my Tahitian companions -on their shoulders. These men are accustomed thus -to carry, for a whole day, as much as fifty pounds at each -end of their poles. I told my guides to provide themselves -with food and clothing; but they said that there was plenty -of food in the mountains, and for clothing, that their skins -were sufficient. Our line of march was the valley of Tiaauru, -down which a river flows into the sea by Point Venus. -This is one of the principal streams in the island, and its -source lies at the base of the loftiest central pinnacles, -which rise to a height of about 7000 feet. The whole island -is so mountainous that the only way to penetrate into the -interior is to follow up the valleys. Our road, at first, lay -through woods which bordered each side of the river; and -the glimpses of the lofty central peaks, seen as through an -avenue, with here and there a waving cocoa-nut tree on one -side, were extremely picturesque. The valley soon began to -narrow, and the sides to grow lofty and more precipitous. -After having walked between three and four hours, we -found the width of the ravine scarcely exceeded that of the -bed of the stream. On each hand the walls were nearly vertical, -yet from the soft nature of the volcanic strata, trees -and a rank vegetation sprung from every projecting ledge. -These precipices must have been some thousand feet high; -and the whole formed a mountain gorge far more magnificent -than anything which I had ever before beheld. Until -the midday sun stood vertically over the ravine, the air felt -cool and damp, but now it became very sultry. Shaded by a -ledge of rock, beneath a facade of columnar lava, we ate our -dinner. My guides had already procured a dish of small -fish and fresh-water prawns. They carried with them a -small net stretched on a hoop; and where the water was -deep and in eddies, they dived, and like otters, with their -eyes open followed the fish into holes and corners, and thus -caught them. - -The Tahitians have the dexterity of amphibious animals -in the water. An anecdote mentioned by Ellis shows how -much they feel at home in this element. When a horse was -landing for Pomarre in 1817, the slings broke, and it fell -into the water; immediately the natives jumped overboard, -and by their cries and vain efforts at assistance almost -drowned it. As soon, however, as it reached the shore, the -whole population took to flight, and tried to hide themselves -from the man-carrying pig, as they christened the horse. - -A little higher up, the river divided itself into three little -streams. The two northern ones were impracticable, owing -to a succession of waterfalls which descended from the -jagged summit of the highest mountain; the other to all -appearance was equally inaccessible, but we managed to ascend -it by a most extraordinary road. The sides of the -valley were here nearly precipitous, but, as frequently happens -with stratified rocks, small ledges projected, which were -thickly covered by wild bananas, lilaceous plants, and other -luxuriant productions of the tropics. The Tahitians, by -climbing amongst these ledges, searching for fruit, had -discovered a track by which the whole precipice could be scaled. -The first ascent from the valley was very dangerous; for it -was necessary to pass a steeply inclined face of naked rock, -by the aid of ropes which we brought with us. How any -person discovered that this formidable spot was the only -point where the side of the mountain was practicable, I cannot -imagine. We then cautiously walked along one of the -ledges till we came to one of the three streams. This ledge -formed a flat spot, above which a beautiful cascade, some -hundred feet in height, poured down its waters, and beneath, -another high cascade fell into the main stream in the valley -below. From this cool and shady recess we made a -circuit to avoid the overhanging waterfall. As before, we -followed little projecting ledges, the danger being partly -concealed by the thickness of the vegetation. In passing -from one of the ledges to another, there was a vertical wall -of rock. One of the Tahitians, a fine active man, placed -the trunk of a tree against this, climbed up it, and then by -the aid of crevices reached the summit. He fixed the ropes -to a projecting point, and lowered them for our dog and -luggage, and then we clambered up ourselves. Beneath the -ledge on which the dead tree was placed, the precipice must -have been five or six hundred feet deep; and if the abyss -had not been partly concealed by the overhanging ferns and -lilies my head would have turned giddy, and nothing should -have induced me to have attempted it. We continued to -ascend, sometimes along ledges, and sometimes along knife- -edged ridges, having on each hand profound ravines. In -the Cordillera I have seen mountains on a far grander -scale, but for abruptness, nothing at all comparable with this. -In the evening we reached a flat little spot on the banks -of the same stream, which we had continued to follow, and -which descends in a chain of waterfalls: here we bivouacked -for the night. On each side of the ravine there were great -beds of the mountain-banana, covered with ripe fruit. Many -of these plants were from twenty to twenty-five feet high, -and from three to four in circumference. By the aid of -strips of bark for rope, the stems of bamboos for rafters, -and the large leaf of the banana for a thatch, the Tahitians -in a few minutes built us an excellent house; and with -withered leaves made a soft bed. - -They then proceeded to make a fire, and cook our evening -meal. A light was procured, by rubbing a blunt pointed -stick in a groove made in another, as if with intention of -deepening it, until by the friction the dust became ignited. -A peculiarly white and very light wood (the Hibiscus tiliareus) -is alone used for this purpose: it is the same which -serves for poles to carry any burden, and for the floating -out-riggers to their canoes. The fire was produced in a few -seconds: but to a person who does not understand the art, -it requires, as I found, the greatest exertion; but at last, to -my great pride, I succeeded in igniting the dust. The -Gaucho in the Pampas uses a different method: taking an -elastic stick about eighteen inches long, he presses one end -on his breast, and the other pointed end into a hole in a piece -of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part, like a -carpenter's centre-bit. The Tahitians having made a small fire -of sticks, placed a score of stones, of about the size of -cricket-balls, on the burning wood. In about ten minutes the -sticks were consumed, and the stones hot. They had previously -folded up in small parcels of leaves, pieces of beef, -fish, ripe and unripe bananas, and the tops of the wild arum. -These green parcels were laid in a layer between two layers -of the hot stones, and the whole then covered up with -earth, so that no smoke or steam could escape. In about -a quarter of an hour, the whole was most deliciously cooked. -The choice green parcels were now laid on a cloth of -banana leaves, and with a cocoa-nut shell we drank the -cool water of the running stream; and thus we enjoyed our -rustic meal. - -I could not look on the surrounding plants without admiration. -On every side were forests of banana; the fruit -of which, though serving for food in various ways, lay in -heaps decaying on the ground. In front of us there was an -extensive brake of wild sugar-cane; and the stream was -shaded by the dark green knotted stem of the Ava, -- so famous -in former days for its powerful intoxicating effects. I -chewed a piece, and found that it had an acrid and unpleasant -taste, which would have induced any one at once to -have pronounced it poisonous. Thanks to the missionaries, -this plant now thrives only in these deep ravines, innocuous to -every one. Close by I saw the wild arum, the roots of which, -when well baked, are good to eat, and the young leaves -better than spinach. There was the wild yam, and a liliaceous -plant called Ti, which grows in abundance, and has a soft -brown root, in shape and size like a huge log of wood: this -served us for dessert, for it is as sweet as treacle, and with -a pleasant taste. There were, moreover, several other wild -fruits, and useful vegetables. The little stream, besides its -cool water, produced eels, and cray-fish. I did indeed admire -this scene, when I compared it with an uncultivated one in -the temperate zones. I felt the force of the remark, that -man, at least savage man, with his reasoning powers only -partly developed, is the child of the tropics. - -As the evening drew to a close, I strolled beneath the -gloomy shade of the bananas up the course of the stream. -My walk was soon brought to a close, by coming to a waterfall -between two and three hundred feet high; and again -above this there was another. I mention all these waterfalls -in this one brook, to give a general idea of the inclination -of the land. In the little recess where the water fell, it did -not appear that a breath of wind had ever blown. The thin -edges of the great leaves of the banana, damp with spray, -were unbroken, instead of being, as is so generally the case, -split into a thousand shreds. From our position, almost -suspended on the mountain side, there were glimpses into the -depths of the neighbouring valleys; and the lofty points of -the central mountains, towering up within sixty degrees of -the zenith, hid half the evening sky. Thus seated, it was -a sublime spectacle to watch the shades of night gradually -obscuring the last and highest pinnacles. - -Before we laid ourselves down to sleep, the elder Tahitian -fell on his knees, and with closed eyes repeated a long -prayer in his native tongue. He prayed as a Christian should -do, with fitting reverence, and without the fear of ridicule -or any ostentation of piety. At our meals neither of the men -would taste food, without saying beforehand a short grace. -Those travellers who think that a Tahitian prays only when -the eyes of the missionary are fixed on him, should have -slept with us that night on the mountain-side. Before morning -it rained very heavily; but the good thatch of banana- -leaves kept us dry. - -November 19th. -- At daylight my friends, after their -morning prayer, prepared an excellent breakfast in the same -manner as in the evening. They themselves certainly partook -of it largely; indeed I never saw any men eat near so -much. I suppose such enormously capacious stomachs must -be the effect of a large part of their diet consisting of fruit -and vegetables, which contain, in a given bulk, a comparatively -small portion of nutriment. Unwittingly, I was the -means of my companions breaking, as I afterwards learned, -one of their own laws, and resolutions: I took with me a -flask of spirits, which they could not refuse to partake of; -but as often as they drank a little, they put their fingers -before their mouths, and uttered the word "Missionary." -About two years ago, although the use of the ava was prevented, -drunkenness from the introduction of spirits became -very prevalent. The missionaries prevailed on a few good -men, who saw that their country was rapidly going to ruin, -to join with them in a Temperance Society. From good -sense or shame, all the chiefs and the queen were at last -persuaded to join. Immediately a law was passed, that no -spirits should be allowed to be introduced into the island, -and that he who sold and he who bought the forbidden -article should be punished by a fine. With remarkable justice, -a certain period was allowed for stock in hand to be -sold, before the law came into effect. But when it did, a -general search was made, in which even the houses of the -missionaries were not exempted, and all the ava (as the -natives call all ardent spirits) was poured on the ground. -When one reflects on the effect of intemperance on the -aborigines of the two Americas, I think it will be acknowledged -that every well-wisher of Tahiti owes no common debt -of gratitude to the missionaries. As long as the little island -of St. Helena remained under the government of the East -India Company, spirits, owing to the great injury they had -produced, were not allowed to be imported; but wine was -supplied from the Cape of Good Hope. It is rather a striking -and not very gratifying fact, that in the same year -that spirits were allowed to be sold in Helena, their use was -banished from Tahiti by the free will of the people. - -After breakfast we proceeded on our Journey. As my object -was merely to see a little of the interior scenery, we -returned by another track, which descended into the main -valley lower down. For some distance we wound, by a most -intricate path, along the side of the mountain which formed -the valley. In the less precipitous parts we passed through -extensive groves of the wild banana. The Tahitians, with -their naked, tattooed bodies, their heads ornamented with -flowers, and seen in the dark shade of these groves, would -have formed a fine picture of man inhabiting some primeval -land. In our descent we followed the line of ridges; these -were exceedingly narrow, and for considerable lengths steep -as a ladder; but all clothed with vegetation. The extreme -care necessary in poising each step rendered the walk fatiguing. -I did not cease to wonder at these ravines and -precipices: when viewing the country from one of the knife- -edged ridges, the point of support was so small, that the -effect was nearly the same as it must be from a balloon. In -this descent we had occasion to use the ropes only once, at -the point where we entered the main valley. We slept under -the same ledge of rock where we had dined the day before: -the night was fine, but from the depth and narrowness of the -gorge, profoundly dark. - -Before actually seeing this country, I found it difficult -to understand two facts mentioned by Ellis; namely, that -after the murderous battles of former times, the survivors -on the conquered side retired into the mountains, where a -handful of men could resist a multitude. Certainly half -a dozen men, at the spot where the Tahitian reared the old -tree, could easily have repulsed thousands. Secondly, that -after the introduction of Christianity, there were wild men -who lived in the mountains, and whose retreats were unknown -to the more civilized inhabitants. - -November 20th. -- In the morning we started early, and -reached Matavai at noon. On the road we met a large party -of noble athletic men, going for wild bananas. I found that -the ship, on account of the difficulty in watering, had moved -to the harbour of Papawa, to which place I immediately -walked. This is a very pretty spot. The cove is surrounded -by reefs, and the water as smooth as in a lake. The -cultivated ground, with its beautiful productions, interspersed -with cottages, comes close down to the water's edge. -From the varying accounts which I had read before reaching -these islands, I was very anxious to form, from my own -observation, a judgment of their moral state, -- although such -judgment would necessarily be very imperfect. First impressions -at all times very much depend on one's previously -acquired ideas. My notions were drawn from Ellis's "Polynesian -Researches" -- an admirable and most interesting -work, but naturally looking at everything under a favourable -point of view, from Beechey's Voyage; and from that of -Kotzebue, which is strongly adverse to the whole missionary -system. He who compares these three accounts will, I think, -form a tolerably accurate conception of the present state of -Tahiti. One of my impressions which I took from the two -last authorities, was decidedly incorrect; viz., that the -Tahitians had become a gloomy race, and lived in fear of the -missionaries. Of the latter feeling I saw no trace, unless, -indeed, fear and respect be confounded under one name. -Instead of discontent being a common feeling, it would be -difficult in Europe to pick out of a crowd half so many merry -and happy faces. The prohibition of the flute and dancing -is inveighed against as wrong and foolish; -- the more than -presbyterian manner of keeping the sabbath is looked at in -a similar light. On these points I will not pretend to offer -any opinion to men who have resided as many years as I -was days on the island. - -On the whole, it appears to me that the morality and -religion of the inhabitants are highly creditable. There are -many who attack, even more acrimoniously than Kotzebue, -both the missionaries, their system, and the effects produced -by it. Such reasoners never compare the present state with -that of the island only twenty years ago; nor even with that -of Europe at this day; but they compare it with the high -standard of Gospel perfection. They expect the missionaries -to effect that which the Apostles themselves failed to do. -Inasmuch as the condition of the people falls short of -this high standard, blame is attached to the missionary, instead -of credit for that which he has effected. They forget, -or will not remember, that human sacrifices, and the power -of an idolatrous priesthood -- a system of profligacy -unparalleled in any other part of the world -- infanticide a -consequence of that system -- bloody wars, where the conquerors -spared neither women nor children -- that all these have been -abolished; and that dishonesty, intemperance, and licentiousness -have been greatly reduced by the introduction of Christianity. -In a voyager to forget these things is base ingratitude; for -should he chance to be at the point of shipwreck on some -unknown coast, he will most devoutly pray that the lesson of -the missionary may have extended thus far. - -In point of morality, the virtue of the women, it has been -often said, is most open to exception. But before they are -blamed too severely, it will be well distinctly to call to mind -the scenes described by Captain Cook and Mr. Banks, in -which the grandmothers and mothers of the present race -played a part. Those who are most severe, should consider -how much of the morality of the women in Europe is owing -to the system early impressed by mothers on their daughters, -and how much in each individual case to the precepts of -religion. But it is useless to argue against such reasoners; -- -I believe that, disappointed in not finding the field of -licentiousness quite so open as formerly, they will not give -credit to a morality which they do not wish to practise, or to a -religion which they undervalue, if not despise. - -Sunday, 22nd. -- The harbour of Papiete, where the queen -resides, may be considered as the capital of the island: it is -also the seat of government, and the chief resort of shipping. -Captain Fitz Roy took a party there this day to hear divine -service, first in the Tahitian language, and afterwards in our -own. Mr. Pritchard, the leading missionary in the island, -performed the service. The chapel consisted of a large airy -framework of wood; and it was filled to excess by tidy, clean -people, of all ages and both sexes. I was rather disappointed -in the apparent degree of attention; but I believe my -expectations were raised too high. At all events the appearance -was quite equal to that in a country church in England. -The singing of the hymns was decidedly very pleasing, but -the language from the pulpit, although fluently delivered, did -not sound well: a constant repetition of words, like "tata -ta, mata mai," rendered it monotonous. After English service, -a party returned on foot to Matavai. It was a pleasant -walk, sometimes along the sea-beach and sometimes under -the shade of the many beautiful trees. - -About two years ago, a small vessel under English colours -was plundered by some of the inhabitants of the Low Islands, -which were then under the dominion of the Queen of Tahiti. -It was believed that the perpetrators were instigated to this -act by some indiscreet laws issued by her majesty. The -British government demanded compensation; which was acceded -to, and the sum of nearly three thousand dollars was -agreed to be paid on the first of last September. The Commodore -at Lima ordered Captain Fitz Roy to inquire concerning -this debt, and to demand satisfaction if it were not -paid. Captain Fitz Roy accordingly requested an interview -with the Queen Pomarre, since famous from the ill-treatment -she had received from the French; and a parliament was -held to consider the question, at which all the principal chiefs -of the island and the queen were assembled. I will not attempt -to describe what took place, after the interesting account -given by Captain Fitz Roy. The money, it appeared, -had not been paid; perhaps the alleged reasons were rather -equivocal; but otherwise I cannot sufficiently express our -general surprise at the extreme good sense, the reasoning -powers, moderation, candour, and prompt resolution, which -were displayed on all sides. I believe we all left the meeting -with a very different opinion of the Tahitians, from what we -entertained when we entered. The chiefs and people resolved -to subscribe and complete the sum which was wanting; -Captain Fitz Roy urged that it was hard that their private -property should be sacrificed for the crimes of distant -islanders. They replied, that they were grateful for his -consideration, but that Pomarre was their Queen, and that they -were determined to help her in this her difficulty. This -resolution and its prompt execution, for a book was opened -early the next morning, made a perfect conclusion to this -very remarkable scene of loyalty and good feeling. - -After the main discussion was ended, several of the chiefs -took the opportunity of asking Captain Fitz Roy many intelligent -questions on international customs and laws, relating -to the treatment of ships and foreigners. On some -points, as soon as the decision was made, the law was issued -verbally on the spot. This Tahitian parliament lasted for -several hours; and when it was over Captain Fitz Roy invited -Queen Pomarre to pay the Beagle a visit. - -November 25th. -- In the evening four boats were sent for -her majesty; the ship was dressed with flags, and the yards -manned on her coming on board. She was accompanied by -most of the chiefs. The behaviour of all was very proper: -they begged for nothing, and seemed much pleased with Captain -Fitz Roy's presents. The queen is a large awkward -woman, without any beauty, grace or dignity. She has only -one royal attribute: a perfect immovability of expression -under all circumstances, and that rather a sullen one. The -rockets were most admired, and a deep "Oh!" could be -heard from the shore, all round the dark bay, after each -explosion. The sailors' songs were also much admired; and -the queen said she thought that one of the most boisterous -ones certainly could not be a hymn! The royal party did -not return on shore till past midnight. - -26th. -- In the evening, with a gentle land-breeze, a course -was steered for New Zealand; and as the sun set, we had a -farewell view of the mountains of Tahiti -- the island to which -every voyager has offered up his tribute of admiration. - -December 19th. -- In the evening we saw in the distance -New Zealand. We may now consider that we have nearly -crossed the Pacific. It is necessary to sail over this great -ocean to comprehend its immensity. Moving quickly onwards -for weeks together, we meet with nothing but the -same blue, profoundly deep, ocean. Even within the -archipelagoes, the islands are mere specks, and far distant one -from the other. Accustomed to look at maps drawn on a -small scale, where dots, shading, and names are crowded -together, we do not rightly judge how infinitely small the -proportion of dry land is to water of this vast expanse. -The meridian of the Antipodes has likewise been passed; and -now every league, it made us happy to think, was one league -nearer to England. These Antipodes call to one's mind old -recollections of childish doubt and wonder. Only the other -day I looked forward to this airy barrier as a definite point -in our voyage homewards; but now I find it, and all such -resting-places for the imagination, are like shadows, which -a man moving onwards cannot catch. A gale of wind lasting -for some days, has lately given us full leisure to measure -the future stages in our homeward voyage, and to wish -most earnestly for its termination. - -December 21st. -- Early in the morning we entered the Bay -of Islands, and being becalmed for some hours near the -mouth, we did not reach the anchorage till the middle of the -day. The country is hilly, with a smooth outline, and is -deeply intersected by numerous arms of the sea extending -from the bay. The surface appears from a distance as if -clothed with coarse pasture, but this in truth is nothing but -fern. On the more distant hills, as well as in parts of the -valleys, there is a good deal of woodland. The general tint -of the landscape is not a bright green; and it resembles the -country a short distance to the south of Concepcion in Chile. -In several parts of the bay, little villages of square tidy -looking houses are scattered close down to the water's edge. -Three whaling-ships were lying at anchor, and a canoe every -now and then crossed from shore to shore; with these -exceptions, an air of extreme quietness reigned over the -whole district. Only a single canoe came alongside. This, -and the aspect of the whole scene, afforded a remarkable, -and not very pleasing contrast, with our joyful and boisterous -welcome at Tahiti. - -In the afternoon we went on shore to one of the larger -groups of houses, which yet hardly deserves the title of a -village. Its name is Pahia: it is the residence of the -missionaries; and there are no native residents except servants -and labourers. In the vicinity of the Bay of Islands, the -number of Englishmen, including their families, amounts to -between two and three hundred. All the cottages, many of -which are whitewashed and look very neat, are the property -of the English. The hovels of the natives are so diminutive -and paltry, that they can scarcely be perceived from a distance. -At Pahia, it was quite pleasing to behold the English -flowers in the gardens before the houses; there were -roses of several kinds, honeysuckle, jasmine, stocks, and -whole hedges of sweetbrier. - -December 22nd. -- In the morning I went out walking; but -I soon found that the country was very impracticable. All -the hills are thickly covered with tall fern, together with -a low bush which grows like a cypress; and very little -ground has been cleared or cultivated. I then tried the -sea-beach; but proceeding towards either hand, my walk -was soon stopped by salt-water creeks and deep brooks. The -communication between the inhabitants of the different -parts of the bay, is (as in Chiloe) almost entirely kept up -by boats. I was surprised to find that almost every hill which -I ascended, had been at some former time more or less -fortified. The summits were cut into steps or successive -terraces, and frequently they had been protected by deep -trenches. I afterwards observed that the principal hills inland -in like manner showed an artificial outline. These are -the Pas, so frequently mentioned by Captain Cook under the -name of "hippah;" the difference of sound being owing to -the prefixed article. - -That the Pas had formerly been much used, was evident -from the piles of shells, and the pits in which, as I was -informed, sweet potatoes used to be kept as a reserve. As -there was no water on these hills, the defenders could never -have anticipated a long siege, but only a hurried attack for -plunder, against which the successive terraces would have -afforded good protection. The general introduction of fire-arms -has changed the whole system of warfare; and an exposed -situation on the top of a hill is now worse than useless. -The Pas in consequence are, at the present day, always built -on a level piece of ground. They consist of a double stockade -of thick and tall posts, placed in a zigzag line, so that every -part can be flanked. Within the stockade a mound of earth is -thrown up, behind which the defenders can rest in safety, or -use their fire-arms over it. On the level of the ground -little archways sometimes pass through this breastwork, -by which means the defenders can crawl out to the stockade -and reconnoitre their enemies. The Rev. W. Williams, who -gave me this account, added, that in one Pas he had noticed -spurs or buttresses projecting on the inner and protected -side of the mound of earth. On asking the chief the use -of them, he replied, that if two or three of his men were -shot, their neighbours would not see the bodies, and so be -discouraged. - -These Pas are considered by the New Zealanders as very -perfect means of defence: for the attacking force is never -so well disciplined as to rush in a body to the stockade, cut -it down, and effect their entry. When a tribe goes to war, -the chief cannot order one party to go here and another -there; but every man fights in the manner which best pleases -himself; and to each separate individual to approach a stockade -defended by fire-arms must appear certain death. I -should think a more warlike race of inhabitants could not -be found in any part of the world than the New Zealanders. -Their conduct on first seeing a ship, as described by Captain -Cook, strongly illustrates this: the act of throwing volleys -of stones at so great and novel an object, and their defiance -of "Come on shore and we will kill and eat you all," shows -uncommon boldness. This warlike spirit is evident in many -of their customs, and even in their smallest actions. If a -New Zealander is struck, although but in joke, the blow -must be returned and of this I saw an instance with one -of our officers. - -At the present day, from the progress of civilization, there -is much less warfare, except among some of the southern -tribes. I heard a characteristic anecdote of what took place -some time ago in the south. A missionary found a chief and -his tribe in preparation for war; -- their muskets clean and -bright, and their ammunition ready. He reasoned long on -the inutility of the war, and the little provocation which -had been given for it. The chief was much shaken in his -resolution, and seemed in doubt: but at length it occurred -to him that a barrel of his gunpowder was in a bad state, and -that it would not keep much longer. This was brought forward -as an unanswerable argument for the necessity of immediately -declaring war: the idea of allowing so much good -gunpowder to spoil was not to be thought of; and this settled -the point. I was told by the missionaries that in the -life of Shongi, the chief who visited England, the love of -war was the one and lasting spring of every action. The -tribe in which he was a principal chief had at one time been -oppressed by another tribe from the Thames River. A -solemn oath was taken by the men that when their boys -should grow up, and they should be powerful enough, they -would never forget or forgive these injuries. To fulfil this -oath appears to have been Shongi's chief motive for going -to England; and when there it was his sole object. Presents -were valued only as they could be converted into arms; -of the arts, those alone interested him which were connected -with the manufacture of arms. When at Sydney, Shongi, -by a strange coincidence, met the hostile chief of the Thames -River at the house of Mr. Marsden: their conduct was civil -to each other; but Shongi told him that when again in New -Zealand he would never cease to carry war into his country. -The challenge was accepted; and Shongi on his return fulfilled -the threat to the utmost letter. The tribe on the -Thames River was utterly overthrown, and the chief to -whom the challenge had been given was himself killed. -Shongi, although harbouring such deep feelings of hatred -and revenge, is described as having been a good-natured -person. - -In the evening I went with Captain Fitz Roy and Mr. -Baker, one of the missionaries, to pay a visit to Kororadika: -we wandered about the village, and saw and conversed with -many of the people, both men, women, and children. Looking -at the New Zealander, one naturally compares him with -the Tahitian; both belonging to the same family of mankind. -The comparison, however, tells heavily against the New -Zealander. He may, perhaps be superior in energy, but -in every other respect his character is of a much lower -order. One glance at their respective expressions, brings -conviction to the mind that one is a savage, the other a -civilized man. It would be vain to seek in the whole of -New Zealand a person with the face and mien of the old -Tahitian chief Utamme. No doubt the extraordinary manner -in which tattooing is here practised, gives a disagreeable -expression to their countenances. The complicated but -symmetrical figures covering the whole face, puzzle and mislead -an unaccustomed eye: it is moreover probable, that the deep -incisions, by destroying the play of the superficial muscles, -give an air of rigid inflexibility. But, besides this, there is -a twinkling in the eye, which cannot indicate anything but -cunning and ferocity. Their figures are tall and bulky; but -not comparable in elegance with those of the working- -classes in Tahiti. - -But their persons and houses are filthily dirty and offensive: -the idea of washing either their bodies or their clothes -never seems to enter their heads. I saw a chief, who was -wearing a shirt black and matted with filth, and when asked -how it came to be so dirty, he replied, with surprise, "Do -not you see it is an old one?" Some of the men have shirts; -but the common dress is one or two large blankets, generally -black with dirt, which are thrown over their shoulders in a -very inconvenient and awkward fashion. A few of the principal -chiefs have decent suits of English clothes; but these -are only worn on great occasions. - -December 23rd. -- At a place called Waimate, about fifteen -miles from the Bay of Islands, and midway between the -eastern and western coasts, the missionaries have purchased -some land for agricultural purposes. I had been introduced -to the Rev. W. Williams, who, upon my expressing a wish, -invited me to pay him a visit there. Mr. Bushby, the British -resident, offered to take me in his boat by a creek, where I -should see a pretty waterfall, and by which means my -walk would be shortened. He likewise procured for me a -guide. - -Upon asking a neighbouring chief to recommend a man, the -chief himself offered to go; but his ignorance of the value -of money was so complete, that at first he asked how many -pounds I would give him, but afterwards was well contented -with two dollars. When I showed the chief a very small -bundle, which I wanted carried, it became absolutely necessary -for him to take a slave. These feelings of pride are -beginning to wear away; but formerly a leading man would -sooner have died, than undergone the indignity of carrying -the smallest burden. My companion was a light active man, -dressed in a dirty blanket, and with his face completely -tattooed. He had formerly been a great warrior. He appeared -to be on very cordial terms with Mr. Bushby; but at -various times they had quarrelled violently. Mr. Bushby -remarked that a little quiet irony would frequently silence -any one of these natives in their most blustering moments. -This chief has come and harangued Mr. Bushby in a hectoring -manner, saying, "great chief, a great man, a friend -of mine, has come to pay me a visit -- you must give him -something good to eat, some fine presents, etc." Mr. Bushby -has allowed him to finish his discourse, and then has quietly -replied by some answer such as, "What else shall your slave -do for you?" The man would then instantly, with a very -comical expression, cease his braggadocio. - -Some time ago, Mr. Bushby suffered a far more serious -attack. A chief and a party of men tried to break into his -house in the middle of the night, and not finding this so easy, -commenced a brisk firing with their muskets. Mr. Bushby -was slightly wounded, but the party was at length driven -away. Shortly afterwards it was discovered who was the -aggressor; and a general meeting of the chiefs was convened -to consider the case. It was considered by the New Zealanders -as very atrocious, inasmuch as it was a night attack, and -that Mrs. Bushby was lying ill in the house: this latter -circumstance, much to their honour, being considered in all -cases as a protection. The chiefs agreed to confiscate the -land of the aggressor to the King of England. The whole -proceeding, however, in thus trying and punishing a chief -was entirely without precedent. The aggressor, moreover, -lost caste in the estimation of his equals and this was -considered by the British as of more consequence than the -confiscation of his land. - -As the boat was shoving off, a second chief stepped into -her, who only wanted the amusement of the passage up and -down the creek. I never saw a more horrid and ferocious -expression than this man had. It immediately struck me -I had somewhere seen his likeness: it will be found in -Retzch's outlines to Schiller's ballad of Fridolin, where two -men are pushing Robert into the burning iron furnace. It -is the man who has his arm on Robert's breast. Physiognomy -here spoke the truth; this chief had been a notorious -murderer, and was an arrant coward to boot. At the point -where the boat landed, Mr. Bushby accompanied me a few -hundred yards on the road: I could not help admiring the -cool impudence of the hoary old villain, whom we left lying -in the boat, when he shouted to Mr. Bushby, "Do not you -stay long, I shall be tired of waiting here." - -We now commenced our walk. The road lay along a -well beaten path, bordered on each side by the tall fern, -which covers the whole country. After travelling some -miles, we came to a little country village, where a few hovels -were collected together, and some patches of ground cultivated -with potatoes. The introduction of the potato has -been the most essential benefit to the island; it is now much -more used than any native vegetable. New Zealand is -favoured by one great natural advantage; namely, that the -inhabitants can never perish from famine. The whole -country abounds with fern: and the roots of this plant, if -not very palatable, yet contain much nutriment. A native -can always subsist on these, and on the shell-fish, which are -abundant on all parts of the sea-coast. The villages are -chiefly conspicuous by the platforms which are raised on -four posts ten or twelve feet above the ground, and on -which the produce of the fields is kept secure from all -accidents. - -On coming near one of the huts I was much amused by -seeing in due form the ceremony of rubbing, or, as it ought -to be called, pressing noses. The women, on our first approach, -began uttering something in a most dolorous voice; -they then squatted themselves down and held up their faces; -my companion standing over them, one after another, placed -the bridge of his nose at right angles to theirs, and commenced -pressing. This lasted rather longer than a cordial -shake of the hand with us, and as we vary the force of the -grasp of the hand in shaking, so do they in pressing. During -the process they uttered comfortable little grunts, very -much in the same manner as two pigs do, when rubbing -against each other. I noticed that the slave would press -noses with any one he met, indifferently either before or -after his master the chief. Although among the savages, the -chief has absolute power of life and death over his slave, -yet there is an entire absence of ceremony between them. -Mr. Burchell has remarked the same thing in Southern Africa, -with the rude Bachapins. Where civilization has -arrived at a certain point, complex formalities soon arise -between the different grades of society: thus at Tahiti all -were formerly obliged to uncover themselves as low as the -waist in presence of the king. - -The ceremony of pressing noses having been duly completed -with all present, we seated ourselves in a circle in the -front of one of the hovels, and rested there half-an-hour. -All the hovels have nearly the same form and dimensions, -and all agree in being filthily dirty. They resemble a cow- -shed with one end open, but having a partition a little way -within, with a square hole in it, making a small gloomy -chamber. In this the inhabitants keep all their property, -and when the weather is cold they sleep there. They eat, -however, and pass their time in the open part in front. My -guides having finished their pipes, we continued our walk. -The path led through the same undulating country, the whole -uniformly clothed as before with fern. On our right hand -we had a serpentine river, the banks of which were fringed -with trees, and here and there on the hill sides there was a -clump of wood. The whole scene, in spite of its green colour, -had rather a desolate aspect. The sight of so much fern -impresses the mind with an idea of sterility: this, however, -is not correct; for wherever the fern grows thick and breast- -high, the land by tillage becomes productive. Some of the -residents think that all this extensive open country originally -was covered with forests, and that it has been cleared by fire. -It is said, that by digging in the barest spots, lumps of the -kind of resin which flows from the kauri pine are frequently -found. The natives had an evident motive in clearing the -country; for the fern, formerly a staple article of food, -flourishes only in the open cleared tracks. The almost entire -absence of associated grasses, which forms so remarkable a -feature in the vegetation of this island, may perhaps be -accounted for by the land having been aboriginally covered -with forest-trees. - -The soil is volcanic; in several parts we passed over -shaggy lavas, and craters could clearly be distinguished on -several of the neighbouring hills. Although the scenery is -nowhere beautiful, and only occasionally pretty, I enjoyed -my walk. I should have enjoyed it more, if my companion, -the chief, had not possessed extraordinary conversational -powers. I knew only three words: "good," "bad," and -"yes:" and with these I answered all his remarks, without -of course having understood one word he said. This, however, -was quite sufficient: I was a good listener, an agreeable -person, and he never ceased talking to me. - -At length we reached Waimate. After having passed over -so many miles of an uninhabited useless country, the sudden -appearance of an English farm-house, and its well-dressed -fields, placed there as if by an enchanter's wand, was -exceedingly pleasant. Mr. Williams not being at home, I received -in Mr. Davies's house a cordial welcome. After drinking tea -with his family party, we took a stroll about the farm. At -Waimate there are three large houses, where the missionary -gentlemen, Messrs. Williams, Davies, and Clarke, reside; -and near them are the huts of the native labourers. On an -adjoining slope, fine crops of barley and wheat were standing -in full ear; and in another part, fields of potatoes and clover. -But I cannot attempt to describe all I saw; there were large -gardens, with every fruit and vegetable which England produces; -and many belonging to a warmer clime. I may instance -asparagus, kidney beans, cucumbers, rhubarb, apples, -pears, figs, peaches, apricots, grapes, olives, gooseberries, -currants, hops, gorse for fences, and English oaks; also many -kinds of flowers. Around the farm-yard there were stables, -a thrashing-barn with its winnowing machine, a blacksmith's -forge, and on the ground ploughshares and other tools: in -the middle was that happy mixture of pigs and poultry, lying -comfortably together, as in every English farm-yard. At the -distance of a few hundred yards, where the water of a little -rill had been dammed up into a pool, there was a large and -substantial water-mill. - -All this is very surprising, when it is considered that five -years ago nothing but the fern flourished here. Moreover, -native workmanship, taught by the missionaries, has effected -this change; -- the lesson of the missionary is the enchanter's -wand. The house had been built, the windows framed, the -fields ploughed, and even the trees grafted, by a New Zealander. -At the mill, a New Zealander was seen powdered -white with flower, like his brother miller in England. When -I looked at this whole scene, I thought it admirable. It was -not merely that England was brought vividly before my -mind; yet, as the evening drew to a close, the domestic -sounds, the fields of corn, the distant undulating country -with its trees might well have been mistaken for our fatherland: -nor was it the triumphant feeling at seeing what Englishmen -could effect; but rather the high hopes thus inspired -for the future progress of this fine island. - - -Several young men, redeemed by the missionaries from -slavery, were employed on the farm. They were dressed in -a shirt, jacket, and trousers, and had a respectable appearance. -Judging from one trifling anecdote, I should think -they must be honest. When walking in the fields, a young -labourer came up to Mr. Davies, and gave him a knife and -gimlet, saying that he had found them on the road, and did -not know to whom they belonged! These young men and -boys appeared very merry and good-humoured. In the evening -I saw a party of them at cricket: when I thought of the -austerity of which the missionaries have been accused, I was -amused by observing one of their own sons taking an active -part in the game. A more decided and pleasing change was -manifested in the young women, who acted as servants within -the houses. Their clean, tidy, and healthy appearance, like -that of the dairy-maids in England, formed a wonderful -contrast with the women of the filthy hovels in Kororadika. -The wives of the missionaries tried to persuade them not to -be tattooed; but a famous operator having arrived from the -south, they said, "We really must just have a few lines on -our lips; else when we grow old, our lips will shrivel, and we -shall be so very ugly." There is not nearly so much tattooing -as formerly; but as it is a badge of distinction between the -chief and the slave, it will probably long be practised. So -soon does any train of ideas become habitual, that the -missionaries told me that even in their eyes a plain face looked -mean, and not like that of a New Zealand gentleman. - -Late in the evening I went to Mr. Williams's house, where -I passed the night. I found there a large party of children, -collected together for Christmas Day, and all sitting round -a table at tea. I never saw a nicer or more merry group; and -to think that this was in the centre of the land of cannibalism, -murder, and all atrocious crimes! The cordiality and -happiness so plainly pictured in the faces of the little circle, -appeared equally felt by the older persons of the mission. - -December 24th. -- In the morning, prayers were read in -the native tongue to the whole family. After breakfast I -rambled about the gardens and farm. This was a market- -day, when the natives of the surrounding hamlets bring their -potatoes, Indian corn, or pigs, to exchange for blankets, -tobacco, and sometimes, through the persuasions of the -missionaries, for soap. Mr. Davies's eldest son, who manages a -farm of his own, is the man of business in the market. The -children of the missionaries, who came while young to the -island, understand the language better than their parents, -and can get anything more readily done by the natives. - -A little before noon Messrs. Williams and Davies walked -with me to a part of a neighbouring forest, to show me the -famous kauri pine. I measured one of the noble trees, and -found it thirty-one feet in circumference above the roots. -There was another close by, which I did not see, thirty-three -feet; and I heard of one no less than forty feet. These trees -are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical boles, which run -up to a height of sixty, and even ninety feet, with a nearly -equal diameter, and without a single branch. The crown -of branches at the summit is out of all proportion small to -the trunk; and the leaves are likewise small compared with -the branches. The forest was here almost composed of the -kauri; and the largest trees, from the parallelism of their -sides, stood up like gigantic columns of wood. The timber -of the kauri is the most valuable production of the island; -moreover, a quantity of resin oozes from the bark, which is -sold at a penny a pound to the Americans, but its use was -then unknown. Some of the New Zealand forest must be -impenetrable to an extraordinary degree. Mr. Matthews -informed me that one forest only thirty-four miles in width, -and separating two inhabited districts, had only lately, for -the first time, been crossed. He and another missionary, -each with a party of about fifty men, undertook to open a -road, but it cost more than a fortnight's labour! In -the woods I saw very few birds. With regard to animals, -it is a most remarkable fact, that so large an island, extending -over more than 700 miles in latitude, and in many parts -ninety broad, with varied stations, a fine climate, and land -of all heights, from 14,000 feet downwards, with the exception -of a small rat, did not possess one indigenous animal. -The several species of that gigantic genus of birds, the -Deinornis seem here to have replaced mammiferous quadrupeds, -in the same manner as the reptiles still do at the Galapagos -archipelago. It is said that the common Norway rat, in -the short space of two years, annihilated in this northern -end of the island, the New Zealand species. In many places -I noticed several sorts of weeds, which, like the rats, I was -forced to own as countrymen. A leek has overrun whole -districts, and will prove very troublesome, but it was imported -as a favour by a French vessel. The common dock -is also widely disseminated, and will, I fear, for ever remain -a proof of the rascality of an Englishman, who sold the seeds -for those of the tobacco plant. - -On returning from our pleasant walk to the house, I dined -with Mr. Williams; and then, a horse being lent me, I returned -to the Bay of Islands. I took leave of the missionaries -with thankfulness for their kind welcome, and with feelings -of high respect for their gentlemanlike, useful, and -upright characters. I think it would be difficult to find -a body of men better adapted for the high office which -they fulfil. - -Christmas Day. -- In a few more days the fourth year of -our absence from England will be completed. Our first -Christmas Day was spent at Plymouth, the second at St. -Martin's Cove, near Cape Horn; the third at Port Desire, -in Patagonia; the fourth at anchor in a wild harbour in the -peninsula of Tres Montes, this fifth here, and the next, I -trust in Providence, will be in England. We attended divine -service in the chapel of Pahia; part of the service being -read in English, and part in the native language. Whilst at -New Zealand we did not hear of any recent acts of cannibalism; -but Mr. Stokes found burnt human bones strewed -round a fire-place on a small island near the anchorage; but -these remains of a comfortable banquet might have been -lying there for several years. It is probable that the moral -state of the people will rapidly improve. Mr. Bushby mentioned -one pleasing anecdote as a proof of the sincerity of -some, at least, of those who profess Christianity. One of -his young men left him, who had been accustomed to read -prayers to the rest of the servants. Some weeks afterwards, -happening to pass late in the evening by an outhouse, he saw -and heard one of his men reading the Bible with difficulty -by the light of the fire, to the others. After this the party -knelt and prayed: in their prayers they mentioned Mr. -Bushby and his family, and the missionaries, each separately -in his respective district. - -December 26th. -- Mr. Bushby offered to take Mr. Sulivan -and myself in his boat some miles up the river to Cawa- -Cawa, and proposed afterwards to walk on to the village of -Waiomio, where there are some curious rocks. Following -one of the arms of the bay, we enjoyed a pleasant row, and -passed through pretty scenery, until we came to a village, -beyond which the boat could not pass. From this place a -chief and a party of men volunteered to walk with us to -Waiomio, a distance of four miles. The chief was at this -time rather notorious from having lately hung one of his -wives and a slave for adultery. When one of the missionaries -remonstrated with him he seemed surprised, and said -he thought he was exactly following the English method. -Old Shongi, who happened to be in England during the -Queen's trial, expressed great disapprobation at the whole -proceeding: he said he had five wives, and he would rather -cut off all their heads than be so much troubled about one. -Leaving this village, we crossed over to another, seated on -a hill-side at a little distance. The daughter of a chief, who -was still a heathen, had died there five days before. The -hovel in which she had expired had been burnt to the ground: -her body being enclosed between two small canoes, was -placed upright on the ground, and protected by an enclosure -bearing wooden images of their gods, and the whole was -painted bright red, so as to be conspicuous from afar. Her -gown was fastened to the coffin, and her hair being cut off -was cast at its foot. The relatives of the family had torn -the flesh of their arms, bodies, and faces, so that they were -covered with clotted blood; and the old women looked most -filthy, disgusting objects. On the following day some of the -officers visited this place, and found the women still howling -and cutting themselves. - -We continued our walk, and soon reached Waiomio. Here -there are some singular masses of limestone, resembling -ruined castles. These rocks have long served for burial -places, and in consequence are held too sacred to be approached. -One of the young men, however, cried out, "Let -us all be brave," and ran on ahead; but when within a hundred -yards, the whole party thought better of it, and stopped -short. With perfect indifference, however, they allowed us -to examine the whole place. At this village we rested some -hours, during which time there was a long discussion with -Mr. Bushby, concerning the right of sale of certain lands. -One old man, who appeared a perfect genealogist, illustrated -the successive possessors by bits of stick driven into the -ground. Before leaving the houses a little basketful of -roasted sweet potatoes was given to each of our party; and -we all, according to the custom, carried them away to eat -on the road. I noticed that among the women employed in -cooking, there was a man-slave: it must be a humiliating -thing for a man in this warlike country to be employed in -doing that which is considered as the lowest woman's work. -Slaves are not allowed to go to war; but this perhaps can -hardly be considered as a hardship. I heard of one poor -wretch who, during hostilities, ran away to the opposite -party; being met by two men, he was immediately seized; -but as they could not agree to whom he should belong, each -stood over him with a stone hatchet, and seemed determined -that the other at least should not take him away alive. The -poor man, almost dead with fright, was only saved by the -address of a chief's wife. We afterwards enjoyed a pleasant -walk back to the boat, but did not reach the ship till late in -the evening. - -December 30th. -- In the afternoon we stood out of the -Bay of Islands, on our course to Sydney. I believe we were -all glad to leave New Zealand. It is not a pleasant place. -Amongst the natives there is absent that charming simplicity -which is found in Tahiti; and the greater part of the English -are the very refuse of society. Neither is the country itself -attractive. I look back but to one bright spot, and that is -Waimate, with its Christian inhabitants. - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -AUSTRALIA - -Sydney -- Excursion to Bathurst -- Aspect of the Woods -- Party -of Natives -- Gradual Extinction of the Aborigines -- Infection -generated by associated Men in health -- Blue Mountains -- View -of the grand gulf-like Valleys -- Their origin and formation -- -Bathurst, general civility of the Lower Orders -- State of -Society -- Van Diemen's Land -- Hobart Town -- Aborigines all -banished -- Mount Wellington -- King George's Sound -- -Cheerless Aspect of the Country -- Bald Head, calcareous casts -of branches of Trees -- Party of Natives -- Leave Australia. - - -JANUARY 12th, 1836. -- Early in the morning a light air -carried us towards the entrance of Port Jackson. Instead -of beholding a verdant country, interspersed with -fine houses, a straight line of yellowish cliff brought to our -minds the coast of Patagonia. A solitary lighthouse, built of -white stone, alone told us that we were near a great and -populous city. Having entered the harbour, it appears fine -and spacious, with cliff-formed shores of horizontally -stratified sandstone. The nearly level country is covered with -thin scrubby trees, bespeaking the curse of sterility. -Proceeding further inland, the country improves: beautiful -villas and nice cottages are here and there scattered along the -beach. In the distance stone houses, two and three stories high, -and windmills standing on the edge of a bank, pointed out to us -the neighbourhood of the capital of Australia. - -At last we anchored within Sydney Cove. We found the -little basin occupied by many large ships, and surrounded by -warehouses. In the evening I walked through the town, and -returned full of admiration at the whole scene. It is a most -magnificent testimony to the power of the British nation. -Here, in a less promising country, scores of years have done -many more times more than an equal number of centuries -have effected in South America. My first feeling was to -congratulate myself that I was born an Englishman. Upon -seeing more of the town afterwards, perhaps my admiration -fell a little; but yet it is a fine town. The streets are -regular, broad, clean, and kept in excellent order; the houses -are of a good size, and the shops well furnished. It may be -faithfully compared to the large suburbs which stretch out from -London and a few other great towns in England; but not even near -London or Birmingham is there an appearance of such rapid -growth. The number of large houses and other buildings just -finished was truly surprising; nevertheless, every one -complained of the high rents and difficulty in procuring a -house. Coming from South America, where in the towns every man -of property is known, no one thing surprised me more than -not being able to ascertain at once to whom this or that -carriage belonged. - -I hired a man and two horses to take me to Bathurst, a -village about one hundred and twenty miles in the interior, -and the centre of a great pastoral district. By this means I -hoped to gain a general idea of the appearance of the country. -On the morning of the 16th (January) I set out on my excursion. -The first stage took us to Paramatta, a small country -town, next to Sydney in importance. The roads were excellent, -and made upon the MacAdam principle, whinstone having -been brought for the purpose from the distance of several -miles. In all respects there was a close resemblance to England: -perhaps the alehouses here were more numerous. The iron gangs, -or parties of convicts who have committed here some offense, -appeared the least like England: they were working in chains, -under the charge of sentries with loaded arms. - -The power which the government possesses, by means -of forced labour, of at once opening good roads throughout -the country, has been, I believe, one main cause of the early -prosperity of this colony. I slept at night at a very -comfortable inn at Emu ferry, thirty-five miles from Sydney, -and near the ascent of the Blue Mountains. This line of -road is the most frequented, and has been the longest inhabited -of any in the colony. The whole land is enclosed -with high railings, for the farmers have not succeeded in -rearing hedges. There are many substantial houses and good -cottages scattered about; but although considerable pieces of -land are under cultivation, the greater part yet remains as -when first discovered. - -The extreme uniformity of the vegetation is the most -remarkable feature in the landscape of the greater part of -New South Wales. Everywhere we have an open woodland, -the ground being partially covered with a very thin pasture, -with little appearance of verdure. The trees nearly all -belong to one family, and mostly have their leaves placed in -a vertical, instead of as in Europe, in a nearly horizontal -position: the foliage is scanty, and of a peculiar pale green -tint, without any gloss. Hence the woods appear light and -shadowless: this, although a loss of comfort to the traveller -under the scorching rays of summer, is of importance to the -farmer, as it allows grass to grow where it otherwise would -not. The leaves are not shed periodically: this character -appears common to the entire southern hemisphere, namely, -South America, Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. The -inhabitants of this hemisphere, and of the intertropical -regions, thus lose perhaps one of the most glorious, though -to our eyes common, spectacles in the world -- the first -bursting into full foliage of the leafless tree. They may, -however, say that we pay dearly for this by having the land -covered with mere naked skeletons for so many months. This is -too true but our senses thus acquire a keen relish for the -exquisite green of the spring, which the eyes of those living -within the tropics, sated during the long year with the gorgeous -productions of those glowing climates, can never experience. -The greater number of the trees, with the exception -of some of the Blue-gums, do not attain a large size; -but they grow tall and tolerably straight, and stand well -apart. The bark of some of the Eucalypti falls annually, or -hangs dead in long shreds which swing about with the wind, -and give to the woods a desolate and untidy appearance. I -cannot imagine a more complete contrast, in every respect, -than between the forests of Valdivia or Chiloe, and the -woods of Australia. - -At sunset, a party of a score of the black aborigines passed -by, each carrying, in their accustomed manner, a bundle of -spears and other weapons. By giving a leading young man a -shilling, they were easily detained, and threw their spears for -my amusement. They were all partly clothed, and several -could speak a little English: their countenances were good- -humoured and pleasant, and they appeared far from being -such utterly degraded beings as they have usually been -represented. In their own arts they are admirable. A cap being -fixed at thirty yards distance, they transfixed it with a spear, -delivered by the throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow -from the bow of a practised archer. In tracking animals or -men they show most wonderful sagacity; and I heard of several -of their remarks which manifested considerable acuteness. -They will not, however, cultivate the ground, or build -houses and remain stationary, or even take the trouble of -tending a flock of sheep when given to them. On the whole -they appear to me to stand some few degrees higher in the -scale of civilization than the Fuegians. - -It is very curious thus to see in the midst of a civilized -people, a set of harmless savages wandering about without -knowing where they shall sleep at night, and gaining their -livelihood by hunting in the woods. As the white man has -travelled onwards, he has spread over the country belonging -to several tribes. These, although thus enclosed by one common -people, keep up their ancient distinctions, and sometimes -go to war with each other. In an engagement which -took place lately, the two parties most singularly chose the -centre of the village of Bathurst for the field of battle. This -was of service to the defeated side, for the runaway warriors -took refuge in the barracks. - -The number of aborigines is rapidly decreasing. In my -whole ride, with the exception of some boys brought up by -Englishmen, I saw only one other party. This decrease, no -doubt, must be partly owing to the introduction of spirits, to -European diseases (even the milder ones of which, such as -the measles, [1] prove very destructive), and to the gradual -extinction of the wild animals. It is said that numbers of -their children invariably perish in very early infancy from -the effects of their wandering life; and as the difficulty of -procuring food increases, so must their wandering habits -increase; and hence the population, without any apparent -deaths from famine, is repressed in a manner extremely -sudden compared to what happens in civilized countries, -where the father, though in adding to his labour he may injure -himself, does not destroy his offspring. - -Besides the several evident causes of destruction, there -appears to be some more mysterious agency generally at -work. Wherever the European has trod, death seems to pursue -the aboriginal. We may look to the wide extent of the -Americas, Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia, -and we find the same result. Nor is it the white man alone -that thus acts the destroyer; the Polynesian of Malay extraction -has in parts of the East Indian archipelago, thus driven -before him the dark-coloured native. The varieties of man -seem to act on each other in the same way as different species -of animals -- the stronger always extirpating the weaker. It -was melancholy at New Zealand to hear the fine energetic -natives saying that they knew the land was doomed to pass -from their children. Every one has heard of the inexplicable -reduction of the population in the beautiful and healthy island -of Tahiti since the date of Captain Cook's voyages: although -in that case we might have expected that it would have been -increased; for infanticide, which formerly prevailed to so -extraordinary a degree, has ceased; profligacy has greatly -diminished, and the murderous wars become less frequent. - -The Rev. J. Williams, in his interesting work, [2] says, that -the first intercourse between natives and Europeans, "is -invariably attended with the introduction of fever, dysentery, -or some other disease, which carries off numbers of the people." -Again he affirms, "It is certainly a fact, which cannot -be controverted, that most of the diseases which have raged -in the islands during my residence there, have been introduced -by ships; [3] and what renders this fact remarkable is, -that there might be no appearance of disease among the crew -of the ship which conveyed this destructive importation." -This statement is not quite so extraordinary as it at first -appears; for several cases are on record of the most malignant -fevers having broken out, although the parties themselves, -who were the cause, were not affected. In the early -part of the reign of George III., a prisoner who had been -confined in a dungeon, was taken in a coach with four constables -before a magistrate; and although the man himself -was not ill, the four constables died from a short putrid -fever; but the contagion extended to no others. From these -facts it would almost appear as if the effluvium of one set -of men shut up for some time together was poisonous when -inhaled by others; and possibly more so, if the men be of -different races. Mysterious as this circumstance appears to -be, it is not more surprising than that the body of one's -fellow-creature, directly after death, and before putrefaction -has commenced, should often be of so deleterious a quality, -that the mere puncture from an instrument used in its -dissection, should prove fatal. - -17th. -- Early in the morning we passed the Nepean in a -ferry-boat. The river, although at this spot both broad and -deep, had a very small body of running water. Having -crossed a low piece of land on the opposite side, we reached -the slope of the Blue Mountains. The ascent is not steep, -the road having been cut with much care on the side of a -sandstone cliff. On the summit an almost level plain extends, -which, rising imperceptibly to the westward, at last attains -a height of more than 3000 feet. From so grand a title as -Blue Mountains, and from their absolute altitude, I expected -to have seen a bold chain of mountains crossing the country; -but instead of this, a sloping plain presents merely an -inconsiderable front to the low land near the coast. From -this first slope, the view of the extensive woodland to the -east was striking, and the surrounding trees grew bold and -lofty. But when once on the sandstone platform, the scenery -becomes exceedingly monotonous; each side of the road is -bordered by scrubby trees of the never-failing Eucalyptus -family; and with the exception of two or three small inns, -there are no houses or cultivated land: the road, moreover, -is solitary; the most frequent object being a bullock-waggon, -piled up with bales of wool. - -In the middle of the day we baited our horses at a little -inn, called the Weatherboard. The country here is elevated -2800 feet above the sea. About a mile and a half from this -place there is a view exceedingly well worth visiting. Following -down a little valley and its tiny rill of water, an -immense gulf unexpectedly opens through the trees which -border the pathway, at the depth of perhaps 1500 feet. -Walking on a few yards, one stands on the brink of a vast -precipice, and below one sees a grand bay or gulf, for I know -not what other name to give it, thickly covered with forest. -The point of view is situated as if at the head of a bay, the -line of cliff diverging on each side, and showing headland -behind headland, as on a bold sea-coast. These cliffs are -composed of horizontal strata of whitish sandstone; and -are so absolutely vertical, that in many places a person -standing on the edge and throwing down a stone, can see it -strike the trees in the abyss below. So unbroken is the line -of cliff, that in order to reach the foot of the waterfall, -formed by this little stream, it is said to be necessary to go -sixteen miles round. About five miles distant in front, -another line of cliff extends, which thus appears completely -to encircle the valley; and hence the name of bay is justified, -as applied to this grand amphitheatrical depression. If we -imagine a winding harbour, with its deep water surrounded -by bold cliff-like shores, to be laid dry, and a forest to -spring up on its sandy bottom, we should then have the -appearance and structure here exhibited. This kind of view was -to me quite novel, and extremely magnificent. - -In the evening we reached the Blackheath. The sandstone -plateau has here attained the height of 3400 feet; and -is covered, as before, with the same scrubby woods. From -the road, there were occasional glimpses into a profound -valley, of the same character as the one described; but from -the steepness and depth of its sides, the bottom was scarcely -ever to be seen. The Blackheath is a very comfortable inn, -kept by an old soldier; and it reminded me of the small inns -in North Wales. - -18th. -- Very early in the morning, I walked about three -miles to see Govett's Leap; a view of a similar character -with that near the Weatherboard, but perhaps even more -stupendous. So early in the day the gulf was filled with a -thin blue haze, which, although destroying the general effect -of the view added to the apparent depth at which the forest -was stretched out beneath our feet. These valleys, which so -long presented an insuperable barrier to the attempts of the -most enterprising of the colonists to reach the interior, are -most remarkable. Great arm-like bays, expanding at their -upper ends, often branch from the main valleys and penetrate -the sandstone platform; on the other hand, the platform -often sends promontories into the valleys, and even -leaves in them great, almost insulated, masses. To descend -into some of these valleys, it is necessary to go round twenty -miles; and into others, the surveyors have only lately -penetrated, and the colonists have not yet been able to drive in -their cattle. But the most remarkable feature in their structure -is, that although several miles wide at their heads, they -generally contract towards their mouths to such a degree -as to become impassable. The Surveyor-General, Sir T. -Mitchell, [4] endeavoured in vain, first walking and then by -crawling between the great fallen fragments of sandstone, -to ascend through the gorge by which the river Grose joins -the Nepean, yet the valley of the Grose in its upper part, -as I saw, forms a magnificent level basin some miles in -width, and is on all sides surrounded by cliffs, the summits -of which are believed to be nowhere less than 3000 feet -above the level of the sea. When cattle are driven into the -valley of the Wolgan by a path (which I descended), partly -natural and partly made by the owner of the land, they cannot -escape; for this valley is in every other part surrounded -by perpendicular cliffs, and eight miles lower down, it -contracts from an average width of half a mile, to a mere -chasm, impassable to man or beast. Sir T. Mitchell states -that the great valley of the Cox river with all its branches, -contracts, where it unites with the Nepean, into a gorge -2200 yards in width, and about 1000 feet in depth. Other -similar cases might have been added. - -The first impression, on seeing the correspondence of the -horizontal strata on each side of these valleys and great -amphitheatrical depressions, is that they have been hollowed -out, like other valleys, by the action of water; but when one -reflects on the enormous amount of stone, which on this -view must have been removed through mere gorges or -chasms, one is led to ask whether these spaces may not have -subsided. But considering the form of the irregularly -branching valleys, and of the narrow promontories projecting -into them from the platforms, we are compelled to abandon -this notion. To attribute these hollows to the present alluvial -action would be preposterous; nor does the drainage -from the summit-level always fall, as I remarked near the -Weatherboard, into the head of these valleys, but into one -side of their bay-like recesses. Some of the inhabitants -remarked to me that they never viewed one of those bay-like -recesses, with the headlands receding on both hands, without -being struck with their resemblance to a bold sea-coast. This -is certainly the case; moreover, on the present coast of New -South Wales, the numerous, fine, widely-branching harbours, -which are generally connected with the sea by a narrow -mouth worn through the sandstone coast-cliffs, varying from -one mile in width to a quarter of a mile, present a likeness, -though on a miniature scale, to the great valleys of the -interior. But then immediately occurs the startling difficulty, -why has the sea worn out these great, though circumscribed -depressions on a wide platform, and left mere gorges at the -openings, through which the whole vast amount of triturated -matter must have been carried away? The only light I can -throw upon this enigma, is by remarking that banks of the -most irregular forms appear to be now forming in some seas, -as in parts of the West Indies and in the Red Sea, and that -their sides are exceedingly steep. Such banks, I have been -led to suppose, have been formed by sediment heaped by -strong currents on an irregular bottom. That in some cases -the sea, instead of spreading out sediment in a uniform sheet, -heaps it round submarine rocks and islands, it is hardly -possible to doubt, after examining the charts of the West -Indies; and that the waves have power to form high and -precipitous cliffs, even in land-locked harbours, I have noticed -in many parts of South America. To apply these ideas to the -sandstone platforms of New South Wales, I imagine that the -strata were heaped by the action of strong currents, and of -the undulations of an open sea, on an irregular bottom; and -that the valley-like spaces thus left unfilled had their steeply -sloping flanks worn into cliffs, during a slow elevation of -the land; the worn-down sandstone being removed, either at -the time when the narrow gorges were cut by the retreating -sea, or subsequently by alluvial action. - - -Soon after leaving the Blackheath, we descended from the -sandstone platform by the pass of Mount Victoria. To effect -this pass, an enormous quantity of stone has been cut -through; the design, and its manner of execution, being -worthy of any line of road in England. We now entered -upon a country less elevated by nearly a thousand feet, and -consisting of granite. With the change of rock, the vegetation -improved, the trees were both finer and stood farther -apart; and the pasture between them was a little greener and -more plentiful. At Hassan's Walls, I left the high road, -and made a short detour to a farm called Walerawang; to -the superintendent of which I had a letter of introduction -from the owner in Sydney. Mr. Browne had the kindness to -ask me to stay the ensuing day, which I had much pleasure -in doing. This place offers an example of one of the large -farming, or rather sheep-grazing establishments of the -colony. Cattle and horses are, however, in this case rather -more numerous than usual, owing to some of the valleys -being swampy and producing a coarser pasture. Two or -three flat pieces of ground near the house were cleared and -cultivated with corn, which the harvest-men were now reaping: -but no more wheat is sown than sufficient for the annual -support of the labourers employed on the establishment. The -usual number of assigned convict-servants here is about -forty, but at the present time there were rather more. Although -the farm was well stocked with every necessary, -there was an apparent absence of comfort; and not one -single woman resided here. The sunset of a fine day will -generally cast an air of happy contentment on any scene; -but here, at this retired farm-house, the brightest tints on -the surrounding woods could not make me forget that forty -hardened, profligate men were ceasing from their daily -labours, like the slaves from Africa, yet without their holy -claim for compassion. - -Early on the next morning, Mr. Archer, the joint superintendent, -had the kindness to take me out kangaroo-hunting. -We continued riding the greater part of the day, but had -very bad sport, not seeing a kangaroo, or even a wild dog. -The greyhounds pursued a kangaroo rat into a hollow tree, -out of which we dragged it: it is an animal as large as a -rabbit, but with the figure of a kangaroo. A few years since -this country abounded with wild animals; but now the emu -is banished to a long distance, and the kangaroo is become -scarce; to both the English greyhound has been highly -destructive. It may be long before these animals are altogether -exterminated, but their doom is fixed. The aborigines are -always anxious to borrow the dogs from the farm-houses: -the use of them, the offal when an animal is killed, and some -milk from the cows, are the peace-offerings of the settlers, -who push farther and farther towards the interior. The -thoughtless aboriginal, blinded by these trifling advantages, -is delighted at the approach of the white man, who seems -predestined to inherit the country of his children. - -Although having poor sport, we enjoyed a pleasant ride. -The woodland is generally so open that a person on horseback -can gallop through it. It is traversed by a few flat- -bottomed valleys, which are green and free from trees: in -such spots the scenery was pretty like that of a park. In the -whole country I scarcely saw a place without the marks of a -fire; whether these had been more or less recent -- whether -the stumps were more or less black, was the greatest change -which varied the uniformity, so wearisome to the traveller's -eye. In these woods there are not many birds; I saw, however, -some large flocks of the white cockatoo feeding in a -corn-field, and a few most beautiful parrots; crows, like our -jackdaws were not uncommon, and another bird something -like the magpie. In the dusk of the evening I took a stroll -along a chain of ponds, which in this dry country represented -the course of a river, and had the good fortune to see several -of the famous Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. They were -diving and playing about the surface of the water, but -showed so little of their bodies, that they might easily have -been mistaken for water-rats. Mr. Browne shot one: certainly -it is a most extraordinary animal; a stuffed specimen does not -at all give a good idea of the appearance of the head and beak -when fresh; the latter becoming hard and contracted. [5] - -20th. -- A long day's ride to Bathurst. Before joining the -highroad we followed a mere path through the forest; and -the country, with the exception of a few squatters' huts, was -very solitary. We experienced this day the sirocco-like wind -of Australia, which comes from the parched deserts of the -interior. Clouds of dust were travelling in every direction; -and the wind felt as if it had passed over a fire. I afterwards -heard that the thermometer out of doors had stood at -119 degs., and in a closed room at 96 degs. In the afternoon we -came in view of the downs of Bathurst. These undulating but -nearly smooth plains are very remarkable in this country, -from being absolutely destitute of trees. They support only -a thin brown pasture. We rode some miles over this country, -and then reached the township of Bathurst, seated in the -middle of what may be called either a very broad valley, or -narrow plain. I was told at Sydney not to form too bad an -opinion of Australia by judging of the country from the -roadside, nor too good a one from Bathurst; in this latter -respect, I did not feel myself in the least danger of being -prejudiced. The season, it must be owned, had been one of great -drought, and the country did not wear a favourable aspect; -although I understand it was incomparably worse two or -three months before. The secret of the rapidly growing -prosperity of Bathurst is, that the brown pasture which -appears to the stranger's eye so wretched, is excellent for -sheep-grazing. The town stands, at the height of 2200 feet -above the sea, on the banks of the Macquarie. This is one of -the rivers flowing into the vast and scarcely known interior. -The line of water-shed, which divides the inland streams from -those on the coast, has a height of about 3000 feet, and runs -in a north and south direction at the distance of from eighty -to a hundred miles from the sea-side. The Macquarie figures -in the map as a respectable river, and it is the largest of -those draining this part of the water-shed; yet to my surprise -I found it a mere chain of ponds, separated from each other -by spaces almost dry. Generally a small stream is running; -and sometimes there are high and impetuous floods. Scanty -as the supply of the water is throughout this district, it -becomes still scantier further inland. - -22nd. -- I commenced my return, and followed a new road -called Lockyer's Line, along which the country is rather more -hilly and picturesque. This was a long day's ride; and the -house where I wished to sleep was some way off the road, -and not easily found. I met on this occasion, and indeed on -all others, a very general and ready civility among the lower -orders, which, when one considers what they are, and what -they have been, would scarcely have been expected. The -farm where I passed the night, was owned by two young -men who had only lately come out, and were beginning a -settler's life. The total want of almost every comfort was -not attractive; but future and certain prosperity was before -their eyes, and that not far distant. - -The next day we passed through large tracts of country in -flames, volumes of smoke sweeping across the road. Before -noon we joined our former road, and ascended Mount Victoria. -I slept at the Weatherboard, and before dark took -another walk to the amphitheatre. On the road to Sydney -I spent a very pleasant evening with Captain King at Dunheved; -and thus ended my little excursion in the colony of -New South Wales. - -Before arriving here the three things which interested me -most were -- the state of society amongst the higher classes, -the condition of the convicts, and the degree of attraction -sufficient to induce persons to emigrate. Of course, after -so very short a visit, one's opinion is worth scarcely anything; -but it is as difficult not to form some opinion, as it is -to form a correct judgment. On the whole, from what I -heard, more than from what I saw, I was disappointed in the -state of society. The whole community is rancorously -divided into parties on almost every subject. Among those -who, from their station in life, ought to be the best, many -live in such open profligacy that respectable people cannot -associate with them. There is much jealousy between the -children of the rich emancipist and the free settlers, the -former being pleased to consider honest men as interlopers. -The whole population, poor and rich, are bent on acquiring -wealth: amongst the higher orders, wool and sheep-grazing -form the constant subject of conversation. There are many -serious drawbacks to the comforts of a family, the chief of -which, perhaps, is being surrounded by convict servants. -How thoroughly odious to every feeling, to be waited on by -a man who the day before, perhaps, was flogged, from your -representation, for some trifling misdemeanor. The female -servants are of course, much worse: hence children learn the -vilest expressions, and it is fortunate, if not equally vile -ideas. - -On the other hand, the capital of a person, without any -trouble on his part, produces him treble interest to what it -will in England; and with care he is sure to grow rich. The -luxuries of life are in abundance, and very little dearer than -in England, and most articles of food are cheaper. The -climate is splendid, and perfectly healthy; but to my mind -its charms are lost by the uninviting aspect of the country. -Settlers possess a great advantage in finding their sons of -service when very young. At the age of from sixteen to -twenty, they frequently take charge of distant farming stations. -This, however, must happen at the expense of their -boys associating entirely with convict servants. I am not -aware that the tone of society has assumed any peculiar -character; but with such habits, and without intellectual -pursuits, it can hardly fail to deteriorate. My opinion is -such, that nothing but rather sharp necessity should compel -me to emigrate. - -The rapid prosperity and future prospects of this colony -are to me, not understanding these subjects, very puzzling. -The two main exports are wool and whale-oil, and to both -of these productions there is a limit. The country is totally -unfit for canals, therefore there is a not very distant point, -beyond which the land-carriage of wool will not repay the -expense of shearing and tending sheep. Pasture everywhere -is so thin that settlers have already pushed far into the -interior: moreover, the country further inland becomes extremely -poor. Agriculture, on account of the droughts, can -never succeed on an extended scale: therefore, so far as I -can see, Australia must ultimately depend upon being the -centre of commerce for the southern hemisphere, and perhaps -on her future manufactories. Possessing coal, she -always has the moving power at hand. From the habitable -country extending along the coast, and from her English -extraction, she is sure to be a maritime nation. I formerly -imagined that Australia would rise to be as grand and powerful -a country as North America, but now it appears to me -that such future grandeur is rather problematical. - -With respect to the state of the convicts, I had still fewer -opportunities of judging than on other points. The first -question is, whether their condition is at all one of -punishment: no one will maintain that it is a very severe one. -This, however, I suppose, is of little consequence as long as -it continues to be an object of dread to criminals at home. -The corporeal wants of the convicts are tolerably well supplied: -their prospect of future liberty and comfort is not -distant, and, after good conduct, certain. A "ticket of -leave," which, as long as a man keeps clear of suspicion as -well as of crime, makes him free within a certain district, is -given upon good conduct, after years proportional to the -length of the sentence; yet with all this, and overlooking -the previous imprisonment and wretched passage out, I -believe the years of assignment are passed away with discontent -and unhappiness. As an intelligent man remarked to -me, the convicts know no pleasure beyond sensuality, and in -this they are not gratified. The enormous bribe which Government -possesses in offering free pardons, together with the -deep horror of the secluded penal settlements, destroys -confidence between the convicts, and so prevents crime. As to a -sense of shame, such a feeling does not appear to be known, -and of this I witnessed some very singular proofs. Though -it is a curious fact, I was universally told that the character -of the convict population is one of arrant cowardice: not -unfrequently some become desperate, and quite indifferent as -to life, yet a plan requiring cool or continued courage is -seldom put into execution. The worst feature in the whole -case is, that although there exists what may be called a legal -reform, and comparatively little is committed which the law -can touch, yet that any moral reform should take place -appears to be quite out of the question. I was assured by -well-informed people, that a man who should try to improve, -could not while living with other assigned servants; -- his -life would be one of intolerable misery and persecution. Nor -must the contamination of the convict-ships and prisons, both -here and in England, be forgotten. On the whole, as a place -of punishment, the object is scarcely gained; as a real system -of reform it has failed, as perhaps would every other plan; -but as a means of making men outwardly honest, -- of converting -vagabonds, most useless in one hemisphere, into -active citizens of another, and thus giving birth to a new -and splendid country -- a grand centre of civilization -- it has -succeeded to a degree perhaps unparalleled in history. - - -30th. -- The Beagle sailed for Hobart Town in Van Diemen's -Land. On the 5th of February, after a six days' passage, -of which the first part was fine, and the latter very cold -and squally, we entered the mouth of Storm Bay: the weather -justified this awful name. The bay should rather be called -an estuary, for it receives at its head the waters of the -Derwent. Near the mouth, there are some extensive basaltic -platforms; but higher up the land becomes mountainous, and -is covered by a light wood. The lower parts of the hills -which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields -of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant. -Late in the evening we anchored in the snug cove, -on the shores of which stands the capital of Tasmania. The -first aspect of the place was very inferior to that of Sydney; -the latter might be called a city, this is only a town. It -stands at the base of Mount Wellington, a mountain 3100 -feet high, but of little picturesque beauty; from this source, -however, it receives a good supply of water. Round the cove -there are some fine warehouses and on one side a small fort. -Coming from the Spanish settlements, where such magnificent -care has generally been paid to the fortifications, the -means of defence in these colonies appeared very contemptible. -Comparing the town with Sydney, I was chiefly struck -with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either -built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, -contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505. - -All the aborigines have been removed to an island in -Bass's Straits, so that Van Diemen's Land enjoys the great -advantage of being free from a native population. This -most cruel step seems to have been quite unavoidable, as -the only means of stopping a fearful succession of robberies, -burnings, and murders, committed by the blacks; and which -sooner or later would have ended in their utter destruction. -I fear there is no doubt, that this train of evil and its -consequences, originated in the infamous conduct of some of -our countrymen. Thirty years is a short period, in which to -have banished the last aboriginal from his native island, -- -and that island nearly as large as Ireland. The correspondence -on this subject, which took place between the government -at home and that of Van Diemen's Land, is very interesting. -Although numbers of natives were shot and taken prisoners -in the skirmishing, which was going on at intervals for several -years; nothing seems fully to have impressed them with -the idea of our overwhelming power, until the whole island, -in 1830, was put under martial law, and by proclamation the -whole population commanded to assist in one great attempt -to secure the entire race. The plan adopted was nearly similar -to that of the great hunting-matches in India: a line was -formed reaching across the island, with the intention of -driving the natives into a _cul-de-sac_ on Tasman's peninsula. -The attempt failed; the natives, having tied up their dogs, -stole during one night through the lines. This is far from -surprising, when their practised senses, and usual manner -of crawling after wild animals is considered. I have been -assured that they can conceal themselves on almost bare -ground, in a manner which until witnessed is scarcely credible; -their dusky bodies being easily mistaken for the blackened -stumps which are scattered all over the country. I was -told of a trial between a party of Englishmen and a native, -who was to stand in full view on the side of a bare hill; if the -Englishmen closed their eyes for less than a minute, he -would squat down, and then they were never able to distinguish -him from the surrounding stumps. But to return to -the hunting-match; the natives understanding this kind of -warfare, were terribly alarmed, for they at once perceived -the power and numbers of the whites. Shortly afterwards -a party of thirteen belonging to two tribes came in; and, -conscious of their unprotected condition, delivered themselves -up in despair. Subsequently by the intrepid exertions -of Mr. Robinson, an active and benevolent man, who -fearlessly visited by himself the most hostile of the natives, -the whole were induced to act in a similar manner. They -were then removed to an island, where food and clothes -were provided them. Count Strzelecki states, [6] that "at the -epoch of their deportation in 1835, the number of natives -amounted to 210. In 1842, that is, after the interval of seven -years, they mustered only fifty-four individuals; and, while -each family of the interior of New South Wales, uncontaminated -by contact with the whites, swarms with children, those -of Flinders' Island had during eight years an accession of -only fourteen in number!" - -The Beagle stayed here ten days, and in this time I made -several pleasant little excursions, chiefly with the object of -examining the geological structure of the immediate -neighbourhood. The main points of interest consist, first in -some highly fossiliferous strata, belonging to the Devonian or -Carboniferous period; secondly, in proofs of a late small rise -of the land; and lastly, in a solitary and superficial patch of -yellowish limestone or travertin, which contains numerous -impressions of leaves of trees, together with land-shells, not -now existing. It is not improbable that this one small quarry -includes the only remaining record of the vegetation of Van -Diemen's Land during one former epoch. - -The climate here is damper than in New South Wales, -and hence the land is more fertile. Agriculture flourishes; -the cultivated fields look well, and the gardens abound with -thriving vegetables and fruit-trees. Some of the farm-houses, -situated in retired spots, had a very attractive appearance. -The general aspect of the vegetation is similar to -that of Australia; perhaps it is a little more green and -cheerful; and the pasture between the trees rather more -abundant. One day I took a long walk on the side of the bay -opposite to the town: I crossed in a steam-boat, two of which -are constantly plying backwards and forwards. The machinery -of one of these vessels was entirely manufactured in -this colony, which, from its very foundation, then numbered -only three and thirty years! Another day I ascended Mount -Wellington; I took with me a guide, for I failed in a first -attempt, from the thickness of the wood. Our guide, however, -was a stupid fellow, and conducted us to the southern -and damp side of the mountain, where the vegetation was -very luxuriant; and where the labour of the ascent, from the -number of rotten trunks, was almost as great as on a mountain -in Tierra del Fuego or in Chiloe. It cost us five and a -half hours of hard climbing before we reached the summit. -In many parts the Eucalypti grew to a great size, and composed -a noble forest. In some of the dampest ravines, tree- -ferns flourished in an extraordinary manner; I saw one -which must have been at least twenty feet high to the base -of the fronds, and was in girth exactly six feet. The fronds -forming the most elegant parasols, produced a gloomy shade, -like that of the first hour of the night. The summit of the -mountain is broad and flat, and is composed of huge angular -masses of naked greenstone. Its elevation is 3100 feet above -the level of the sea. The day was splendidly clear, and we -enjoyed a most extensive view; to the north, the country -appeared a mass of wooded mountains, of about the same height -with that on which we were standing, and with an equally -tame outline: to the south the broken land and water, forming -many intricate bays, was mapped with clearness before -us. After staying some hours on the summit, we found a -better way to descend, but did not reach the Beagle till eight -o'clock, after a severe day's work. - -February 7th. -- The Beagle sailed from Tasmania, and, -on the 6th of the ensuing month, reached King George's -Sound, situated close to the S. W. corner of Australia. We -stayed there eight days; and we did not during our voyage -pass a more dull and uninteresting time. The country, -viewed from an eminence, appears a woody plain, with here -and there rounded and partly bare hills of granite protruding. -One day I went out with a party, in hopes of seeing a -kangaroo hunt, and walked over a good many miles of country. -Everywhere we found the soil sandy, and very poor; -it supported either a coarse vegetation of thin, low brushwood -and wiry grass, or a forest of stunted trees. The -scenery resembled that of the high sandstone platform of the -Blue Mountains; the Casuarina (a tree somewhat resembling -a Scotch fir) is, however, here in greater number, and -the Eucalyptus in rather less. In the open parts there were -many grass-trees, -- a plant which, in appearance, has some -affinity with the palm; but, instead of being surmounted by -a crown of noble fronds, it can boast merely of a tuft of -very coarse grass-like leaves. The general bright green colour -of the brushwood and other plants, viewed from a distance, -seemed to promise fertility. A single walk, however, was enough -to dispel such an illusion; and he who thinks with me will never -wish to walk again in so uninviting a country. - -One day I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to Bald Head; -the place mentioned by so many navigators, where some imagined -that they saw corals, and others that they saw petrified -trees, standing in the position in which they had grown. -According to our view, the beds have been formed by the -wind having heaped up fine sand, composed of minute rounded -particles of shells and corals, during which process -branches and roots of trees, together with many land-shells, -became enclosed. The whole then became consolidated by -the percolation of calcareous matter; and the cylindrical -cavities left by the decaying of the wood, were thus also -filled up with a hard pseudo-stalactical stone. The weather -is now wearing away the softer parts, and in consequence -the hard casts of the roots and branches of the trees project -above the surface, and, in a singularly deceptive manner, -resemble the stumps of a dead thicket. - -A large tribe of natives, called the White Cockatoo men -happened to pay the settlement a visit while we were there. -These men, as well as those of the tribe belonging to King -George's Sound, being tempted by the offer of some tubs of -rice and sugar, were persuaded to hold a "corrobery," or -great dancing-party. As soon as it grew dark, small fires -were lighted, and the men commenced their toilet, which -consisted in painting themselves white in spots and lines. -As soon as all was ready, large fires were kept blazing, -round which the women and children were collected as spectators; -the Cockatoo and King George's men formed two distinct -parties, and generally danced in answer to each other. -The dancing consisted in their running either sideways or in -Indian file into an open space, and stamping the ground with -great force as they marched together. Their heavy footsteps -were accompanied by a kind of grunt, by beating their -clubs and spears together, and by various other gesticulations, -such as extending their arms and wriggling their -bodies. It was a most rude, barbarous scene, and, to our -ideas, without any sort of meaning; but we observed that -the black women and children watched it with the greatest -pleasure. Perhaps these dances originally represented actions, -such as wars and victories; there was one called the Emu -dance, in which each man extended his arm in a bent manner, -like the neck of that bird. In another dance, one man -imitated the movements of a kangaroo grazing in the woods, -whilst a second crawled up, and pretended to spear him. -When both tribes mingled in the dance, the ground trembled -with the heaviness of their steps, and the air resounded with -their wild cries. Every one appeared in high spirits, and the -group of nearly naked figures, viewed by the light of the -blazing fires, all moving in hideous harmony, formed a perfect -display of a festival amongst the lowest barbarians. In -Tierra del Fuego, we have beheld many curious scenes in -savage life, but never, I think, one where the natives were -in such high spirits, and so perfectly at their ease. After -the dancing was over, the whole party formed a great circle -on the ground, and the boiled rice and sugar was distributed, -to the delight of all. - -After several tedious delays from clouded weather, on the -14th of March, we gladly stood out of King George's Sound -on our course to Keeling Island. Farewell, Australia! you -are a rising child, and doubtless some day will reign a great -princess in the South: but you are too great and ambitious -for affection, yet not great enough for respect. I leave your -shores without sorrow or regret. - -[1] It is remarkable how the same disease is modified in -different climates. At the little island of St. Helena the -introduction of scarlet fever is dreaded as a plague. In some -countries, foreigners and natives are as differently affected by -certain contagious disorders as if they had been different -animals; of which fact some instances have occurred in Chile; -and, according to Humboldt, in Mexico (Polit. Essay, New Spain, -vol. iv.). - -[2] Narrative of Missionary Enterprise, p. 282. - -[3] Captain Beechey (chap. iv., vol. i.) states that the -inhabitants of Pitcairn Island are firmly convinced that after -the arrival of every ship they suffer cutaneous and other -disorders. Captain Beechey attributes this to the change of diet -during the time of the visit. Dr. Macculloch (Western Isles, -vol. ii. p. 32) says: "It is asserted, that on the arrival of a -stranger (at St. Kilda) all the inhabitants, in the common -phraseology, catch a cold." Dr. Macculloch considers the whole -case, although often previously affirmed, as ludicrous. He adds, -however, that "the question was put by us to the inhabitants who -unanimously agreed in the story." In Vancouver's Voyage, there -is a somewhat similar statement with respect to Otaheite. Dr. -Dieffenbach, in a note to his translation of the Journal, states -that the same fact is universally believed by the inhabitants of -the Chatham Islands, and in parts of New Zealand. It is -impossible that such a belief should have become universal in -the northern hemisphere, at the Antipodes, and in the Pacific, -without some good foundation. Humboldt (Polit. Essay on King of -New Spain, vol. iv.) says, that the great epidemics of Panama -and Callao are "marked" by the arrival of ships from Chile, -because the people from that temperate region, first experience -the fatal effects of the torrid zones. I may add, that I have -heard it stated in Shropshire, that sheep, which have been -imported from vessels, although themselves in a healthy -condition, if placed in the same fold with others, frequently -produce sickness in the flock. - -[4] Travels in Australia, vol. i. p. 154. I must express my -obligation to Sir T. Mitchell, for several interesting personal -communications on the subject of these great valleys of New -South Wales. - -[5] I was interested by finding here the hollow conical pitfall -of the lion-ant, or some other insect; first a fly fell down the -treacherous slope and immediately disappeared; then came a large -but unwary ant; its struggles to escape being very violent, -those curious little jets of sand, described by Kirby and Spence -(Entomol., vol. i. p. 425) as being flirted by the insect's -tail, were promptly directed against the expected victim. But -the ant enjoyed a better fate than the fly, and escaped the -fatal jaws which lay concealed at the base of the conical -hollow. This Australian pitfall was only about half the size of -that made by the European lion-ant. - -[6] Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's -Land, p. 354. - - - -CHAPTER XX - -KEELING ISLAND: -- CORAL FORMATIONS - -Keeling Island -- Singular appearance -- Scanty Flora -- -Transport of Seeds -- Birds and Insects -- Ebbing and flowing -Springs -- Fields of dead Coral -- Stones transported in the -roots of Trees -- Great Crab -- Stinging Corals -- Coral -eating Fish -- Coral Formations -- Lagoon Islands, or Atolls -- -Depth at which reef-building Corals can live -- Vast Areas -interspersed with low Coral Islands -- Subsidence of their -foundations -- Barrier Reefs -- Fringing Reefs -- Conversion of -Fringing Reefs into Barrier Reefs, and into Atolls -- Evidence -of changes in Level -- Breaches in Barrier Reefs -- Maldiva -Atolls, their peculiar structure -- Dead and submerged Reefs -- -Areas of subsidence and elevation -- Distribution of Volcanoes --- Subsidence slow, and vast in amount. - - -APRIL 1st. -- We arrived in view of the Keeling or Cocos -Islands, situated in the Indian Ocean, and about six hundred -miles distant from the coast of Sumatra. This is one of the -lagoon-islands (or atolls) of coral formation, similar to -those in the Low Archipelago which we passed near. When -the ship was in the channel at the entrance, Mr. Liesk, -an English resident, came off in his boat. The history -of the inhabitants of this place, in as few words as -possible, is as follows. About nine years ago, Mr. Hare, -a worthless character, brought from the East Indian -archipelago a number of Malay slaves, which now including -children, amount to more than a hundred. Shortly afterwards, -Captain Ross, who had before visited these islands in his -merchant-ship, arrived from England, bringing -with him his family and goods for settlement along with -him came Mr. Liesk, who had been a mate in his vessel. -The Malay slaves soon ran away from the islet on which -Mr. Hare was settled, and joined Captain Ross's party. Mr. -Hare upon this was ultimately obliged to leave the place. - -The Malays are now nominally in a state of freedom, and -certainly are so, as far as regards their personal treatment; -but in most other points they are considered as slaves. From -their discontented state, from the repeated removals from -islet to islet, and perhaps also from a little mismanagement, -things are not very prosperous. The island has no domestic -quadruped, excepting the pig, and the main vegetable production -is the cocoa-nut. The whole prosperity of the place -depends on this tree: the only exports being oil from the nut, -and the nuts themselves, which are taken to Singapore and -Mauritius, where they are chiefly used, when grated, in making -curries. On the cocoa-nut, also, the pigs, which are -loaded with fat, almost entirely subsist, as do the ducks and -poultry. Even a huge land-crab is furnished by nature with -the means to open and feed on this most useful production. - -The ring-formed reef of the lagoon-island is surmounted -in the greater part of its length by linear islets. On the -northern or leeward side, there is an opening through which -vessels can pass to the anchorage within. On entering, the -scene was very curious and rather pretty; its beauty, however, -entirely depended on the brilliancy of the surrounding -colours. The shallow, clear, and still water of the lagoon, -resting in its greater part on white sand, is, when illumined -by a vertical sun, of the most vivid green. This brilliant -expanse, several miles in width, is on all sides divided, either -by a line of snow-white breakers from the dark heaving -waters of the ocean, or from the blue vault of heaven by -the strips of land, crowned by the level tops of the cocoa-nut -trees. As a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing -contrast with the azure sky, so in the lagoon, bands of -living coral darken the emerald green water. - -The next morning after anchoring, I went on shore on -Direction Island. The strip of dry land is only a few hundred -yards in width; on the lagoon side there is a white calcareous -beach, the radiation from which under this sultry -climate was very oppressive; and on the outer coast, a solid -broad flat of coral-rock served to break the violence of the -open sea. Excepting near the lagoon, where there is some -sand, the land is entirely composed of rounded fragments of -coral. In such a loose, dry, stony soil, the climate of the -intertropical regions alone could produce a vigorous vegetation. -On some of the smaller islets, nothing could be more -elegant than the manner in which the young and full-grown -cocoa-nut trees, without destroying each other's symmetry, -were mingled into one wood. A beach of glittering white -sand formed a border to these fairy spots. - -I will now give a sketch of the natural history of these -islands, which, from its very paucity, possesses a peculiar -interest. The cocoa-nut tree, at first glance, seems to -compose the whole wood; there are however, five or six -other trees. One of these grows to a very large size, but -from the extremes of softness of its wood, is useless; another -sort affords excellent timber for ship-building. Besides the -trees, the number of plants is exceedingly limited, and consists -of insignificant weeds. In my collection, which includes, -I believe, nearly the perfect Flora, there are twenty -species, without reckoning a moss, lichen, and fungus. To -this number two trees must be added; one of which was not -in flower, and the other I only heard of. The latter is a -solitary tree of its kind, and grows near the beach, where, -without doubt, the one seed was thrown up by the waves. A -Guilandina also grows on only one of the islets. I do not -include in the above list the sugar-cane, banana, some other -vegetables, fruit-trees, and imported grasses. As the islands -consist entirely of coral, and at one time must have existed -as mere water-washed reefs, all their terrestrial productions -must have been transported here by the waves of the sea. -In accordance with this, the Florula has quite the character -of a refuge for the destitute: Professor Henslow informs -me that of the twenty species nineteen belong to different -genera, and these again to no less than sixteen families! [1] - -In Holman's [2] Travels an account is given, on the authority -of Mr. A. S. Keating, who resided twelve months on these -islands, of the various seeds and other bodies which have -been known to have been washed on shore. "Seeds and -plants from Sumatra and Java have been driven up by the -surf on the windward side of the islands. Among them have -been found the Kimiri, native of Sumatra and the peninsula -of Malacca; the cocoa-nut of Balci, known by its shape and -size; the Dadass, which is planted by the Malays with the -pepper-vine, the latter intwining round its trunk, and -supporting itself by the prickles on its stem; the soap-tree; -the castor-oil plant; trunks of the sago palm; and various kinds -of seeds unknown to the Malays settled on the islands. -These are all supposed to have been driven by the N. W. -monsoon to the coast of New Holland, and thence to these -islands by the S. E. trade-wind. Large masses of Java teak -and Yellow wood have also been found, besides immense -trees of red and white cedar, and the blue gumwood of New -Holland, in a perfectly sound condition. All the hardy seeds, -such as creepers, retain their germinating power, but the -softer kinds, among which is the mangostin, are destroyed -in the passage. Fishing-canoes, apparently from Java, have -at times been washed on shore." It is interesting thus to -discover how numerous the seeds are, which, coming from -several countries, are drifted over the wide ocean. Professor -Henslow tells me, he believes that nearly all the plants -which I brought from these islands, are common littoral -species in the East Indian archipelago. From the direction, -however, of the winds and currents, it seems scarcely possible -that they could have come here in a direct line. If, -as suggested with much probability by Mr. Keating, they -were first carried towards the coast of New Holland, and -thence drifted back together with the productions of that -country, the seeds, before germinating, must have travelled -between 1800 and 2400 miles. - -Chamisso, [3] when describing the Radack Archipelago, situated -in the western part of the Pacific, states that "the sea -brings to these islands the seeds and fruits of many trees, -most of which have yet not grown here. The greater part -of these seeds appear to have not yet lost the capability of -growing." - -It is also said that palms and bamboos from somewhere -in the torrid zone, and trunks of northern firs, are -washed on shore: these firs must have come from an immense -distance. These facts are highly interesting. It cannot -be doubted that if there were land-birds to pick up the -seeds when first cast on shore, and a soil better adapted for -their growth than the loose blocks of coral, that the most -isolated of the lagoon-islands would in time possess a far -more abundant Flora than they now have. - -The list of land animals is even poorer than that of the -plants. Some of the islets are inhabited by rats, which were -brought in a ship from the Mauritius, wrecked here. These -rats are considered by Mr. Waterhouse as identical with the -English kind, but they are smaller, and more brightly coloured. -There are no true land-birds, for a snipe and a rail -(Rallus Phillippensis), though living entirely in the dry -herbage, belong to the order of Waders. Birds of this order -are said to occur on several of the small low islands in the -Pacific. At Ascension, where there is no land-bird, a rail -(Porphyrio simplex) was shot near the summit of the mountain, -and it was evidently a solitary straggler. At Tristan -d'Acunha, where, according to Carmichael, there are only -two land-birds, there is a coot. From these facts I believe -that the waders, after the innumerable web-footed species, -are generally the first colonists of small isolated islands. I -may add, that whenever I noticed birds, not of oceanic -species, very far out at sea, they always belonged to this -order; and hence they would naturally become the earliest -colonists of any remote point of land. - -Of reptiles I saw only one small lizard. Of insects I took -pains to collect every kind. Exclusive of spiders, which were -numerous, there were thirteen species. [4] Of these, one only -was a beetle. A small ant swarmed by thousands under the -loose dry blocks of coral, and was the only true insect which -was abundant. Although the productions of the land are -thus scanty, if we look to the waters of the surrounding sea, -the number of organic beings is indeed infinite. Chamisso -has described [5] the natural history of a lagoon-island in the -Radack Archipelago; and it is remarkable how closely its -inhabitants, in number and kind, resemble those of Keeling -Island. There is one lizard and two waders, namely, a snipe -and curlew. Of plants there are nineteen species, including -a fern; and some of these are the same with those growing -here, though on a spot so immensely remote, and in a different -ocean. - -The long strips of land, forming the linear islets, have -been raised only to that height to which the surf can throw -fragments of coral, and the wind heap up calcareous sand. -The solid flat of coral rock on the outside, by its breadth, -breaks the first violence of the waves, which otherwise, in a -day, would sweep away these islets and all their productions. -The ocean and the land seem here struggling for mastery: -although terra firma has obtained a footing, the denizens of -the water think their claim at least equally good. In every -part one meets hermit crabs of more than one species, [6] -carrying on their backs the shells which they have stolen -from the neighbouring beach. Overhead, numerous gannets, -frigate-birds, and terns, rest on the trees; and the wood, from -the many nests and from the smell of the atmosphere, might -be called a sea-rookery. The gannets, sitting on their rude -nests, gaze at one with a stupid yet angry air. The noddies, -as their name expresses, are silly little creatures. But there -is one charming bird: it is a small, snow-white tern, which -smoothly hovers at the distance of a few feet above one's -head, its large black eye scanning, with quiet curiosity, your -expression. Little imagination is required to fancy that so -light and delicate a body must be tenanted by some wandering -fairy spirit. - -Sunday, April 3rd. -- After service I accompanied Captain -Fitz Roy to the settlement, situated at the distance of some -miles, on the point of an islet thickly covered with tall -cocoa-nut trees. Captain Ross and Mr. Liesk live in a large -barn-like house open at both ends, and lined with mats made of -woven bark. The houses of the Malays are arranged along -the shore of the lagoon. The whole place had rather a desolate -aspect, for there were no gardens to show the signs of -care and cultivation. The natives belong to different islands -in the East Indian archipelago, but all speak the same language: -we saw the inhabitants of Borneo, Celebes, Java, and -Sumatra. In colour they resemble the Tahitians, from whom -they do not widely differ in features. Some of the women, -however, show a good deal of the Chinese character. I liked -both their general expressions and the sound of their voices. -They appeared poor, and their houses were destitute of -furniture; but it was evident, from the plumpness of the little -children, that cocoa-nuts and turtle afford no bad sustenance. - -On this island the wells are situated, from which ships -obtain water. At first sight it appears not a little remarkable -that the fresh water should regularly ebb and flow with the -tides; and it has even been imagined, that sand has the power -of filtering the salt from the sea-water. These ebbing wells -are common on some of the low islands in the West Indies. -The compressed sand, or porous coral rock, is permeated like -a sponge with the salt water, but the rain which falls on the -surface must sink to the level of the surrounding sea, and -must accumulate there, displacing an equal bulk of the salt -water. As the water in the lower part of the great sponge- -like coral mass rises and falls with the tides, so will the -water near the surface; and this will keep fresh, if the mass -be sufficiently compact to prevent much mechanical admixture; -but where the land consists of great loose blocks of -coral with open interstices, if a well be dug, the water, as I -have seen, is brackish. - -After dinner we stayed to see a curious half superstitious -scene acted by the Malay women. A large wooden spoon -dressed in garments, and which had been carried to the grave -of a dead man, they pretend becomes inspired at the full of -the moon, and will dance and jump about. After the proper -preparations, the spoon, held by two women, became convulsed, -and danced in good time to the song of the surrounding -children and women. It was a most foolish spectacle; -but Mr. Liesk maintained that many of the Malays believed -in its spiritual movements. The dance did not commence till -the moon had risen, and it was well worth remaining to behold -her bright orb so quietly shining through the long arms -of the cocoa-nut trees as they waved in the evening breeze. -These scenes of the tropics are in themselves so delicious, -that they almost equal those dearer ones at home, to which -we are bound by each best feeling of the mind. - -The next day I employed myself in examining the very -interesting, yet simple structure and origin of these islands. -The water being unusually smooth, I waded over the outer -flat of dead rock as far as the living mounds of coral, on -which the swell of the open sea breaks. In some of the -gullies and hollows there were beautiful green and other -coloured fishes, and the form and tints of many of the zoophytes -were admirable. It is excusable to grow enthusiastic over -the infinite numbers of organic beings with which the sea of -the tropics, so prodigal of life, teems; yet I must confess I -think those naturalists who have described, in well-known -words, the submarine grottoes decked with a thousand beauties, -have indulged in rather exuberant language. - -April 6th. -- I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to an island -at the head of the lagoon: the channel was exceedingly -intricate, winding through fields of delicately branched corals. -We saw several turtle and two boats were then employed in -catching them. The water was so clear and shallow, that although -at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, yet in a -canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers after no very long -chase come up to it. A man standing ready in the bow, at -this moment dashes through the water upon the turtle's back; -then clinging with both hands by the shell of its neck, he is -carried away till the animal becomes exhausted and is secured. -It was quite an interesting chase to see the two boats -thus doubling about, and the men dashing head foremost -into the water trying to seize their prey. Captain Moresby -informs me that in the Chagos archipelago in this same -ocean, the natives, by a horrible process, take the shell from -the back of the living turtle. "It is covered with burning -charcoal, which causes the outer shell to curl upwards, it is -then forced off with a knife, and before it becomes cold -flattened between boards. After this barbarous process the -animal is suffered to regain its native element, where, after -a certain time, a new shell is formed; it is, however, too -thin to be of any service, and the animal always appears -languishing and sickly." - -When we arrived at the head of the lagoon, we crossed a -narrow islet, and found a great surf breaking on the windward -coast. I can hardly explain the reason, but there is to -my mind much grandeur in the view of the outer shores of -these lagoon-islands. There is a simplicity in the barrier-like -beach, the margin of green bushes and tall cocoa-nuts, -the solid flat of dead coral-rock, strewed here and there -with great loose fragments, and the line of furious breakers, -all rounding away towards either hand. The ocean -throwing its waters over the broad reef appears an invincible, -all-powerful enemy; yet we see it resisted, and even -conquered, by means which at first seem most weak and -inefficient. It is not that the ocean spares the rock of coral; -the great fragments scattered over the reef, and heaped on -the beach, whence the tall cocoa-nut springs, plainly bespeak -the unrelenting power of the waves. Nor are any -periods of repose granted. The long swell caused by the -gentle but steady action of the trade-wind, always blowing -in one direction over a wide area, causes breakers, almost -equalling in force those during a gale of wind in the temperate -regions, and which never cease to rage. It is impossible -to behold these waves without feeling a conviction that -an island, though built of the hardest rock, let it be porphyry, -granite, or quartz, would ultimately yield and be demolished -by such an irresistible power. Yet these low, insignificant -coral-islets stand and are victorious: for here another power, -as an antagonist, takes part in the contest. The organic forces -separate the atoms of carbonate of lime, one by one, from -the foaming breakers, and unite them into a symmetrical -structure. Let the hurricane tear up its thousand huge -fragments; yet what will that tell against the accumulated -labour of myriads of architects at work night and day, month -after month? Thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body of a -polypus, through the agency of the vital laws, conquering -the great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which -neither the art of man nor the inanimate works of nature -could successfully resist. - -We did not return on board till late in the evening, for we -stayed a long time in the lagoon, examining the fields of -coral and the gigantic shells of the chama, into which, if a -man were to put his hand, he would not, as long as the animal -lived, be able to withdraw it. Near the head of the -lagoon I was much surprised to find a wide area, considerably -more than a mile square, covered with a forest of delicately -branching corals, which, though standing upright, -were all dead and rotten. At first I was quite at a loss to -understand the cause afterwards it occurred to me that it -was owing to the following rather curious combination of -circumstances. It should, however, first be stated, that corals -are not able to survive even a short exposure in the air to -the sun's rays, so that their upward limit of growth is -determined by that of lowest water at spring tides. It appears, -from some old charts, that the long island to windward was -formerly separated by wide channels into several islets; this -fact is likewise indicated by the trees being younger on these -portions. Under the former condition of the reef, a strong -breeze, by throwing more water over the barrier, would tend -to raise the level of the lagoon. Now it acts in a directly -contrary manner; for the water within the lagoon not only -is not increased by currents from the outside, but is itself -blown outwards by the force of the wind. Hence it is observed, -that the tide near the head of the lagoon does not -rise so high during a strong breeze as it does when it is -calm. This difference of level, although no doubt very small, -has, I believe, caused the death of those coral-groves, which -under the former and more open condition of the outer reef -has attained the utmost possible limit of upward growth. - -A few miles north of Keeling there is another small atoll, -the lagoon of which is nearly filled up with coral-mud. Captain -Ross found embedded in the conglomerate on the outer -coast, a well-rounded fragment of greenstone, rather larger -than a man's head: he and the men with him were so much -surprised at this, that they brought it away and preserved it -as a curiosity. The occurrence of this one stone, where -every other particle of matter is calcareous, certainly is very -puzzling. The island has scarcely ever been visited, nor is it -probable that a ship had been wrecked there. From the absence -of any better explanation, I came to the conclusion that -it must have come entangled in the roots of some large tree: -when, however, I considered the great distance from the -nearest land, the combination of chances against a stone thus -being entangled, the tree washed into the sea, floated so far, -then landed safely, and the stone finally so embedded as to -allow of its discovery, I was almost afraid of imagining a -means of transport apparently so improbable. It was therefore -with great interest that I found Chamisso, the justly -distinguished naturalist who accompanied Kotzebue, stating -that the inhabitants of the Radack archipelago, a group of -lagoon-islands in the midst of the Pacific, obtained stones -for sharpening their instruments by searching the roots of -trees which are cast upon the beach. It will be evident that -this must have happened several times, since laws have been -established that such stones belong to the chief, and a -punishment is inflicted on any one who attempts to steal them. -When the isolated position of these small islands in the -midst of a vast ocean -- their great distance from any land -excepting that of coral formation, attested by the value -which the inhabitants, who are such bold navigators, attach -to a stone of any kind, [7] -- and the slowness of the currents -of the open sea, are all considered, the occurrence of pebbles -thus transported does appear wonderful. Stones may often -be thus carried; and if the island on which they are stranded -is constructed of any other substance besides coral, they -would scarcely attract attention, and their origin at least -would never be guessed. Moreover, this agency may long -escape discovery from the probability of trees, especially -those loaded with stones, floating beneath the surface. In -the channels of Tierra del Fuego large quantities of drift -timber are cast upon the beach, yet it is extremely rare to -meet a tree swimming on the water. These facts may possibly -throw light on single stones, whether angular or rounded, -occasionally found embedded in fine sedimentary masses. - -During another day I visited West Islet, on which the -vegetation was perhaps more luxuriant than on any other. -The cocoa-nut trees generally grow separate, but here the -young ones flourished beneath their tall parents, and formed -with their long and curved fronds the most shady arbours. -Those alone who have tried it, know how delicious it is to -be seated in such shade, and drink the cool pleasant fluid -of the cocoa-nut. In this island there is a large bay-like -space, composed of the finest white sand: it is quite level -and is only covered by the tide at high water; from this -large bay smaller creeks penetrate the surrounding woods. -To see a field of glittering white sand, representing water, -with the cocoa-nut trees extending their tall and waving -trunks around the margin, formed a singular and very pretty -view. - -I have before alluded to a crab which lives on the cocoa-nuts; -it is very common on all parts of the dry land, and -grows to a monstrous size: it is closely allied or identical -with the Birgos latro. The front pair of legs terminate in -very strong and heavy pincers, and the last pair are fitted -with others weaker and much narrower. It would at first -be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong -cocoa-nut covered with the husk; but Mr. Liesk assures me -that he has repeatedly seen this effected. The crab begins -by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, and always from that -end under which the three eye-holes are situated; when this -is completed, the crab commences hammering with its heavy -claws on one of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then -turning round its body, by the aid of its posterior and narrow -pair of pincers, it extracts the white albuminous substance. -I think this is as curious a case of instinct as ever -I heard of, and likewise of adaptation in structure between -two objects apparently so remote from each other in the -scheme of nature, as a crab and a cocoa-nut tree. The -Birgos is diurnal in its habits; but every night it is said to -pay a visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening -its branchiae. The young are likewise hatched, and live for -some time, on the coast. These crabs inhabit deep burrows, -which they hollow out beneath the roots of trees; and where -they accumulate surprising quantities of the picked fibres -of the cocoa-nut husk, on which they rest as on a bed. The -Malays sometimes take advantage of this, and collect the -fibrous mass to use as junk. These crabs are very good to -eat; moreover, under the tail of the larger ones there is a -mass of fat, which, when melted, sometimes yields as much -as a quart bottle full of limpid oil. It has been stated by -some authors that the Birgos crawls up the cocoa-nut trees -for the purpose of stealing the nuts: I very much doubt the -possibility of this; but with the Pandanus [8] the task would be -very much easier. I was told by Mr. Liesk that on these -islands the Birgos lives only on the nuts which have fallen -to the ground. - -Captain Moresby informs me that this crab inhabits the -Chagos and Seychelle groups, but not the neighbouring Maldiva -archipelago. It formerly abounded at Mauritius, but -only a few small ones are now found there. In the Pacific, -this species, or one with closely allied habits, is said [9] to -inhabit a single coral island, north of the Society group. To -show the wonderful strength of the front pair of pincers, I -may mention, that Captain Moresby confined one in a strong -tin-box, which had held biscuits, the lid being secured with -wire; but the crab turned down the edges and escaped. In -turning down the edges, it actually punched many small -holes quite through the tin! - -I was a good deal surprised by finding two species of -coral of the genus Millepora (M. complanata and alcicornis), -possessed of the power of stinging. The stony branches or -plates, when taken fresh from the water, have a harsh feel -and are not slimy, although possessing a strong and disagreeable -smell. The stinging property seems to vary in -different specimens: when a piece was pressed or rubbed on -the tender skin of the face or arm, a pricking sensation was -usually caused, which came on after the interval of a second, -and lasted only for a few minutes. One day, however, by -merely touching my face with one of the branches, pain was -instantaneously caused; it increased as usual after a few -seconds, and remaining sharp for some minutes, was perceptible -for half an hour afterwards. The sensation was as -bad as that from a nettle, but more like that caused by the -Physalia or Portuguese man-of-war. Little red spots were -produced on the tender skin of the arm, which appeared as if -they would have formed watery pustules, but did not. M. -Quoy mentions this case of the Millepora; and I have heard -of stinging corals in the West Indies. Many marine animals -seem to have this power of stinging: besides the Portuguese -man-of-war, many jelly-fish, and the Aplysia or sea-slug -of the Cape de Verd Islands, it is stated in the voyage -of the Astrolabe, that an Actinia or sea-anemone, as well as -a flexible coralline allied to Sertularia, both possess this -means of offence or defence. In the East Indian sea, a -stinging sea-weed is said to be found. - -Two species of fish, of the genus Scarus, which are common -here, exclusively feed on coral: both are coloured of a -splendid bluish-green, one living invariably in the lagoon, -and the other amongst the outer breakers. Mr. Liesk assured -us, that he had repeatedly seen whole shoals grazing with -their strong bony jaws on the tops of the coral branches: I -opened the intestines of several, and found them distended -with yellowish calcareous sandy mud. The slimy disgusting -Holuthuriae (allied to our star-fish), which the Chinese -gourmands are so fond of, also feed largely, as I am informed by -Dr. Allan, on corals; and the bony apparatus within their -bodies seems well adapted for this end. These Holuthuriae, -the fish, the numerous burrowing shells, and nereidous -worms, which perforate every block of dead coral, must be -very efficient agents in producing the fine white mud which -lies at the bottom and on the shores of the lagoon. A portion, -however, of this mud, which when wet resembled -pounded chalk, was found by Professor Ehrenberg to be -partly composed of siliceous-shielded infusoria. - -April 12th. -- In the morning we stood out of the lagoon -on our passage to the Isle of France. I am glad we have -visited these islands: such formations surely rank high -amongst the wonderful objects of this world. Captain Fitz -Roy found no bottom with a line 7200 feet in length, at the -distance of only 2200 yards from the shore; hence this island -forms a lofty submarine mountain, with sides steeper even -than those of the most abrupt volcanic cone. The saucer-shaped -summit is nearly ten miles across; and every single -atom, [10] from the least particle to the largest fragment of -rock, in this great pile, which however is small compared -with very many other lagoon-islands, bears the stamp of -having been subjected to organic arrangement. We feel surprise -when travellers tell us of the vast dimensions of the -Pyramids and other great ruins, but how utterly insignificant -are the greatest of these, when compared to these mountains -of stone accumulated by the agency of various minute -and tender animals! This is a wonder which does not at -first strike the eye of the body, but, after reflection, -the eye of reason. - -I will now give a very brief account of the three great -classes of coral-reefs; namely, Atolls, Barrier, and Fringing- -reefs, and will explain my views [11] on their formation. Almost -every voyager who has crossed the Pacific has expressed -his unbounded astonishment at the lagoon-islands, or -as I shall for the future call them by their Indian name of -atolls, and has attempted some explanation. Even as long -ago as the year 1605, Pyrard de Laval well exclaimed, "C'est - -[picture] - -une merveille de voir chacun de ces atollons, environne d'un -grand banc de pierre tout autour, n'y ayant point d'artifice -humain." The accompanying sketch of Whitsunday Island -in the Pacific, copied from, Capt. Beechey's admirable Voyage, -gives but a faint idea of the singular aspect of an atoll: -it is one of the smallest size, and has its narrow islets united -together in a ring. The immensity of the ocean, the fury of -the breakers, contrasted with the lowness of the land and the -smoothness of the bright green water within the lagoon, can -hardly be imagined without having been seen. - -The earlier voyagers fancied that the coral-building animals -instinctively built up their great circles to afford themselves -protection in the inner parts; but so far is this from -the truth, that those massive kinds, to whose growth on the -exposed outer shores the very existence of the reef depends, -cannot live within the lagoon, where other delicately-branching -kinds flourish. Moreover, on this view, many species -of distinct genera and families are supposed to combine for -one end; and of such a combination, not a single instance -can be found in the whole of nature. The theory that has -been most generally received is, that atolls are based on -submarine craters; but when we consider the form and size of -some, the number, proximity, and relative positions of others, -this idea loses its plausible character: thus Suadiva atoll is -44 geographical miles in diameter in one line, by 34 miles in -another line; Rimsky is 54 by 20 miles across, and it has a -strangely sinuous margin; Bow atoll is 30 miles long, and on -an average only 6 in width; Menchicoff atoll consists of three -atolls united or tied together. This theory, moreover, is -totally inapplicable to the northern Maldiva atolls in the -Indian Ocean (one of which is 88 miles in length, and between 10 -and 20 in breadth), for they are not bounded like ordinary -atolls by narrow reefs, but by a vast number of separate -little atolls; other little atolls rising out of the great -central lagoon-like spaces. A third and better theory was -advanced by Chamisso, who thought that from the corals growing -more vigorously where exposed to the open sea, as undoubtedly is -the case, the outer edges would grow up from the general -foundation before any other part, and that this would account -for the ring or cup-shaped structure. But we shall -immediately see, that in this, as well as in the crater-theory, -a most important consideration has been overlooked, namely, -on what have the reef-building corals, which cannot live at -a great depth, based their massive structures? - -Numerous soundings were carefully taken by Captain Fitz -Roy on the steep outside of Keeling atoll, and it was found -that within ten fathoms, the prepared tallow at the bottom -of the lead, invariably came up marked with the impression -of living corals, but as perfectly clean as if it had been -dropped on a carpet of turf; as the depth increased, the -impressions became less numerous, but the adhering particles -of sand more and more numerous, until at last it was evident -that the bottom consisted of a smooth sandy layer: to carry -on the analogy of the turf, the blades of grass grew thinner -and thinner, till at last the soil was so sterile, that nothing -sprang from it. From these observations, confirmed by many -others, it may be safely inferred that the utmost depth at -which corals can construct reefs is between 20 and 30 fathoms. -Now there are enormous areas in the Pacific and Indian -Ocean, in which every single island is of coral formation, -and is raised only to that height to which the waves can -throw up fragments, and the winds pile up sand. Thus -Radack group of atolls is an irregular square, 520 miles long -and 240 broad; the Low Archipelago is elliptic-formed, 840 -miles in its longer, and 420 in its shorter axis: there are -other small groups and single low islands between these two -archipelagoes, making a linear space of ocean actually more -than 4000 miles in length, in which not one single island -rises above the specified height. Again, in the Indian Ocean -there is a space of ocean 1500 miles in length, including -three archipelagoes, in which every island is low and of -coral formation. From the fact of the reef-building corals -not living at great depths, it is absolutely certain that -throughout these vast areas, wherever there is now an atoll, -a foundation must have originally existed within a depth of -from 20 to 30 fathoms from the surface. It is improbable in -the highest degree that broad, lofty, isolated, steep-sided -banks of sediment, arranged in groups and lines hundreds of -leagues in length, could have been deposited in the central -and profoundest parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, at -an immense distance from any continent, and where the -water is perfectly limpid. It is equally improbable that the -elevatory forces should have uplifted throughout the above -vast areas, innumerable great rocky banks within 20 to 30 -fathoms, or 120 to 180 feet, of the surface of the sea, and -not one single point above that level; for where on the whole -surface of the globe can we find a single chain of mountains, -even a few hundred miles in length, with their many summits -rising within a few feet of a given level, and not one -pinnacle above it? If then the foundations, whence the atoll- -building corals sprang, were not formed of sediment, and if -they were not lifted up to the required level, they must of -necessity have subsided into it; and this at once solves the -difficulty. For as mountain after mountain, and island after -island, slowly sank beneath the water, fresh bases would be -successively afforded for the growth of the corals. It is -impossible here to enter into all the necessary details, but I -venture to defy [12] any one to explain in any other manner -how it is possible that numerous islands should be distributed -throughout vast areas -- all the islands being low -- all being -built of corals, absolutely requiring a foundation within a -limited depth from the surface. - -Before explaining how atoll-formed reefs acquire their -peculiar structure, we must turn to the second great class, -namely, Barrier-reefs. These either extend in straight lines -in front of the shores of a continent or of a large island, or -they encircle smaller islands; in both cases, being separated -from the land by a broad and rather deep channel of water, -analogous to the lagoon within an atoll. It is remarkable -how little attention has been paid to encircling barrier-reefs; -yet they are truly wonderful structures. The following sketch -represents part of the barrier encircling the island of Bolabola -in the Pacific, as seen from one of the central peaks. -In this instance the whole line of reef has been converted -into land; but usually a snow-white line of great breakers, -with only here and there a single low islet crowned with -cocoa-nut trees, divides the dark heaving waters of the ocean -from the light-green expanse of the lagoon-channel. And -the quiet waters of this channel generally bathe a fringe of -low alluvial soil, loaded with the most beautiful productions -of the tropics, and lying at the foot of the wild, abrupt, -central mountains. - -Encircling barrier-reefs are of all sizes, from three miles -to no less than forty-four miles in diameter; and that which -fronts one side, and encircles both ends, of New Caledonia, -is 400 miles long. Each reef includes one, two, or several -rocky islands of various heights; and in one instance, even -as many as twelve separate islands. The reef runs at a -greater or less distance from the included land; in the -Society archipelago generally from one to three or four -miles; but at Hogoleu the reef is 20 miles on the southern -side, and 14 miles on the opposite or northern side, from the -included islands. The depth within the lagoon-channel also -varies much; from 10 to 30 fathoms may be taken as an -average; but at Vanikoro there are spaces no less than 56 -fathoms or 363 feet deep. Internally the reef either slopes -gently into the lagoon-channel, or ends in a perpendicular -wall sometimes between two and three hundred feet under -water in height: externally the reef rises, like an atoll, with -extreme abruptness out of the profound depths of the ocean. - -What can be more singular than these structures? We see - -[picture] - -an island, which may be compared to a castle situated on the -summit of a lofty submarine mountain, protected by a great -wall of coral-rock, always steep externally and sometimes -internally, with a broad level summit, here and there breached -by a narrow gateway, through which the largest ships can -enter the wide and deep encircling moat. - -As far as the actual reef of coral is concerned, there is not -the smallest difference, in general size, outline, grouping, -and even in quite trifling details of structure, between a -barrier and an atoll. The geographer Balbi has well remarked, -that an encircled island is an atoll with high land rising out -of its lagoon; remove the land from within, and a perfect -atoll is left. - -But what has caused these reefs to spring up at such -great distances from the shores of the included islands? It -cannot be that the corals will not grow close to the land; -for the shores within the lagoon-channel, when not surrounded -by alluvial soil, are often fringed by living reefs; -and we shall presently see that there is a whole class, which -I have called Fringing Reefs from their close attachment -to the shores both of continents and of islands. Again, on -what have the reef-building corals, which cannot live at -great depths, based their encircling structures? This is a -great apparent difficulty, analogous to that in the case of -atolls, which has generally been overlooked. It will be -perceived more clearly by inspecting the following sections -which are real ones, taken in north and south lines, through -the islands with their barrier-reefs, of Vanikoro, Gambier, -and Maurua; and they are laid down, both vertically and -horizontally, on the same scale of a quarter of an inch to -a mile. - -It should be observed that the sections might have been -taken in any direction through these islands, or through - -[picture] - -many other encircled islands, and the general features would -have been the same. Now, bearing in mind that reef-building -coral cannot live at a greater depth than from 20 to 30 -fathoms, and that the scale is so small that the plummets on -the right hand show a depth of 200 fathoms, on what are -these barrier-reefs based? Are we to suppose that each -island is surrounded by a collar-like submarine ledge of rock, -or by a great bank of sediment, ending abruptly where the -reef ends? - -If the sea had formerly eaten deeply into the islands, -before they were protected by the reefs, thus having -left a shallow ledge round them under water, the present -shores would have been invariably bounded by great precipices, -but this is most rarely the case. Moreover, on this -notion, it is not possible to explain why the corals should -have sprung up, like a wall, from the extreme outer margin -of the ledge, often leaving a broad space of water within, -too deep for the growth of corals. The accumulation of a -wide bank of sediment all round these islands, and generally -widest where the included islands are smallest, is highly -improbable, considering their exposed positions in the central -and deepest parts of the ocean. In the case of the barrier-reef -of New Caledonia, which extends for 150 miles beyond -the northern point of the islands, in the same straight line -with which it fronts the west coast, it is hardly possible to -believe that a bank of sediment could thus have been -straightly deposited in front of a lofty island, and so far -beyond its termination in the open sea. Finally, if we look -to other oceanic islands of about the same height and of similar -geological constitution, but not encircled by coral-reefs, -we may in vain search for so trifling a circumambient -depth as 30 fathoms, except quite near to their shores; for -usually land that rises abruptly out of water, as do most of -the encircled and non-encircled oceanic islands, plunges -abruptly under it. On what then, I repeat, are these barrier -reefs based? Why, with their wide and deep moat-like channels, -do they stand so far from the included land? We shall -soon see how easily these difficulties disappear. - -We come now to our third class of Fringing-reefs, which -will require a very short notice. Where the land slopes abruptly -under water, these reefs are only a few yards in width, -forming a mere ribbon or fringe round the shores: where -the land slopes gently under the water the reef extends -further, sometimes even as much as a mile from the land; -but in such cases the soundings outside the reef always show -that the submarine prolongation of the land is gently inclined. -In fact, the reefs extend only to that distance from the shore, -at which a foundation within the requisite depth from 20 to -30 fathoms is found. As far as the actual reef is concerned, -there is no essential difference between it and that forming -a barrier or an atoll: it is, however, generally of less width, -and consequently few islets have been formed on it. From -the corals growing more vigorously on the outside, and from -the noxious effect of the sediment washed inwards, the outer -edge of the reef is the highest part, and between it and the -land there is generally a shallow sandy channel a few feet in -depth. Where banks or sediments have accumulated near to -the surface, as in parts of the West Indies, they sometimes -become fringed with corals, and hence in some degree resemble -lagoon-islands or atolls, in the same manner as fringing-reefs, -surrounding gently sloping islands, in some degree resemble -barrier-reefs. - - -No theory on the formation of coral-reefs can be considered -satisfactory which does not include the three great - -[picture] - -classes. We have seen that we are driven to believe in the -subsidence of those vast areas, interspersed with low islands, -of which not one rises above the height to which the wind and -waves can throw up matter, and yet are constructed by animals -requiring a foundation, and that foundation to lie at -no great depth. Let us then take an island surrounded by -fringing-reefs, which offer no difficulty in their structure; -and let this island with its reefs, represented by the unbroken -lines in the woodcut, slowly subside. Now, as the island -sinks down, either a few feet at a time or quite insensibly, -we may safely infer, from what is known of the conditions -favourable to the growth of coral, that the living masses, -bathed by the surf on the margin of the reef, will soon regain -the surface. The water, however, will encroach little by little -on the shore, the island becoming lower and smaller, and the -space between the inner edge of the reef and the beach -proportionately broader. A section of the reef and island in -this state, after a subsidence of several hundred feet, is given -by the dotted lines. Coral islets are supposed to have been -formed on the reef; and a ship is anchored in the -lagoon-channel. This channel will be more or less deep, -according to the rate of subsidence, to the amount of sediment -accumulated in it, and to the growth of the delicately branched -corals which can live there. The section in this state resembles -in every respect one drawn through an encircled island: in fact, -it is a real section (on the scale of .517 of an inch to a mile) -through Bolabola in the Pacific. We can now at once see -why encircling barrier-reefs stand so far from the shores -which they front. We can also perceive, that a line drawn -perpendicularly down from the outer edge of the new reef, -to the foundation of solid rock beneath the old fringing-reef, -will exceed by as many feet as there have been feet of -subsidence, that small limit of depth at which the effective -corals can live: -- the little architects having built up their -great wall-like mass, as the whole sank down, upon a basis -formed of other corals and their consolidated fragments. -Thus the difficulty on this head, which appeared so great, -disappears. - -If, instead of an island, we had taken the shore of a continent -fringed with reefs, and had imagined it to have subsided, -a great straight barrier, like that of Australia or New -Caledonia, separated from the land by a wide and deep channel, -would evidently have been the result. - -Let us take our new encircling barrier-reef, of which the -section is now represented by unbroken lines, and which, as -I have said, is a real section through Bolabola, and let it go -on subsiding. As the barrier-reef slowly sinks down, the -corals will go on vigorously growing upwards; but as the -island sinks, the water will gain inch by inch on the shore -- -the separate mountains first forming separate islands within - -[picture] - -one great reef -- and finally, the last and highest pinnacle -disappearing. The instant this takes place, a perfect atoll -is formed: I have said, remove the high land from within an -encircling barrier-reef, and an atoll is left, and the land has -been removed. We can now perceive how it comes that -atolls, having sprung from encircling barrier-reefs, resemble -them in general size, form, in the manner in which they are -grouped together, and in their arrangement in single or -double lines; for they may be called rude outline charts of -the sunken islands over which they stand. We can further -see how it arises that the atolls in the Pacific and Indian -Oceans extend in lines parallel to the generally prevailing -strike of the high islands and great coast-lines of those -oceans. I venture, therefore, to affirm, that on the theory of -the upward growth of the corals during the sinking of the -land, [13] all the leading features in those wonderful -structures, the lagoon-islands or atolls, which have so long -excited the attention of voyagers, as well as in the no less -wonderful barrier-reefs, whether encircling small islands or -stretching for hundreds of miles along the shores of a -continent, are simply explained. - -It may be asked, whether I can offer any direct evidence -of the subsidence of barrier-reefs or atolls; but it must be -borne in mind how difficult it must ever be to detect a -movement, the tendency of which is to hide under water the part -affected. Nevertheless, at Keeling atoll I observed on all -sides of the lagoon old cocoa-nut trees undermined and falling; -and in one place the foundation-posts of a shed, which -the inhabitants asserted had stood seven years before just -above high-water mark, but now was daily washed by every -tide: on inquiry I found that three earthquakes, one of them -severe, had been felt here during the last ten years. At -Vanikoro, the lagoon-channel is remarkably deep, scarcely -any alluvial soil has accumulated at the foot of the lofty -included mountains, and remarkably few islets have been -formed by the heaping of fragments and sand on the wall-like -barrier reef; these facts, and some analogous ones, led -me to believe that this island must lately have subsided and -the reef grown upwards: here again earthquakes are frequent -and very severe. In the Society archipelago, on the -other hand, where the lagoon-channels are almost choked up, -where much low alluvial land has accumulated, and where in -some cases long islets have been formed on the barrier-reefs - -- facts all showing that the islands have not very lately -subsided -- only feeble shocks are most rarely felt. In these -coral formations, where the land and water seem struggling -for mastery, it must be ever difficult to decide between the -effects of a change in the set of the tides and of a slight -subsidence: that many of these reefs and atolls are subject to -changes of some kind is certain; on some atolls the islets -appear to have increased greatly within a late period; on -others they have been partially or wholly washed away. The -inhabitants of parts of the Maldiva archipelago know the -date of the first formation of some islets; in other parts, the -corals are now flourishing on water-washed reefs, where -holes made for graves attest the former existence of inhabited -land. It is difficult to believe in frequent changes in the -tidal currents of an open ocean; whereas, we have in the -earthquakes recorded by the natives on some atolls, and in -the great fissures observed on other atolls, plain evidence of -changes and disturbances in progress in the subterranean -regions. - -It is evident, on our theory, that coasts merely fringed by -reefs cannot have subsided to any perceptible amount; and -therefore they must, since the growth of their corals, either -have remained stationary or have been upheaved. Now, it -is remarkable how generally it can be shown, by the presence -of upraised organic remains, that the fringed islands have -been elevated: and so far, this is indirect evidence in favour -of our theory. I was particularly struck with this fact, when -I found, to my surprise, that the descriptions given by MM. -Quoy and Gaimard were applicable, not to reefs in general -as implied by them, but only to those of the fringing class; -my surprise, however, ceased when I afterwards found that, -by a strange chance, all the several islands visited by these -eminent naturalists, could be shown by their own statements -to have been elevated within a recent geological era. - -Not only the grand features in the structure of barrier-reefs -and of atolls, and to their likeness to each other in form, -size, and other characters, are explained on the theory of -subsidence -- which theory we are independently forced to -admit in the very areas in question, from the necessity of -finding bases for the corals within the requisite depth -- but -many details in structure and exceptional cases can thus also -be simply explained. I will give only a few instances. In -barrier-reefs it has long been remarked with surprise, that -the passages through the reef exactly face valleys in the -included land, even in cases where the reef is separated -from the land by a lagoon-channel so wide and so much -deeper than the actual passage itself, that it seems hardly -possible that the very small quantity of water or sediment -brought down could injure the corals on the reef. Now, -every reef of the fringing class is breached by a narrow -gateway in front of the smallest rivulet, even if dry during -the greater part of the year, for the mud, sand, or gravel, -occasionally washed down kills the corals on which it is -deposited. Consequently, when an island thus fringed subsides, -though most of the narrow gateways will probably -become closed by the outward and upward growth of the -corals, yet any that are not closed (and some must always be -kept open by the sediment and impure water flowing out of -the lagoon-channel) will still continue to front exactly the -upper parts of those valleys, at the mouths of which the -original basal fringing-reef was breached. - -We can easily see how an island fronted only on one side, or on -one side with one end or both ends encircled by barrier-reefs, -might after long-continued subsidence be converted -either into a single wall-like reef, or into an atoll with a -great straight spur projecting from it, or into two or three -atolls tied together by straight reefs -- all of which -exceptional cases actually occur. As the reef-building corals -require food, are preyed upon by other animals, are killed by -sediment, cannot adhere to a loose bottom, and may be easily -carried down to a depth whence they cannot spring up again, -we need feel no surprise at the reefs both of atolls and -barriers becoming in parts imperfect. The great barrier of -New Caledonia is thus imperfect and broken in many parts; -hence, after long subsidence, this great reef would not produce -one great atoll 400 miles in length, but a chain or -archipelago of atolls, of very nearly the same dimension with -those in the Maldiva archipelago. Moreover, in an atoll once -breached on opposite sides, from the likelihood of the oceanic -and tidal currents passing straight through the breaches, it -is extremely improbable that the corals, especially during -continued subsidence, would ever be able again to unite the -rim; if they did not, as the whole sank downwards, one atoll -would be divided into two or more. In the Maldiva archipelago -there are distinct atolls so related to each other in -position, and separated by channels either unfathomable or -very deep (the channel between Ross and Ari atolls is 150 -fathoms, and that between the north and south Nillandoo -atolls is 200 fathoms in depth), that it is impossible to look -at a map of them without believing that they were once -more intimately related. And in this same archipelago, -Mahlos-Mahdoo atoll is divided by a bifurcating channel -from 100 to 132 fathoms in depth, in such a manner, that -it is scarcely possible to say whether it ought strictly to -be called three separate atolls, or one great atoll not yet -finally divided. - -I will not enter on many more details; but I must remark -that the curious structure of the northern Maldiva atolls -receives (taking into consideration the free entrance of the -sea through their broken margins) a simple explanation in -the upward and outward growth of the corals, originally -based both on small detached reefs in their lagoons, such as -occur in common atolls, and on broken portions of the linear -marginal reef, such as bounds every atoll of the ordinary -form. I cannot refrain from once again remarking on the -singularity of these complex structures -- a great sandy and -generally concave disk rises abruptly from the unfathomable -ocean, with its central expanse studded, and its edge -symmetrically bordered with oval basins of coral-rock just -lipping the surface of the sea, sometimes clothed with -vegetation, and each containing a lake of clear water! - -One more point in detail: as in the two neighbouring -archipelagoes corals flourish in one and not in the other, and -as so many conditions before enumerated must affect their -existence, it would be an inexplicable fact if, during the -changes to which earth, air, and water are subjected, the -reef-building corals were to keep alive for perpetuity on any -one spot or area. And as by our theory the areas including -atolls and barrier-reefs are subsiding, we ought occasionally to -find reefs both dead and submerged. In all reefs, owing to the -sediment being washed out of the lagoon-channel to leeward, -that side is least favourable to the long-continued vigorous -growth of the corals; hence dead portions of reef not -unfrequently occur on the leeward side; and these, though still -retaining their proper wall-like form, are now in several -instances sunk several fathoms beneath the surface. The -Chagos group appears from some cause, possibly from the -subsidence having been too rapid, at present to be much less -favourably circumstanced for the growth of reefs than formerly: -one atoll has a portion of its marginal reef, nine miles -in length, dead and submerged; a second has only a few -quite small living points which rise to the surface, a third -and fourth are entirely dead and submerged; a fifth is a -mere wreck, with its structure almost obliterated. It is -remarkable that in all these cases, the dead reefs and portions -of reef lie at nearly the same depth, namely, from six to -eight fathoms beneath the surface, as if they had been carried -down by one uniform movement. One of these "half-drowned -atolls," so called by Capt. Moresby (to whom I -am indebted for much invaluable information), is of vast -size, namely, ninety nautical miles across in one direction, -and seventy miles in another line; and is in many respects -eminently curious. As by our theory it follows that new -atolls will generally be formed in each new area of subsidence, -two weighty objections might have been raised, -namely, that atolls must be increasing indefinitely in number; -and secondly, that in old areas of subsidence each separate -atoll must be increasing indefinitely in thickness, if proofs -of their occasional destruction could not have been adduced. -Thus have we traced the history of these great rings of -coral-rock, from their first origin through their normal -changes, and through the occasional accidents of their -existence, to their death and final obliteration. - - -In my volume on "Coral Formations" I have published a -map, in which I have coloured all the atolls dark-blue, the -barrier-reefs pale-blue, and the fringing reefs red. These -latter reefs have been formed whilst the land has been -stationary, or, as appears from the frequent presence of -upraised organic remains, whilst it has been slowly rising: -atolls and barrier-reefs, on the other hand, have grown up -during the directly opposite movement of subsidence, which -movement must have been very gradual, and in the case of atolls -so vast in amount as to have buried every mountain-summit over -wide ocean-spaces. Now in this map we see that the reefs -tinted pale and dark-blue, which have been produced by the -same order of movement, as a general rule manifestly stand -near each other. Again we see, that the areas with the two -blue tints are of wide extent; and that they lie separate from -extensive lines of coast coloured red, both of which -circumstances might naturally have been inferred, on the theory -of the nature of the reefs having been governed by the nature -of the earth's movement. It deserves notice that in more -than one instance where single red and blue circles approach -near each other, I can show that there have been oscillations -of level; for in such cases the red or fringed circles consist -of atolls, originally by our theory formed during subsidence, -but subsequently upheaved; and on the other hand, some of -the pale-blue or encircled islands are composed of coral-rock, -which must have been uplifted to its present height before that -subsidence took place, during which the existing barrier-reefs -grew upwards. - -Authors have noticed with surprise, that although atolls -are the commonest coral-structures throughout some enormous -oceanic tracts, they are entirely absent in other seas, -as in the West Indies: we can now at once perceive the -cause, for where there has not been subsidence, atolls cannot -have been formed; and in the case of the West Indies and -parts of the East Indies, these tracts are known to have been -rising within the recent period. The larger areas, coloured -red and blue, are all elongated; and between the two colours -there is a degree of rude alternation, as if the rising of one -had balanced the sinking of the other. Taking into consideration -the proofs of recent elevation both on the fringed -coasts and on some others (for instance, in South America) -where there are no reefs, we are led to conclude that the -great continents are for the most part rising areas: and from -the nature of the coral-reefs, that the central parts of the -great oceans are sinking areas. The East Indian archipelago, -the most broken land in the world, is in most parts an area -of elevation, but surrounded and penetrated, probably in -more lines than one, by narrow areas of subsidence. - -I have marked with vermilion spots all the many known -active volcanos within the limits of this same map. Their -entire absence from every one of the great subsiding areas, -coloured either pale or dark blue, is most striking and not -less so is the coincidence of the chief volcanic chains with -the parts coloured red, which we are led to conclude have -either long remained stationary, or more generally have been -recently upraised. Although a few of the vermilion spots -occur within no great distance of single circles tinted blue, -yet not one single active volcano is situated within several -hundred miles of an archipelago, or even small group of -atolls. It is, therefore, a striking fact that in the Friendly -archipelago, which consists of a group of atolls upheaved -and since partially worn down, two volcanos, and perhaps -more, are historically known to have been in action. On the -other hand, although most of the islands in the Pacific which -are encircled by barrier-reefs, are of volcanic origin, often -with the remnants of craters still distinguishable, not one of -them is known to have ever been in eruption. Hence in these -cases it would appear, that volcanos burst forth into action -and become extinguished on the same spots, accordingly as -elevatory or subsiding movements prevail there. Numberless -facts could be adduced to prove that upraised organic remains -are common wherever there are active volcanos; but until it -could be shown that in areas of subsidence, volcanos were -either absent or inactive, the inference, however probable in -itself, that their distribution depended on the rising or -falling of the earth's surface, would have been hazardous. But -now, I think, we may freely admit this important deduction. - -Taking a final view of the map, and bearing in mind the -statements made with respect to the upraised organic remains, -we must feel astonished at the vastness of the areas, which -have suffered changes in level either downwards or upwards, -within a period not geologically remote. It would appear -also, that the elevatory and subsiding movements follow -nearly the same laws. Throughout the spaces interspersed -with atolls, where not a single peak of high land has been -left above the level of the sea, the sinking must have been -immense in amount. The sinking, moreover, whether continuous, -or recurrent with intervals sufficiently long for the -corals again to bring up their living edifices to the surface, -must necessarily have been extremely slow. This conclusion is -probably the most important one which can be deduced from the -study of coral formations; -- and it is one which it is -difficult to imagine how otherwise could ever have been -arrived at. Nor can I quite pass over the probability of the -former existence of large archipelagoes of lofty islands, -where now only rings of coral-rock scarcely break the open -expanse of the sea, throwing some light on the distribution of -the inhabitants of the other high islands, now left standing -so immensely remote from each other in the midst of the -great oceans. The reef-constructing corals have indeed -reared and preserved wonderful memorials of the subterranean -oscillations of level; we see in each barrier-reef a -proof that the land has there subsided, and in each atoll a -monument over an island now lost. We may thus, like unto -a geologist who had lived his ten thousand years and kept a -record of the passing changes, gain some insight into the -great system by which the surface of this globe has been -broken up, and land and water interchanged. - -[1] These Plants are described in the Annals of Nat. Hist., -vol. i., 1838, p. 337. - -[2] Holman's Travels, vol. iv. p. 378. - -[3] Kotzebue's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 155. - -[4] The thirteen species belong to the following orders: -- In -the Coleoptera, a minute Elater; Orthoptera, a Gryllus and a -Blatta; Hemiptera, one species; Homoptera, two; Neuroptera a -Chrysopa; Hymenoptera, two ants; Lepidoptera nocturna, a -Diopaea, and a Pterophorus (?); Diptera, two species. - -[5] Kotzebue's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 222. - -[6] The large claws or pincers of some of these crabs are most -beautifully adapted, when drawn back, to form an operculum to -the shell, nearly as perfect as the proper one originally -belonging to the molluscous animal. I was assured, and as far as -my observations went I found it so, that certain species of the -hermit-crab always use certain species of shells. - -[7] Some natives carried by Kotzebue to Kamtschatka collected -stones to take back to their country. - -[8] See Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1832, p. 17. - -[9] Tyerman and Bennett. Voyage, etc. vol. ii. p. 33. - -[10] I exclude, of course, some soil which has been imported -here in vessels from Malacca and Java, and likewise, some small -fragments of pumice, drifted here by the waves. The one block of -greenstone, moreover, on the northern island must be excepted. - -[11] These were first read before the Geological Society in May, -1837, and have since been developed in a separate volume on the -"Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs." - -[12] It is remarkable that Mr. Lyell, even in the first edition -of his "Principles of Geology," inferred that the amount of -subsidence in the Pacific must have exceeded that of elevation, -from the area of land being very small relatively to the agents -there tending to form it, namely, the growth of coral and -volcanic action. - -[13] It has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following -passage in a pamphlet by Mr. Couthouy, one of the naturalists in -the great Antarctic Expedition of the United States: -- "Having -personally examined a large number of coral-islands and resided -eight months among the volcanic class having shore and partially -encircling reefs. I may be permitted to state that my own -observations have impressed a conviction of the correctness of -the theory of Mr. Darwin." -- The naturalists, however, of this -expedition differ with me on some points respecting coral -formations. - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -MAURITIUS TO ENGLAND - -Mauritius, beautiful appearance of -- Great crateriform ring of -Mountains -- Hindoos -- St. Helena -- History of the changes in -the Vegetation -- Cause of the extinction of Land-shells -- -Ascension -- Variation in the imported Rats -- Volcanic Bombs -- -Beds of Infusoria -- Bahia -- Brazil -- Splendour of Tropical -Scenery -- Pernambuco -- Singular Reef -- Slavery -- Return to -England -- Retrospect on our Voyage. - - -APRIL 29th. -- In the morning we passed round the -northern end of Mauritius, or the Isle of France. -From this point of view the aspect of the island -equalled the expectations raised by the many well-known -descriptions of its beautiful scenery. The sloping plain of -the Pamplemousses, interspersed with houses, and coloured -by the large fields of sugar-cane of a bright green, composed -the foreground. The brilliancy of the green was the more -remarkable because it is a colour which generally is conspicuous -only from a very short distance. Towards the centre -of the island groups of wooded mountains rose out of -this highly cultivated plain; their summits, as so commonly -happens with ancient volcanic rocks, being jagged into the -sharpest points. Masses of white clouds were collected -around these pinnacles, as if for the sake of pleasing the -stranger's eye. The whole island, with its sloping border -and central mountains, was adorned with an air of perfect -elegance: the scenery, if I may use such an expression, appeared -to the sight harmonious. - -I spent the greater part of the next day in walking about -the town and visiting different people. The town is of -considerable size, and is said to contain 20,000 inhabitants; -the streets are very clean and regular. Although the island has -been so many years under the English Government, the general -character of the place is quite French: Englishmen -speak to their servants in French, and the shops are all -French; indeed, I should think that Calais or Boulogne was -much more Anglified. There is a very pretty little theatre, -in which operas are excellently performed. We were also -surprised at seeing large booksellers' shops, with well-stored -shelves; -- music and reading bespeak our approach to the -old world of civilization; for in truth both Australia and -America are new worlds. - -The various races of men walking in the streets afford the -most interesting spectacle in Port Louis. Convicts from -India are banished here for life; at present there are about -800, and they are employed in various public works. Before -seeing these people, I had no idea that the inhabitants of -India were such noble-looking figures. Their skin is extremely -dark, and many of the older men had large mustaches -and beards of a snow-white colour; this, together with -the fire of their expression, gave them quite an imposing -aspect. The greater number had been banished for murder -and the worst crimes; others for causes which can scarcely -be considered as moral faults, such as for not obeying, from -superstitious motives, the English laws. These men are -generally quiet and well-conducted; from their outward -conduct, their cleanliness, and faithful observance of their -strange religious rites, it was impossible to look at them -with the same eyes as on our wretched convicts in New -South Wales. - -May 1st. -- Sunday. I took a quiet walk along the sea-coast -to the north of the town. The plain in this part is quite -uncultivated; it consists of a field of black lava, smoothed -over with coarse grass and bushes, the latter being chiefly -Mimosas. The scenery may be described as intermediate in -character between that of the Galapagos and of Tahiti; but -this will convey a definite idea to very few persons. It is a -very pleasant country, but it has not the charms of Tahiti, or -the grandeur of Brazil. The next day I ascended La Pouce, -a mountain so called from a thumb-like projection, which -rises close behind the town to a height of 2,600 feet. The -centre of the island consists of a great platform, surrounded -by old broken basaltic mountains, with their strata dipping -seawards. The central platform, formed of comparatively -recent streams of lava, is of an oval shape, thirteen -geographical miles across, in the line of its shorter axis. The -exterior bounding mountains come into that class of structures -called Craters of Elevation, which are supposed to have -been formed not like ordinary craters, but by a great and -sudden upheaval. There appears to me to be insuperable -objections to this view: on the other hand, I can hardly -believe, in this and in some other cases, that these marginal -crateriform mountains are merely the basal remnants of -immense volcanos, of which the summits either have been -blown off, or swallowed up in subterranean abysses. - -From our elevated position we enjoyed an excellent view over the -island. The country on this side appears pretty well cultivated, -being divided into fields and studded with farm-houses. -I was, however, assured that of the whole land, not -more than half is yet in a productive state; if such be the -case, considering the present large export of sugar, this -island, at some future period when thickly peopled, will be -of great value. Since England has taken possession of it, a -period of only twenty-five years, the export of sugar is said -to have increased seventy-five fold. One great cause of its -prosperity is the excellent state of the roads. In the -neighbouring Isle of Bourbon, which remains under the French -government, the roads are still in the same miserable state -as they were here only a few years ago. Although the -French residents must have largely profited by the increased -prosperity of their island, yet the English government is far -from popular. - -3rd. -- In the evening Captain Lloyd, the Surveyor-general, -so well known from his examination of the Isthmus of Panama, -invited Mr. Stokes and myself to his country-house, -which is situated on the edge of Wilheim Plains, and about -six miles from the Port. We stayed at this delightful place -two days; standing nearly 800 feet above the sea, the air was -cool and fresh, and on every side there were delightful walks. -Close by, a grand ravine has been worn to a depth of about -500 feet through the slightly inclined streams of lava, which -have flowed from the central platform. - -5th. -- Captain Lloyd took us to the Riviere Noire, which is -several miles to the southward, that I might examine some -rocks of elevated coral. We passed through pleasant gardens, -and fine fields of sugar-cane growing amidst huge -blocks of lava. The roads were bordered by hedges of -Mimosa, and near many of the houses there were avenues -of the mango. Some of the views, where the peaked hills -and the cultivated farms were seen together, were exceedingly -picturesque; and we were constantly tempted to -exclaim, "How pleasant it would be to pass one's life in -such quiet abodes!" Captain Lloyd possessed an elephant, -and he sent it half way with us, that we might enjoy a ride -in true Indian fashion. The circumstance which surprised -me most was its quite noiseless step. This elephant -is the only one at present on the island; but it is said others -will be sent for. - - -May 9th. -- We sailed from Port Louis, and, calling at the -Cape of Good Hope, on the 8th of July, we arrived off St. -Helena. This island, the forbidding aspect of which has -been so often described, rises abruptly like a huge black -castle from the ocean. Near the town, as if to complete -nature's defence, small forts and guns fill up every gap in -the rugged rocks. The town runs up a flat and narrow -valley; the houses look respectable, and are interspersed -with a very few green trees. When approaching the anchorage -there was one striking view: an irregular castle perched -on the summit of a lofty hill, and surrounded by a few scattered -fir-trees, boldly projected against the sky. - -The next day I obtained lodgings within a stone's throw -of Napoleon's tomb; [1] it was a capital central situation, -whence I could make excursions in every direction. During -the four days I stayed here, I wandered over the island from -morning to night, and examined its geological history. My -lodgings were situated at a height of about 2000 feet; here -the weather was cold and boisterous, with constant showers -of rain; and every now and then the whole scene was veiled -in thick clouds. - -Near the coast the rough lava is quite bare: in the central -and higher parts, feldspathic rocks by their decomposition -have produced a clayey soil, which, where not covered by -vegetation, is stained in broad bands of many bright colours. -At this season, the land moistened by constant showers, -produces a singularly bright green pasture, which lower and -lower down, gradually fades away and at last disappears. In -latitude 16 degs., and at the trifling elevation of 1500 feet, -it is surprising to behold a vegetation possessing a character -decidedly British. The hills are crowned with irregular -plantations of Scotch firs; and the sloping banks are thickly -scattered over with thickets of gorse, covered with its bright -yellow flowers. Weeping-willows are common on the banks -of the rivulets, and the hedges are made of the blackberry, -producing its well-known fruit. When we consider that the -number of plants now found on the island is 746, and that -out of these fifty-two alone are indigenous species, the rest -having been imported, and most of them from England, -we see the reason of the British character of the vegetation. -Many of these English plants appear to flourish better than -in their native country; some also from the opposite quarter -of Australia succeed remarkably well. The many imported -species must have destroyed some of the native kinds; and -it is only on the highest and steepest ridges that the -indigenous Flora is now predominant. - -The English, or rather Welsh character of the scenery, is -kept up by the numerous cottages and small white houses; -some buried at the bottom of the deepest valleys, and others -mounted on the crests of the lofty hills. Some of the views -are striking, for instance that from near Sir W. Doveton's -house, where the bold peak called Lot is seen over a dark -wood of firs, the whole being backed by the red water-worn -mountains of the southern coast. On viewing the island -from an eminence, the first circumstance which strikes one, -is the number of the roads and forts: the labour bestowed -on the public works, if one forgets its character as a prison, -seems out of all proportion to its extent or value. There -is so little level or useful land, that it seems surprising how -so many people, about 5000, can subsist here. The lower -orders, or the emancipated slaves, are I believe extremely -poor: they complain of the want of work. From the reduction -in the number of public servants owing to the island -having been given up by the East Indian Company, and the -consequent emigration of many of the richer people, the -poverty probably will increase. The chief food of the working -class is rice with a little salt meat; as neither of these -articles are the products of the island, but must be purchased -with money, the low wages tell heavily on the poor people. -Now that the people are blessed with freedom, a right which -I believe they value fully, it seems probable that their numbers -will quickly increase: if so, what is to become of the -little state of St. Helena? - -My guide was an elderly man, who had been a goatherd -when a boy, and knew every step amongst the rocks. He -was of a race many times crossed, and although with a -dusky skin, he had not the disagreeable expression of a -mulatto. He was a very civil, quiet old man, and such -appears the character of the greater number of the lower -classes. It was strange to my ears to hear a man, nearly -white and respectably dressed, talking with indifference of -the times when he was a slave. With my companion, who -carried our dinners and a horn of water, which is quite -necessary, as all the water in the lower valleys is saline, I -every day took long walks. - -Beneath the upper and central green circle, the wild valleys -are quite desolate and untenanted. Here, to the geologist, -there were scenes of high interest, showing successive -changes and complicated disturbances. According to my -views, St. Helena has existed as an island from a very -remote epoch: some obscure proofs, however, of the elevation -of the land are still extant. I believe that the central -and highest peaks form parts of the rim of a great crater, -the southern half of which has been entirely removed by the -waves of the sea: there is, moreover, an external wall of -black basaltic rocks, like the coast-mountains of Mauritius, -which are older than the central volcanic streams. On the -higher parts of the island, considerable numbers of a shell, -long thought to be a marine species occur imbedded in the soil. - -It proved to be a Cochlogena, or land-shell of a very -peculiar form; [2] with it I found six other kinds; and in -another spot an eighth species. It is remarkable that none -of them are now found living. Their extinction has probably -been caused by the entire destruction of the woods, and -the consequent loss of food and shelter, which occurred -during the early part of the last century. - -The history of the changes, which the elevated plains of -Longwood and Deadwood have undergone, as given in General -Beatson's account of the island, is extremely curious. -Both plains, it is said in former times were covered with -wood, and were therefore called the Great Wood. So late -as the year 1716 there were many trees, but in 1724 the old -trees had mostly fallen; and as goats and hogs had been -suffered to range about, all the young trees had been killed. -It appears also from the official records, that the trees were -unexpectedly, some years afterwards, succeeded by a wire -grass which spread over the whole surface. [3] General Beatson -adds that now this plain "is covered with fine sward, and -is become the finest piece of pasture on the island." The -extent of surface, probably covered by wood at a former -period, is estimated at no less than two thousand acres; at -the present day scarcely a single tree can be found there. It -is also said that in 1709 there were quantities of dead trees -in Sandy Bay; this place is now so utterly desert, that nothing -but so well attested an account could have made me believe -that they could ever have grown there. The fact, that the -goats and hogs destroyed all the young trees as they sprang -up, and that in the course of time the old ones, which were -safe from their attacks, perished from age, seems clearly -made out. Goats were introduced in the year 1502; eighty-six -years afterwards, in the time of Cavendish, it is known -that they were exceedingly numerous. More than a century -afterwards, in 1731, when the evil was complete and -irretrievable, an order was issued that all stray animals should -be destroyed. It is very interesting thus to find, that the -arrival of animals at St. Helena in 1501, did not change the -whole aspect of the island, until a period of two hundred -and twenty years had elapsed: for the goats were introduced -in 1502, and in 1724 it is said "the old trees had mostly -fallen." There can be little doubt that this great change in -the vegetation affected not only the land-shells, causing eight -species to become extinct, but likewise a multitude of insects. - -St. Helena, situated so remote from any continent, in the -midst of a great ocean, and possessing a unique Flora, excites -our curiosity. The eight land-shells, though now extinct, -and one living Succinea, are peculiar species found nowhere -else. Mr. Cuming, however, informs me that an English -Helix is common here, its eggs no doubt having been imported -in some of the many introduced plants. Mr. Cuming -collected on the coast sixteen species of sea-shells, of which -seven, as far as he knows, are confined to this island. Birds -and insects, [4] as might have been expected, are very few in -number; indeed I believe all the birds have been introduced -within late years. Partridges and pheasants are tolerably -abundant; the island is much too English not to be subject -to strict game-laws. I was told of a more unjust sacrifice to -such ordinances than I ever heard of even in England. The -poor people formerly used to burn a plant, which grows on the -coast-rocks, and export the soda from its ashes; but a -peremptory order came out prohibiting this practice, and giving -as a reason that the partridges would have nowhere to build. - -In my walks I passed more than once over the grassy plain -bounded by deep valleys, on which Longwood stands. -Viewed from a short distance, it appears like a respectable -gentleman's country-seat. In front there are a few cultivated -fields, and beyond them the smooth hill of coloured -rocks called the Flagstaff, and the rugged square black mass -of the Barn. On the whole the view was rather bleak and -uninteresting. The only inconvenience I suffered during my -walks was from the impetuous winds. One day I noticed -a curious circumstance; standing on the edge of a plain, -terminated by a great cliff of about a thousand feet in depth, -I saw at the distance of a few yards right to windward, some -tern, struggling against a very strong breeze, whilst, where -I stood, the air was quite calm. Approaching close to the -brink, where the current seemed to be deflected upwards -from the face of the cliff, I stretched out my arm, and -immediately felt the full force of the wind: an invisible -barrier, two yards in width, separated perfectly calm air -from a strong blast. - -I so much enjoyed my rambles among the rocks and mountains -of St. Helena, that I felt almost sorry on the morning -of the 14th to descend to the town. Before noon I was on -board, and the Beagle made sail. - -On the 19th of July we reached Ascension. Those who -have beheld a volcanic island, situated under an arid climate, -will at once be able to picture to themselves the appearance -of Ascension. They will imagine smooth conical hills of a -bright red colour, with their summits generally truncated, -rising separately out of a level surface of black rugged lava. -A principal mound in the centre of the island, seems the -father of the lesser cones. It is called Green Hill: its -name being taken from the faintest tinge of that colour, -which at this time of the year is barely perceptible from the -anchorage. To complete the desolate scene, the black rocks -on the coast are lashed by a wild and turbulent sea. - -The settlement is near the beach; it consists of several -houses and barracks placed irregularly, but well built of -white freestone. The only inhabitants are marines, and some -negroes liberated from slave-ships, who are paid and victualled -by government. There is not a private person on the -island. Many of the marines appeared well contented with their -situation; they think it better to serve their one-and-twenty -years on shore, let it be what it may, than in a ship; in this -choice, if I were a marine, I should most heartily agree. - -The next morning I ascended Green Hill, 2840 feet high, -and thence walked across the island to the windward point. -A good cart-road leads from the coast-settlement to the -houses, gardens, and fields, placed near the summit of the -central mountain. On the roadside there are milestones, and -likewise cisterns, where each thirsty passer-by can drink -some good water. Similar care is displayed in each part of the -establishment, and especially in the management of the -springs, so that a single drop of water may not be lost: indeed -the whole island may be compared to a huge ship kept -in first-rate order. I could not help, when admiring the -active industry, which had created such effects out of such -means, at the same time regretting that it had been wasted on -so poor and trifling an end. M. Lesson has remarked with -justice, that the English nation would have thought of making -the island of Ascension a productive spot, any other -people would have held it as a mere fortress in the ocean. - -Near this coast nothing grows; further inland, an occasional -green castor-oil plant, and a few grasshoppers, true -friends of the desert, may be met with. Some grass is scattered -over the surface of the central elevated region, and the -whole much resembles the worse parts of the Welsh mountains. -But scanty as the pasture appears, about six hundred -sheep, many goats, a few cows and horses, all thrive well on -it. Of native animals, land-crabs and rats swarm in numbers. -Whether the rat is really indigenous, may well be doubted; -there are two varieties as described by Mr. Waterhouse; -one is of a black colour, with fine glossy fur, and -lives on the grassy summit, the other is brown-coloured and -less glossy, with longer hairs, and lives near the settlement -on the coast. Both these varieties are one-third smaller than -the common black rat (M. rattus); and they differ from it -both in the colour and character of their fur, but in no -other essential respect. I can hardly doubt that these rats -(like the common mouse, which has also run wild) have -been imported, and, as at the Galapagos, have varied from -the effect of the new conditions to which they have been -exposed: hence the variety on the summit of the island -differs from that on the coast. Of native birds there are -none; but the guinea-fowl, imported from the Cape de -Verd Islands, is abundant, and the common fowl has likewise -run wild. Some cats, which were originally turned out -to destroy the rats and mice, have increased, so as to become -a great plague. The island is entirely without trees, -in which, and in every other respect, it is very far inferior -to St. Helena. - -One of my excursions took me towards the S. W. extremity -of the island. The day was clear and hot, and I saw the -island, not smiling with beauty, but staring with naked -hideousness. The lava streams are covered with hummocks, and -are rugged to a degree which, geologically speaking, is not -of easy explanation. The intervening spaces are concealed -with layers of pumice, ashes and volcanic tuff. Whilst passing -this end of the island at sea, I could not imagine what -the white patches were with which the whole plain was -mottled; I now found that they were seafowl, sleeping in such -full confidence, that even in midday a man could walk up -and seize hold of them. These birds were the only living -creatures I saw during the whole day. On the beach a great -surf, although the breeze was light, came tumbling over -the broken lava rocks. - -The geology of this island is in many respects interesting. -In several places I noticed volcanic bombs, that is, masses of -lava which have been shot through the air whilst fluid, and -have consequently assumed a spherical or pear-shape. Not -only their external form, but, in several cases, their internal -structure shows in a very curious manner that they have revolved -in their aerial course. The internal structure of one -of these bombs, when broken, is represented very accurately -in the woodcut. The central part is coarsely cellular, the -cells decreasing in size towards the exterior; where there -is a shell-like case about the third of an inch in thickness, -of compact stone, which again is overlaid by the outside -crust of finely cellular lava. I think there can be little -doubt, first that the external crust cooled rapidly in the state -in which we now see it; secondly, that the still fluid lava -within, was packed by the centrifugal force, generated by - - -[picture] - - -the revolving of the bomb, against the external cooled -crust, and so produced the solid shell of stone; and lastly, -that the centrifugal force, by relieving the pressure in the -more central parts of the bomb, allowed the heated vapours -to expand their cells, thus forming the coarse cellular mass -of the centre. - -A hill, formed of the older series of volcanic rocks, and -which has been incorrectly considered as the crater of a -volcano, is remarkable from its broad, slightly hollowed, and -circular summit having been filled up with many successive -layers of ashes and fine scoriae. These saucer-shaped layers -crop out on the margin, forming perfect rings of many different -colours, giving to the summit a most fantastic appearance; -one of these rings is white and broad, and resembles -a course round which horses have been exercised; hence the -hill has been called the Devil's Riding School. I brought away -specimens of one of the tufaceous layers of a pinkish colour and -it is a most extraordinary fact, that Professor Ehrenberg [5] -finds it almost wholly composed of matter which has been -organized: he detects in it some siliceous-shielded fresh-water -infusoria, and no less than twenty-five different kinds -of the siliceous tissue of plants, chiefly of grasses. From -the absence of all carbonaceous matter, Professor Ehrenberg -believes that these organic bodies have passed through the -volcanic fire, and have been erupted in the state in which -we now see them. The appearance of the layers induced me -to believe that they had been deposited under water, though -from the extreme dryness of the climate I was forced to imagine, -that torrents of rain had probably fallen during some -great eruption, and that thus a temporary lake had been -formed into which the ashes fell. But it may now be suspected -that the lake was not a temporary one. Anyhow, we -may feel sure, that at some former epoch the climate and -productions of Ascension were very different from what -they now are. Where on the face of the earth can we find -a spot, on which close investigation will not discover signs -of that endless cycle of change, to which this earth has been, -is, and will be subjected? - -On leaving Ascension, we sailed for Bahia, on the coast -of Brazil, in order to complete the chronometrical measurement -of the world. We arrived there on August 1st, and -stayed four days, during which I took several long walks. -I was glad to find my enjoyment in tropical scenery had not -decreased from the want of novelty, even in the slightest -degree. The elements of the scenery are so simple, that they -are worth mentioning, as a proof on what trifling circumstances -exquisite natural beauty depends. - -The country may be described as a level plain of about -three hundred feet in elevation, which in all parts has been -worn into flat-bottomed valleys. This structure is remarkable -in a granitic land, but is nearly universal in all those -softer formations of which plains are usually composed. -The whole surface is covered by various kinds of stately -trees, interspersed with patches of cultivated ground, out -of which houses, convents, and chapels arise. It must be -remembered that within the tropics, the wild luxuriance of -nature is not lost even in the vicinity of large cities: for -the natural vegetation of the hedges and hill-sides overpowers -in picturesque effect the artificial labour of man. -Hence, there are only a few spots where the bright red -soil affords a strong contrast with the universal clothing -of green. From the edges of the plain there are distant -views either of the ocean, or of the great Bay with its -low-wooded shores, and on which numerous boats and canoes -show their white sails. Excepting from these points, the -scene is extremely limited; following the level pathways, -on each hand, only glimpses into the wooded valleys below -can be obtained. The houses I may add, and especially the -sacred edifices, are built in a peculiar and rather fantastic -style of architecture. They are all whitewashed; so that -when illumined by the brilliant sun of midday, and as seen -against the pale blue sky of the horizon, they stand out more -like shadows than real buildings. - -Such are the elements of the scenery, but it is a hopeless -attempt to paint the general effect. Learned naturalists -describe these scenes of the tropics by naming a multitude of -objects, and mentioning some characteristic feature of each. -To a learned traveller this possibly may communicate some -definite ideas: but who else from seeing a plant in an herbarium -can imagine its appearance when growing in its native -soil? Who from seeing choice plants in a hothouse, can -magnify some into the dimensions of forest trees, and crowd -others into an entangled jungle? Who when examining in -the cabinet of the entomologist the gay exotic butterflies, -and singular cicadas, will associate with these lifeless -objects, the ceaseless harsh music of the latter, and the -lazy flight of the former, -- the sure accompaniments of the -still, glowing noon-day of the tropics? It is when the sun has -attained its greatest height, that such scenes should be -viewed: then the dense splendid foliage of the mango hides -the ground with its darkest shade, whilst the upper branches -are rendered from the profusion of light of the most brilliant -green. In the temperate zones the case is different -- the -vegetation there is not so dark or so rich, and hence the -rays of the declining sun, tinged of a red, purple, or bright -yellow color, add most to the beauties of those climes. - -When quietly walking along the shady pathways, and admiring -each successive view, I wished to find language to -express my ideas. Epithet after epithet was found too weak -to convey to those who have not visited the intertropical -regions, the sensation of delight which the mind experiences. -I have said that the plants in a hothouse fail to communicate -a just idea of the vegetation, yet I must recur to it. The land -is one great wild, untidy, luxuriant hothouse, made by -Nature for herself, but taken possession of by man, who has -studded it with gay houses and formal gardens. How great -would be the desire in every admirer of nature to behold, -if such were possible, the scenery of another planet! yet -to every person in Europe, it may be truly said, that at -the distance of only a few degrees from his native soil, the -glories of another world are opened to him. In my last -walk I stopped again and again to gaze on these beauties, and -endeavoured to fix in my mind for ever, an impression which -at the time I knew sooner or later must fail. The form of the -orange-tree, the cocoa-nut, the palm, the mango, the tree-fern, -the banana, will remain clear and separate; but the -thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene -must fade away: yet they will leave, like a tale heard in -childhood, a picture full of indistinct, but most beautiful -figures. - -August 6th. -- In the afternoon we stood out to sea, with -the intention of making a direct course to the Cape de Verd -Islands. Unfavourable winds, however, delayed us, and on -the 12th we ran into Pernambuco, -- a large city on the -coast of Brazil, in latitude 8 degs. south. We anchored outside -the reef; but in a short time a pilot came on board and -took us into the inner harbour, where we lay close to the -town. - -Pernambuco is built on some narrow and low sand-banks, -which are separated from each other by shoal channels of -salt water. The three parts of the town are connected together -by two long bridges built on wooden piles. The town is in -all parts disgusting, the streets being narrow, ill-paved, -and filthy; the houses, tall and gloomy. The season -of heavy rains had hardly come to an end, and hence the -surrounding country, which is scarcely raised above the -level of the sea, was flooded with water; and I failed in -all my attempts to take walks. - -The flat swampy land on which Pernambuco stands is surrounded, -at the distance of a few miles, by a semicircle of -low hills, or rather by the edge of a country elevated perhaps -two hundred feet above the sea. The old city of -Olinda stands on one extremity of this range. One day I -took a canoe, and proceeded up one of the channels to visit -it; I found the old town from its situation both sweeter and -cleaner than that of Pernambuco. I must here commemorate -what happened for the first time during our nearly five -years' wandering, namely, having met with a want of politeness. -I was refused in a sullen manner at two different -houses, and obtained with difficulty from a third, permission -to pass through their gardens to an uncultivated hill, -for the purpose of viewing the country. I feel glad that -this happened in the land of the Brazilians, for I bear -them no good will -- a land also of slavery, and therefore -of moral debasement. A Spaniard would have felt ashamed -at the very thought of refusing such a request, or of -behaving to a stranger with rudeness. The channel by which -we went to and returned from Olinda, was bordered on each -side by mangroves, which sprang like a miniature forest out -of the greasy mud-banks. The bright green colour of these -bushes always reminded me of the rank grass in a church-yard: -both are nourished by putrid exhalations; the one speaks of -death past, and the other too often of death to come. - -The most curious object which I saw in this neighbourhood, -was the reef that forms the harbour. I doubt whether -in the whole world any other natural structure has so artificial -an appearance. [6] It runs for a length of several miles in -an absolutely straight line, parallel to, and not far distant -from, the shore. It varies in width from thirty to sixty -yards, and its surface is level and smooth; it is composed of -obscurely stratified hard sandstone. At high water the waves -break over it; at low water its summit is left dry, and it -might then be mistaken for a breakwater erected by Cyclopean -workmen. On this coast the currents of the sea tend -to throw up in front of the land, long spits and bars of -loose sand, and on one of these, part of the town of Pernambuco -stands. In former times a long spit of this nature -seems to have become consolidated by the percolation of -calcareous matter, and afterwards to have been gradually -upheaved; the outer and loose parts during this process having -been worn away by the action of the sea, and the solid -nucleus left as we now see it. Although night and day the -waves of the open Atlantic, turbid with sediment, are -driven against the steep outside edges of this wall of stone, -yet the oldest pilots know of no tradition of any change in its -appearance. This durability is much the most curious fact -in its history: it is due to a tough layer, a few inches thick, -of calcareous matter, wholly formed by the successive -growth and death of the small shells of Serpulae, together -with some few barnacles and nulliporae. These nulliporae, -which are hard, very simply-organized sea-plants, play an -analogous and important part in protecting the upper surfaces -of coral-reefs, behind and within the breakers, where -the true corals, during the outward growth of the mass, -become killed by exposure to the sun and air. These -insignificant organic beings, especially the Serpulae, have done -good service to the people of Pernambuco; for without their -protective aid the bar of sandstone would inevitably have -been long ago worn away and without the bar, there would -have been no harbour. - -On the 19th of August we finally left the shores of Brazil. -I thank God, I shall never again visit a slave-country. To -this day, if I hear a distant scream, it recalls with painful -vividness my feelings, when passing a house near Pernambuco, -I heard the most pitiable moans, and could not but -suspect that some poor slave was being tortured, yet knew -that I was as powerless as a child even to remonstrate. I -suspected that these moans were from a tortured slave, for I -was told that this was the case in another instance. Near -Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite to an old lady, who kept -screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I have -stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily -and hourly, was reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to -break the spirit of the lowest animal. I have seen a little -boy, six or seven years old, struck thrice with a horse-whip -(before I could interfere) on his naked head, for having -handed me a glass of water not quite clean; I saw his -father tremble at a mere glance from his master's eye. -These latter cruelties were witnessed by me in a Spanish -colony, in which it has always been said, that slaves are -better treated than by the Portuguese, English, or other -European nations. I have seen at Rio de Janeiro a powerful -negro afraid to ward off a blow directed, as he thought, at his -face. I was present when a kind-hearted man was on the -point of separating forever the men, women, and little -children of a large number of families who had long lived -together. I will not even allude to the many heart-sickening -atrocities which I authentically heard of; -- nor would I have -mentioned the above revolting details, had I not met with -several people, so blinded by the constitutional gaiety of the -negro as to speak of slavery as a tolerable evil. Such people -have generally visited at the houses of the upper classes, where -the domestic slaves are usually well treated, and they have -not, like myself, lived amongst the lower classes. Such -inquirers will ask slaves about their condition; they forget -that the slave must indeed be dull, who does not calculate -on the chance of his answer reaching his master's ears. - -It is argued that self-interest will prevent excessive cruelty; -as if self-interest protected our domestic animals, which -are far less likely than degraded slaves, to stir up the rage -of their savage masters. It is an argument long since protested -against with noble feeling, and strikingly exemplified, -by the ever-illustrious Humboldt. It is often attempted to -palliate slavery by comparing the state of slaves with our -poorer countrymen: if the misery of our poor be caused -not by the laws of nature, but by our institutions, great is -our sin; but how this bears on slavery, I cannot see; as well -might the use of the thumb-screw be defended in one -land, by showing that men in another land suffered from -some dreadful disease. Those who look tenderly at the slave -owner, and with a cold heart at the slave, never seem to put -themselves into the position of the latter; what a cheerless -prospect, with not even a hope of change! picture to yourself -the chance, ever hanging over you, of your wife and -your little children -- those objects which nature urges even -the slave to call his own -- being torn from you and sold -like beasts to the first bidder! And these deeds are done -and palliated by men, who profess to love their neighbours -as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that his Will be -done on earth! It makes one's blood boil, yet heart tremble, -to think that we Englishmen and our American descendants, -with their boastful cry of liberty, have been and are so -guilty: but it is a consolation to reflect, that we at least -have made a greater sacrifice, than ever made by any nation, -to expiate our sin. - - -On the last day of August we anchored for the second time -at Porto Praya in the Cape de Verd archipelago; thence we -proceeded to the Azores, where we stayed six days. On the -2nd of October we made the shore, of England; and at Falmouth -I left the Beagle, having lived on board the good little -vessel nearly five years. - - -Our Voyage having come to an end, I will take a short -retrospect of the advantages and disadvantages, the pains -and pleasures, of our circumnavigation of the world. If a -person asked my advice, before undertaking a long voyage, -my answer would depend upon his possessing a decided taste -for some branch of knowledge, which could by this means be -advanced. No doubt it is a high satisfaction to behold various -countries and the many races of mankind, but the pleasures -gained at the time do not counterbalance the evils. It is -necessary to look forward to a harvest, however distant -that may be, when some fruit will be reaped, some good -effected. - -Many of the losses which must be experienced are obvious; -such as that of the society of every old friend, and of the -sight of those places with which every dearest remembrance -is so intimately connected. These losses, however, are at -the time partly relieved by the exhaustless delight of -anticipating the long wished-for day of return. If, as poets -say, life is a dream, I am sure in a voyage these are the -visions which best serve to pass away the long night. Other -losses, although not at first felt, tell heavily after a period: -these are the want of room, of seclusion, of rest; the jading -feeling of constant hurry; the privation of small luxuries, the -loss of domestic society and even of music and the other -pleasures of imagination. When such trifles are mentioned, it is -evident that the real grievances, excepting from accidents, of -a sea-life are at an end. The short space of sixty years has -made an astonishing difference in the facility of distant -navigation. Even in the time of Cook, a man who left -his fireside for such expeditions underwent severe privations. -A yacht now, with every luxury of life, can circumnavigate -the globe. Besides the vast improvements in ships and -naval resources, the whole western shores of America are -thrown open, and Australia has become the capital of a -rising continent. How different are the circumstances to a -man shipwrecked at the present day in the Pacific, to what -they were in the time of Cook! Since his voyage a hemisphere -has been added to the civilized world. - -If a person suffer much from sea-sickness, let him weigh -it heavily in the balance. I speak from experience: it is no -trifling evil, cured in a week. If, on the other hand, he take -pleasure in naval tactics, he will assuredly have full scope -for his taste. But it must be borne in mind, how large a -proportion of the time, during a long voyage, is spent on -the water, as compared with the days in harbour. And what -are the boasted glories of the illimitable ocean. A tedious -waste, a desert of water, as the Arabian calls it. No doubt -there are some delightful scenes. A moonlight night, with -the clear heavens and the dark glittering sea, and the white -sails filled by the soft air of a gently blowing trade-wind, a -dead calm, with the heaving surface polished like a mirror, -and all still except the occasional flapping of the canvas. -It is well once to behold a squall with its rising arch and -coming fury, or the heavy gale of wind and mountainous -waves. I confess, however, my imagination had painted -something more grand, more terrific in the full-grown storm. -It is an incomparably finer spectacle when beheld on shore, -where the waving trees, the wild flight of the birds, the -dark shadows and bright lights, the rushing of the torrents -all proclaim the strife of the unloosed elements. At sea -the albatross and little petrel fly as if the storm were their -proper sphere, the water rises and sinks as if fulfilling its -usual task, the ship alone and its inhabitants seem the objects -of wrath. On a forlorn and weather-beaten coast, the scene -is indeed different, but the feelings partake more of horror -than of wild delight. - -Let us now look at the brighter side of the past time. The -pleasure derived from beholding the scenery and the general -aspect of the various countries we have visited, has decidedly -been the most constant and highest source of enjoyment. It -is probable that the picturesque beauty of many parts of -Europe exceeds anything which we beheld. But there is a -growing pleasure in comparing the character of the scenery -in different countries, which to a certain degree is distinct -from merely admiring its beauty. It depends chiefly on an -acquaintance with the individual parts of each view. I am -strongly induced to believe that as in music, the person who -understands every note will, if he also possesses a proper -taste, more thoroughly enjoy the whole, so he who examines -each part of a fine view, may also thoroughly comprehend -the full and combined effect. Hence, a traveller should be -a botanist, for in all views plants form the chief -embellishment. Group masses of naked rock, even in the wildest -forms, and they may for a time afford a sublime spectacle, -but they will soon grow monotonous. Paint them with bright -and varied colours, as in Northern Chile, they will become -fantastic; clothe them with vegetation, they must form a -decent, if not a beautiful picture. - -When I say that the scenery of parts of Europe is probably -superior to anything which we beheld, I except, as a class by -itself, that of the intertropical zones. The two classes cannot -be compared together; but I have already often enlarged on -the grandeur of those regions. As the force of impressions -generally depends on preconceived ideas, I may add, that -mine were taken from the vivid descriptions in the Personal -Narrative of Humboldt, which far exceed in merit anything -else which I have read. Yet with these high-wrought ideas, -my feelings were far from partaking of a tinge of disappointment -on my first and final landing on the shores of Brazil. - -Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, -none exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by -the hand of man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers -of Life are predominant, or those of Tierra del Fuego, -where Death and decay prevail. Both are temples filled with -the varied productions of the God of Nature: -- no one can -stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not feel that there is -more in man than the mere breath of his body. In calling -up images of the past, I find that the plains of Patagonia -frequently cross before my eyes; yet these plains are pronounced -by all wretched and useless. They can be described -only by negative characters; without habitations, without -water, without trees, without mountains, they support merely -a few dwarf plants. Why, then, and the case is not peculiar -to myself, have these arid wastes taken so firm a hold on -my memory? Why have not the still more level, the greener -and more fertile Pampas, which are serviceable to mankind, -produced an equal impression? I can scarcely analyze these -feelings: but it must be partly owing to the free scope given -to the imagination. The plains of Patagonia are boundless, -for they are scarcely passable, and hence unknown: they -bear the stamp of having lasted, as they are now, for ages, -and there appears no limit to their duration through future -time. If, as the ancients supposed, the flat earth was -surrounded by an impassable breadth of water, or by deserts -heated to an intolerable excess, who would not look at these -last boundaries to man's knowledge with deep but ill-defined -sensations? - -Lastly, of natural scenery, the views from lofty mountains, -through certainly in one sense not beautiful, are very -memorable. When looking down from the highest crest of the -Cordillera, the mind, undisturbed by minute details, was -filled with the stupendous dimensions of the surrounding masses. - -Of individual objects, perhaps nothing is more certain to -create astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of -a barbarian -- of man in his lowest and most savage state. -One's mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, -could our progenitors have been men like these? -- men, -whose very signs and expressions are less intelligible to us -than those of the domesticated animals; men, who do not -possess the instinct of those animals, nor yet appear to boast -of human reason, or at least of arts consequent on that -reason. I do not believe it is possible to describe or paint -the difference between savage and civilized man. It is -the difference between a wild and tame animal: and part -of the interest in beholding a savage, is the same which -would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his desert, -the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros -wandering over the wild plains of Africa. - -Among the other most remarkable spectacles which we -have beheld, may be ranked, the Southern Cross, the cloud -of Magellan, and the other constellations of the southern -hemisphere -- the water-spout -- the glacier leading its blue -stream of ice, overhanging the sea in a bold precipice -- a -lagoon-island raised by the reef-building corals -- an active -volcano -- and the overwhelming effects of a violent earthquake. -These latter phenomena, perhaps, possess for me a -peculiar interest, from their intimate connection with the -geological structure of the world. The earthquake, however, -must be to every one a most impressive event: the earth, -considered from our earliest childhood as the type of solidity, -has oscillated like a thin crust beneath our feet; and -in seeing the laboured works of man in a moment overthrown, -we feel the insignificance of his boasted power. - -It has been said, that the love of the chase is an inherent -delight in man -- a relic of an instinctive passion. If so, I -am sure the pleasure of living in the open air, with the sky -for a roof and the ground for a table, is part of the same -feeling, it is the savage returning to his wild and native -habits. I always look back to our boat cruises, and my land -journeys, when through unfrequented countries, with an extreme -delight, which no scenes of civilization could have -created. I do not doubt that every traveller must remember -the glowing sense of happiness which he experienced, when -he first breathed in a foreign clime, where the civilized man -had seldom or never trod. - -There are several other sources of enjoyment in a long -voyage, which are of a more reasonable nature. The map -of the world ceases to be a blank; it becomes a picture full -of the most varied and animated figures. Each part assumes -its proper dimensions: continents are not looked at in the -light of islands, or islands considered as mere specks, which -are, in truth, larger than many kingdoms of Europe. Africa, -or North and South America, are well-sounding names, and -easily pronounced; but it is not until having sailed for -weeks along small portions of their shores, that one is -thoroughly convinced what vast spaces on our immense world -these names imply. - -From seeing the present state, it is impossible not to look -forward with high expectations to the future progress of -nearly an entire hemisphere. The march of improvement, -consequent on the introduction of Christianity throughout -the South Sea, probably stands by itself in the records of -history. It is the more striking when we remember that only -sixty years since, Cook, whose excellent judgment none will -dispute, could foresee no prospect of a change. Yet these -changes have now been effected by the philanthropic spirit -of the British nation. - -In the same quarter of the globe Australia is rising, or -indeed may be said to have risen, into a grand centre of -civilization, which, at some not very remote period, will rule -as empress over the southern hemisphere. It is impossible -for an Englishman to behold these distant colonies, without -a high pride and satisfaction. To hoist the British flag, -seems to draw with it as a certain consequence, wealth, -prosperity, and civilization. - -In conclusion, it appears to me that nothing can be more -improving to a young naturalist, than a journey in distant -countries. It both sharpens, and partly allays that want and -craving, which, as Sir J. Herschel remarks, a man experiences -although every corporeal sense be fully satisfied. The -excitement from the novelty of objects, and the chance of -success, stimulate him to increased activity. Moreover, as a -number of isolated facts soon become uninteresting, the -habit of comparison leads to generalization. On the other -hand, as the traveller stays but a short time in each place, -his descriptions must generally consist of mere sketches, -instead of detailed observations. Hence arises, as I have found -to my cost, a constant tendency to fill up the wide gaps of -knowledge, by inaccurate and superficial hypotheses. - -But I have too deeply enjoyed the voyage, not to recommend -any naturalist, although he must not expect to be so -fortunate in his companions as I have been, to take all -chances, and to start, on travels by land if possible, if -otherwise, on a long voyage. He may feel assured, he will meet -with no difficulties or dangers, excepting in rare cases, nearly -so bad as he beforehand anticipates. In a moral point of -view, the effect ought to be, to teach him good-humoured -patience, freedom from selfishness, the habit of acting for -himself, and of making the best of every occurrence. In -short, he ought to partake of the characteristic qualities of -most sailors. Travelling ought also to teach him distrust; but -at the same time he will discover, how many truly kind-hearted -people there are, with whom he never before had, or ever again -will have any further communication, who yet are ready to offer -him the most disinterested assistance. - -[1] After the volumes of eloquence which have poured forth on -this subject, it is dangerous even to mention the tomb. A -modern traveller, in twelve lines, burdens the poor little -island with the following titles, -- it is a grave, tomb, -pyramid, cemetery, sepulchre, catacomb, sarcophagus, minaret, -and mausoleum! - -[2] It deserves notice, that all the many specimens of this -shell found by me in one spot, differ as a marked variety, -from another set of specimens procured from a different spot. - -[3] Beatson's St. Helena. Introductory chapter, p. 4. - -[4] Among these few insects, I was surprised to find a small -Aphodius (nov. spec.) and an Oryctes, both extremely numerous -under dung. When the island was discovered it certainly -possessed no quadruped, excepting perhaps a mouse: it becomes, -therefore, a difficult point to ascertain, whether these -stercovorous insects have since been imported by accident, or if -aborigines, on what food they formerly subsisted. On the banks -of the Plata, where, from the vast number of cattle and horses, -the fine plains of turf are richly manured, it is vain to seek -the many kinds of dung-feeding beetles, which occur so -abundantly in Europe. I observed only an Oryctes (the insects of -this genus in Europe generally feed on decayed vegetable matter) -and two species of Phanaeus, common in such situations. On the -opposite side of the Cordillera in Chiloe, another species of -Phanaeus is exceedingly abundant, and it buries the dung of the -cattle in large earthen balls beneath the ground. There is -reason to believe that the genus Phanaeus, before the -introduction of cattle, acted as scavengers to man. In Europe, -beetles, which find support in the matter which has already -contributed towards the life of other and larger animals, are so -numerous that there must be considerably more than one hundred -different species. Considering this, and observing what a -quantity of food of this kind is lost on the plains of La Plata, -I imagined I saw an instance where man had disturbed that chain, -by which so many animals are linked together in their native -country. In Van Diemen's Land, however, I found four species of -Onthophagus, two of Aphodius, and one of a third genus, very -abundantly under the dung of cows; yet these latter animals had -been then introduced only thirty-three years. Previous to that -time the kangaroo and some other small animals were the only -quadrupeds; and their dung is of a very different quality from -that of their successors introduced by man. In England the -greater number of stercovorous beetles are confined in their -appetites; that is, they do not depend indifferently on any -quadruped for the means of subsistence. The change, therefore, -in habits which must have taken place in Van Diemen's Land is -highly remarkable. I am indebted to the Rev. F. W. Hope, who, I -hope, will permit me to call him my master in Entomology, for -giving me the names of the foregoing insects. - -[5] Monats. der Konig. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin. Vom -April, 1845. - -[6] I have described this Bar in detail, in the Lond. and -Edin. Phil. Mag., vol. xix. (1841), p. 257. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Etext of The Voyage of the Beagle by Darwin - - |